BASIC CONCEPTS • For constant temperature, the current

flowing through a circuit is

• Charge, Q = ne proportional to the voltage applied
• e = 1.6 * 10-19 across it.
• by columbs law the force experience $
between two charges q1 and q2 at ‘d’ = %
distance apart is R = Resistance, unit: ohm
= • It is applicable only for linear circuits.
∈

Methods of charging a body

1. conduction: complete transfer of

electron from one body to another.
The body will have net charge. The
body will loose or gain weight.
2. Induction: shifting of charge take
place within body. Net charge on the
Resistance
body will always be zero. No loss or
gain of mass. • It is the opposition to the flow of
• Mass of e- = 9.11 * 10-31 Kg current.
• Mass of P+ = 1.67 * 10-27 kg
&
• 1culomb = 6.28 * 10-18 e- %=
'
Current & = resistivity or specific resistance

• It is the rate of flow of charge unit: ohmmeter

l = length of the conductor (meter)

=
a = area of cross section (square meter)

• Unit is ampere(A)
9:;<;=<><=? @9 ;A:B<C<B 9:;<;=DEB:
• Conventional direction of flow of
current is from +ve terminal to –ve • its value depends on the nature of the
terminal. material.

Potential Conductance

• It is the work done in moving unit • It is the measure of ease to the flow
charge from one point to another. of current through a substance. It is
denoted by G.
V= 1
F=
%
1 • Unit is Siemens (S) or mho
1 = G'
1! "#
F=
Ohms law 1
G=
&
GH I J I HKH L M N IHOHI I J I 'JI
 Unit is mho/meter or Siemens/meter.
= +
^ ^ ^
Effect of temperature on Resistance
^ ^
• For a conductor, if resistance at t1 = ^ =
^ +^
R0 and resistance at t2 = Rt then
• If ‘n’ number of same resistance (R)
%P = %Q (1 + $∆ ) are connected in parallel, then the
equivalent resistance
∆ = V − X

Q ^
$H ℎ "N. I OOHIH J ' X! ^ =

• For metals as temperature increases, Power:

resistance increases. $ H N H HK
• For semiconductors and insulators as • It is the rate of doing work.
temperature increases, resistance • P=VI
decreases. $ H J [' HK • Unit : Watt
• $ ' 0Q ! = $Q , ℎ J $ ' Q !
$Q Energy:
$P =
1 + $Q
%V 1 + $Q V • Energy, E = Pxt
= • Unit: kWhr
%X 1 + $Q X
• 1kWhr = 3.6 x 106 Joules
Combination of resistance
Current density:
1. Series connection : same current and
different voltage • It is defined as current per unit area.
_
• =
`
• Unit: A/m2

Drift Velocity:
^ =^ +^
• If ‘n’ number of same resistance(R) • I = nAeVd
are connected in series, the
equivalent resistance, Vd = drift velocity of e-

^ = ^ n = density of charge carriers

2. Parallel connection: same voltage and A = area

different current
e = charge of each conductor

Electrical Network:

• A combination of various electric

elements (Resistor, Inductor,
Capacitor, Voltage source, Current
source) connected in any manner
 what so ever is called an electrical Non-Linear Circuit:
network.
• A non-linear system is that whose
Passive Element: parameters change with voltage or
current.
• The element which receives energy
• Non-linear circuit does not obey the
(or absorbs energy) and then either
homogeneity and additive properties.
converts it into heat (R) or stored it in
an electric (C) or magnetic (L ) field is
called passive element.

Active Element:

• The elements that supply energy to

the circuit is called active element.
Examples of active elements include
voltage and current sources,
generators, and electronic devices
that require power supplies.
Bilateral Element:
• Conduction of current in both
directions in an element (example:
Resistance; Inductance; Capacitance)
with same magnitude is termed as
bilateral element.
Unilateral Element:
• Conduction of current in one direction
is termed as unilateral (example:
Diode, Transistor) element.
Linear Circuit:
• A linear circuit is one whose
parameters do not change with
voltage or current.
• Linear circuit obey the homogeneity
and additive properties.
Node-
• A node in an electric circuit is a point
where two or more components are
connected together.
Branch-
• A branch is a conducting path
between two nodes in a circuit
containing the electric elements.
Loop-
• A loop is any closed path in an electric
circuit i.e., a closed path or loop in a
circuit is a contiguous sequence of
branches which starting and end
points for tracing the path are, in
effect, the same node and touches no
other node more than once.
Mesh-
• A mesh is a special case of loop that
does not have any other loops within
it or in its interior.

Kirchhoffs First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)

• Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states

that the “total current or charge
 entering a junction or node is exactly
equal to the charge leaving the node”.
In other words the algebraic sum of
ALL the currents entering and leaving
a node must be equal to zero,
I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0.
• This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly
known as the Conservation of Charge.
Or ΣI = 0
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
• It states that in a closed circuit, the
algebraic sum of all source voltages
must be equal to the algebraic sum of
all the voltage drops.
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Magnetic Flux (∅)
• The total number of magnetic lines
emitted or entered from a unit area.
• Unit: weber
• The properties of magnetic flux are
1. The magnetic flux lines are
imaginary lines.
2. Each line of magnetic flux forms a
closed loop.
3. Magnetic flux lines do not
intersect each other.
4. They behave like stretched elastic
threads and always try to shorten
themselves.
5. The flux lines which are parallel
and in same direction repel each
other.
Magnetic Circuit
• The path followed by magnetic flux.
Flux density
• The total number of magnetic lines
emitted or entered per unit area.
∅
b=
c
• Unit: wb/m2 or Tesla or Gauss
Magneto motive Force (mmf)
• The force which drives magnetic flux
through a magnetic circuit.
• Similar to emf in electric circuit.
mmf = NI
N= No. of turns
I = current through coil
• Unit: Ampere turns (AT)
Magnetic field strength or magnetic field Relation between magnetising force (H) and
intensity (H) magnetic flux density (B)

