CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

TEACHING MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT

READING

Lecturer: Dr. Gustaman Saragih, S.S., M.Pd.

Written by:

Group 8, Class IIA Extension A (Saturday)

1. Dien Azizah 20197470002

2. Dewi Shinta Pratiwi 20197470019
3. Siwi Rahayu 20197470037
4. M, Tomi Yoga Utama 20197470043

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE
UNIVERSITY OF INDRAPRASTA PGRI
2020
 PREFACE

With all the praise and thank to the Almighty Allah SWT, who has given His blessing

and mercy so that the writer successfully finished this paper entitled “TEACHING

MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT: READING”. This paper is submitted in completing the

courses of Curriculum Development. On this occasion, we would like to thank to all those

who have helped us in completing this paper, especially to Dr. Gustaman Saragih, S.S., M.Pd.

as lecturer in Curriculum Development for giving us guidance and advices, and to friends

who have contributing their ideas and information for writing this paper. We are fully aware

that many flaws in the writing of this paper in terms of material, technical, and presentation

material. Therefore, we expect criticism and suggestions to improve this paper to be better.

Finally, we hope that the writing of this paper can be useful for readers.

Jakarta, June 27th, 2020

The writers

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

PREFACE .................................................................................................................... ii

TABLE LIST OF CONTENT .................................................................................... iii

CHAPTER I INTODUCTION.................................................................................... 1

A. Background of Teaching Material Reading............................................................ 1

B. Purpose of Teaching Material Reading................................................................... 1

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION....................................................................................... 2

1. Research On Reading a Second Language............................................................. 2

2. Genres of Written Language................................................................................... 5
3. Characteristic of Written Language........................................................................ 6
4. Micro skills for Reading Comprehension............................................................... 7
5. Strategies for Reading Comprehension.................................................................. 8
6. Types of Classroom Reading Performance............................................................. 10
7. Principles for Designing Interactive Reading Technique....................................... 12

CHAPTER III CONCLUSION................................................................................... 13

BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 14

iii
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background of Teaching Reading

Everyone believes that English is the key determinant of success and focus,
specifically in intellectual, social and emotional development. The language that is
expected to help someone in this matter is what I hope is for students to get to know
themselves, their culture and the culture of others.
Reading is very important in human life to find information or add insight and
knowledge. Formally reading lessons are taught from an early age. Kindergarten students
have learned to recognize letters up to sentences according to their thinking abilities. In
English there is a reading lesson that is Reading Comprehension, which means reading by
understanding what is read or understanding. Usually textbooks on Reading
Comprehension are designed in the form of discourse accompanied by questions about
discourse to find out whether the reader can understand what is read. Reading
Comprehension is given from Elementary School to Higher Education in English subjects
or courses. Generally, in Higher Education, this course is taught for one semester and is
very useful because there are still many student reference books that are still written in
English.

B. Purpose of Teaching Material Reading

1. To know research on Reading a second language

2. To know genres of written Language

3. To know characteristic of written Language

4. To know micro-skill for Reading comprehension

5. To know strategies for Reading comprehension

6. To know types of classroom Reading Performance

7. To know principle for designing interactive Reading technique

1
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION

A. RESEACH ON READING A SECOND LANGUAGE

Reading in a second language calls for fast, automatic word decoding and access to the
mental lexicon (dictionary); this means working on building speed and fluency and on
learning to recognise at least 10,000 words in the new language. Learners can build speed
and fluency by learning vocabulary systematically and by doing lots of easy (‘extensive’)
reading. Learners will also read better in their second language if they learn about text
characteristics, and if they know how to handle a variety of strategies for getting meaning
from texts. Background knowledge about the second-language culture will make
comprehension easier as well.
1. Basic cognitive issues
'Top-down' models of reading were popular from the 1970s, the most frequently cited
example of this approach being Goodman (1967): 'Reading: A Psycholinguistic
Guessing Game'. In classroom practice, this widely replaced the 'bottom-up' models
that had been in use, and in which the reader deals with letters, words, and sentences
in rank order, each step depending on the preceding one (see for example Gough
1972). Top-down models assume that the reader interrogates the text rather than
processing it completely, getting meaning by comparing expectations to a sample of
information from the text.
2. Reading fluency and vocabulary acquisition
a. Fluency
Many students of languages at university level will have years of experience of
SECOND LANGUAGE reading, but some will be starting ab initio; and some of
these will be learning a non-Roman writing system (alphabetic or logographic - to
be treated elsewhere in this Guide). However, even most students doing single
honours courses in European languages will probably not have had enough
exposure to SECOND LANGUAGE text to have acquired sufficient fluency in
basic decoding and word recognition. Optimal rates for processing prose are
around 300 words per minute; and for fluent adult readers this is constant,
regardless of the difficulty of the text (Carver, 1982, 1983, 1990). Even advanced

