Office of Waste lsdation

Union Carbide Corporatkn

Nuclear Division
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Update of 1972Status Report .Is.2%

..:_ ..-.,, . siL

on DeepShaft Studies
Prepared by
Parsons Brinckerhoff Quack & Douglas, Inc
New York

September 1976

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 DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

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Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
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Corporation, Nuclear D i v i s i o n , o r
USERDA.

This report was prepared as an account of work sponso'red by the United States
Government. Neither the United Srates nor the Energy Research and Dcvclopment
Administration, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors,
subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or
assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or
usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or process disclosed, or represents
that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.

Update of 1972 Status Report

on Deep Shaft Studies
Prepared by
Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas, Inc.
New Yolk

September 1976 €@
DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUPAENT IS UNLIMITE.~
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

. ..
c ha'pter Page

Letter of Transmittal

Summary

1. Introduction

A. General
B. Scope of Investigation

2, Geology

3. Shaft Sinking

A. R e s e a r c h a n d Development
B. Safety
C . ventilation
D. Other S i z e C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
E. Costs

4 Conventional Shaft C o n s t r u c t i o n Techniques

A. G e n e r a l Procedures
B. W a t e r Control Techniques ' '

C . Excavation ~ e c h n i q u e s
15. Linings
E. In-Service Leakage C o n t r o l
F. Representative Projects

5. M e c h a n i z e d Shaft Sinking Techniques

A. General
B. R a i s e Boring
C . Blind Drilling
D . ' Down Hole Boring IvT a c h i n e s
E. Representative Projects
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Cont'd)

Chapter

6 . Long Term Problem s

A. Materials
B. Out s i d e Migration
C . Observation C h a s e s
D. Differential Settlements
E. .Earthquakes
F. Alternative Layouts

References
 SHAFT SINKING
STATE OF THE ART

S U M M A R Y

1. 'This report on t h e s t a t e of t h e a r t of s h a f t sinking c o n s i d e r s t h e e f f e c t s

of t h e geology, d i s c u s s e s f a c t o r s affecting s h a f t s i z e , d e s c r i b e s t h e
conventional s h a f t sinking t e c h n i q u e s a n d t h e newer mecha'nized
m e t h o d s , d e s c r i b e s s e v e r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o r difficult s h a f t s , a n d
briefly comments of c e r t a i n long term problems a n d s o l u t i o n s .

2. The b e s t g e o l o g i c a l s i t e for a s h a f t h a s c o m p e t e n t , medium strength

rock t h a t d o e s not overbreak during e x c a v a t i o n nor c r e e p under long
term l o a d , i s 0-verlain by a minimum of overburden, a n d h a s a minimum
of w a t e r i n both t h e overburden a n d bedrock s t r a t a .

3. The major f a c t o r i n determining.rock c o m p e t e n c e for s h a f t s i n k i n g is

not t h e strength of t h e r o c k , but t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s of the rock m a s s --
t h e bedding p l a n e s , f o l i a t i o n , a n d t h e . joint a n d fracture s y s t e m s .

4. Of t h e four g e o l o g i e s c o n s i d e r e d , 'the b e s t for s h a f t s a r e t h e m a s s i v e

granitic s a n d non-cavernou's a n d non-fissured l i m e s t o n e s ; t h e poorest
a r e t h e s h a l e s , particularly t h o s e t h a t overbreak badly or c a v e , a n d
t h e s a l t s , b e c a u s e of t h e potential for damaging differential s e t t l e m e n t s .

5. . W h e n a new development is planned a n d t h e r e a r e s p e c i a l project

requirements s u c h a s a n a b s o l u t e l y w a t e r t i g h t lining a n d prevention
of w a t e r migration along t h e o u t s i d e of t h e s h a f t , t h e u s e of One of
t h e s m a l l e r s h a f t s a s a pilot project to o b t a i n d e t a i l e d g e o t e c h n i c
a n d rock m e c h a n i c s d a t a a n d t o demonstrate t h a t project requirements
c a n be m e t is strongly recommended.

6. Factors a f f e c t i n g t h e number a n d s i z e of s h a f t s i n c l u d e t h e n e e d for

a l t e r n a t e m e a n s of emergency e g r e s s , t h e 'amount of ventilation
r e q u i r e d , t h e daily r a t e 'of .mining (tunnel) production, t h e s e p a r a t i o n
of personnel a n d m a t e r i a l t r a v e l r o u t e s i n high production p r o j e c t s ,
t h e type a n d s i z e of lj.nj.ng, s h a f t equipment, mining equipment,
a n d t h e s h a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n method employed.

Ventilation m u s t m e e t c o d e requirements b a s e d on s q u a r e footage of

