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Cutting tools are engineering materials that

 are dedicated for removing the excessive materials from their

Manufacturing Process-III mother during machining operations.

Both material and geometry of the cutting tools play very

important roles in achieving
Chapter-2  Effectiveness, Efficiency and Overall economy of machining
process.

Cutting Tool-Geometry

According to the number of major cutting edge involved, cutting
tools can be classified as:
 Single point cutting tools: cutting tools that have single major
cutting edge
 Example: turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and
boring tools
The word tool geometry is basically referred to some specific
angles or slope of the salient faces and edges of the tools at their
cutting point.
 These features include: cutting edge, rake and flank surfaces

 Double (two) point cutting tools: cutting tools that involve

double major cutting edge
 Example: drill bits for drilling operation

 Multipoint cutting tools: cutting tools that involve three or

more major cutting edges during machining process.
 Example: milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping
cutters etc.

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Systems of description of tool geometry
There are four types of systems to describe the slopes the salient
faces and edges of single point cutting tool. These include:
Tool-in
Tool-in--hand system
Machine Reference System – ASA system
Tool Reference Systems
 Orthogonal Rake System – ORS
 Normal Rake System – NRS
Work Reference System – WRS
Machine Reference System (ASA)
This system is also called ASA system;
 ASA stands for American Standards Association
Geometry of a cutting tool refers mainly to its several angles or
slope of its salient working surfaces and cutting edges.
Those angles are expressed with respect to some principal planes
of reference
 In this system we have two basics to set the orientation of the
reference planes
 The principal motion i.e. the cutting velocity and
 The feed motion i.e. axis of rotation of the work material
or the machine spindle.
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Tool-in-Hand System
 Only the salient features of the cutting tool point are
identified or visualized
 No quantitative measure i.e. value of the angles.
 This is a primitive way of describing the tool geometry but
is still a basis to determine these salient faces and edge
The Principal Plane and axes are
The Principal Plane are
Reference plane ( ); a plane perpendicular to the velocity
vector but parallel to the feed motion
Machine longitudinal plane ( ); this is a plane perpendicular
to and taken in the direction of assumed longitudinal
feed.
Machine Transverse plane ( ) this is a plane perpendicular
to both and . This plane is taken in the direction of
assumed cross feed i.e. along the depth of cut.
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The axes Xm, Ym and Zm are in the direction of longitudinal
feed, cross feed and cutting velocity (vector) respectively.
Angles measured on the Machine longitudinal plane
Angles measure on the longitudinal plane with respect to the
Reference plane and Machine Transverse plane
Side/Axial rake ( ): angle of inclination of the rake surface of the tool
from the reference plane when projected/measured on Machine
Longitudinal Plane
Side Clearance Angle ( ): angle of inclination of the major
/principal flank surface from the Machine Transverse Plane when
projected on Machine Reference Plane
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Angles created/measured on the Reference plane
These are angles measure on the reference plane with respect to
the Machine longitudinal plane and Machine Transverse plane.
 Approach angle (  s ):
): angle between the major/principal cutting edge
of the cutting tool, when projected on the reference plane and the Machine
Transverse plane
 End cutting edge angle ( e ): an angle between the minor
cutting edge of the cutting tool and the longitudinal plane
 Nose Radius (r, inch ): curvature of the tool tip i.e. intersection
inch):
point of the major and minor cutting edges of the cutting tool
Angles measured on the Machine Transverse plane
These are angles measure on the longitudinal plane with
respect to the Reference plane and Machine Transverse
plane
Back Rake Angle ( ): angle of inclination of the rake surface from
the reference plane and measured on Machine Transverse Plane
Back Clearance Angle ( ): angle of inclination of the minor/
):
auxiliary flank surface of the cutting tool from the Machine
Longitudinal Plane when projected on Machine Longitudinal Plane
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In the tool reference system, there are two mechanisms to

describe the geometry of the cutting tool:
 The Orthogonal Rake system (ORS) and
 The Normal Rake System (NRS)