• Force experienced by unit length or b$d

unit pole.
b = od
""O e
d= = b = oQ op d

• Unit: AT/m Curie point

Reluctance • As magnetic material get heated,

molecules vibrate and gets out of
• Property of a magnetic circuit, which alignment. The magnetic strength will
opposes the flow of magnetic flux in it get reduced.
or it is the resistance offered by the • Temperature at which the vibrations
magnetic circuit to the flow of becomes random and reduce
magnetic flux through it. magnetic strength to zero is known as
ffg k_ mh
Reluctance, S = = = Curie point.
ghij l l
• It is the temperature above which
• It is directly proportional to length (l)
ferromagnetic material becomes
and inversely proportional to area of
paramagnetic.
cross-section (a).

n$
'

n=
oQ op '

Permeability

• Permeability is the ability of a

material to conduct magnetic flux
through it. •
• It is represented by the letter o. B-H curve
• Unit: Henry/meter
• Permeability of free space, • Lagging of magnetic flux density (B)
tu behind magnetising force (H) is known
oQ = 4r × 10 d/"
as magnetic hysteresis.
Relative Permeability • The magnetic flux that retains in the
conductor despite the magnetic force
• It is the ratio of flux density produced
is removed called retentivity of the
in a material to the flux density
material.
produced in vacuum by the same
• The force required to remove the
magnetizing force.
o residual magnetism from the material
op = is called the coercive force or
oQ
• Relative permeability of air, op = 1 coercivity of the material.
 Paramagnetic material

• Identical to ferromagnetic field, but

slightly attracted to magnetic field.
• Doesn’t retain magnetism after the
removal of magnetic field.
• wf is small and +ve
• op > 1
• Eg: Mn, Pt, Al, O2, Sb

• Permanent magnets have high Diamagnetic material

retentivity and coersivity. Eg: Alnico
• Characterised by slightly repelled by
• Armature, transformer core material
magnetic field.
should have very small loop area. i.e
• Doesn’t retain magnetic properties
higher permeability and low loss.
after removal of field.
• The area under the B-H curve
• wf is –ve
represents hysteresis loss.
• op < 1
• For a non magnetic material it is a
straight line passing through the • Eg: Zn, Pb, P, Cu, Bismuth
origin. Comparison between electric and magnetic
• For a magnetic material it is circuits
nonlinear.
Electric circuits Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic material Current flows from Flux flows from N to
+ve to –ve. S.
• Permeability describes the ability of a The cause of current The cause of
material to support the formation of flow is emf. generation of flux is
magnetic field inside it. It is denoted mmf.
by o. Opposition to the Opposition to the
• Susceptibility describes whether a flow of current is flow of Flux is called
called resistance reluctance.
material is attracted to a magnetic
"O ""O
field or repelled from it. It is denoted x
M H 'JI M I 'JI
by wf
• wf = op W 1 Current density, Magnetic flux
j = /c density,
unit: A/ m2 B = x/c
Ferromagnetic material Unit: wb/m2
Resistance h
Reluctance, S =|z
• Characterised by strong attraction to yh
% z {z
h

magnetic field.
• Able to retain magnetic properties ! J I 'JI } M" 'JI
after the removal of field. 1 1
• wf is large and +ve % H 'JI % I 'JI
Conductivity(GU Permeability (oU
• op >> 1
• Eg: Fe, Co, Ni, steel.
 Electro Magnetism
• Force on a current currying
conductor, F = Bilsin~ Newton
Right hand Thumb Rule
• It is used to find out the direction of
flux.
• It states that when a current carrying
conductor holds in right hand with
extended thumb pointing in the
direction of current then the finger
encircling the conductor will point
along the direction of magnetic flux.
Voltage induced in a conductor placed in a
magnetic field, V = Blvsin~ volts
Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic induction
First Law
• Whenever the magnetic flux linked
with a conductor changes, an emf is
induced in the conductor and current
starts flowing if the circuit is closed.
Second Law:
• The magnitude of induced emf is
directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkage.
•∅
e= N •P
Lenz’s law
• It states that electromagnetically
induced current flows in such a
direction so as to oppose the cause
producing it.
•∅
e=- N •P
induced emf
• They are of two types.
1. Dynamically induced emf: emf
induced when a conductor is
moved across a stationary field.
Eg: generator, motor
2. Statically induced emf: emf
induced when the conductor is
stationary and the magnetic field
is moving or charging.
Eg: transformer
• Statically induced emf can be divided
into two:
1. Self induced emf: the emf induced
in a coil due to the change of its
own flux linked with it.
• Self inductance: it is the property of a
conductor due to which it opposes
any change of current or flux through
it .
• It is denoted by ‘L”
• Unit is Henry.
k∅ k€ k € |‚ |ƒ `
L= _ •
= h
2. Mutually induced emf: the emf
induced in a coil due to changing
current in neighbouring coil.
• Mutual inductance: the property of
neighbouring coil to induce a voltage
in one coil due to the change of
current in the other coil.
• It is denoted by ‘M’.
• Unit: Henry
k€ ∅„ k… ∅„ k… k€
M= _…
= _€
= •
Coefficient of coupling(K):
• Two coils are said to be magnetically
coupled, if full or part of the flux
produced by one coil links with the
other coil.
‡
†=
ˆ‰X ‰V
‡−" ' HJ I 'JI
L1, L2 – self inductance
 • If the entire flux of one coil links with
the other, then the mutual inductance
between the two coil is maximum.
K=1.
• It is defined as the ratio of actual
inductance present between the two
coils to the maximum possible mutual
inductance.
Inductance in series
L = L1 + L2 +2M if fluxes are aiding
L = L1 + L2 -2M if fluxes are opposing
Energy stored in a magnetic field
Cycle:
It is the One complete set of positive and
negative values of alternating quantity .
Time period (T)
• It is the time taken by an alternating
quantity to complete one cycle.
• it is denoted by T
• Unit: Seconds
Frequency
• It is the number of cycles per second.
• Unit: Hertz

