and Tanner, L.

)
> the sum total of all learning content, experiences and resources that are
purposely selected, organized and
LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS
implemented by the school in .pursuit of its peculiar mandate as’a distinct
institution of learning and human- development. • '
Reviewer in Professional Education
■
> that what is taught in school; set of subjects, materials and performance
Focus: Curriculum Development and Educational Technology objectives; everything that goes on within the school, including extra-class
Competencies: activities, guidance and interpersonal relationships in the school (Oliva)
For Curriculum Development > The planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning
1. Apply approaches to curriculum outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge
2. Align curriculum components to instruction and assessment and experiences, under the auspices of the school, for the learners'
3. Distinguish the roles of stakeholders in the delivery of the curriculum continuous and willful growth in personal social competence."
For Educational Technology Z. Different Levels of Curriculum
4. Identify varied and appropriate use of technology; > Societal Level of Curriculum-the farthest from the learners since this is where
5. Employ instructional materials and technology appropriate for a chosen the public stakeholders (politicians, special interest groups, administrators,
subject-area, that is, for teaching; and professional specialists) participate in identifying tine goals, the topics to be
S. Apply principles in the preparation and utilization of the conventional and studied, time to be spent in teaching/leaming, and materials to aid
nan-conventional technology tools as well as the traditional and alternative instruction
strategies. y InstitutionalLevel of Curriculum - refers to the curriculum derived from the
societal level, with modification by local educators or lay people; often
Part I. Content Update in Curriculum Development organized according to subjects and includes topics and Ihemes to be
A. Understanding Curriculum studied; may also include standards, philosophies, lesson plans, and teaching
guides
> Instructional Level of Curriculum-refers to how teachers use the curriculum
developed in the societal level and
modified in the institutional level, or what authorities have determined;
involves the teachers’ instructional strategies, styles and materials used. .
y Experiential Level of Curriculum - the curriculum perceived and experiences by
each student and may, therefore, vary among learners because of individual
differences.

• >- the learning experiences and intended outcomes formulated through

systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences, under the auspices
of the school for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal-soda!
competence; the cumulative tradition of organized knowledge (Tanner, D.
 3. Three Major Types of Curriculum often use in the college in which discipline becomes the degree program. ‘
Problem-BasedCurriculum > CoirelatedDesign: comes from a core, correlated curriculum that links
Subject-Centered CurriculumLearner-Centered Curriculum
(Soclety/Cuitura! Based) separate subject design in order to reduce fragmentation, isolation or
■ Emphasis on well-organized Emphasis on all-around > Emphasizes problem-solving compartmentalization, that is, subjects in two or more area? are related in
subject by lecture; on growth of learners; on processes and skills on content and time, maybe factual (facts relate subjects), descriptive,
improving teaching of
• meaningful immediate use of human and social relations normative, but the subject identities remain (example, vocaoulary/spelling
subject matter and on learning; on understanding more, than content - words may be based on science or social studies; literature may be corrected
uniformity of exposures; on and improving through acquisition with history of a given era; when science subject becomes the core
teaching facts and active, dynamic process; on Mathematics is related to it, as they are taken in chemistry, physics and
■ Based on the, needs of
knowledge for future use; parts flow together as bioiogy).To use this design, teachers should come together and plan their
society and culture; rooted
Questions focus on “What'-' whole, with continuous lessons cooperatvely.
in the study of life, social
rather than “Why" or fusion and merging > Fused Subjects: similar to correlated subjects but the individual identity of
problems, arid activities of ;
"How”; on conformity to each subject is lost, (example: social studies, which is a combination of
Focuses on the learners' social life ",
patterns set by the geography, and culture, history; Language arts, where reading, speaking,
interest and th.e integration,
curriculum , ■ ’ Promotes social action listening and writing are all taught)
of content from marly
and - reconstruction V Broad-Fields Design (Interdisciplinary): broadening and inteigration orfuslon
» Subject contains fragmented, subject fields
• .-'theories 1 whose of several subjects on longer time blocks, may integrate through a) principles
unique body content,
Subject ■ matter selection major-'' goal in the or themes; or b) historical integration of subjecllike Humanities program or
different from other
based on- ' learner’s' .improvement of, the General Science (Biology, chemistry and Physics): It combines two or more
subject/discipiines
. p .peeds/ijiterests qs society ~.\X' -through a related subjects, into a single broad field of study like Language Arts
■ „„Central--task;. needed for'. •/ a task ~ !- direct involvement of both combines the separate but related subjects of Reading, Spelling,
mastery of the y * subject schools and the learners ■ Writing, Speaking, Listening, and Composition. It is commonly found in
'* High level of
matter,', the amount to. elementary and middle grades. An attempt to overcome and/or to prevent the
cooperative interaction in ■ «•"';fntegrate$-; different
be covered of Which fragmentation and compartmentalization characteristic of the subject > centered
which; Jia'bils and „ ski[lsv,' subject ..,... matter"and
follows a set of design is one emphasis in which the intent is to achieve a greater integration of
integrated jn- jearfririjgi' * their relevance to y.'t
standards ’.and well-, learning experiences.
e^srieppeSr (1, Students and society
organized context /* > Spiral Curriculum:A spiral concept of the curriculum provides for both
.;.;cooperative- ,controls' by
* Content strongly relevant to horizontal (widening of knowledge) and vertical (deepening of knowledge)
» Learning sequences,in a step- s »v" [earners;;.. isparents,
4. Designs and Patterns of Subject-Centered Curriculum learners but has week scope aspects of the curriculum design simultaneously. It recognizes that students
are not ready to learn certain concepts until they reach the required level of
development and maturity and have the necessary experiences; some topics
treated with corresponding degree of complexity across levels; provides for
y Subject Design: the oldest and so far the most familiar design.for teachers, widening horizontal organization of scope, integration and deepening of
parents and other laymen; easy to deliver since complementary books are knowledge (vertical sequence, continuation),
written and support instructional materials are commercialiv available; teachers 5. Designs and Patterns of Learner-Centered Curriculum
are familiar with the formal because they Were also educated using the design; > Activity-Based:based on child's needs but there is no advance planning; may
the drawback of this design is that sometimes learning is conipartmentalized..lt necessitate special subjects for specialized interests; use of problem-solving
stresses so much' the content that it forgets about students' natural tendencies, method; cooperative planning
interests and experiences. . > Child-Centered: focuses on normal, “custom-made" activities for children,
y Discipline Design (Separate/Single Subject): related to the subject design, but witno advance planning made; use of experiential rather than rotelearning;
it focuses only on academic discipline (or organized subject matter area) researched-basbd; large use of motivation;’learners actively participate in
which is referred to specific knowledge learned through a method which the teaching-learning process; teaching-teaming activities draw on experiences
scholars use to study a specific content of-their fields; teachers should teach and Knowledge-pf learners (ex. Group
how the scholars in the discipline will convey the particular knowledge. It is . projects}:^ is-anchored on the needs and interests of the child; the learner ts.
pot considered as a passive of learning experiences intended to promote a common body of knowledge
„. Individual but as ohriwho engages with his/her environment; one learns by are carefully prepared.
-doing; learners interact with the teachers and the envirdnment.
(Proporxents;John Deyvey, Rouseau, Pestallozi and Froebel).
> Experience-Centered Design:texperiences of the learners'become
the._starting, point of the<cufpcuium; the . school environment is iefribpen
and free since Die interests andneeds' of leathers cannot be'pre-planned;
learners are made- fo choose from various activities that the tea'dhef-
prqvides;.the ldalfters are empowered to shape their own learning from the
different opportunities given by thpJeaCjier; - the activities revolve around
different emphasis such as touching, feeling,-, imagining, constructing,-
relating, eta; hence, the emergence of multiple intelligence ffieotyblends^veli
in (his-design. ... r, "
> Process-Oriented: focuses ort persanai^attributes and skills of individual
learner in ever-widening circles of self, others, and society (working
\veTrwithothers, effective leadership, giving and following directions, making
judgment, decision making, planhirig, etc.); emphasizes development of skills
and traits that will serve the learner for life; there is a higher degree of carry-
over into everyday iiving experiences than in other designs,- and -a better
balance between affective and cognitive considerations.(Ex. teaching thinking
skills, public speaking skills).
> Humanistic Design: the development of self'is the ultimate objective of
learning; it stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling,
and doing; focuses also is the development of positive self-concept and
interpersonal skills; the concept of seif-aclualization applies here as well as
self-directed learning. (Proponents: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers).
6. Designs and Patterns of Problem-Centered Curriculum
V Life-Situations Design (Social Process and Life Functions-Focused): uses the
past and present experiences of the. learners as a means toarialyze the basic
areas of living; the pressing immediate problems of the society and the
students’ existing concerns are utilized; focuses heavily on society, that is,
social processes, functions, or problems become the center for the design of
the curriculum. Centers around major cultural life activity of mankind; based
on analysis of life activities; relates learners and society; uses experiential
learning and social process approach; structured around the various aspects
of problems and processes of community. This design is focused heavily on
society. -A major goal is the improvement of society through the direct
involvement of the schools.
> Core (social function): focuses on the set of learning experiences that are felt
to be essential for all students that includes common needs, problems,
concerns; centers on general education and the problems are based on
common human activities; its underlying purpose is to create a universal
sense of inquiry, discourse, and understanding among learners of different
.backgrounds and aspirations; broad areas of concern are examined and set
 Core:
■ Aims al creating a universal sense of inquiry, discourse, and
understanding among learners of different background
» Assumes that some content is essential to students; this content would
become the core
■ Stresses Integration and unification of learning by systematic
correlation of subject matter around fhemes drawn from the
contemporary problems of living (Examples: civic responsibility, an
understanding of economic systems and how people relate to one
another within these systems, family relationships, informed
consumerism, development of aesthetic appreciations, proficiency in
spoken and written language)
■ Encourages problem solving through reflective thinking
■ Examines broad areas of concern
■ Promotes a common body of learning experiences and knowledge
which are-carefully prepared
7. Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools
v Recommended Curriculum: most of the school curricula are recommended.
The curriculum may come
from a national agency (like DepEd or DOST) or any professional
organization (like PAFTE) that has stake in
education.