The Orthogonal Rake system (ORS)

Also known as the ISO–
ISO–old
The principal planes and coordinates are taken in respect of the
tool configuration
In this system, there are three basics to set the orientation of
the reference planes
 The principal motion i.e. the cutting velocity,
 The feed motion i.e. axis of rotation of the machine spindle
 the adjustment of major cutting edge of the tool

Principal Planes Principal Planes and coordinate systems

Reference Plane ( ): plane perpendicular to the velocity vector but
parallel to the feed motion. This plane is oriented like that of in ASA
Cutting Plane ( ): plane perpendicular to the Machine Reference
Plane and taken along the principal cutting edge of the cutting tool.
 Can be generated by rotating the Machine Longitudinal Plane
in the ASA system by the major cutting edge angle
Orthogonal Plane ( ): plane perpendicular to both reference plane
and cutting plane
Principal Axes

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Angles measured on the Reference Plane
Angles measure on the reference plane with respect to the
cutting edges of cutting tool and the feed motion
Side/major cutting edge angle ( ): an angle between the major cutting
edge of the cutting tool and the feed motion of cutting process
End/minor cutting edge angle ( ) = an angle between the minor cutting
edge of the cutting tool and the feed motion of cutting process
Nose radius (r, mm): this is curvature of the tool tip
 angle created at the intersection point of the major and minor
cutting edges of the cutting tool when projected on the Reference
Plane
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Angles measured on the Cutting Plane
angles measure on the cutting plane with respect to the Reference
Plane and Orthogonal Plane
Inclination angle ( ): angle of inclination of the rake surface of the tool
from the reference plane when projected on the Cutting Plane
Angles measured on the Orthogonal Plane
Orthogonal Rake ( ): angle of inclination of the rake surface from
Reference plane
Orthogonal Clearance of the principal flank ( ): angle of inclination
of the principal flank of the tool from the cutting plane
Auxiliary Orthogonal Clearance ( )
This is to measure the slope of the minor/auxiliary flank face to
fully define the tool geometry.
 Using imaginary auxiliary planes called the auxiliary cutting plane
( ) and the auxiliary orthogonal plane ( )
Auxiliary Orthogonal Clearance ( ) = this is the angle of inclination of
the auxiliary flank from the auxiliary cutting plane when
projected/measured on auxiliary orthogonal plane
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Auxiliary Orthogonal Clearance ( ) The Normal Rake system (NRS)

 Also known as ISO – new
 NRS system is raid into effect to overcome some limitations
of the ASA and ORS description systems
 In NRS there are two basics to set the orientation of the
principal planes
 The major/principal cutting edge
 The angle of inclination of the rake surface
 Principal plane and Axes

Principal Plane of NRS

Cutting Plane ( ): plane perpendicular to the Machine Reference
Plane as in the ORS system i.e. along the principal cutting edge
Normal Plane ( ): a plane perpendicular to both the cutting plane and
the major cutting edge of the tool
 Generated by rotating the orthogonal plane of the ORS system by the
angle of inclination of the rake surface

 Normal Reference plane ( ) = this is a plane perpendicular to

both the cutting plane and the normal plane.
 Generated by rotating the Reference plane of the ORS system by the
angle of inclination of rake surface i.e. either
 clockwise if λ is negative or
 counterclockwise if λ is positive.

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Angles measured on the Normal reference plane
Angles measure on the normal reference plane with respect to
the cutting edges of cutting tool and the axis of rotation of
machine spindle i.e. the feed motion.
These angles have the same definition as they are in ORS
Side/major cutting edge angle ( ): angle between the major cutting
edge of the cutting tool and the feed motion of cutting process.
End/minor cutting edge angle ( ): angle between the minor cutting
edge of the cutting tool and the feed motion of cutting process.
Nose radius (r, mm): curvature of the tool tip i.e. this is the angle created
at the intersection point of the major and minor cutting edges of the cutting
tool when projected on the Reference Plane .
Angles Measured on the Cutting Plane
Inclination angle ( ): angle of inclination of the rake surface of the
tool from the reference plane, other than the normal reference plane (, when
projected or measured on cutting plane
Angles Measured on the Normal Plane
Normal rake ( ): inclination angle of the rake surface from the normal
reference plane, when projected/measured on the normal plane
Normal Clearance ( ) = this is the angle of inclination of the principal
flank from Cutting Plane ( when projected/measured on the normal plane