X V Amplitude:
E = V‰
• It is the maximum value of positive
AC Fundamentals
and negative value of an alternating
• Voltage or current is in the form of quantity.
sine function. Hence it is represented
RMS value:
as
• RMS value of an alternating current is
V = Š‹ ;<E Œ
given by the steady (DC) current
I = •‹ ;<E Œ which when flowing through a given
circuit for a given time produces the
Œ = Ž ••‘Ž’ “’ • ”• = “= –
f same heat as produced by the
alternating current when flowing
f= frequency in HertZ through the same circuit for same
time.
T = Time period in Seconds
f
pf— = = 0.707 f
√2

Average value:

• It is the steady state current which

transfer same charge across the
circuit, as transferred by the
alternating quantity during the same
time.

2f
z› = = 0.637 f
r
Form Factor: • Powerfactor, cos ∅ 0
• ∅ = 900
• It is the ratio of rms value average
• Inductive reactance, XL = ‰
value of sinusoidal current.
• Unit: ohm
M" • V = Š‹ ;<E Œ
žž 1.11
'K[ • I = •‹ ;<E ¡Œ W ¢
Peak factor or crest factor
Ac through Pure capacitance:
• It is the ratio of maximum value to
• current leads voltage by 900.
rms value of alternating quantity.
• Average power, P = 0
"'Ÿ. K' • Powerfactor, cos ∅ 0
}. ž 1.414
M" K' • ∅ = 900
• capacitive reactance, Xc = !
• Unit: ohm
Average and rms value of different • V = Š‹ ;<E Œ
waveform • I = •‹ ;<ERŒ S U

Waveform Rms value Average Impedance:

value
Sine wave f 2f • It is denoted Z, is an expression of the
√2 r opposition that an electronic
Full rectified f 2f
component, circuit, or system offers
wave √2 r
to alternating and/or direct electric
Half rectified f f
wave 2 r current.
Square wave Vm Vm
Impedance triangle:
Sawtooth f f
√3 2
triangular f f
√3 2

Ac through Pure Resistor:

• Voltage and current waveform are in

phase.
• Average power, P = VrmsIrms
• Powerfactor, cos ∅ 1
• ∅ 00
• V = Š‹ ;<E Œ
• I = •‹ ;<E Œ
Resonance in RLC series circuit

Ac through Pure Inductance: • Circuit will resonate at a frequency

called resonance frequency (fr).
• Current lags voltage by 900.
• At resonance , XL = XC
• Average power, P = 0
 X
• Resonant frequency, Op V£√¤¥
Phase sequence:
• At resonance, • The order in which phases attain their
1. current is maximum maximum value is called phase
sequence.
%
• If coil ‘a’ reaches its max. value, then
2. Net reactance is zero.
after 1200 coil ‘b’ reaches its max. and
3. Z = R
after 2400 coil C reaches its maximum
4. Power is maximum
value. Then phase sequence is abc.
P = I2R
¦ ¦
5. Power factor, cos ∅ 1 Interconnection of three coils
§ ¦
6. Tan ∅ = 0
• They are of Two types
• Below resonant frequency, the circuit
1. Star connection
is capacitive and power factor is
2. Delta connection
leading.
• At resonant frequency the circuit is Star connection
resistive power factor is unity.
• Above resonant frequency the circuit
is inductive power factor is lagging.

Power Triangle

Delta connection

Three phase systems

• Three coils are displaced 1200 each

other. Hence the voltage induced in
that coil will be displaced by 1200.
z f sin Vph = VL and IL = √3 ª«
¨ f sinR S 120Q U
P = √3 ¤ ¤ cos ∅ 3 ª« ª« cos ∅
© f sinR S 240Q U

• Netvoltage= z S ¨ S © 0
Power Measurement in Three phase circuits Generation of power

Three wattmeter method • Conventional sources of energy are

the natural energy resources which
• P = P1 + P2 + P3 are present in a limited quantity and
Two wattmeter method are being used for a long time.
• Non-conventional sources of
• P = P1 + P2 energy are the energy sources
…t which are continuously
• tan ∅ √3( €
)
…¬ € replenished by natural processes.
• If both wattmeter reads same, then pf These cannot be exhausted
= unity. easily, can be generated
• One wattmeter reads zero and other constantly so can be used again
one +ve, then pf = 0.5 lagging and again, e.g. solar energy,
• One reads +ve and other –ve, then pf wind energy, tidal energy,
biomass energy and geothermal
between 0 & 0.5.
energy etc.