> Written Curriculum: This includes documents, course of study, or syllabi
handed down to the schools, districts, division, departments, or colleges
for implementation. Most of this are written by the experts with
participation of the teachers. Examples are the BEC. written lesson plan
arrd planned activities of the teachers.
> Taught Curriculum: The different planned activities which are put into
action in the classroom and are implemented'in order to arrive at the
objectives or purposes of the written curriculum.
> Supported Curriculum: These are materials that support or help the
implementation of written •curriculum such as textbooks, computers,
audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playground's, and
Dther.facilities.
> Assessed Curriculum: This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. ‘
> Learned Curriculum: This refers to the learning outcomes achieved, ©y-
the students, which afe indicated by
the results of the tests and changes in behavior. • • .... ..T
> Hidden .Curriculum: This is unintended curriculum which' is noideliberatelypianhed but'may modify behavior drlnfluence learnihg^etitcomes. :
B. Foundations of Curriculum
> The curriculum needMo be securely established in socio-cuituraL provide answer to (he question "Why do\ we need!; a curriculum?"; p^ychojOgieat
1 r
phjlpyophicai, jand .psycho!ogical bases for all- foundations^/How would curriculum be used in
schools?' K•
around development of the {earner. The . t.,.A
Sociological Foundations philosophical and sobifericulfural .foUnjfatfpns > Society and culture relate to airiiculum in the sense that they are part of
 the bases and sources of many curriculum matters and decisions.
Whatever changes there are in them, education in general and curriculum
in particular are affected.
> The societal changes/forces affect the school, and hence, the curriculum:
these include:
• Cultural Tradition - may become a stumbling block to progress,
especially because school stakeholders are part of the community-at-
large
» Textbooks - determine to a large extent the curriculum because of its
availability, organized structure and easy bases for test construction
» Laws - affect curriculum in terms of funding, policies, and programs
» ■ Moral values - are reflected in the curricular especially because of
socio-cultural basis
> Schools exist within the context of society and influence culture which in
turn shapes curriculum. A curriculum should be able to prepare students
for the present and the future. In other words, a curriculum should
address the wants and needs of learners by responding to social
conditions locally, nationally and globally.
> The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing.
Hence, to be relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the
culture, of society and its aspirations. At the same time, society should
also imbibe (he changes brought about by the formal institutions called
schools.
 > Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society
influences society through its curriculum. Schools, through their teaching be a moral and authority Facilitate group
of the curriculum, can shape and mould society and society in turn can spiritual leader work; Plan
impact the curriculum. Help students curriculum; Motivate
> Society is increasingly becoming diverse. Societies are becoming more .Chief source realize the learning
multicultural, multiethnic and multi- religious and it is important that of Inspiration, irresistible
curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As the world moves knowledge and necessity of
towards becoming a global village, society will become even more information;
Importance aof truthearth’s
canphysical
be • The world is a world Reality is a
diverse with people bringing in new values, new languages and a new mind and spirit tested/proven; of change; man can matter of
way of life. Addressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a Fundament
al ideas and of knowledge know anything individual
challenge for educators. Cultural diversity of pluralism recognizes that
most societies are composed of many voices and many ethnic groups. (Emphasis developing derived from within his existence; the
on them in the sense experience; experience; methods meaning of life
2. -Philosophical Foundations learner; reality exercising. the for dealing with is what each
> Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision making and is Learning)
is in the ideas mind; logical and changing individual
the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum. Philosophy independent abstract thinking environment and makes; focus on
gives direction to curriculum and becomes the criteria for determining Subject Curriculum is Provisions for direct Curriculum
the aims, selection, organization and implementation of the curriculum in matter, subject- centered experiences; Activity stresses activity;
the classroom and the school in general; the schools' underlying beliefs knowledge- or knowledge- or learner-centered; recognition of
and values have impact on curriculum content and choices of appropriate Emphasis based or based, organized Basis; problems of individual ■
strategies activities in implementing the curriculum. Philosophy helps us on content from simple to democratic society differences,
answer the general questions such as; "What are schools for?”, "What Curriculum focused, complex, and focus on problem opportunities
subjects are of value?", "How should students leam the content?" believing that stressing mastery solving inquiry; No- for Taking
Areas of this is essential of .facts and permanent choices ahd
Fundamental ldea(s) Curricular Implications to mental and development of knowledge ’ or a'wateness of
Philosophy study of what Is beyond the natural Curriculum' must go beyond
moral devt.; process andskills subjects; prdblem- consequence,
Metaphysics (what is real is true); systematic analysis its content; must consider questions; “Scientific ■.Experimental and Scientific dialog;
of the question of ultimate reality; what the students can Methods of and- melhobsand;. scientific method, ■ inqyiry-
fundamental
truth about existence of reality; become • should revolve Teaching discussion, /-"r problemsolving pre^tij/p • and dpproach; VQ--
r*! the nature of knowledge;
Realism
has Curriculum
Pragmatism Existentialism lecture,’'Excurs constajptjvisf ’ “ ’ A' method;
Epistemology to do with
idealism - effective approaches to around the (Kierkegard,
(Experimentalism) issues bn
teaching; (Aristotle) ion •arid field projects,1 -Jibrary^ * drawing
(Plato) recognizes importance of teaching-learning
(W. James, Dewey; process - ; .
Marcel,
Spiritual',
education;
focus.es Based
on Itlogical on
asks and
Whatnatural Interaction
is true?;
accurate Also Theof gqal. Subjective;
thought of-all-curricula
Reality moral, or
Logic - patterns; laws; objective
focuses on the individual withbe the development-
forma! must Freely chosen; of
(Knowledge mental; and composed of environment;
structure of truth and ’argument the ability based on .
of 'students to
) sets valueS' desirabie
unchanging; to live by, anytime,
matter; Absolute Developmentindividual’s
always, changing; of a'./'sense of
Axiology or place;
Absolute ■ divided,
and ethics (concerns
and eternal; with 'right/goodo^wfpng/ba'd
situational and perception;
•Education Give direction to
good or evil) into moral 'and aesthetic For social efficiency; Focus on
must exist as
(values); individual’s
subjects basic train
- as -GMRC'aVid students to
Value? individual
-------------------------
an institution potentialities and continuously and humanity;
Major Philosophies
Educational of human talents; provide an actively quest for produce
Aims society education that information and individuals who
concerned in could produce production, of new are aware of
one's individuals who ideas needed to their freedom of
spirituality and can meet their adjust to an ever- choice.
not because of principal needs. changing society.
Teacher’s T o bring latent To cultivate To cultivate critical To cultivate
Role knowledge and rational thought; thinking and personal choice
ideas to to be a moral and scientific method and individual
Educational Philosophies
Perennlatism Essentialism Progressivlsm Reconstrucfionist
Philosophical base: Philosophical Philosophical n 3. Historical Foundations: r' ■V ' v '"
To educate the To promote the To promote To improve and > The historical foundation of curriculum reflects the educational focus prevalent
rational person; to intellectual democratic, reconstruct during a particular period or event in Philippine history. This focus could be
made basis or model for curriculum development of recent years.
Aim of cultivate the growth of the social living; society;
Education intellect; individual; to Produce the education for Period Characteristics Curricular Focus
internalize truths educate the “whole nian” change and social Pre Spanish Focused on practical training to Broad; not defined nor written;
that are universal competent who will become reform;Awarenes satisfy basic needs for survival and community- based; Prescriptive;
and constant person; a s of societal to transmit social ideas, customs, no educational system
Focus on past and Essential skills Knowledge leads Skills and subjects beliefs,
Spanish Focused and
on thetraditions;
learning Training
of the Parochial schools;
permanent studies; and academic to growth and needed to
Knowled mastery of facts and Christian Doctrine; religion; the Doctrina,catechetical instruction;;
subjects; development; a identify and
ge course of study is not centralized; arithmetic, music, arts,and
timeless knowledge mastery of living- learning ameliorate
American no grade on
Focused level; rote memorization
establishing the public .trades;
Reading,vernacular was the good
writing .arithmetic,
concepts and process-; focus problems of
principles of on active and society; school system, highly influenced by manners and right conduct, civics,
Teacher helps Teacher is Teacher serves as Teacher selves as the philosophy of John Dewey; hygiene and sanitation, domestic
Role of students think authority In his a guide for an agent of spread of democracy; the course of science, American history
Education rationally; based on or her subject problem solving change and Commonwealth Focused on the development of Tagalog, and later on Filipino, as
teaching of
Socratic method Provides
field; explicit advisers,
and and
scientific Teacher acts
reform; leadsasthe
a moral character, personal discipline another medium of instruction
traditional values; stimulating counselors; young in • civic conscience, and vocational
Provided for 6 - year elementary
teacher known activities for students are designing . efficiency as provided for in Ihe
schools;' school entrance age at 7;
masters of the learning taught how to programs for . 1935 constitution
compulsory attendance in Grade I;
disciplines learn and social,
become active educational,
problem solvers practical. and
■ Classical subjects; Essential core Based on Emphasis on Teaching of Filipino as a subject ,
literary analysis; skills (3 R's.) and student's social sciences
constant curriculum; essential interests, that is, and social Japanese'- Focused on promoting the East Asia Diffusion of elementary education
Curriculum focused on Arts and subjects • child-centered; research co - prosperity sphere educational with the promotion of vocational
Focus Sciences, Great (English, involves the methods; objective; spread of new Aslan education; Fostering of new
ideas or universal Science, application of examination of order; Use of threat and Filipino culture based on the
principles History, Math, human • social, economic, punishment; course of study is awareness that Filipinos are
and Foreign problems and and political prescribed,after theuniform
Third Republic Patterned provisions of and
the orientals; Termination of use of
1935 Constitution
language); affairs; problems; New Society Focused on national development Promotion of Bilingual Education
Teaching the interdisciplinary concerns with goals; manpower training; high Policy
Great books; Back to basics; Relevant International
Related level professions; self actualization T
returning to the . cultural curriculum; educatiorV,
Curriculum Development of moral character;
liberal arts; Paideia literacy; humanistic reconc'eptualism
Trends
proposal excellence in edgcation; equality of Fourth Focused on promotion of Ihe rights self - discipline;
Strengthening scientific,,
of the teaching of
Subject-centered; Deductive Problem solving^ Problem solving, Republic of all citizens to quality education values; return to the basics in the
disciplining the method, reflective democratic new elementary and secondary
minds . through recitation, drill, strategies, 'discussion,
Methods of reading and ;
assimilation,' cooperative socialized
Teaching discussion; Lecture assignments, learning,; recitalion, forum,
..analysis and . socialized g'r&jp' conferences,
synthesis','testi ’ activities; ’ brainstorming,
ng: arid ■ conferences, project method:

> Curricutum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in 1918 With th'q publication of Franklin Bobbit’s book.”The Curriculum"
> Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be.traced back to the glorious history.
