Science Reviewer

TOPIC : HEAT ENERGY

 Heat (Joules)
- Form of energy caused by molecular motion in transit
- Thermal energy being taken up, given off or transferred from one body to
another due to a difference in temperature

 Thermal Energy
- Is the sum of potential and kinetic energy of it’s particles (atoms and
molecules) that can be transformed to heat

 Temperature
- Measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules of a given substance
- How hot or cold an object is
- If the amount of heat increases, the average kinetic energy of the molecules
increase, causing a rise in temperature
- The higher the temperature, the faster the motion of molecules
- The lower the temperature, the slower the motion of molecules

 Measurement of Temperature
- Thermometer : used for measuring temperature

I. Celsius Scale
- Used to measure temperature in the metric system
- Water freezes at 0 C and boils at 100 C
- Used in tropical countries

II. Kelvin scale

- Often used by scientists
- This zero point in the scale is the absolute zero
- Water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K

III. Fahrenheit Scale

- Used in countries located in the west
- Water freezes at 32 F and boils at 212 F

 Temperature Conversion Equations

C = 5/9 (F – 32) K = C + 273

F = 9/5 or 1.8 C + 32 K – C = K – 273

 Specific Heat (J/kgK)
- Quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the
substance by a unit degree
- Ability of a substance to absorb or release heat energy

 Thermal Equilibrium
- Each time two substances of different temperatures are mixed or brought into
contact, the warmer one loses heat and the cooler one gains heat until they
both reach the same temperature
- Principle of heat exchange

 Method of Mixtures
- Use of principle of heat exchange in heat experiments

 Heat and Phase Change

- Phase : used to describe a state of matter such as solid, liquid, gas
- Phase Change : physical change from one phase to another

I. Fusion/Melting
- Change of phase from solid to liquid
- Melting point : temperature at which this change occurs

II. Solidification
- Liquid to solid
- Freezing point : temperature at which solidification occurs

III. Evaporation
- Liquid to gas

IV. Condensation
- Gas to liquid
- Boiling point : temperature at which condensation occurs

 Heat of Fusion
- Amount of heat needed to change one gram of a substance from the solid to
the liquid phase without a change in temperature
- Ice = 80 cal/g or 3.34 x 105 J/kg

 Heat of Vaporization
- Vaporization : production of a vapor/gas from matter in another phase
1. Evaporation – liquids
2. Sublimation – solids
- Amount of heat needed to change 1kg of a substance from the liquid phase
to the gas phase
 - Water = 540 cal/g or 2.26 x 106 J/kg
 Thermal Expansion
- Increase in size of a substance caused by heat

 Expansion of Solids
- Molecules in solids are very close to each other and move/vibrate in their
position. When heat is added, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases
and their vibrations speed up. The molecules then move farther from each
other. The increased distance among molecules accounts for the expansion.

I. Linear Expansion
- The expansion is proportional to it’s length and change in temperature

II. Coefficient of Linear Expansion

- Change in length per unit length of a solid when it’s temperature is changed
by one degree
- K = 1/C or 1/F

III. Differential Expansion

- Difference in the expansion of different solids

 Expansion of Liquids

I. Abnormal Expansion
- If you cool water, it contracts
- The warmer the water is, it expands

 Expansion of Gases
- Gases expand much more than solids and liquids
- All gases have approximately the same coefficient of expansion (their
molecules are widely separated that are in effect independent particles)

 Heat Transfer
- Cold object + hot room = hot object
- Hot object + cold room = cold object

1. Conduction
- Heat is transferred through a material by being passed from one particle to
the next
- Conductors : materials that conduct heat quickly (metals)
- Insulators : poor conductors (wood, plastic, glass, rubber)

2. Convection
- A gas or liquid moves upwards, carrying heat with them

3. Radiation
 - Transfer of heat in rays from a hot object without needing a medium to pass
 Cooling
- Molecules contract

 Formulas

Q = mc T

Q – Heat (Joules, calories, kilocalories, Calories)

M – Mass

C – Specific Heat
= Q/m T

T – Change in temperature

TOPIC : ELECTRICAL ENERGY

 Electrical Energy
- Energy made available by the flow of electric charge through a conductor