Conventional Non-
sources of conventional
energy sources of
energy
These These
sources of sources of
energy are energy are
not abundant in
abundant, nature, e.g.
present in solar energy,
limited wind energy,
quantity, tidal energy,
e.g. coal, biogas from
petroleum, biomass etc.
natural gas.
They have They are yet
been in use in
for a long development
time. phase over
the past few
years.
They are not They are
replenished replenished
continuously continuously
. They are by natural
formed over processes.
a million They are They are not
years. used used as
They are They are extensively, extensively
called non- called at a higher as
renewable renewable rate than conventional
sources of sources of the non- sources.
energy. energy. conventional
They can be They cannot sources.
exhausted be
completely exhausted Hydro Power Plant
due to over- completely.
• Tunnel and penstock: They form
consumption
water conduit system which carries
except for
water from the reservoir to the
hydel
turbine of power house.
power.
• Surge tank: it functions as a pressure
They pollute They are regulator in the water line.
the environment
Thermal Power Plant
environment -friendly, do
by emitting not pollute • Boiler: it is used for producing steam
harmful the at high pressure.
gases and environment • Economizer: it is used to extract heat
also . from the flue gases for heating feed
contribute to water. It also improves efficiency.
global Nuclear Power Plant
warming.
They are They are
• Elements used are uranium (U 235) or
thorium.
commonly used
• Nuclear fission: it is a process
used for commonly
in nuclear physics in which the
industrial used for
nucleus of an atom splits into two or
and household more smaller nuclei
commercial purposes. as fission products, and usually some
purposes. by-product particles.
Heavy Using these • Moderator: it is used to slow down
expenditure sources is the neutrons produced during nuclear
is involved less
reaction. Eg: graphite
• Control Rod: it increases the reaction
in using and expensive.
and more energy is produced.
maintaining
• Coolant: heat transfer is done by the
these
coolant. Commonly used coolants are
sources of molten sodium, heavy water, etc.
energy.
• The shield of nuclear reactor is made
of a thick layer of concrete or lead to
stop the radioactive rays generated by
the reaction.
• •
SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
• A transformer is a static device.
• It transfers AC electrical power from
one circuit to another circuit
magnetically.
• It is a constant power device.
• It is a constant frequency device.
• It is a phase shifting device.
• It consists of two windings wound on
a common laminated core.
• The winding connected to the Ac
source is called primary winding.
• The winding to which load is
connected is called secondary
winding.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
• Transformer works on the principle of
mutual induction.
When an alternating voltage V1 is
applied to the primary winding of a
transformer, an alternating current I1
flows through it, which produces an
alternating flux ǿ in the core. This flux
links both the windings. According to
Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction, the flux induces emf in the
primary(E1) and secondary winding
(E2). According to Lenzs law, the
induced emf act in opposite direction
to the applied voltage. If the circuit is
closed, an ouput current starts
flowing in the secondary.
• E1 is equal to V1 and 180˚ out of
phase with it.
EMF EQUATION
• RMS value of induced emf in the
primary side
- . “ ∅‹
• RMS value of induced emf in the
secondary side
- = . “ ∅‹
N1 = No of turns in the primary
side
N2 = No of turns in the secondary
side.
f = supply frequency (Hertz)
∅f = Maximum value of flux
(weber)
• Emf / turn in the primary side is
equal to emf / turn in the
secondary side.
- -
=
TRANSFORMATION RATIO(K)
- •
= = =®
- •
 STEP-UP TRANSFORMER • Silicon is used for reducing
hysteresis loss.
• A transformer in which the output
(secondary) voltage is greater
than its input (primary) voltage is
called a step-up transformer. The
step-up transformer decreases
the output current for keeping
the input and output power of the
system equal.
• N2 > N1, E2 > E1, K>1

STEP – DOWN TRANSFORMER

• Based on the construction of
• A transformer in which the output
transformer core, transformers
(secondary) voltage is less than its
are classified into two
input (primary) voltage is called a
1. Core type
step-down transformer.
2. Shell type
• N2 < N1 , E2 < E1 , K < 1
Core Type Shell Type
It has two limbs and It has three limbs and
two yoke. two yoke.
• High voltage side => High voltage
Series magnetic Parallel magnetic
and low current.
circuit. circuit.
• Low voltage side => low voltage Winding surrounds Core surrounds the
and high current. the core windings.

CONSTRUCTION

• Major elements of transformer

core are two windings (primary
and secondary), a laminated core,
Tank, Conservator Tank,
Transformer oil, Breather,
Buchholz Relay, bushings. • The horizontal part of core is called
• Transformer windings can be yoke.
arranged in two ways. • The vertical part of core is called limb.
1. Concentric • LV winding is placed near the core.
2. Sandwitched • If HV winding is placed near the core,
• Transformer Core is made up of the insulation level required is more.
laminated silicon steel. • The transformer core should be made
• Lamination is used for reducing of highly permeable material.
eddy current loss.
 • Materials used for transformer core • The oil level of a transformer changes
and their applications with the changes in temperature of
Materials used Applications oil, which in turn depends upon the
Amorphous Steel For high load on the transformer.
temperature • The oil expands with increase in load.
operation.
• The oil contracts with decrease in
Silicon steel For low frequency
operation. load.
Amorphous For High
BREATHER
metals efficiency and
high • The function of breather in
performance.
transformer is to filter out the
Ferrite ceramics For high
frequency moisture from air.
operation. • When the transformer becomes
• Transformer oil: it has three main warm, the gas at the top of the oil is
functions. expelled out through breather.
1. Insulation • When the transformer cools, air is
2. Cooling drawn into the transformer through
3. Protect the insulation from dirt breather.
and moisture. • Breather consists of silica gel which
• Transformer oil is obtained by absorbs the moisture from air.
fractional distillation of crude • The colour of Silica gel in the breather
petroleum. will be blue when installed and they
• Properties of Transformer oil turn to pink colour when they absorb
1. High dielectric strength. moisture from air.
2. Low viscosity
BUCHHOLZ RELAY
3. High flash point.
4. Free from sludging under normal • It is a gas and oil actuated relay.
operating condition. • It protects the transformer from
5. Good resistance to emulsion. severe internal fault.
TANK:

• it is made of cast iron. BUSHINGS

• It accommodates core, winding and
internal connection. • Winding are connected to the
transformer core through bushings.
CONSERVATOR TANK
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
• It is a small auxiliary oil tank mounted
above the transformer and connected
• There are three primary coils and
to the main tank by a pipe.
three secondary coils.
• Its function is to keep the main tank
• A three phase transformer is cheaper
of the transformer completely filled
than a bank of three single phase
with oil in all circumstances.
transformer.
 • The three phase transformers are • It can be paralleled with Y – Y
mainly categorized into 4 groups or delta – delta.
according to phase displacement. 4. Delta- star connection
• Group I: zero displacement group: Yy0: • Used at the beginning of high
∆∆ 0 tension transmission line.
• Group II: 1800 displacement group: • Delta connection allows path
Yy6, Dd6, Yd6, DY6 for third harmonics and hence
• Group III: 300 lag group: Dy1,Yd1 give sinusoidal flux.
• Group IV: 300 lead group: Dy11,Yd11 • 300 phase shift between
primary and secondary
The main transformer connections are winding.
1. Star- star connection • It can be paralleled with Y-Y
• Most economical for small, or delta-delta.
high voltages. 5. Open delta or V-V connection
• Phase shift between phase • Capacity of V-V bank = 57.7%
voltage and line voltage is 300. of delta-delta bank.
• Unbalanced load causes • Reduction in capacity = 15.5%
neutral shift. of delta – delta bank
2. Delta – delta connection • V-v bank capacity = 0.866 x
• Require large number of turns total rating of two
per phase and large amount transformers.
of insulation. LOSSES
• No phase shift between phase
and line voltages. • There are mainly two types of power
• Unbalanced load will not loss in transformer.
cause neutral shift. 1. Copper loss = X V %X + V V %V
• If one transformer fails, then 2. Iron loss = eddy current loss +
it work in open delta or V-V hysteresis loss
with reduced available
EFFICIENCY
capacity = 58%.
• Third harmonic component • ±• ± ’
-““¯”¯ ”•, °
will merely circulate in delta ¯ ±• ± ’
without flowing in linewires. • ±• ± ’
=
Hence flux and voltage are • ±• ± ’+²
sinusoidal.
Š • ” ³
3. Star – delta connection =
Š • ” ³ + ´¯ + ´”•
• Mainly used at the substation
end of transmission line. All Day Efficiency
• 300 phase shift between
primary and secondary • It is mainly for distribution
winding. transformers.
• Third harmonic current flows µ‘‘ Ž• ““¯”¯ ”•
in delta to provide sinusoidal - ’•• • ±• “ ’ ¶’
flux. =
- ’•• ¯ ±• “ ’ ¶’
 • The efficiency of transformer is • Based on the construction of rotor,
between 90 to 100% induction motor is classified into two.
1. Squirrel cage induction Motor(SCIM)
TRANSFORMER RATING 2. Slip Ring Induction Motor (SRIM)
• Transformer rating is in kVA. SCIM SRIM
Low starting High starting
• Rating mainly depends on
Torque. torque.
temperature rise and insulation level. Less cu. Loss More cu. loss
• Temperature rise is due to losses. More efficiency Less efficiency
• Iron loss depends on supply voltage Low cost High cost
and copper loss depends on current. High starting Starting current is
• Hence transformer is rated in kVA and current. high , but can be
not in KW. reduced by
adding external
VOLTAGE REGULATION resistance.
Slip rings are not Slip rings are
- −Š used. used.
% Š ‘ Ž• ^ ••‘Ž ¯ = ∗ %
- Requires low Requires high
maintenance maintenance
E0 = secondary no load voltage. External External
resistance cannot resistance can be
V = Secondary full load voltage. be added. added.
Rotor contains no Rotor contains
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR winding. It three phase
contains Al or Cu. winding similar to
• Rotor receives electric power by bar stator.
induction. Hence the name induction Application: Application: lift,
motor. pump, conveyors, cranes, pumps
• It is also known as asynchronous elevators etc
motor since it runs at a speed less
than synchronous speed.
• It is considered as a rotating
transformer with short circuited
secondary.
• It is self starting.
• It has two main parts
1. Stator
• it is the stationary part.
• It is made up of silicon
steel.
• It carries three phase
windings.
2. Rotor
• it is the rotating part.
• It is made up of cylindrical
laminated iron core.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
• When the stator of a three phase
Induction motor is energized with
three phase supply, a rotating
magnetic field is produced.
• The speed of rotating magnetic field is
Ns.
• The field passes through the air gap
and cuts the stationary rotor
conductors.
• According to Faradays laws of
Electromagnetic induction, the
relative speed between the stator
rotating magnetic field (SRMF) and
stationary rotor conductors, an emf is
induced in the rotor conductors.
• Since the rotor conductors in short
circuited, current starts flowing
through the conductors.
• The direction of current is given by
Lenzs Law.
• The current flows in such a direction,
so as to oppose the very cause
producing it.
• Here the cause of production of rotor
current is the relative speed between
SRMF and stationary rotor
conductors.
• To reduce this relative speed, rotor
starts rotating in the same direction
as that of rotating field and tries to
attain the speed of rotating field.