Of ail foreign educational systems, the American educational system ha's the greatest: 1 influence on our
educational, system. v. . :, .
> The following six curriculum theorists contributed their views bn curriculum: "• vVf
.. +*'” 1. Franklin Bobhit.(1876-1956)- presented curriculum as a science
that.Emphasizes on students' need and it prepares the .students tor-ad bit
hfe.,For-him, loijjdctiyes withforr'es^onding activities should be grouped
and sequenced. ' ; • *. • ‘' ...
2. Werret Charters (18$5-l'952) - Considered curriculum also as ^.sSpibnce
which ;js;.ba£fecl tin students' need, and the teachers plan-the activities
based on the subjectnfiafef.
3. ' William Kilpatrick ($371-1965) - viewed=bu$fibt)ium as p^poiekii
■activities which are child-centered. The
'purpose orthe curriculum is ctrikf .tfgveibpment and'^rpwtfi:' 'It develops
social relationships and small group interactions. • : V*’-* ”' , These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking,
> .V
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) ^emphasized social studies in the curriculum and
the teacher plans the lesson in advance. For him, curricutum should
develop the whole child (child-centered) and hence, produce outcomes
from related activities.
5, Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) - sees curricutum as organized around social
functions of themes, organized knowledge and learner's interests; He
believes that curriculum is a set of experiences.
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - believes that curricutum is a science and an
extension of school's philosophy, and is based on students' need and
interests. For him, curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject
matter is organized in terms of knowledge,. skills,, and values; the process
emphasizes problem solving. The curriculum aims to educate the
generalists and not the specialists.
y ' The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes,
principles and content of the curricutum.
4. Psychological Foundations
> The psychological foundation of curriculum only stresses the need for
curriculum development to-be firmly anchored on the nature and
characteristics of the learners for whom the curriculum is crafted, as well as
on the desirable conditions for and principles of learning and teaching-
learning styles
> Psychology provides basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies
elements of'lhe learning process and some of (he' questions which can be
addressed by psychological-foundations.
The following are the three major groups of learning theories:
I. Behaviorists Psychology- consider that learning should be organized in
order that students can experience success in the process of mastering the
s
.
subject matter, and thus, method of teaching should be introduced in a
step by step manner with proper sequencing of task. It-aiso known as
behaviorism, a theory of learning based upon the idea that aii behaviors are
acquired through conditioning that occurs through interaction with the '
environment. (Proponents: Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, B. F. Skinner)
2. Cognitive Psychology - focus their attention on how individuals process
information and how the monitor and manage thinking. For the cognitive
theorists, learning constitutes'a logical method for organizing and
interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter
where teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching learning.
intuitive thinking, discover/learning, etc. the (Proponents: Jean Piaget, John
Dewey, Jerome Bruner)
3. Humanistic Psychology (Phenomenology) - concerned with how learners
can develop their human potential. Based on Gestalt psychology where
learning can be explained, in terms of the wholeness of the problem and
where (he environment is changing and the learner is continuously
reorganizing his/her perceptions. Curriculunvis concerned with the process
not the products, personal needs not subject matter, psychological meaning
and environmental situations. Focuses on each individual's potential and
stresses the importance of growth and self- actualization. 1t’s fundamental
belief was that people are innately good, with mental and social problems
resulting
* from deviations from this natural tendency. (Proponents: Abraham Maslow,
Carl Rogers)
C. Curriculum Development Phases/Processes: nature, approaches, models and
phase/processes
1. Nature of Curriculum Development
• Is a process of development that creates educational experiences to meet
the intentions of planners (Wiles &
Bondi, 1998), which include total development of learners arid their being
able to live well in a democratic society .- - '
• its basic tasks: 1} identifies purpose; 2) sets goals and objectives; 3) assigns
curriculum content; 4) focuses on critical needs of learners; 5) delivers the
program; 5) evaluates, the curriculum; 7) makes decisions and retain,
revise or change curriculum
• A synthesis of process in designing a. program of experiences for the
student and for -.which the school
 accepts responsibility • • -
« Involves the process/phases of curriculum planning, design and organization, implementajion, evaluation, and change and/or improvement' ' '.. "
•...
2. Stakehofders in Curriculum Development ‘ ‘ .
- > Include individuals and groups Who influence and.make jmpcrtant contributions to the curriculum
> May be categorized as communitv-tiased. whose influence on-the curriculum (sL^t societal and institutional
levels; or school based, whose contributions to the curriculum'are either on liWinslitUtional level; instructional level, or experiential level . f .
j » Community-based stakeholders (the public: riot'associated with
--particular schools or districts as •employees or-students); are composed of
parents and-.guardiaris of students, government officials and groups,
lawmakers", professional 'groups or Specialists in several disciplines,
business and industry " ■ groups, civic groups, local governing, or-schpol-
boards, and textbook publishers
. 1 School-Based stakeholders include school staff "(non-teaching
personnel: school, administrators, resource specialists, counselors,
social workers, health-care providers);, teachers and students-
> Specific role of different stakeholders in curriculum development:
- ■ ■ Coinmunilv-at-la’rge: often dictate the purposes, goals, and content of
school curricula; recommend
direction and changes in the curriculum (e.g., professional groups, civic
groups, business and industry)"
• Law-maker/qovernment officials: authorize school budget; enact
legislation to effect curriculum change or improvement; issue
guidelines in designing and implementing curriculum
» Goveminq/school. boards: either make important decision on, or
oversee/manage school operation; conduct public hearings to either
inform or solicit information on curriculum matters; authorize school ■
expenditure for curriculum development,, implementation, and
evaluation as needed in the" district or school; consider and adopt
curriculum proposals •
• Parerits/Guardians: support and participate in parent-school'
organizations where priorities for (he
curriculum are often set (instructional materials, learning experiences
to provide, etc.)
• Publishers; support development of instructional materials based on
the curriculum developed; help in
the implementation of curriculum -• . •

1 Teachers:establish direction and implementation of a particular

program; select content to be
emphasized: help prepared the scope and sequence of a program; attend to
pedagogical concerns such
 that they may modify the curriculum to suit the needs of the learners; help in evaluating the effectiveness of curriculum
•• Learners: • the primary, stakeholders' of the curriculum, whose needs and abilities are the basis of curriculum content selection and whose achievement level measure
the effectiveness of the curriculum
3. Curriculum Approaches '
> Behavioral Approach •'
* ‘ The oldest and still the major approach to curriculum; logical and
prescriptive; it relies on technical and
scientific principles and includes paradigms, models and step-by-step
strategies for formulating curriculum.' It is usually based on plan and
.sometimes called a blueprint or document, goals and objectives are
specified, content and activities are sequenced to coincide with the
objectives.il is started with the idea of efficiency, influenced by business
and industry and the scientific management theories.
> . Managerial Approach. .. . .
■ » 'Considers school as a social system, reminiscent of organizational theory;
educators who rely on this •approach plan the curriculum in terms of
programs, schedule, space, resources and personnel, and equipment.This
advocates the need for selecting, organizing, communicating with and-
supervising people .involved in curriculum decisions
• This approach is interested in change and innovation and in how
curriculum specialists, supervisors and
administrators can facilitate these processes.lt is an offshoot of the
behavioral approach; .lends to focus on the supervisory and administrative
aspects of curriculum, especially the organizational and implementation
process , • •.
o is rooted in the organizational and .administrative school models of the
early 1900s - a period that combined a host of innovative plans involving
curriculum and instruction’ .that centered around individualization,
departmentalization, nongrading classroom grouping, homeroom and
work-sludy activities • .
>■ Systems Approach ' , .
• Sometimes referred to as curriculum -engineering; it Includes the
processes, necessary to plan the
curriculum by such engineers as superintendents, directors,
coordinators’,-/arid principals; it involves
stages (development, design, implementation; and evaluation) ,a.nd
Academic Apprpach
structures (subjects, courses, unit plans, and lessor;
pldns). It is influenced by system theory, .system
analysis, and system engineering, which' are developed :by- the "social
"scientists, and,’used widely by the school managers as part of
administrate and organizational theory. Vv. •/,<.. 1
1 Sometimes preferred to as traditional,x-''rincyclopedic, ..synoptic,
Intellectual, or knowledge-oriented approach; it.attempts.to analyze 'arid
’ '
synthesize rnajor positions, trends and concepts of curriculum; tends . to be-
histofical orrp.hildsPphica!.The .discqsslori of curriculum making is usually
scholarly (not practical) and concerned with many .brdap aspects of
schooling, including the study of education; rooted in the philosophical and
intellectual works of John Dewey, Henry Morrison, and Boyd Bode.
> Humanistic Approach'
' o Is .rooted in' progressive philosophy and child-centered movement
(progressive methods of teaching based on the student’s natural
development and curiosity); involves’the personal and social aspects of
curriculum and instruction; artistic, physical, and cultural aspects of
subject matter; consider the need for self-actualization and self-refiective
among learners; Numerous curriculum activities have emerged mainly at
the elementary school level, including lessons based on life experiences,
group games and projects, dramatizations, field trips, social enterprises,
homework and tutorial stations; activities include problem solving and
active student participation; emphasizes socialization and life adjustment
for students as well strong family ties and school-community ties.
4. Two Most Influential Models of Curriculum Development
A. Hilda Taba’s Inverted Model of Curriculum Development includes the
following steps
• (1) Diagnosing needs - information on the community and its schools
combined with existing data to form a comprehensive view of Ideal needs
'
(2)formulating specific objectives: objectives should include concepts,
attitude,habits or skills to be learned and ways of thinking to be
reinforced
(3)Selecting content; include choosing of specific, necessary topics carefully,
which should parallel students’ development levels
(4) Organizing content; begins with simple topics and concepts that
moveto more complex ones such as rtfineralizaiinns and orinciples
 (5) Selecting and organizing activities which must be based on the
developmental level of learners - variety, sequence, and links among
activities must be considered
(6)Evaluating; lessons and units should be evaluated and reevaluated
continuously to determine actual progress of learners using the.
curriculum 'as basis and to determine whether the content matches the
logic orcore ideas and curriculum objectives
B, Ralph Tyler’s ends-Means Mode! which follows these steps: t
(1) Determining the school’s and teacher's philosophy
(2) Identifying educational purposes
(3) Selecting and organizing content
(4) Evaluation • .