2
 bilinguals (see Segalowitz, Poulsen & Komoda 1991) read as much as 30% slower
than this in second language, employing cognitive resources that would otherwise
be used for higher-level processes.
b. Vocabulary
In order to read comfortably, skilled readers need to have receptive mastery of
95% or more of the words in a text, recognising them rapidly (Grabe & Stoller
2002:186). (Receptive mastery does not require that learners be able to use all of
these words productively in their speaking and writing.) Contrary to previous
assumptions, good readers do not use context to infer meaning so often as less-
skilled readers do; they do not need to, because they know the words (Juel 1999).
Moreover, guessing word meanings is a low-yield strategy: in Parry's (1991)
study, second language university students only guessed meanings correctly 50%
of the time.

A glance through what is now three decades of research reveals some significant findings that
will affect teacher’s approach to teaching reading skills. Some of the highlights are reviewed
here.

1. Bottom - up and top-down processing.

Top-down processing, on the other hand, refers to perception that is driven by
cognition. Your brain applies what it knows and what it expects to perceive and fills in
the blanks, so to speak. First, let us look at a visual. Bottom-up processing refers to
processing sensory information as it is coming in. In other words, if I flash a random
picture on the screen, your eyes detect the features, your brain pieces it together, and you
perceive a picture of an eagle. What you see is based only on the sensory information
coming in. Bottom-up refers to the way it is built up from the smallest pieces of sensory
information.
2. Schema theory and background knowledge.
Schema theory is an explanation of how readers use prior knowledge to comprehend
and learn from text (Rumelhart, 1980). The term "schema" was first used in psychology
by Barlett as "an active organization of past reactions or experiences" (1932,p.201), later
schema was introduced in reading by Rumelhalt (1980), Carrell (1981) and Hudson
(1982) when discussing the important role of background knowledge in reading
comprehension (all cited in An, 2013). The fundamental principle of the schema theory
assumes that written text does not carry meaning by itself. Rather, a text only provides

3
 directions for readers as to how they should retrieve or construct meaning from their own
previously acquired knowledge (An, 2013).
According to schema theory, comprehending a text is an interactive process between
the reader’s background knowledge and the text. Efficient comprehension requires the
ability to relate the textual material to one's own knowledge. As Anderson (1977, p.369)
point out, "every act of comprehension involves one’s knowledge of the world as well".
Reading comprehension operates in two directions, from bottom up to the top and from
the top down to the bottom of the hierarchy. Bottom-up processing is activated by
specific data from the text, while top-down processing starts with general to confirm these
predictions. These two kinds of processing are occurring simultaneously and
interactively, which adds to the concept of interaction or comprehension between bottom-
up and top-down processes (Carrel and Eiserhold, 1983. Cited in An, 2013).
3. Extensive reading.
Extensive Reading builds vocabulary. When learners read a lot, they meet thousands
of words and lexical (word) patterns that are not taught in textbooks. Extensive Reading
allows the learner to develop an awareness of collocations (common word partnerships)
and thousands of lexical phrases. Extensive Reading helps learners understand grammar.
In textbooks learners meet hundreds of grammar patterns. However, textbooks do not
provide enough meetings with grammar for real acquisition to occur. Extensive Reading
provides opportunities to see grammar in context so learners can deepen their
understanding of how grammar is really used. Extensive Reading helps learners to build
reading speed and reading fluency. In particular, developing reading speed is important
because it helps learners to understand language faster and better. One objective of
Extensive Reading is reading for pleasure. This builds confidence and motivation which
makes the learner a more effective user of language.
4. The role of affect and culture.
Cultural schema theory holds that human beings employ classification to understand
members of other cultures, and add new data to previously available categories. Cultural
schemas for social interaction are cognitive structures that contain knowledge for face-to-
face interactions in a person's cultural environment. Schemas are generalized collections
of knowledge of past experiences that are organized into related knowledge groups; they
guide our behaviours in familiar situations. Cultural schemas do not differ from other
schemas, except that they are shared by certain cultural groups rather than individuals
(Garro, 2000). Schemas unique to individuals are created from personal experiences,
4
 whereas those shared by individuals are created from various types of common
experiences (Garro, 2000). Cultural schema theory proposes that when we interact with
members of the same culture in certain situations many times, or talk about certain
information with them many times, cultural schemas are created and stored in our brain
(Nishida, 1999).