• The speed of rotor is Nr, which is
always less than the synchronous
speed.
XVQg
Synchronous speed, Ns = ¹
f= supply frequency
P = No of poles
• The torque for the rotor rotation is
produced by the interaction between
the magnetic flux produced by the
rotor current and rotating magnetic
field.
• Rotor will never run at synchronous
speed.
• If the rotor runs at synchronous
speed, then there will be no relative
motion, no rotor emf, no rotor
current and hence no torque.
Slip Speed
• It is the difference between
synchronous speed Ns and rotor
speed Nr.
Slip speed = Ns – Nr
SLIP
• It is the difference between Ns and Nr
expressed as a percentage of Ns.
t ’
% slip, S = ∗
• Rotor speed, Nr = Ns(1 – s)
• Frequency of rotor current, f’ = Sf
S = slip, f= supply frequency
• At standstill, S= 1
• Range of slip, 0 < S < 1
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
• It operates on single phase supply.
• It is not self-starting.
• It has low power factor and low
efficiency.
• To make the single phase induction
motor self-starting, a starting winding
is added in addition to the main
winding.
Types of single phase induction motor
Type Application
Split phase IM Fan, saw, small lathe,
centrifugal pump,
blower.
Capacitor start motor It has high starting
torque and is used for
heavy duty
 applications
Capacitor start and It has high efficiency
capacitor run motor and high power
factor. Used in Fan,
blower, oil burners.
Shaded pole motor It has low starting
torque. Used in toys,
instruments, hair
dryer, ventilations,
small fans, electric
clock.
INDUCTION GENERATOR
• An induction generator or
asynchronous generator is a type of
alternating current (AC)
electrical generator that uses the
principles of induction motors to
produce electric power.
• It runs at a speed greater than Ns.
• It has negative slip.
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
• Synchronous machines are principally
used as alternating current (AC)
generators. They supply the electric
power used by all sectors of modern
societies: industrial, commercial,
agricultural, and domestic.
• Synchronous generators usually
operate together (or in parallel),
forming a large power system
supplying electrical energy to the
loads or consumers.
• Synchronous generators are built in
large units, their rating ranging from
tens to hundreds of megawatts.
• Synchronous generator converts
mechanical power to ac electric
power.
• The source of mechanical power, the
prime mover, may be a diesel engine,
a steam turbine, a water turbine, or
any similar device.
• For high-speed machines, the prime
movers are usually steam turbines
employing fossil or nuclear energy
resources.
• Low-speed machines are often driven
by hydro-turbines that employ water
power for generation.
• Smaller synchronous machines are
sometimes used for private
generation and as standby units, with
diesel engines or gas turbines as
prime movers.
Types of Synchronous Machine
1. Rotating-Armature Type: The
armature winding is on the rotor and
the field system is on the stator.
2. Rotating-Field Type: The armature
winding is on the stator and the field
system is on the rotor
Advantages of Rotating Field System
• Power can be easily supplied to the
field.
• Easier to provide the necessary
insulation for the armature
• No mechanical stresses in the
armature
• Improved ventilation arrangement
• Stationary connection between the
system of conductors and the external
load (500 MVA)
• Only 2 slip rings are needed
• Reduced rotor weight and rotor
inertia
CONSTRUCTION
• The main parts are stator and rotor.
• For large machines armature is the
stator and field is the rotor.
• For small machines field is stator and
armature is rotor.
 Stator
• Stator frame is used for holding the
armature.
• Stator frame is made up of special
magnetic iron or steel alloy.
• The core is laminated to reduce eddy
current loss.
• Armature conductors are housed in
slots.
• There are three types of slots
1. Wide open
2. Semi closed
3. Closed
• Semi closed type slots are used.
Rotor
• Based on the construction rotor is
classified in to two.
1. Salient( or Projecting) Pole Type
2. Smooth cylindrical (Non salient)
Type
• It is used to prevent hunting
(momentary speed fluctuation).
• In synchronous motor it is used to
provide starting torque.
• Under normal running condition,
damper winding does not carry any
current.
• Damper winding is placed in the pole
shoes.
Working Principle
• When the rotor is rotated by a prime
mover, the stator conductors cut the
magnetic flux and an emf is induced in
them.
• Since the magnetic poles are
alternately N and S, they induce an
e.m.f and current in armature
conductors, which is alternating in
nature.
• The frequency of the alternating e.m.f
depends on the number of N and S
poles moving past a conductor in one
second.
¹k
f = XVQ

f= frequency of generated e.m.f in Hz

P = total no. of magnetic poles
N = speed of rotor in r.p.m
• The direction of the induced e.m.f is
Salient Pole Non salient Pole given by Flemings Right Hand Rule.
Used in low and Used for steam
medium speed turbine alternators
engine driven i.e. turbo alternators
alternators which run at very
high speeds.
It has a large number It uses non salient
of projecting poles. poles and is designed
for 2-pole or 4 pole
It has large diameter It has small diameter
and short axial and very long axial
length. length.