Tyler suggests that all curriculum development phases must consider three important, elements; learners, society and subject matter ’ •..
5. Phases/Processes in Curriculum Development .
Curriculum Planning ' .
» A process that involves situation analysis, goal setting and need identification, budget determination, and decision-making regarding implementation and evaluation
details
Situation analysis ‘ •
» Points to the need to examine the nature of the situation, or learning context, to justify the selection of objectives and learning experiences . ' ‘
* On the macro-level {societal, governmental), situation includes these
factors
• Cultural and social changes and expectation (e.g. parental
expectations, employer requirements, community values, changing
relationships, and ideology)
• Educational system requirements and challenges (e.g. policies,
examinations, research, local authority and demands).
• • The changing nature of thesubject matter to be taught .
■> The potential contribution of teacher support systems {e.g teacher-training'institutions, research-
institutes) .
• Flow of resources into the school • .
......»,..... . On the micro level (school level) the factors that.need to-be
analyzed include-.
- o' Pupils: aptitudes, abilities, identified educational needs. -
« Teacherst-'values. attitudes, skills, knowledge, experience.' special
strengths and weaknesses, role's, .. .... •
• School - organizational climate and "structure: traditions;
,power distribution, authority
relationships, and dealing with other school stakeholder-.'.. , .v--;-..' '
- Material'resources: buildings, plant, equipment arid potential for enhancing these
• Perceived and felt problems in existing curriculum . . . . '
6. Curriculum Organization and Design■ . ■
o involves the "form" design, pattern,',or sirriply the arrangement of elements of curriculum used; based on . one dominant source of curriculum content
• Includes selection of content/subjecl matter/competencies'/learning activities, grade placement, time allotment, and sequence of content/aclivities ' ••
» Answers such questions as 1) what-is to be done?; 2) What subject matter is to be included?; 3) What instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed?;
 and, 4) What methods and instruments wilt be used'to appraise the results of the curriculum? •
:
Selection of content
* Answers the question ' What knowledge is most worth?” linking of all types of knowledge and experiences contained within the
" Content is the subject matter of teaching-learning process; includes curriculum plan . (Eg: Science-technology-Society-> science combined
knowledge,- skills, concepts, attitudes, and values, and significant only insofar as with social'science) ,
it is transmitted lb the student in some way • (method)-' - - » Balance - appropriate weight be given to each aspects of the design
» Search for best content includes consideration of known information so that, distortions do not . occur;.students have opportunities-to
(body of knowledge) including world events and current education master knowledge and to internalizeiand utilize it in ways
reform goals, society’s needs; needs and interest-of learners, and - ’ " t h a t are appropriate for their persona), social and' intellectual
human'developmenl (ifnprovement of society by improving goals v'
individuals) « ' Articulation - it ’refers .to the'triferfeta tedness of.yappus aspects
° Criteria for selecting content • -■ of the curriculum; the relation can be horizontal or vertical." - .
• Validity - whether content is authentic and can achieve staled » Focus - determining which content items are more import’ant-'to
1
objective; authenticity of information - cover excessive number of facts may hinder coverage of main ideas);
• Significsnce/Relevance - whether content is fundamental to the appropriate relationship bejweeh. facts and ideas has to be
subject in question; whether determined ; . i ;'"y. ' '
selected content allows for breath and depth of treatment ■ Grade''Placement -.o ■/iV’- -;-f."'
(flexibility}; consistent with social realities, pursues needs of the • Allocation of content to.defihi'te grade capable of learning
time. ■
• Integration: brings to a close relationship all concepts, skills, and
values contained in the curriculum; based on one’s favor (in terms
of concepts, needs, interests); linking of all types of knowledge
arid experiences contained within the curriculurh plan
• Utility: whether content is helpful to student in coping wfth real life
activities; usefulness of content
■ » Scope: breadth of the curriculum at a given time; refers'to the range
of important ideas and concepts included; breadth and depth oF
content and includes, learning experiences and organization
threads in curriculum plan; coverage. •• ’
o' Interest (Leamability): whether content is easily learnable; adjustable
to learner's ability
• Continuity involved in the vertical organization of the. curriculum;
refers to recurrence and repetition of content and depth with a
skill or content building on the preceding ones; major ideas
reappear at different grade levels at increased complexity.
• Appropriateness: parallel with the learner needs and interest.
Elements of curriculum content ’
• Sequence - putting content into an order- of succession .for
orderly and productive learning contents; organization of content
and the extent to which it fosters cumulative and continuous
learning provides continuous and cumulative learning;
« Integration - horizontal relationship (e.g. Math - Science) or vertical,
integration;-, bringing together concepts, skills and values of different
subjects and present to learner with unifie'd picture of knowledge;
 <= Factors to consider': child:s ability, difficulty of item, importance of content, maturation, mental age. experiential background . • . •.*
» Time Allotment .
• Specification of definite time for subject/course; amount of time given to a subject
a Factors to consider; importance' of subject; child’s ability; grade level average number of . days/hours . ’ .
7. Curriculum Implementation
• A process by which curricula are used in schools; this is the instructional phase of curriculum development process _
« includes knowing the
a. Scope and complexity of curricular changes
b. How curriculum content is disseminated
c. Professional development
d. Identification of resources requirement
«> 'A process by which curricula are used in schools; the instructional phase
of curriculum development process; includes knowing the '
a. Scope arid complexity of curricular changes .
’ ' b. How curriculum content is
disseminated . c. Professional
development of stakeholders
d. identification of resource requirements
 8. Curriculum Evaluation
o The process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for
judging decision alternatives (PDK, 1971) ■' ■.
» Refers to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness, or value of a
curriculum (Stufflebeam, 1991)
■ Involves value judgment about the curriculum
• Consists of process and-product assessment-
o Process evaluation - used to a) provide information about the extent to
which plans for curriculum implementation are executed and the wise
use of resources; b) to provide assistance ‘.
z>• product evaluation - used in gathering, interpreting and appraising
curricular attainments, as often as necessary, to determine-how well
the curriculum meets the needs of the students it is intended to serve
;
. ® Why evaluate? 1) meet demands that current educational reforms have made; 2)
provide direction, security, and feedbacks to ail concerned; 3) determine
appropriate and available resources, activities, content, methods or whether
curriculum has coherence, balance articulation, etc. in order to meet .-curriculum
goais/objectives
• What curriculum qualities to evaluate; 1) mission statement (philosophy); 2)
sequence (order); 3)
continuity (without disruptions); 4) scope (depth/variety of content) 5)
articulation (how parts fit); 6) balance (quantitative and qualitative aspects of
content); 7) coherence (relationships among different components) ■
.
« Parameters of assessment include the intended curriculum, the implemented
curriculum and the achieved curriculum . • - <
• . o Intended curriculum - refers to a set of objectives at the beginning of any
curricular plan;
establishes the goal, the specific purposes, and the immediate objectives
to be accomplished; - answers what the curriculum maker wants to do. •
•
o Implemented curriculum - refers to the various iearning activities or
experiences of the students in order to achieve the intended curricular,
outcomes.
... - - "o'"Achieved curriculum - refers to the curriculum outcomes based on the
.first two' types of - ' curriculum; can be the learning outcomes-or a material
product-itseif;
D. Curriculum Improvement orVufriculum-C'hange: involves the.decisions to make as
evaluation results are utilized in full extent. ' \\ y '
, ' ••
> Curriculurprlmproverrient " •• >.. !
*
o Refers to alteration of certain aspects.of curriculum without changing
the fundamental curriculum elementsfstructure/concBpti.op - .
• \ \:"
o Involves five levels of operation: substitution (new series in place of
current series; alteration (additional instructional tlnie for a subject);
variation (adopting other school's program);- restructuring (organize
8. Curriculum Evaluation
teams of subject specialists, teachers and aids); value orientation (some
instructional routine matters made part of computer-assisted instruction)
> Curriculum Change
o Refers to the basic alteration in the structure and design of teaming
experiences based on new • conceptions, which may be at the school
district, or-nafionai level •
c involves the following tasks:
v ■ identification of a particular need to change; may be based on
evaluation results, or initiative from concerned individuals or groups •
v Study of alternative and proposals for change
v Selection of proposed change (either one subject only or in one school
only)
v. Pilot study design (try-out). .. - ..
- ’ V Appraisal of data from pilot study, and the corresponding, necessary
modification. If any
v Continuous study by concerned staff through adequate in-service
activities and help of any corisultant
 ^.- .pecisfon to adapt, adopt,
or reject s Integration into
the school system
Content Update in Educational Technology .
A. Definition of Concepts
1. Technology — a planned, systematic method of working to achieve planned
outcomes. It is the applied side of-scientific-development (Corpuz & Lucido. 2008).
It can be classified as a process - a systematic application of scientific or oilier
organized knowledge to practical toots; and as a product - physical
equipment/facilities and the programs or modular materials.
2. Educational Technology - refers to how people use their inventions and discoveries
to satisfy their
educational needs an.d desires, i.e. learning. The following are the different
meanings of educational technology: * • ' •• : •
• it is the application of scientific findings in our method, process or procedure, of
working in the field of' education in order to affect learning.
o It is Ihe use of all human inventions for teachers to realize their mission to teach
in order that students learn.
• It is the application of scientific knowledge about learning to improve tile
effectiveness and efficiency of
teaching and learning. ' '
o (t embraces curriculum and instructional design, learning environment, theories
of teaching-learning.
• 3. Technology in Education - the application of technology to any of those processes
involved in operating the institutions which house the educational enterprise. It includes the
application of technology to food, health, finance, scheduling, grade, reporting
and- other processes which support. education • within institutions (Jonassen
et.al., 1999). This is popularly known as "audiovisual aids" Or “gadgetry” of
education and training.