 Electricity
- Form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles (electrons or
protons), either statically as an accumulation of charge or dynamically as a
current

 Alessandro Volta
- Invented the voltaic cell (battery) in 1800

 Thomas Alba Edison

- Invented the incandescent lamp in 1879

 Atom
- Fundamental unit of matter made up of
Protons (+)
Neutrons
Electrons (-)

 Electrical Charge
- =Q
- Electrons are the charge carriers
- Charge is measured in coulombs (C )
- Charge on a proton/electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C
- Like charges repel, opposites attract
 Electric Circuit
- Close conducting path where charges flow

(bulb)
(battery)

(simple circuit)

 Electric Current
- Amount of charge passing through any point in a conductor per unit time
- Ampere (unit)
AC – alternating current
Electric companies

DC – direct current
Battery operated devices

 Resistance
- Opposition a material offers to the flow of charges around it
- Unit – OHM (omega)

 Voltage
- Force of an electric current
- Unit – volt

 Multimeter
- Used to make various electrical measurements such as voltage, current and
resistance

 Electric Circuit Components

1. Ammeter
- Used to measure current

2. Voltage
- Measures voltage

3. Ohmmeter
- Measures resistance

4. Ground/Earth
- Connection to earth
5. Resistor
- Restricts the flow of current

6. Lamp (lighting)
- Converts electrical energy to light

7. Battery
- Combination of cells

8. Cell
- Supplies electrical energy

9. Switch
- Allows current to flow

 OHMS Law

V=IxR V – voltage (volts)

I = V/R I – current (ampere)(a)
R = V/I R – resistance (ohms)

 Formulas

I = q/t (q = charge) (t = time)

IA = IC/s

Qt = Ne (e = 1.6 x 10-19)

Qt = I x e

Q=Ixt

 Parallel Circuit
- Electricity flows into 2 or more paths

Vt = V2 + V 3
IT = I1 + I2 + I3

 Series Circuit
- Electricity flows in 1 path

Vt = V1 + V 2 + V 3
IT = I2 = I3 = I1

 Electrical Power
 - The rate at which electrical energy is used or transformed
 Circuit Safety
- Overload : if the increase is more than the circuit can safely carry, the circuit
is said to be overloaded
- Short circuit : if the circuit is not protected by a fuse or circuit breaker, the
heat may burn away the insulation. The conductors may melt and make
contact with one another, forming a short circuit. It is a low resistance path
from the positive to the negative side of a voltage source and may cause
overheating.

1. Fuse
- A device in which current passes through a piece of metal that melts when
the current exceeds a certain limit

2. Circuit breaker
- A device that prevents too much current from passing through it by creating
an open circuit

3. Grounding

TOPIC : EARTHQUAKE

 Earthquake
- Feeble shaking or violent trembling of the ground
- Occurs because energy from the rocks is released
- Rocks in the earth’s crust are pushed or pulled. When these rocks break up,
they vibrate, and the energy they stories released. (elastic potential energy –
kinetic energy)

 Theory of Plate Tectonics

- States that the outer layer of earth’s surface (crust and upper mantle)
consists of huge segments called tectonic plates

 Harry Fielding Reid

- Developed the elastic rebound theory, which states that most earthquakes
are produced by the rapid release of energy, which are stored in rocks that
have been subjected to pressure.

 Continental Drift Theory

- States that earth once consisted of a vast supercontinent Pangaea, which
later broke into fragments or continents.
- Proposed by Alfred Wegener
1. The continents fit like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle (South America and
Africa)
2. Fossils of the organism Mesosaurus
3. Fossils of the fern Glossopteris
 4. Climactic conditions
 Seafloor Spreading Theory
- States that the seafloor has been moving apart
- This process creates fractures, which are filled immediately with molten rock
that flows from underneath Earth.
- Proposed by Harry Hess

 Convection Currents and Movements of the Lithosphere

- Convection currents : cause the movement of tectonic plates
pulls tectonic plates apart
1. Tensional Movement
- Occurs when one convection current moves clockwise while the other moves
counterclockwise in adjacent but separate areas, tending to pull the
lithosphere above it in opposite directions.
- On earth’s surface, mid-ocean ridges are formed

2. Compression Movement
- Convection currents circulate towards each other pushing the tectonic plates
towards each other. This movement pushes the rock material towards each
other.
- May also cause large masses of the crust to be pushed slowly upward. As a
result, the rocks become folded.