• The armature winding of alternator

Damper winding can be arranged in two ways
1. Concentrated winding
 2. Distributed winding • An over excited synchronous motor is
known as synchronous condenser.
Concentric winding
• Synchronous condenser is used for
• Concentrated winding is employed power factor correction.
where number of slots on the • It is a double excited machine. The
armature is equal to number of poles stator is given three phase supply and
in the machine. the field is given dc supply.
• This armature winding of alternator • Its construction is same as that of
gives maximum output voltage but alternator.
not exactly sinusoidal.
Principle of operation
Distributed winding
• When a three phase winding is fed by
• For obtaining smooth sinusoidal emf three phase supply, a magnetic flux of
wave from, conductors are placed is constant magnitude but rotating at
several slots under single pole. This synchronous speed is produced.
armature winding is known as
distribute winding.
• Although distributed armature
winding of alternator, reduces emf
but still it very much usable due to
following reason.

1. It also reduces harmonic emf and so

wave form is improved.

2. It also diminishes armature reaction.

3. Even distribution of conductors, helps

for better cooling.

4. The core is fully utilized as the

conductors are distributed over the
slots on the armature periphery.

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

• It runs at synchronous speed. • Due to continuous rotation of stator

• It is not self-starting.
• It has to be run up to Ns by some
means before it can be synchronized
to the supply.
• It is capable of operating in leading,
lagging and unity power factor.
• It can be used for power correction
purposes, in addition to supplying
torque to drive loads.
poles, the rotor is subjected to a
torque which is rapidly reversing.
• Due to large inertia, the rotor cannot
instantaneously respond to such
quickly reversing torque and hence it
remains stationary.
• If the rotor poles are also made
rotating at synchronous speed then it
 will lock with the stator poles and will
experience a unidirectional torque.
• The plot between armature current?
Phase and field current is known as V
curve.
• The plot between power factor and
field current is known as inverted V
curve.
DC MACHINES
• It is an electro mechanical energy
conversion device.
• There are two types of dc machines.
1. Dc generator: The dc machine
which converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy.
2. Dc motor: the machine which
converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy.
Construction of Dc machine
• A dc machine has two main parts.
1. Magnetic field system
2. Armature
• The field system is the stationary part
of the machine and is called stator.
• The armature is the rotating part of
the machine and is called rotor.
• The dc machine contains
1. Yoke
2. Field system: pole cores, pole
shoes and field coils
3. Armature: armature core and
armature windings
4. Commutator, brushes etc
Yoke:
• it is the outer covering of the
machine.
• It provides mechanical support.
• It also provides return path for the
flow of magnetic flux.
Pole core & pole shoe
• It is made of steel laminations and is
insulated from each other.
• Each pole core has a pole shoe having
a curved surface.
• The function of the pole shoe is to
1. Support the field coil.
2. To increase the cross
sectional area of the magnetic
circuit.
3. Reduce its reluctance.
Field winding
• Each pole core has one or more field
windings provided on it to produce
magnetic field.
Interpoles or commutating coil
• They are fixed to the frame in
between main poles.
• They are used for sparkles
commutation, i.e to improve
commutation.
Armature core and armature winding
• It is the rotating part of the machine.
• It is cylindrical in shape.
• It has slots on its outer periphery.
• It is made up of steel laminations to
reduce eddy current losses.
• The airgap between the armature and
field poles is kept very small to
minimize the reluctance of magnetic
circuit.
 • Armature windings are placed in the conductor. This emf causes a current
slots. flow if the circuit is closed.
• There are two types of armature • The essential requirement of a dc
winding. generator are
1. Lap winding- no.of parallel 1. A magnetic field
path(A) is equal to no. of poles (P) 2. Conductors or coils
2. Wave winding - no.of parallel 3. Relative motion between the
path (A) is equal to two. It is magnetic field and the
independent of no. of poles. conductors.
• The direction of induced emf is given
Commutator
by Flemings Right hand rule.
• Its function is to convert alternating EMF Equation of dc generator
current induced in the armature
conductors into unidirectional current ∅º ¼
Generated emf, Eg = »
×µ
in the external circuit.
• It is also known as mechanical P = No. of poles
Rectifier.
∅ Flux per pole in Weber
• It is of cylindrical shape.
• It is made up of wedge shaped hard Z = total no. of armature conductors
drawn copper.
• The commutator segments are N = speed in RPM
insulated from each other with thin
A = No. of parallel path in armature winding
layer of mica sheet.
• The number of segments is equal to A= 2, for wave winding
the number of armature coils.
Brushes A = P, for lap winding

Equivalent circuit
• The function of brushes is to collect
current from the commutator.
• They are made of carbon.
• The brushes rest on the commutator
segment.
• The commutator and brush
arrangement is the connecting link
between the armature winding and
external circuit.

Working principle of dc generator

• It works on the principle of

electromagnetic induction. E = V + IaRa + Vb
• According to Faradays Laws of
electromagnetic induction, whenever E = generated voltage
a conductor cuts magnetic lines of IaRa = armature voltage drop
flux, a dynamic emf is induced in the Vb = Brush voltage drop
Types of dc generator armature current flows through the
field winding as well as the load.
• Generators are generally classified • Since the field winding carries the
according to their methods of field whole of load current, it has a few
excitation. On this basis, d.c.
turns of thick wire having low
generators are divided into the resistance.
following two classes:
• Series generators are rarely used
1. Separately excited d.c.
except for special purposes e.g., as
generators
boosters.
2. Self-excited d.c.
generators

Separately Excited D.C. Generators

• A d.c. generator whose field magnet
winding is supplied from an
independent external d.c. source
(e.g., a battery etc.) is called a
separately excited generator.