Instructional Technology - is a part of educational technology. This refers to those
aspects of. educational technology lliat are concerned with instruction as
contrasted, to designs and operations of-,educational institutions. It is a
systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of
learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives (Lucido and Borabo, 1997).
. 'n.y-■
Educational media -'are channels or.av.enues Or instruments of communication;
a means of communication available for educational purposes that consists of.
instructional machines and materials used to promote learning. Examples are
books, magazines, newspapers, radio, television and- Internet,.. _• ■'
Audio-visual forms are classified into three: (1) audiovisual media -:.s tress’the'
use of media as a means of communication; (2)! audio vis ual aids -L stress the
assistance .of educational tools in carrying out instructions; and (3) audio-visual
technology«- capitalizes the qse,of these learning tools in the design,
implementation and evaluation of instructidhahactivities. ..y.-; .V-* . .
'* '
Properties of audiovisuals: V'
> Fixative property' - audiovisual permits the capture, preservation and reconstruction
 of an object or event.
> Manipulative/editing property audiovisual permits the rearrangement of materials/
information for purposes of updating, change of emphasis or correction.
> • Distributive property - audiovisual- allows the transmission. of an event through
space, simultaneously presenting it to thousands of viewers, who derive a virtually
identical viewing experience.
B. Five Domains of Educational Technology (Association-for Educational Communications
and Technology,
1994) *
1. Design. The planning phase, of educational technology, which interprets reality in
terms of learner
performance and negotiated expectations of the learner. It describes natural or
existing interrelationships that constitute a content area. • -
2. Development. Instructional development may be a process of producing learning
materials from a detailed
plan or design; It may be the process of finalizing procedures and testing materials
intended to support instructional episodes *
 •3. Utilization. The actual use of knowledge and the skills and usually includes the
practical application of information or procedures on a regular basis. The purpose
of utilization is to bring learners into contact with .learning resources and
instructional system components. ■ ■■ -
4. Evaluation. A dynamic process which allows people to obtain and judge Ihfe
worth of data about how • studenls (earn specific content information under
varying instructional conditions.
5. Management. The linchpin (Key player) which binds ell the domains of educational
technology together.
C, Factors Affecting the Selection of Educational Technology
1. Human Factor. _ . . ’
a. Learner Factbr- refers to learner differences that, can influence media choice
(1)Individual differences. Learners differ in their preferences for learning, (obseiyipg-
or listening), their perception of'a'given-message, their understanding of
th'e'conventlons usad’by various media.
»* S *- •* 1 - \ ‘
(2)Attention spin. Factors (hat affect how long a leather can attend to one type of
task such as age and Interest,jearner's mptiyatio1f)>J- !l t \,-.\- <•„«»*• '
 . (3) -Number of learners.- Select media that are well suited to the group size you
| . Levels o!'
Symbolizing \ abstraction
/verbal \\
./symbols\ Xli
•1.,
I- Visual. |
. I symbols \ Ki
____j~----------—4
!■ Radio and |
- . j recordings % X
/*'”Still pictures &
j ■ Motion p i c l u t e : |
Observing
I Edited mediated reality | Mil
^ Educatipnaltelcyisioii: \ yy /
Real-lime,- mediated reality's .
/ . Exhibits: Edited reality | VI •
I Sludv trips', viewing reality A. V
—A
./ Demonstrations: '■ \ \
j Learner becomes a spectator 'L IV •
j Direct purposeful experiences:
l fvluliisemrory, highly qualitative
JL U______—.____________________---------------
FIGURE i-2 Dales cone of experience.
have or modify the group or structure to media.'you have.
(4) Physical disabilities of
learners. Poor vision, hearing, dyslexia, color
blindness,-and the like.
b. Teacher Factor- refers to- those
factors that . affect ■ the success • of media
implementation
• 2. . Instructional Method. The
method of instruction dictates or limits our choice • of
presentation media. .
3. Practice Constraints.
Administrative and economic constraints both limit
the choice of methods .arid media such as lhe
objeciives, availability, time and resources.
D. The Cone of Experience (Edgar Date)
The Cone of Experience is a visual model, a pictorial’
device that presents bands of experience arranged
according to degree of abstraction and not degree of
difficulty. It can be serve as a practical guide to
analyze the characteristics of instructional media and
methods, and how these media may be useful.
■ • The farther you go from the bottom of the cone,
the more abstract the experience becomes
* The individual bands of the Cone of
Experience sland for experiences that are fluid,
extensive and continually interact. (Dale. 1969).
i o One kind of sensory experience is not .
necessarily more educationally useful than another.
These experiences are mixed and interrelated
“ . Too much reliance on concrete experience
may actually obstruct the process of meaningful
generalization.. The best will be • striking a balance
between concrete and abstract, direct participation
and symbolic expression for the learning that will
continue throughout life.
Least
abstract
 • The leas! effective method at the top, involves learning from the information
presented through verbal symbols.
The most effective methods at the bottom involves direct, purposeful experiences, o
The further you progress down the cone, the greater the learning and the more
information is likely to be retained.
The Bands of Experiences
1. Direct Purposeful Experiences — first hand experiences which serve as the
foundation of our learning. We build up our reservoir of meaningful information and
ideas through empirical experiences. It is learning by doing.
2. Contrived experiences - we make use of a representative models of mock ups of
reality for practical reasons and so that we can make the real-life accessible to the
student's perceptions and understanding.
3, Dramatized experiences - By dramatization, we. can participate in a reconstructed
experience, even though the original event is far removed from us in time. ' '
4. Demonstrations — it is visualized explanaiion of an important fact, idea or process by
(he use'of photographs,
• drawings, films, displays or guided motions. It is showing how things are done.
5., Study trips - these are excursions and visits conducted to observe an event that is
unavailable within the classroom. * . ,•
6. Exhibits — these are displays to be seen'by spectators. They may consist of working
models arranged meaningfully or photographs with models, charts and posters.
Sometimes exhibits are “for your.eyes only”;
7. Television and motion.piclures - it can reconstruct the reality of
the past so effectively that we .are made to feel
we are there. • .' ‘ . \ •
8. Still pictures ,■ recordings, radio.-' these are visual and auditory devices that may be
used by an'individual or a • group. Still pictures lack the sound and motion of a sound
film. The radio broadcast of an actual event may often
be likened to a televised broadcast minus its visual dimension. ;;
9. Visual Symbols - these are no longer realistic reproduction oi physical things for these
are highly abstract . representations..Ex. Charts, graphs, maps and diagrams, and the
like.
10. Verbal symbols - they are hot iikp.the objecls'orideasfor which they stand. They
usually do not contain visual
clues to their m e a n i n g - • *' . • ••
E, The Cognitive Representations of the World (Jerome BruperJ "
1. Enactive. One Is using some known aspects-qf reality without using words or
imagination. It involves
representing the past events and through making motor'responses.' It involves
mainly in knowing how to do something; iitjnvoives series of actions that are right
(dr achieving some results. The learner here serves as.a' participant in the actual
experience. \ '
2. Iconic. This mode deals'wlth the internal imagery, were the knowledge is
characterized by a set of images that stand for the concept, the iconic
representation depends on visual or olher sensory association and is principally
defined by perceptual .organization and techniques for economically transforming
perceptions into
 ■ meaning for the individual. The learner'here serves as an observer of a
mediated event, an event presented through some medium. . •.
3. Symbolic. This representation is based upon an abstract, discretionary and
(lexihie.thought. It allows one'to deal with what might be and what might not, and
is a major tool in refieclive thinking. This mode is illustrative of a person’s
competence to consider propositions ralher than objects, to give ideas a
hierarchical structure and to consider alternative possibilities in.a combinatorial
fashion. (Spencer.K.,1991, p.185-187). The learner here uses his/her mind to
reflect such abstract representations.
F, Genera) Principles in the Use of Instructional Materials (IMs)
1. Ail instructional materials are aids to instruction. They do not replace the teacher.
2. Choose tile instructional material that best suits your instructional objectives. •
3. If possible-, use a variety of tools.
4. Check out your instiuctio'nal material before class starts to be sure it is working
properly.
G. Criteria for Selecting Instructional Materials
1. • Relevance of the lesson - the materials must help carry out Ihe objectives of the
lesson. They must suit the
purpose ofIhe lesson and motivate the students.intq positive -reactions.
2. Appropriateness ~ the materials should be suited to the students' age level,
background knowledge, skills
-developed and level of maturity. . •
 3. Quality of materials - the media should be well-designed and of high technical quality. They
must be the latest edition, durable and pleasant to look at.
4. Objectivity - selection must be free from bias and advertising propaganda. Consult experts who
know the equipment and how they can be operated efficiently.
5. ’ Availability - check in advance to see that the equipment and materials are available when you
need them.
H. Teaching with Media .
1. Audio Recordings - include tapes, records and compact discs. Tapes may be in the form of
teacher- recorded, student-recorded or ready-made tapes that are com'rfiercially produced.
These may be used by teachers in connection with speech rehearsals, drama, musical
presentation and radio and television broadcasting.
2. Overhead Transparencies - by using an overhead projector, a transparency can show pictures,
diagrams and sketches at a time when needed in a discussion. Step-by-step instructions,
enumerations or any sequenced illustrations can easily be presented through transparencies.
3. ■ Chalkboard - this includes not only those with flat and wide surfaces but also the portable
types which can
be moved or even serve as dividers. Using chalk, it is a convenient writing area where the
illustrations can instantly be drawn even during a discussion. An eraser can easily keep it dean
and ready for continuous use.
Bulletin Boards - a display board, whichis usually stationary on a wall or it can be movable. The
surface is made of cork or soft wail boards for easy attachment of display items. Its .contents
may be used for the • duration of a unit being studied. The learning materials may be pictures,
newspaper clippings, real objects or drawings. 4 ' . . ••
■- ,\
Cloth board - a single or multilayer board composed of cloth or a man-made synthetic..
4
Materials range widely from felt to vinyl. •> . • ' o"!' ’
Hook-and-loap board -is„similar to flannel/felt board (large board covered with felt or flannel
material). The material used tocover the board, is-a nylon loop mate rial..The .'material used to
cover the back of the, objects to siick to the board Is ainylon hook material. Objects used ana
hook and-loop board may be jar-gen. heavier, or have dimension to. theYpbecause of the
strength In the grip of the-hook add loop rpatefidl.This boardis used for displays, storytelling,
and teaching.