5. Adult literacy training.

Adult Literacy Reading Programs Teacher helping adult learn to read A well-trained
teacher or tutor in an adult literacy program should be trained in at least three methods,
including the multisensory approach, which has proven to be effective for adult students
with learning disabilities. A multisensory method uses a combination of visual, auditory
and tactile-kinesthetic instruction to enhance memory and learning. Following is a list of
multi sensory structured language programs.This list does not include every available
adult literacy reading program; however, many of the programs listed are based on the
“Orton Gillingham-Stillman Approach.” This approach is often described as the
grandfather of many successful multisensory reading programs.

B. GENRES OF THE WRITTEN OF LANGUAGE

A genre is known by the meanings associated with it. In fact the term "genre" is a
short form for the more elaborate phrase "genre-specific semantic potential" … Genres
can vary in delicacy in the same way as contexts can. But for some given texts to belong
to one specific genre, their structure should be some possible realization of a given GSP
Generic Structure Potential … It follows that texts belonging to the same genre can vary
in their structure; the one respect in which they cannot vary without consequence to their
genre-allocation is the obligatory elements and dispositions of the GSP. (Halliday &
Hasan, 1985, p. 108).

Two layers of context are needed -- with a new level of genre [italics added] posited
above and beyond the field, mode and tenor register variables … Analysis at this level has
concentrated on making explicit just which combinations of field, tenor and mode
variables a culture enables, and how these are mapped out as staged, goal-oriented social
processes [italics added]. (Eggins & Martin, 1997, p. 243)

5
 These are rather theory-specific conceptualisations of genre, and are therefore a
little opaque to those not familiar with systemic-functional grammar. The definition of
genre in terms of "staged, goal-oriented social processes" (in the quote above, and in
Martin, Christie, & Rothery, 1987), is, in particular, slightly confusing to those who are
more concerned (or familiar) with genres as products (i.e., groupings of texts). Ferguson
(1994), on the other hand, offers a less theory-specific discussion. However, he is rather
vague, and talks about (and around) the differences between the two terms while never
actually defining them precisely: He seems to regard register as a "communicative
situation that recurs regularly in a society" (p. 20) and genre as a "message type that
recurs regularly in a community" (p. 21). Faced with such comparable definitions, readers
will be forgiven for becoming a little confused. Also, is register only a "communicative
situation," or is it a variety of language as well? In any case, Ferguson also seems to
equate sublanguage with register (p. 20) and offers many examples of registers (e.g.,
cookbook recipes, stock market reports, regional weather forecasts) and genres (e.g., chat,
debate, conversation, recipe, obituary, scientific textbook writing) without actually saying
why any of the registers cannot also be thought of as genres or vice versa. Indeed, sharp-
eyed readers will have noted that recipes are included under both register and genre.

The followings are the types or genres of written language:

a. Nonfiction: reports, editorials, essays, articles, etc.

b. Fiction: novels, short stories, jokes, drama, poetry.
c. Letters: personal, business.
d. Greeting cards
e. Diaries, journals
f. Memos
g. Messages
h. Announcements
i. Newspaper
j. Academic writing
k. Forms, applications
C. CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE

6
 In facing a reading text, the readers should also understand the characteristics of the text
that they want to read. Moreover, Brown (2001: 303) also states some characteristics of
written language that are very important to be understood. They are:

1. Permanence
Written language is permanent (or as permanent as paper and computer disks are), and
therefore the reader has an opportunity to return again and again, if necessary, to a
word or phrase or sentence, or even a whole text.
2. Processing Time
A corollary to the above is the processing time that the reader gains. Most reading
contexts allow readers to read at their own rate. They are not forced into following the
rate of delivery, as in spoken language.
3. Distance
The written word allows messages to be sent across two dimensions: physical distance
and temporal distance.
4. Orthography
In writing we have graphemes. Writer can describe the aforementioned phonological
cues.