Self-Excited D.C. Generators
• A d.c. generator whose field magnet
winding is supplied current from the
output of the generator itself is called
a self-excited generator.
• There are three types of self-excited
generators depending upon the
manner in which the field winding is
connected to the armature, namely;
1. Series generator
2. Shunt generator
3. Compound generator
Shunt generator
• In a shunt generator, the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature
winding so that terminal voltage of the
generator is applied across it.
• The shunt field winding has many turns of
fine wire having high resistance.
Therefore, only a part of armature current
flows through shunt field winding and the
rest flows through the load.

Series generator

• In a series wound generator, the field

winding is connected in series with
armature winding so that whole
Compound generator Losses in a D.C. Machine
• In a compound-wound generator, there
are two sets of field windings on each • The losses in a d.c. machine
pole—one is in series and the other in (generator or motor) may be divided
parallel with the armature. into three classes.
• A compound wound generator may
be:
(a) Short Shunt in which only shunt
field winding is in parallel with the
armature winding .
(b) Long Shunt in which shunt field
winding is in parallel with both series
field and armature winding .

Constant and Variable Losses

• The losses in a d.c. generator (or d.c.

motor) may be sub-divided into (i)
constant losses (ii) variable losses.

(i) Constant losses

Those losses in a d.c. generator which
remain constant at all loads are
known as constant losses. The
constant losses in a d.c. generator
are:
(a) iron losses
(b) mechanical losses
(c) shunt field losses
(ii) Variable losses
Those losses in a d.c. generator which
vary with load are called variable
 losses. The variable losses in a d.c. Back emf or counter emf
generator are:
• When the armature of a d.c. motor
rotates under the influence of the
driving torque, the armature
conductors move through the
Note. Field Cu loss is constant for
magnetic field and hence e.m.f. is
shunt and compound generators.
induced in them as in a generator
• The induced e.m.f. acts in opposite
direction to the applied voltage
DC MOTOR
V(Lenz’s law) and in known as back or
• An electric mator is a machine which
counter e.m.f. Eb.
converts electrical energy into
• The back e.m.f. Eb(= P f ZN/60 A) is
mechanical energy.
always less than the applied voltage
• There is no difference in the
V.
construction of a dc generator and a
• The presence of back e.m.f. makes the
dc motor.
d.c. motor a self-regulating machine
• Dc motor works on the principle that
i.e., it makes the motor to draw as
when a current carrying conductor is
much armature current as is just
placed in a magnetic field, the
sufficient to develop the torque
conductor experience a mechanical
required by the load.
force. ÂtÃÄ
• The direction of the force is given by • Armature current, Ia = ¦Å
Flemings Left hand Rule.
Voltage Equation of D.C. Motor
• The magnitude of the force is given by

F = Bil Newtons

B = magnetic flux density (wb/m2)

I = current through the conductor

L = length of the conductor

V = applied voltage
Eb = back e.m.f.
Ra = armature resistance
Ia = armature current

V = Eb + IaRa
Types of D.C. Motors

• Like generators, there are three types

of d.c. motors characterized by the
 connections of field winding in
relation to the armature

Shunt-wound motor in which the field

winding is connected in parallel with the
armature.

• Shunt field windings are designed to

produce the necessary m.m.f. by
means of a relatively large number of
turns of wire having high resistance.
• Therefore, shunt field current is Compound-wound motor which has two
relatively small compared with the field windings; one connected in parallel
armature current. with the armature and the other in series
with it.

• There are two types of compound

motor connections (like
generators).
• When the shunt field winding is
directly connected across the
armature terminals, it is called
short-shunt connection.

Series-wound motor in which the field

winding is connected in series with the
armature.

• The series field winding carries the

armature current.
• Since the current passing through a
series field winding is the same as the
armature current, series field • When the shunt winding is so
connected that it shunts the
windings must be designed with much
fewer turns than shunt field windings series combination of armature
for the same m.m.f. and series field, it is called long-
shunt connection.
• Therefore, a series field winding has a
relatively small number of turns of
thick wire and, therefore, will possess
a low resistance.
 ii) the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations
and the speed is automatically required to
reduce at high torques and vice-versa

Industrial use: Electric traction, cranes,

elevators, air compressors, vacuum
cleaners, hair drier, sewing machines etc.

3. Compound motors
• Differential-compound motors are
rarely used because of their poor
torque characteristics.

• However, cumulative-compound
motors are used where a fairly
Applications of D.C. Motors constant speed is required with
irregular loads or suddenly applied
1. Shunt motors heavy loads.
• Industrial use: Presses, shears,
The characteristics of a shunt motor
reciprocating machines etc.
reveal that it is an approximately constant
speed motor. It is, therefore, used

(i) where the speed is required to remain

almost constant from no-load to full-load

(ii) where the load has to be driven at a

number of speeds and any one of which is
required to remain nearly constant

Industrial use: Lathes, drills, boring mills,

shapers, spinning and weaving machines
etc.

2. Series motors

• It is a variable speed motor i.e.,

speed is low at high torque and
vice-versa.
• However, at light or no-load, the
motor tends to attain dangerously
high speed.
• The motor has a high starting
torque. It is, therefore, used
where

i) large starting torque is required e.g., in

elevators and electric traction