Magnetic bqard - It can be a sheet of tiripfatfe or metal, simply a type of chalkboard, the
surface of which is treated or coated with a porcelaifi-like substance: The base of the board is
steel, and pictures and objects can be pasted or mounted with .small magnet? ehd ;cdn easily be moved
about.
Pegboard - is tempered haMboard which, is pre-drilled with evenly spaced holes. The holes are used to
accept pegs or hooks to support various items, such as tools in a workshop
9. 'Charts - may be in the form of maps, graphs, photographs and cut-outs. They may be pre-
prepared graphic devices or posters.
10. Video Tapes! Films - come in the form of Bmm and 15 m type. They can be purchased or
rented.
11. Models - are scaled replicas of real objects.-When the real things cannot be used due to its size
either too large or too small, replicas are used. Ex. Globes, model cars, airplanes or houses and
furniture.
12. Pictures - this includes flat, opaque and still pictures. Photographs or picture clipped from
newspapers and magazines are also used. The concepts to be taught could be introduced
 through pictures.
13. Books - textbook's and all kinds of books are also classified as media or. sub-strategies. They
contain
information, pictures and graphics. • ~ ■
14. Computers - could be used in presenting the day's lesson, solving problems and providing
educational
•games. \ • . ' .
I. Contrived Experiences - these are edited copies of reality and are used as substitutes for real things
when it is not practical or not possible to bring or do the real thing in the classroom.
•. 1. Model - is a reproduction of a real thing in a small scale, or large scale, or exact size - but made of
synthetic materials. • • •
2. Mock up - is an arrangement of a real device or associated device, displayed in such a'way that
representation of reality is created. Usually, it is prepared substitute for a real thing. It is a
special model
 where the parts of a model are singled out, heightened and magnified in order to focus on that
part or process •understudy.
3. Replica - a copy that is relatively distinguishable from the original
4. R;ea!ia - "these are objects from real life used in classroom instruction by educators to improve
students' understanding of other cultures and l eal life situation.
5. Specimen - is any individual or item considered typical of a group," class or whole.
G. Objects - may also include artifacts displayed in a museum or objects displayed in exhibits or
preserved insect specimens in science. ■
- 7. S i m u l a ti o n a representation of, a manageable real event in which the learner is an active
participant engaged in a learning a behavior or in applying previously acquired skills or
knowledge. •
8. Games - used for any of these purposes; 1) to practice and/or to refine knowledge/skills already
acquired, 2) to identify gaps or weaknesses in knowledge/ skills, 3) Id serve as a summation or
review, and.4) to develop new relationships among concepts and principles. . •
J„ Dramatized experiences
1. Plays depict life, character, or culture .or a combination of all three. They offer, excellent,
opportunities to
portray vividly important ideas about life, • .
2. Pageants are usually community dramas that are based on- local history,presented by local
actors.
3. Pantomime - is the art of. conveying a story through bodily movements only., its effect'On •the
audience
depends on .the movements of the actots; . :'4
4. Tableau - is a picture-like scene-composed or people against a,background
5. Puppet - can preset^ideas-with extreme simplicity - without elaborate.scertery or costume,- yet
effectively
6. Role-playing - is an Unrehearsed, unprepared and spontaneous dramatization of a let's pretend"
situation where assigned participants are absorbed.by their-own .roles in the si tuation
described by the teachers.
V '• . "" •
K. Teaching with Visual Symbols iyii :•..«•* . .. '
1. Drawings - may not be the real thing blit*better to have a concrete visual aid than nothing. To
avoid confusion, it is good that our drawing correctly represents the real thing.
2. Cartoons - A first-rate cartoon tells its story'metaphorically. The perfect cartoon heeds no
caption. The less the artist depends on words, the more effective the symbolism. The symbolism
conveys the message.
■ 3. Strip Drawings - (comic strips) this can serve as motivation and a starter of the lesson. It can
also be given as ar, activity for students to express insights gained at the conclusion of the
lesson.
4. Diagram - any tine drawing that shows arrangement and relations as of parts to the whole,
relative values, origins and development, chronological fluctuations, distribution, etc. ’
a. Affinity Diagram - used to cluster complex apparently unrelated data into natural and
meaningful
groups. - - .
b. Tree Diagram - usedto chart out. in increasing detail, the various tasks that must be
accomplished to complete a project or achieve a specific objective.
c. Fishbone diagram - also called cause-and-effeci diagram. It is a structured form of
brainstorming that graphically shows the relationship of possible causes and subcauses
 directly related to an identified effect/problem.
5. Chart - is a diagrammatic representation of relationships among individuals within an
organization.
a. Time chart- is a tabular time chart that presents data in ordinal sequence
b. Tree or stream chart - depicts development, growth and change by beginning with a single
course (the trunk) which spreads out into many branches; or by beginning with the many
tributaries which then
■ converge into a single channel.
c. Flow chart — is a visualway of charting or showing a process from beginning to end. It is a
mens of analyzing a process. By outlining every step in a process, you can begin to find
inefficiencies or problems.
d. Organizational chart - shows how one part of the organization relates to other parts of the
organization;
e. Comparison and Contrast Chart/Matrix - used to show similarities and differences between
two tilings
f. Pareto chart - Isa type of bar chart, prioritized in descending order of magnitude or
importance from left to right, ll shows at a glance which factors are occurring most.
g. GANNT chart - is an activity time chart
6. Graphs
a. Pie or circle graph - recommended for showing parts ofwhoie.
b. Ear graph - used in comparing the magnitude of similar items at different ties or seeing
relative sizes of
the parts of a whole. • .'
c. Pictorial graph - makes use of picture symbols .
d. Histogram - is a graphic display of labulanfrequencies, shown as adjacent rectangles. It is used
to' plot density of data, and often for density estimation
. 7. Graphic Organizers
a. KWL Chart - a group instruction activity developed by Donna Ogle (1986) that serves as a
model for active thinking during reading. K-stands for what is known; W is for want to know
and L.for learned.. •
b. Spider Map - used to describe a central idea: a thing, process, concept or proposition with
support
c. Series of Events Chain - used to describe the stages of something; the steps in a linear
procedure; a sequence of events; or the goals, actions and outcomes of a historical figure or
character in a novel
d. Continuum Scale - used for time lines showing historical events or ages, degrees of
something, shades of meaning, or rating scales.
e. Problem/Solution Outline - used to represent a problem, attempted solutions, and results.
f. ’ Network tree - used to show causal information, a hierarchy or branching procedures
g. Human Interaction Outline - used to show the nature of an interaction between persons or
groups
h. Concept Map - a special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge arid gathering and
sharing information. It consists of nodes or cells that contain a concept', item or question and
links. The. links are labeled and denote direction with an arrow symbol •
■ i. Venn Diagram •" used to describe and compare attributes and characteristics of items -.
j." Attribute Wheel - an' example of semantic mapping that helps the students use what they
already know and build on that, knowledge.lo gain understanding.' '
£v Cluster Map / Word Web - used to elaborate on a.central idea by addingdetailsto the central
 idea.
l. story Map. - qu (lines the elements- of the story - character, setting; story problem, events
and solutions
m. Time Line - a^kind of graphic-design showing a. long .bar. labeled with dates alongside itself
and events
labeled on points where-they would have happened. •' .;.
n. Sequence Chartalist's steps or events in time order. ,y.\ -.- ■ ' . -r> • ;••/''' *‘
• " -. • • •v ■ ••-->, • - ‘ • '.
8. Maps - a 2-d instructional aid whichis a representation of the surfac§ of the earth or.some part
of it
?. - Globe - a 3-D 'instructional-aid which 1s the representation of the earth; an example of a model.
10. Dioramas - are static displays consisting of a 3-D foreground and a fiat background to create a
realistic effect. They are designed to reproduce the reality of the past or present or depict future
events.
L. Design, Development and Utilization of Educational Technology
(A) Instructional Design Model: ADDIE Model
The ADDIE model is a systematic instructional design model consisting of five phases: (1) Analysis;
(2) Design;
(3) Development; (4) Implementation, and (5) Evaluation
1. Analysis, During analysis, the' designer identifies of the learning problem, the goals and
objectives, the audience needs, existing knowledge and any other relevant characteristics. It
considers the learning environment, any constraints, the delivery options, and the timeline for-
the project.
2. Design. A systematic process of specifying learning objectives. Detailed story boards and
prototypes are often made, graphic design, user-interface and content are determined here..
3. Development The actual creation or production of the content and learning materials based on
the Design
phase. ",
• 4. Implementation. During implementation, the plan is put into action and a procedure for training
the learner
• and teacher is developed. Materials are delivered or distributed to the student group. After
delivery, the effectiveness of the training materials is evaluated.
5. Evaluation. Thrs phase consists of formative and summalive evaluation.
{EJ instructional Design Model: ASSURE Model • .
The ASSURE model is an instructional design that is modified to be used by teachers in the regular
classroom for the effective use of instructional media. ASSURE is an acronym for (1) Analyze
learners; (2) State Objectives; (3)
Select Media and Materials; (4) Utilize Media and Materials; (5) Require Learner Participation;'and (6)
Evaluate
and Revise. . . •
1. Analyze learners. Teachers must first consider the characteristics of the learners who will
experience the media. The learners can be analyzed in terms of general characteristics and specific
entry competencies - knowledge, skills, and attitude about the subject. Student preferences for the
conditions of learning also need' to be considered. Teachers must know their students to select the
best medium to meet the objectives.
2.. Sfate objectives. Teachers then must identify the objectives that the media will serve. These may be
derived from a needs assessment or a course syllabus. The objectives are commonly stated in terms
of what the learner will be able to do as a result of instruction. The conditions under which the
 student is going-to perform and the degree of acceptable success is also included. This helps the
teachers clarify Ihe objectives in order to make an appropriate selection of media and methods.
3.. -Select media and materials. Teachers then must choose a media formal and then goabout
obtaining specific materials. Obtaining appropriate media and materials generally involves one cf
three alternatives; (a) selecting available materials, (b) modifying existing materials, (c) designing
and producing new materials. Teachers should use instructional media in ways that appear to best
fit the immediate learning situations.