Auxiliary Orthogonal Clearance ( ) Designation of tool geometry

To measure the slope of the minor/auxiliary flank face, to fully The geometry of a single point cutting tool is designated
define the tool geometry,
or specified by a series of values of the salient angles and
using imaginary auxiliary planes called the auxiliary cutting plane
nose radius arranged in a definite sequence as follows
( ) and the auxiliary normal plane ( )

Auxiliary Orthogonal Clearance: angle of inclination of the • ASA System –

minor/auxiliary flank face of the tool from the auxiliary cutting plane γy, γx, αy, αx, φe, φs, r (inch)
when projected/measured on the auxiliary normal plane
• ORS System –
λ, γo, αo, αo’, φ1, φ, r (mm)

• NRS System –
λ, γn, αn, αn’, φ1, φ, r (mm)

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Flank faces
are those areas on the wedge that are turned toward the cut
surfaces. If a flank face is chamfered, then it is called a
flank face chamfer.
chamfer
Rake faces
are the surfaces over which the chip passes. If a rake face is
chamfered, then it is called a rake face chamfer.
A smaller amount of tool orthogonal clearance
is used with higher-
higher- strength steels and abrasion-
abrasion-proof
cemented carbides
A small amount of tool orthogonal clearance:
 Means that the wedge is reinforced
 Improves the surface as long as the tool does not press on it.
However, if the tool does press on the surface, the tool will
heat up, and flank face wear will be substantial.
 Contributes to damping of vibrations, e.g. Chatter vibrations
reduced
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Tool orthogonal clearance angle α
The normal amount of the tool’s orthogonal clearance lies
between 6 and 10
A large amount of tool orthogonal clearances is applied
for soft and tough materials, which tend to bond with the
cutting edges, and when using tough cemented carbides
A large amount of tool orthogonal clearances:
 Causes heat build-up in the cutting edge tip
 Weakens the wedge (danger of cutting edge chipping)
 Gives under constant wear measure on the flank surface
Rake angle γ
 For turning medium strength steel with cemented carbide tools,
the rake angles range from 0 to + 6°
6°, (may also up to + 18°
18°).
 For tempering steels and high-
high-strength steels, rake angles ranges
from – 6 to 6°
6°.
 Whereas the chamfer angle for medium-
medium-strength steel is around
0°, in tempering steels, negative chamfer angles are usually used.
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Large rake angles Small rake angles, down to negative rake angles, are applied for
are used with soft materials (soft steels, light alloys, copper), roughing and machining of high-
high-strength materials using
which are machined with tough cemented carbides. cement carbides resistant to abrasion.

Greater rake angle produce Disadvantages Small rake angles:

 Stabilize the wedge
 better chip flow  weaken the wedge
 Increase tool life
 hinder heat removal
 lower friction  Enable turning at high cutting speeds
 increase the risk of edge Save machining time
 Smaller chip compression ratio 

chipping. Disadvantages
 better workpieces
workpieces’’ surface
 In short, they diminish  Increasing cutting forces
quality
tool life.
life  An increase in machine input power required
 Less cutting forces.
forces

Optimum rake angle

In a turning tool with a large positive rake angle and negative
chamfer angle, the advantages of positive and negative rake
angles can be maximized.
This combination is the optimal solution, because
 The positive rake angle provides adequate chip flow and keeps

friction on the rake face low;

 The wedge’s cross-

cross-section is enlarged by the negative chamfer
angle;

 Increase of power is diminished