In reading, the reader will always deal with the written language. Understanding the
characteristics of the written language is necessary. It will help the reader to be familiar
with the text that they read.

D. MICRO-SKILLS OF READING
In reading comprehension, there are several items that are called as micro-skills. Micro-
skills are skills that ESL / EFL students need to do to become efficient readers. Micro-
skills are very necessary to be carried out in the beginning of reading.

Richards (1983) in Brown (2001: 307) mentions several micro-skills of reading. They are:

1. Discriminating among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns of English.

2. Retaining chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.
3. Processing writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
4. Recognizing a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance.
5. Recognizing grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems, patterns, rules,
and elliptical forms.

7
 6. Recognizing that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical
forms.
7. Recognizing cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signaling the
relationship between and among clauses.
8. Recognizing the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their significance for
interpretation.
9. Recognizing communicative functions of written texts, according to form and
purpose.
10. Inferring context that is no explicit by using background knowledge.
11. Inferring links and connections between events, ideas, etc. deduce causes and effects,
and detect such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given
information, generalization, and exemplification.
12. Distinguishing between literal and implied meanings.
13. Detecting culturally specific references and interpret them in a context of the
appropriate cultural schemata.
14. Developing and use a battery of reading strategies such as scanning and skimming,
detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning of words from context, and
activating schemata for the interpretation of texts.

Each micro-skill has its own use. They have different ways to make the students
understand the text. They are very necessary to be understood in applying the interactive
reading approach in teaching students of vocational high school. Those skills can be used
as a consideration and reference how to provide suitable materials that can meet the needs
of vocational high school students.

E. STRATEGIES FOR READING COMPREHENSION

Here are the 10 strategies of teaching reading comprehension according to Brown (Brown
2007 : 366 – 371).

1. Identify the purpose in reading.

When you read a reading passage you have to identify the purpose in reading. By
doing this way, you know what you are looking for and can remove some potential
distracting information. Make sure the students know their purpose in reading
something.
2. Use graph emic rules and patterns to aid in bottom - up reading.

8
 In many cases, some learners have difficulties in English spelling conventions. They
need hints and explanations about certain English orthographic rules and peculiarities.
Here are some examples of hints and pointers can be given to the students :
a. “short’ vowel sound in VC patterns ( bat, him, leg, wish, get, swim, sit, etc. )
b. “long” vowel sound in VCe (final silent e ) patterns ( late, time, bite, lime, wake,
etc.)
c. “long” vowel sound in VV patterns (seat, coat, meat, etc.)
d. Distinguishing “hard” c and g from “soft” c and g ( cat vs. city, game vs. gem,
etc.)

Those are the kinds of phonics approaches to reading that are useful for learners at
the beginning level especially for teaching children and non-literate students.

3. Use efficient silent reading techniques for improving fluency.

This strategy is better applied to the intermediate-to-advanced level students. It cannot
be applied to the beginning level students because they are still straggling with the
control of a limited vocabulary and grammatical patterns. These are some silent
reading rules you can apply to teach reading to the intermediate-to-advanced level
students :
a. You don’t need to ‘pronounce’ each word to yourself.
b. Try to visually perceive more than one word at a time.
c. Unless a word is absolutely crucial to global understanding, skip over it and try to
infer its meaning from its context.
4. Skim the text for main ideas.
Skimming consists of quickly running one’s eyes across a whole text (such an essay,
article, or chapter ) for its gist. You can train your students to skim passages by giving
them, say, 30 seconds to look through a few pages of material, close their books, and
then tell you what they learned.
5. Scan the text for specific information.
Scanning is quickly searching for some particular piece or pieces of information in a
text. You may ask students to look for names or dates, to find definition of a key
concept, or to list a certain number of supporting details. The purpose of scanning is
to extract specific information without reading through the whole text.
6. Use semantic mapping or clustering.