4. Utilize materials. Teachers must make plans to utilize the materials after selecting, modifying or
designing the materials. Questions like "Is the material at the appropriate level for the students and
what adjustments need to be made during the presentation? 1, "What needs fo be done to prepare
sludenls for the presentation of this new content?”, "How can follow-up activities be used in
relalion to this media?" need to be considered when using instructional materials.
5. Require learner participation. There should be activilies within ihe lesson that allow learners to
respond and
to receive feedback on the appropriateness of their performance or response, which may be overt
(outwardly observable) or covert (internal and not observable). ’• .
6. Evaluate and revise. After instruction, media and methods need to be examined Class 'discussion,
individual interviews, and observation of students can be used to •evaluate methods and media.
The instructional process itself should be evaluated to ensure effective instruction.'. •
(C) Principles in the Selection and Utilization of Educational Technology ...
" Principle ' .. Description . , • ;"
Meaningfulness ..Contains purposive' activities, which contributes-.;Id the growth
Purpose and development
Focuses learners. ■to■ -motivate
of learners.
.on’heiping .. .. .• '■ them in the learning
Appropriatenes .Suite or fits to the level intended in.terms of: (1) vocabulary; (2)
sBreadth > difficulty,
Encompasses of'concepts;
all round(3) methods ofofdevelopment;
development and
varying group, (4) interest.
learners.
Usefutness/Ufll Hejpful or valuable terra particular teacher Ss. He'/she works for a
ity.
Communication particular group of learners
■ Relays information cle.arly..and effectively.
''Authenticity • Presentseiscyrate dp-to-date dependable information.
Responsiveness Quick to'response to the needs and demands of the society. .
Interest Catches the attention/awareness of the users, stimulates curiosity or
Cost satisfies
The costtheper
need to know
student ofand encouraqes
media creativity
presentation and imaginative
diminishes as the
Effectiveness
Presentation . number
Must be of studentsat
presented using it increases.
the riqht . . at
time and • •the riqht way.
Portability Must be handy for the teachers and students to handle it vuell.
Correctness Correct facts or information must be in the materials for a better
Simplicity Must be. simple (easiness) but inspiring for the learners and showing
Assessment Appraisal is needed for further revisions and improvements.

Part II, Integration of information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Computer - is an electronic device/machine used to process data, converting the data into information
that is useful to people. It is controlled by programmed instructions, which give the machine a purpose
and tell it what to do. It can be programmed and can perform high-speed mathematical or logical
operations;
A. Generations of Computers . . •
1. First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes
First generation computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry, and magnetic drums for'data storage
(memory). They were expensive to operate since too much electricity can be us'ed and generated
 a lot of heat, which was.often the cause of malfunction. Examples; The Universal Automatic
Computer (UNIVAC) and the Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculalor (ENIAC). The UNIVAC
was Ihe first commercial computer delivered to a business client. '
2. S e c o n d Generations (1956-1963): Transistors
The invention of Transistors marked the start of the second generation. The transistor is an
abbreviation of the transfer resistor, which means that by influencing the resistance between two
of the three layers, then the power (resistor) which is in the next layer can also be affected. In this
generation, the instructions (program) could be stored inside the computer's memory. High-level
languages such as COBOL (Common Business- Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula
Translator) were used. . .
3. Third Generation (1964-1971): i n t e g r a t e d Circuits
The hallmark of this generation is the development of the integrated circuits. The Integrated
Circuit(IC) was invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby. It combined electronic components onto a small
silicon disc, made from quartz. Thus, the transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips,
called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
4. Fourth G e n e r a ti o n (1971-present): Microprocessors
Fourth Generation computers are the modem day computers. The size started to go down with the
improvement in the integrated circuits. Very Large Scale(VLSI) and Ultra Large scale(ULSl) ensured
that millions of components could be fit into a small silicon chip., called microprocessor. It reduced
the size and price of the computers at the same time increasing power, efficiency and reliability. It
went down from Desktop' to laptops to Palmtops. .
5. Fifth Generation (present-beyond or future): Artlflaaiintelllgence
Fifth generation computers are only in the minds of advance research scientists and being tested
out in the laboratories. These computers will be under Artificial Intelligence (A!). They will be able
to take commands in an audio visual way and carry out Instructions. Many of the operations which
require low human intelligence will be performed by these computers. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning
and self-organization.
B. Classifications of Computers . - » ‘ . j
Computers are available in different shapes, sizes and: weights; due to these different
sbapes'and'sizes they perform.djfiereFibsort^ of jobs from one another; they cat} also be classified in
different ways3&ifctt' are designed byThe qualified computer architecture. ; . *' •• • ' . .. ,.yV
According to SizefCapactty; -- ^ >’
1. Supercomputer V-V*- “ . . 'yi*V'
■p The biggest in-size, the most expensive in price than any..oJbecbnrf'the fastestaod most
powerful type of computer, if can process trillions of instructions in seconds," ' ' _
s
7*
» Government^ specially.'use this type, of cppiputer for their different baicfilations and heavy jobs.
Different Industries alsbqjse thip huge computer for designing theirproctacts.
• In movies, it is used for animation', purposes, Tlaip kind of computer is also helpful for
forecasting weather reports worldwide. Other-uses of supercdpipVtefs include animated
graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petrpleum' exploration.
• This is employed for specialised'applications that require Immense amounts of mathematical
calculations.
• a supercomputer channels all its.power Into executing a few programs as fast as possible. •
2. Mainframe .
• Another giant in computers is Mainframe, which' can also process millions of instruction per
second and capable of accessing billions of data since-it is very powerful and large
 . • This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies, and many
other huge companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge
basis and can handle processing of many users at a time.
• This is normally too expensive and out of reach from a salary-based person who wants a
computer for his home.
« A mainframe uses its.power to execute many programs concurrently, In some ways, it is more
powerful than supercomputer because it supports more simultaneous programs.
3. Minicomputer
» This computer is next in line but less.offers than mainframe in work and.performance and it has
less memory & storage capacity. These are the computers,.which are mostly preferred by tire
small type of business personals, colleges, etc,
• It offers limited range of "peripherals; it can be used with limited range of softwares; it is not very
sensitive ■ to the external environment
• It can be used for data processing.
4. Micro computer
• This is the computer mostly preferred by the home users.. These computers are lesser in cost
than tire computers given above and also, smalt in size and you pan easily arrange it to fit in
your single bedroom
• with its all accommodation. Today this is thought to be the most popular computer in all. This
computer is also called’personal computer (PC). Only one user uses this computer at time that’s
why they are also known as personal computers. The types are: desktop, laptop,, notebook,
palmtop or handheld personal computer •
 Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk, which is intended
for regular use at a single location, as opposed to a mobile laptop or portable computer. Most modem
desktop computers have separate screens and keyboards. -
Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with, an integrated screen and keyboard, which is
for mobile use. it is a battery- or' AC-powered personal -computer generally smaller than a briefcase
that can easily be transported and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as on airplanes, in
libraries, temporary offices, and at meetings. It is generally smaller in size titan a desktop computer
and larger than a notebook computer, but may be referred to as notebook computer despite of its
size. •
Notebook computer: Having a smalt size and low weight, it is easy to carry to anywhere. A student
can take it with him/her to his/her school in his/her bag with his/her book, easy lo carry around and
preferred by students and business people to meet their assignments and other necessary tasks.
Palmtop Computer: a hand-sized computer and the smallest laptop, it is referred to as the Handheld
PC (H/PC), is a term for a computer built around a form factor which is smaller than any standard
laptop computer. It is also referred lo as personal digital assistant or personal data assistant (PDA) is a
mobile device that functions as a personal information manager. Palmtops have no keyboard but the
screen serves both as an input and output device. A typical PDA has a touchscreen for entering data, a
memory card slot for data storage, Bluetooth and/or Wi-Fi. However, some PDAs may not have a
touchscreen, losing softkeys, a .directional pad, and a numeric keypad or a thumb keyboard for input.
. -. V
According to Type of Data Handled: V• ■ .
1.
Analog Computers. • 7 • _ \
Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process control purposes because they
deai with quantities that are continuously variable that give (approximate results. In general, ft (s-a
computer which uses arranaibg-quantity and •produce's analog values as output, arid it measures
2.
continuously. They are very much speedy since th'diy produce thefr results very fait. All the
analog ;cOmpufefs are special purpose computers. .
Digital Computer^ , i ^ 'V 'v ' ’’ "...
Digital computer.(epr^lents'physlcai quantities with the help of digits o/numbers. These numbers
3. are used to perform Arithmetic calculations arid It can store the sums of addition problems as .they
'awumulate, and can complete a,single calculation in a fraction of a nanosecond. • it also makes
.logical decision to reach a conclusion! depending on. the data they receive fronj the user. It is p
machine that specializes in counting. It operates by^countlngvalues that are
diSGrefe.-.dhSeparateand distinct.' .
Hybrid Computers ; V*- „ - i •’*' '.
Although both analog and" digital .-computer^ 'are extremely used in widely accepted in various
industries, manufacturers have attempted.'lo "design a. computer that combines the best features of
both types.'This special-purpose machine bailed a hybrid computer combines the measuring capabilities
of the analog computer and the logical and control capabilities of ihe digital computer. Hybrid
"computers are being used extensively in process control system where it is necessary io have a dose
"representation with the physical world.
The Computer System The computer is a system which consists of the hardware,
software, and the peopleware.
1. Hardware - the mechanical devices that make up the computer or the parts that one can "touch, it is
consists of interconnected electronic devices (peripheral devices) that can be used to control the
computer’s operation, that is, the input and output devices; a device that accepts input, processes
data, stores data, and produces output, all according to a series of stored instructions.
a. Input Devices - accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer system; any
peripheral used to provide data and control signals to an information processing system.
(1J Keyboard - is a human interface device which is represented as a layout of buttons; is used to
type data into the computer, it has special keys for giving the computer commands. These
special keys are called command orfunction keys.
(2) Pointing Device - allows a user to input a spatial data to a computer; it move'some object on
the screen and can do some action. ’" .
• Mouse - functions as a pointing device by detecting 2D motion relative to its supporting
surface
• Trackball - operates with a rotating metal ball inset in a small, boxlike device and does not
■ require a desktop •*
. « Touchpad - pressure-sensitive pad that is smaller, more accurate, thinner and less expensive
to build than the trackball
• Trackpad - a small, sensitive pad. usually a couple of inches square, which acts as an . .
alternative lo a mouse on some- notebook/palmlop computers. It works by- sensing fingertip
'pressure.. • ‘ *
« Joystick - a manual control consisting of a vertical handle that can move freely in two
directions.