 Tectonic Plates
- Broken lithosphere pieces/fragments due to the continuous compression and
extension of the lithosphere as it folds.

MAJOR TECTONIC PLATES

- Pacific Plate
- Indo-Australian Plate
- North American Plate
- South American Plate
- African Plate
- Antarctic Plate
- Eurasian Plate

MINOR TECTONIC PLATES

- Philippine Sea Plate
- Nazca Plate
- Scotia Plate
- Juan de Fuca Plate
- Caribbean Plate
- Arabian Plate
- Cocos Plate
- Indian Plate
 Plate Boundaries
- Separate lithospheric plates

1. Converge
- One plate may plunge under another
- Plates move towards each other
- Trench : deep linear feature. Narrow, deep part of the lithosphere.

2. Diverge
- Plates drift away from each other
- Forms a mid-ocean rift zone

3. Transform
- Tectonic plates slide past one another

 Active Faults
- Zones of weakness in rocks

1. Dip slip
- Movement is up or down
- Parallel to the dip of the inclined surface
- Reverse : The foot wall moves upward, hanging wall moves downward
- Normal : Foot wall moves downward, hanging wall moves upward

2. Strike slip
- Movement or slip is horizontal and parallel to the strike of the fault
- May move laterally to the left or right

3. Oblique slip
- Both strike slip and dip slip displacements

 Volcanic Earthquakes
- Induced by rising lava or magma beneath active volcanoes and occur at
shallow depths.
- May be strong enough to cause landslides, rupture the ground and destroy
buildings

 Earthquake Focus and Epicenter

- Focus/Hypocenter – refers to the immediate area where the displacements
of the plates take place.
- Epicenter – point on Earth’s surface nearest to where the earthquake
originates. Above the focus.

 Earthquake Measurement
- Intensity : how strong an earthquake was based on the amount of damage
 - Magnitude : strength of the earthquake
- PEIS : PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale
Ten point scale
- Richter Magnitude Scale : Made by Charles Francis Richter

 Destruction
- Factors :
1. Seismic energy – strength of structures
2. Distance from epicenter
3. Underlying rocks and materials

1. Ground Shaking
- The ground shakes when seismic waves propagate in all directions and travel
throughout the layers of Earth
- Surface wave : seismic wave that travels only through Earth’s surface.
Slowest moving waves. Originates at epicenter. Cause more damage.
(Rayleigh and Love waves)
- Body Waves : travel from the focus. (P and S waves)

2. Landslides
- Downward movement of soil or rock

3. Ground Rupture
- Deformation on the ground that marks the intersection of the fault plane with
the Earth’s surface

4. Tsunamis
- Giant sea waves caused by undersea, shallow-seated earthquakes

 Effects of Tsunamis
- Lowering of water level even below low-tide level
- Formation of large waves after the retreat of sea level
- Lower water level on open seas
- High water level on the coast
- Heightening of waves

 Importance of earthquakes
- They bring opportunities for scientific study

 Seismographs
- Used to record data about earthquakes

 Seismogram
- Visual record

 Kinds of Stress
 - Tension : stretching
- Compression
- Shear : side by side

TOPIC : TYPHOONS

 Tropical Cyclone
- Intense low pressure system with minimum sustained winds of 35 km/h

 Tropical Depression
- Speed of the maximum sustained winds near the center is 36 to 63 km/h

 Tropical Storm
- Speed is 64 to 117 km/h

 Typhoon
- Speed is 117 km/h and above

 Primary Configuration
1. Spiral Rain Band
- Surrounds the eye

2. Eye
- Center of the spiral that extends about 10-100 km in diameter
- Area where wind and light is calm
- No rainfall

3. Eye wall
- Outside the eye
- Heaviest precipitation
- Strongest wind speed

 How a typhoon develops

1. In warm ocean water, particles move faster. Continuous evaporation leads to
the formation of thunderstorm clouds.
2. Warm, moist air continues to rise in low pressure areas, condenses, and
releases more energy. This generates strong winds around the eye of the
typhoon.
3. Difference in air pressure
4. Convergent winds
5. The difference bet (high and low pressure systems)
6. Accumulation of high speed winds moving towards a particular area