9
 The semantic mapping or grouping ideas into meaningful clusters helps the reader to
provide some order to the chaos. It can be done individually. Please see the example
of Semantic map on the Power Point of Group 8 on page
7. Guess when you aren’t certain.
Learners can use guessing to their advantage to do the following
a. Guess the meaning of word.
b. Guess a grammatical relationship (e.g., a pronoun reference).
c. Guess a discourse relationship.
d. Infer implied meaning.
e. Guess content messages.
8. Analyze vocabulary.
Here are several techniques for analyzing vocabulary strategy :
a. Look for prefixes (co-, inter-, un-, dis-, non- etc.)
b. Look for suffixes (-ion, -tion, -tive, -ally, etc.)
c. Look for roots that are familiar.
d. Look for grammatical contexts that may signal information.
e. Look at the semantic contexts (topic) for clues.
9. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
This strategy needs the application of top-down processing skill. Implied meaning
strategy usually has to be derived from processing pragmatic information.
10. Capitalize on discourse markers to process relationships.
A clear comprehension on phrases, clauses and sentences (the discourse markers) can
greatly enhance learner’ s reading efficiency.

F. Type of Classroom Reading Performance

Variety of reading performance in the language classroom is derived more from the
variety of texts (refer to the list earlier in this chapter) to which you can expose students
than from the variety of overt type performance
1. Oral and silent reading
Occasionally, you will have reason to ask a student to read orally, at the beginning
and intermediate levels, oral reading can:
a. Serve as an evaluative check on bottom-up processing skills
b. Double as pronunciation check

10
 c. Serve to add some extra student participation if you want to highlight a certain
short segment of reading passage.

For advance levels. Usually only advantage (c) can be gained by reading orally.
As a rule of thumb, you want to use oral reading to serve these three purposes because
the disadvantages of too much oral reading can easily come into play:

a. Oral reading is not very authentic language activity

b. While one student is reading, others can easily lose attention (or be silently
rehearsing the next paragraph)
c. It may have the outward appearance of student participation when in reality it is
more recitation
2. Intensive and Extensive reading
Silent reading may be subcategorized into intensive and extensive reading.
Intensive reading, analogous to intensive listening (described in chapter 16), is usually
a classroom oriented activity in which students focus on the linguistic or semantic
details of a passage. Intensive reading calls students’ attention to grammatical forms,
discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding
literal meaning, implication, rhetorical relationship, and the like.
As a “zoom lens” strategy for taking a closer look at a text, intensive reading also
may be a totally content-related reading initiated because of subject matter difficulty.
A complex cognitive concept may be “trapped” inside the words of a sentence or
paragraph, and good reader will then very slowly and methodically extract meaning
therefrom.
Extensive reading is carried out to achieve a general understanding of usually
somewhat longer text (book, long article, or essays, etc.). Most extensive reading is
performed outside of class time. Pleasure reading is often extensive. Technical,
scientific, and professional reading can, under special circumstances, be extensive
when one Is simply striving for global or general meaning from longer passages.
The advantages of extensive reading were discussed in the first section of the
chapter. By stimulating reading for enjoyment or reading where all concepts, names,
dates, and other details need not be retained, students gain an appreciation of the
affective and cognitive window of reading: an entrée into new worlds. Extensive
reading can sometimes help learners get away from their tendency to overanalyze or
look up words they don’t know, and read for understanding.

11
G. PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING INTERACTIVE READING TECHNIQUES

1. In an interactive curriculum, make sure that you don’t overlook the importance of
specific instruction in reading skills

2. Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating

3. Balance authenticity and readability in choosing texts.

4. Encourage the development of reading strategies

5. Include both bottom-up down top-down techniques

6. Follow the “SQ3R” sequence(Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review)

7. subdivide your techniques into pre-reading, during-reading, and after reading phases

8. build in some evaluative aspect to your techniques

12
 CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION

The material about teaching material development that have just been reviewed are
some of the major foundation stones for teaching Reading. While they are not by any
means exhaustive, they can act for you as major theoretical insights on which your
techniques and lessons and curricula can be based.

13
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown, H. Douglas. (2000). Teaching by Principle. Longman: San Fransisco

14