 • Touch Semen - a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel
covering the screen.
• Light Pen - utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on'a display screen.
• Digitizing Tablet - it enables on to enter drawings and sketches into a computer. It consists
of an electronic tablet and a cursor or a pen
• Stylus - a device shaped like a pen -
(3)Bar Code Reader- used to scan a pattern of lines using optical sensing techniques. The line
pattern is coded information about the item to which it relates.
(A} Scanner - allows scanning documents, pictures or graphics and viewing them on the computer. It
converts an image into dots that the computer can understand.
(5) Digital Camera - used to take electronic pictures of an object.
(6) Microphone - need sound recording software
(7) CD-ROM/ DVD-ROM - can be used to put both sound and images into a computer
(8)Video Capture Card - used to put video into a computer. It needs a video source, either a
video cam or video recorder
(9)Handheld Electronic Organizers - a small mobile computer that accepts input through a pen like
instrument called stylus that is used to write on the computer's screen
{10} Web Camera-a camera that is in some way connected to WWW or internet'
(11) Sensor - a device, which responds to an input quantity by generating a functionally related output
usually in the form of an electrical or optical signal •'•
b.
Output Devices - display information on a screen,, creates printed copies or generate sound;
return processed data back to the user or to another computer system; - .. .
(1) Monitors and Displays - show the ■processed- information on a screen. It produces-a
soft copy.
• Monitor is used to be called CRT (cathptie ray tube) . - C y.
(2) Printers - (printout) produce a hard dopy. The information is printed on paper rind can
be used
c. “""'v&hecj the device is oft . •* -jr.
{3} Speakers-used to output sound *. * . ; -_■..*£/«-v""
(A) Plotter-a device that.dravJs'pjctiirestiri paper.based on commands from a computer. It
differs from printer^ inffiqt ihey'draw lines using a pen ' f >' _• ^
Uj / • . \„V ~
Input-Output devices - a piece of hardware thaMs Qsed-fof both providing’'ififormatron to the
computer and receiving information. _4 -■,* \\ " " *
{l) Disk Drlver computer hardwaretlraf holds. and 'spins a magnetic or optical disk and reads and
writes information'’ on i!U*-.r\ •** *^’V
(2) Hard Disk Drive— a rigidjmagpqtlddlSk'mounted permanently in a drive unit.
(3) Optical Disc - a direct access disk, has information recorded on it with a laser beam that burns pits
into its surface " •
(A) Modem - modulates the computer output to an acceptable signal for transmission and then
demodulates the signal back for computer input.
Software- is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (also known as programs)
that make the computer perform tasks. It tells the computer what to do.; a computer program that
tells the computer how to perform particular task or it tells the computer how to operate. The
following types are: a. System Software - consists of programs, designed to facilitate the use of the
computer by the user.
(1) Operating System - a asset of program designed to efficiently manage the resources of the
computer system. ‘
 12) Language Translator - is a system program that converts the English-llke instructions used
by computer programmers into the machine-readable code used by the hardware:
(3) Utility Program - performsuch standard tasks as organizing and maintaining data files,
translating programs written in various languages to a language acceptable to a
computer.-
b. Application Software - is a type of program that solves specific user-oriented processing problems
(1) Word Processing - program accepts words typed into a computer and processes them to
produce edited text. . -
' (2) Desktop-Publishing System - system allows you to use different typefaces, specify various
margins and justifications, and embed illustrations and.graphs directly into the text.
(3) Spreadsheets - are computer programs that let people electronically create and
manipulate Spreadsheets (tables of values arranged irr rows and columns with predefined
to relationships to each other). These are used for mathematical calculations such as
accounts, budgets, statistics and so on. . -
 (4)Database Management - a set of programs is necessary to facilitate adding new data as
well as modifying and retrieving of existing data within a database
(5)Electronic Games - interactive hardware or software played for entertainment, challenge
or educational purposes
(6)Graphic Packages - are computer programs that enable users to create highly stylized
images -for slide presentations and reports. They can also be used to produce various
types of charts and graphs.
(7)Communication. Program - a software program that enables a computer to connect with
another computer.
c. Programming Software — usually provides too! to assist a programmer in writing computer
programs arid software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The
tools are compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors.
3. Peopleware- are the computer operators, also known as users. Even if a computer can do its job
without a person sitting in front of it, people still design, buiid, program and repair computer
systems.
Data - consists of raw facts, which the computer stores and reads in the form of numbers,. The
computer manipulates data according to the instructions contained in the software grid then
forwards ft for u^e by people or another computer. Data can consists of letters, numbers, sounds
primages, ; \
Files - is simply a set of data or program instructions.that has been .given a name. •
Document - a file that the user can open and us?! A computer-document can include many, kirids-of
data
Looking Inskdethe Machine . v. %.
:
. Data Processing - the--, procedure that_ Jransforms raw data-, jrtto - useful information. To perform
this transformation, the computer use? twtf components: tfte processor and memory.
1. Motherboard - Wlhe/main circuit board of a microprocessor, .ft isfjso known as the .plain 1board
or system
board. ^ • ’ V ’
2. Processor (Central Processing Upit-'dr. i:PU) - is Ifke the brain of the computer in tiie way it
organizes and carnfea.'gut.ihstruct!pnsvthahdori1e from eithpr the'tfser or the software. To
process data, the computer passes electricity throiigh the circuits tocbniptete an instruction. The
3 basic parts are:
a. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (AGU) - does all the arithmetic and logical operations of the
computer.
b. The Control Unit (GU) - directs the flow of information into the CP.U and/or memory or
storage and controls- the instructions.
c. Registers - are used to store data and have instructions inside the processor.
3. Memory - is like an electronic scratch pad inside the computer consisting of a silicon chip. It is
the electronic holding place.for instructions and dala that your computer's microprocessor can
reach quickly. When you launch a program, it is loaded into and run from memory. It is simply
referred.to random access memory (RAM) - instructions here are constantly changing
depending on the need of the CPU, that is,
. volatile since the information'.disappears once the computer is turned off, access to information
is random access. Another kinds of integrated and quickly accessible memory are: (1) read-only
memory (ROM! - stores information which is used by the CPU, the Instructions cannot be erased
or altered, that is , nonvolatile, the access to information is. either random or sequential; (2)
1 2. Wide Area Networks (WANs) - two or more LANs connected together, generally across a wide geographical area. Each site needs
resources, data and programs locally, but it also needs to share data with the other site
 storage memory - computer components, devices, and recording media that retain digital data
used for computing for some interval of time; (3) hard disks - mass storage; (4) hard drives -
primary storage devices; (5) floppy drives - store and retrieve information on a floppy disk; (6)
CD/DVD ROM drive - reads information stored on a disc; (6) Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash
drive - known as pen drive, a secondary storage device.
4. System Unit- the main part of a personal computer. It includes the chassis, microprocessor, main
memory,
' bus and ports, but does not include the keyboard or monitor or any peripheral devices.
E. Networks and Data Communications
Networks - it is a way to'connect computers so that they can communicate, exchange information
and share resources in real time. It enables multiple users to access shared data- and programs
instantly 1. Local Area’Networks (LANs) - network of computers located relatively near each other
and connected in a way lhal enables them-to communicate with one another (by a cable, an infrared
link, of a small radio transmitter). Any network that exists within a single building, or even a group of
adjacent buildings, is considered a LAN.
F. Internet Basics ’
1. Internet - simply called “the net", "information superhighway" or "cyberspace", a worldwide
system of computer networks; it is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use
the standard Internet
' protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of
millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope,
that are linked by a ■ broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies.
2. The World Wide Web (WWW) - simply, called the Web or W3, is a system of interlinked hypertext
documents accessed via the Internet; publicly accessible web sites in the .world. Note: hypertext is
text ■ displayed on a computer or other electronic device with references to other text that ihe
reader can immediately access, usually by a mouse click, key press sequence or by touching the
screen. •
3. Uniform Resource Locator (URL) - is the unique address for a file that is accessible on the Internet;
a global address of documents and other resources on the web. It provides a means of locating the
resource by describing its primary access mechanism (e.g., its network location). A common way to
get to’a Web site is to enter the URL of its home page file in your Web browser’s address line.
4. E-mail - an electronic mail, the transmission of messages over, communication networks dr a
system of
exchanging vwitten messages through a network. . •. \ \
■ : ■ V .... v: ;; -\
G. Role of Computers as a Tool ’ 'V
1. Informative Tools - are applications which provide vast -amounts of information in various formats.
Examples: text, sound graphics or video, multimedia encyclopedia.., " ... .. t
2. Coinwfinlcative Tools - are systems whibh enable easy communication between’-the teacher and
the ‘■'"'students or among students beyond physical barrier of the classroom.-.Examples: e-mail,
electronic bulletin
boards,chat, teleconferencing. ‘.t v.V- v
Categories of Communication Tools: •* ry.:; -.X- ■ • ,V-
a. Synchronous 4. i enables real time communication, th^t'ds;-' siniuIlaneousrfE^tatfipies; chat or
videoconferencing., 'I-V"'J. ■■
b. Asynchronous 4 are messaging systems jn Which the exchange ©Mnfdrmation between people
is not "live", hut somehow delayed. Exampife e-mail and electronic bulletin board.
V.*i i'v*
 . * A’' ... • x \ w
3. Productivlty/Constructive TooIs *~.are general purpose tools tliat can be used for manipulating
information, constructing one’s own knoWledge-dr visualizing one’s understanding. ■ Common
examples of productivity tools are:
a. Word processing - prepare letters,' memos, report, flyers, rubrics, newsletter; use in class to
dynamically illustrate writing and outlining skills.
b. Presentation software - create presentation for workshops, conferences, and meetings; create
class lectures support that features text, audio and visual elements with special effects; create
student worksheets to accompany class lectures.
. c. Electronic spreadsheets - prepare budget, numeric tables, grades and attendance rosters,
compute grades: prepare visuals/charts, mailing lists, reports.
d. Database management systems - organize’ and track student and other professional data;
prepare inventories, mailing lists, reports; provide support for students tacking data, organize
and provide easy access to lists of academic resources.