 ITCZ
- An area where the northern and southern hemisphere winds converge
 Hurricane
- Occurs in NE Pacific Ocean
- North America, Atlantic

 Typhoon
- Occurs in NW Pacific Ocean
- Western Pacific (highest frequency region)

 Cyclones
- Indian Ocean, Australia

 Almost none
- South Atlantic

 Static Electricity
- Stored in rain clouds

 Lightning
- When a cloud is full of static electricity that there’s no room for water vapor, a
spark might leap from the cloud

 Coriolis Effect
- Causes the air to spiral as it rises
- As the winds rotate faster, lower pressure area near the ocean becomes a
tropical depression

 PAG-ASA
- Philippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administrartion

 Tools Used
1. Thermometer
- Measures temperature

2. Barometer
- Measures air pressure

3. Anemometer
- Measures how fast the wind is blowing

4. Wind Vane
- Shows the direction of the wind

5. Rain Gauge
- Shows how much rain/snow has fallen
 Weather
- State of air/atmosphere

 Climate
- Average weather

 Meteorologists
- Scientists who observe, record and study weather

TOPIC : CELESTIAL BODIES

 Comets
- “dirty snowballs”
- Icy bodies formed in the outer regions of the solar system
- Made up of frozen gases of water, ammonia, methane, and carbon dioxide,
as well as small pieces of rocky and metallic materials.
- Found at the Oort Cloud and Kuiper Belt
- Halley/Haileys Comet : every 76 years, this comet returns to the inner solar
system

1. Nucleus
- Comprises the entire comet when it is away from the sun
- Has an icy composition

2. Coma
- Head of the comet

3. Comet Tail
- Extensions of the comet
- Developed as the comet approaches the sun
- Points away from the sun
- Radiation pressure pushes dust particle away from the coma, while solar
winds moves the ionized gases outward away from the sun
- Ion Tail : ionized gas
- Dust Tail : small solid particles

 Asteroids
- Found between Mars and Jupiter (Asteroid Belt)
- Chunks of rocks orbiting the sun in the same direction as the planets
- Rocky leftovers from the early days of the solar system
- Ceres : largest and first asteroid to be discovered
- Trojans : only found in Jupiter
- Ida : has it’s own moon (Dactyll)

 Meteoroids
 - Outside the Earth’s atmosphere
 Meteor
- Stick of lights
- “shooting stars”

 Meteorites
- Hits the earth

 Bolide
- Large meteor that explodes in the atmosphere

TOPIC : PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER

1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas

 Elements
- Simplest form of matter
- Cannot be broken down

 Compounds
- Substances made up of 2 or more chemical elements
- Chemically combined

1. Ionic
- Both metals and non-metals
- Or at least ore polyatomic ion

2. Molecular
- Contain only metals

3. Acids
- Contain hydrogen and anion
- Don’t have a charge

 Mixtures
- Not pure substances
- Consist of 2 or more substances
- Physically combined

1. Homogenous
- Same composition throughout

2. Heterogenous
- No uniform properties
 Suspension
- Solid + liquid

 Emulsion
- Liquid + liquid

 Colloids

 Separation

- Filtration
- Evaporation
- Distillation
- Chromatography

TOPIC : ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THEORY

 Aristotle
- 4 elements : air, water, earth, fire

 John Dalton
- Father of Atomic theory
1. Elements are composed of minute, discrete, and indivisible particles called
atoms.
2. Atoms of the same elements are identical. Atoms of different elements are
different.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms more than one element.
4. A chemical reaction involves the separation, combination, or rearrangement of
atoms.

 Joseph John Thomson

- Discovered electrons that carry a negative charge
- Plum pudding model

 Ernest Rutherford
- Discovered the nucleus
- Gold foil experiment

 Bohr
- Concluded that electrons are located in planet-like orbits around the nucleus
 Charges
P+ = positive (nucleus)
e- = negative (electron cloud)
n = neutral (nucleus)

 Atomic Number (Z)

= number of p+
= number of e-

 Mass Number (A)

=p+n
=z+n
=e+n

 Ions
- Cation : positive
- Anion : negative

 Isotopes
- Same atomic number but different mass numbers

TOPIC : PERIODIC TABLE

 Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

- “chief architect” of the periodic table
- Sketched the first draft of the periodic table

 Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
- French chemist
- Published a book presenting a list of common elements and substances
divided into 4 groups

1. FIRST GROUP
- Heat
- Light
- Gases (oxygen, nitrogen..)

2. SECOND GROUP
- Elements such as sulfur and phosphorus, elements in this group form acidic
oxides

3. THIRD GROUP
- Metals such as tin, copper, lead and zinc

4. FOURTH GROUP
 - Simple earthy salt-forming substances
 Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner
- German chemist
- Reported that several groups of elements had similar physical and chemical
properties
- Triads : the atomic mass of the middle number = the arithmetic average of the
other 2 members

 John Alexander Reina Newlands

- English analytical chemist
- Law of Octaves

 Julius Lothar Meyer

- German chemist
- Plotted the atomic volume of elements against their relative atomic masses
- Produced a table
- First version : 28 elements
- Expanded version : 57 elements

 Henry G.J. Moseley

- English physicist
- Speculated that the atomic properties are more related to the atomic number
than the atomic mass

 Modern Periodic table

- Periods : horizontal rows of elements
- Groups : vertical columns

1. Metals
- Solid at room temperature
- Ductile, malleable, and can form alloys and conduct electricity well

2. Non-metals
- Have a wide range of properties
- Can be solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature
- Poor conductors of electricity
- Lie to the right of the zigzag line in the periodic table

3. Metalloids
- Lie beside the zigzag line of the periodic table
- Have both metallic and non-metallic properties
- Some are used as semiconductors

4. Alkali Metals
- In the leftmost column of the periodic table
 - Al-qali : ashes
- Highly reactive and melt at low temperatures
- Never found free in nature, but are always in combined form as compounds

5. Alkali Earth Metals

- Form alkaline solutions and are obtained from mineral solutions which were
once called earths
- Group 2A

6. Aluminum Group
- Group 3A consists of one metalloid (boron) and 4 metals (aluminum, gallium,
indium, thallium)
- Used as a low-density structural and construction material

7. Carbon Group
- Group 4A

8. Nitrogen group
- 5A

9. Oxygen group
- Group 6A

10. Halogens
- Group 7A
- Hals : salt
- Genes : forming
- Combine readily with metals to form salts

11. Noble Gases

- Least reactive elements
- Rare gases
- Group 8A

 Quantum Number Principle

- Tells the energy level of the electrons

 Aufbau Principle

 Poly-Excusion Principle

 Hans Principle
 Periodic Trends

- Atomic Radius : distance from the center of the nucleus to the outermost
shell of an atom

- Ionization energy : the energy needed to remove an electron from a natural

gaseous atom. Bottom – top (increases) Left – right (increases)

- Electronegativity : ability of an atom to attract electrons from another atom

- Electron Affinity : ability of an atom to gain electrons. Occurs when an

electron is accepted by an atom. Value becomes more negative as it
increases.

TOPIC : BIODIVERSITY

- “bio” : life
- “diversity” : variety
- Variation of life in the entire world or variety of life on earth

 Benefits of Biodiversity
- Oxygen
- Food
- Clean water
- Medicine
- Aesthetics
- Ideas

 Species
- Set of individuals having the same distinct characteristics
- Able to mate and produce offspring

 Genetic Diversity
- Diversity in the genes of each organism
- The reason why you look different from other people

 Species Diversity
- Refers to the number and variety of life forms present in a biological
community or a particular area
- Refers to the species richness or number of different species found in a
particular area
  Ecosystem Diversity
- Variety of ecosystems

 Species Evenness
- Abundance of the individual members within a particular species

 Ecological Niche
- Sum total of the way of life of a species, including its survival, feeding, and
reproducing abilities

Generalist Species Specialist Species

- Broad way of life - Lives in a narrow niche
- Can live in a variety of - Able to live in one habitat
environments
- Eats many different kinds - Eats a specific food
of food
- Often can tolerate a wide - Sensitive to changes in the
range of environmental environment
conditions
- Produces more young