mine (tunnel) h e a d i n g s , on provision for man p r e s e n t a n d equipment
u s e d , on minimum v e l o c i t i e s , a n d on t h e type of m a t e r i a l being
e x c a v a t e d . In a d d i t i o n , temperatures i n work a r e a s must b e kept
within r e a s o n a b l e l i m i t s , n e c e s s i t a t i n g c a l c u l a t i o n of a l l t h e h e a t
i n p u t s from lighting, powered equipment, a n d other s o u r c e s . Ambient
rock temperature must b e determined a s i t - a l s o affec'ts t h e v e n t i l a t i o n
requirement. In extreme c a s e s , i t h a s e v e n b e e n n e c e s s a r y t o i n s t a l l
m e c h a n i c a l c o o l i n g equipment. -
8. C o s t s of s h a f t s vary w i d e l y . The major f a c t o r is t h e t y p e of geology
t h a t m u s t b e t r a v e r s e d i n r e a c h i n g t h e working l e v e l s ; t h e ground-
w a t e r c o n d i t i o n s a r e particularly important. C o s t s a r e not d i r e c t l y
proportional t o t h e amount of m a t e r i a l e x c a v a t e d for t h e s h a r t . There
a r e 'definite economic s i z e s for e a c h e x c a v a t i o n method; s h a f t s
s l i g h t l y larger or s m a l l e r c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d for e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e
c o s t s , but a s t h e d e v i a t i o n i n c r e a s e s , s o d o e s t h e r a t e of c o s t
i n c r e a s e until t h e r a t i o of c o s t s of two s i z e s a p p r o x i m a t e s t h e r a t i o of
.
t h e d i a m e t e r s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e a r e a s , o f t h e s h a f t s Similarly, s h a l l o w
s h a f t s a r e very . e x p e n s i v e on a per foot of depth b a s i s ; a s t h e d e p t h
i n c r e a s e s , t h e . p e r foot c o s t b e c o m e s proportionately l e s s e x p e n s i v e
u n t i l a c o n s t a n t per foot c o s t is r e a c h e d . . At very s u b s t a n t i a l d e p t h s ,
t h e c o s t s of v e r t i c a l transport b e c o m e s a major t a c t o r .

9. ' The only s h a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n method c a p a b l e of meeting a l l g e o l o g i c a l

c o n d i t i o n s i s t h e t r i e d a n d true " c o n v e n t i o n a l " s y s t e m . The s h a f t is
c o n s t r u c t e d t o f u l l diameter i n a s i n g l e . p a s s , e x c a v a t i n g below a
multi-deck working s t a g e , hauling muck t o t h e s u r f a c e i n a p a i r of
b u c k e t s k i p s o n s e p a r a t e w i r e rope g u i d e s , placing f o n n s a n d pouring
c o n c r e t e w a l l s o n intermediate d e c k s , grouting a s n e c e s s a r y a n d
f i n a l l y partially equipping (pipe l i n e s ) from t h e upper d e c k . M i n i m a l
t o moderate ground w a t e r i s h a n d l e d by sum p i n g , m o d e r a t e t o h e a v y
q u a n t i t i e s by grouting d i r e c t l y a h e a d of t h e e x c a v a t i o n , a n d extreme
q u a n t i t i e s in non-groutable formations by a s e p a r a t e f r e e z i n g
s y s t e m o u t s i d e t h e s h a f t i n s t a l l e d i n a d v a n c e , g e n e r a l l y from t h e
surface.

10. The s h a f t lining m o s t f r e q u e n t l y . u s e d i s concr.ete; t h e minimum t h i c k -

n e s s is g e n e r a l l y 12 i n c h e s . Tn s o u n d r o c k , only a t h i n s h o t c r e t e
lining may b e a p p l i e d t o prevent s p a l l i n g . Segmental c a s t iron l i n i n g s
formerly w e r e t h e s t a n d a r d s o l u t i o n t o s e r i o u s groundwater c o n d i t i o n s ;
t o d a y , w e l d e d s t e e l l i n i n g s , s o m e t i m e s a double s t e e l lining w i t h a
c o n c r e t e i n f i l l , a r e s t a n d a r d w h e r e t h e c o n c r e t e lining is u n s u i t a b l e .

11. M a j o r r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e a l l c o n t i n u a t i o n s of t h e trend t o m e c h a n i -
zation'. The u s e nf r a i s e boring h a s i n c r e a s e d dramatically i n t h e
l a s t f i v e y e a r s . S u b s t a n t i a l a d v a n c e s i n l a r g e hole blind drilling
c a p a b i l i t y h a v e a l s o o c c u r r e d . Down h o l e boring m a c h i n e s a r e n e a r e r
t h e time of p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n .

12. C o n v e n t i o n a l s h a f t sinking a d v a n c e r a t e s c a n b e i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y
by u s i n g a n a d v a n c e pilot h o l e a n d a n a d j a c e n t s m a l l d i a m e t e r shaft
- - both on t h e order of s i x t o eight. f e e t i n diameter -- for muck
h a n d l i n g . The muck is dropped down' t h e "glory-hole" p i l o t , t r a n s f e r r e d
through a c r o s s drift t o t h e o t h e r s h a f t a n d r a i s e d t o t h e s u r f a c e i n
t h a t s h a f t . This permits both a f u l l f a c e a d v a n c e a n d g r e a t e r round
l e n g t h s ( d e p t h s ) ; e a c h significantlly r e d u c e s s i n k i n g t i m e .
The f i r s t shaft of a development project m u s t be sunk e i t h e r c o n -
ventionally or by blind d r i l l i n g . The combination procedure..described
in t h e previous paragraph is. e x c e l l e n t for expediting a n d reducing
t h e c o s t of t h e principal s h a f t . It a l s o permits n e c e s s a r y pre-
production development work a t t h e mining l e v e l t o proceed c o n -
currently w i t h t h e principal s h a f t . e x c a v a t i o n , shortening t h e time t o
t h e beginning of mine production.

W h e r e t h e development requires. -.. e v.e-r a l s h a f t s , and t h e geology is

s-
favorable (stab16 r o c k , not t o o much w a t e r ) r a i s e ' boring is t h e most
e f f e c t i v e method of expediting construction of a l l but t h e principal
shaft.

W h e r e the geology is both favorable -- rock in t h e lower strength range

- - a n d unfavorable --unstable overburden and/or heavy w a t e r inflow
in e i t h e r overburden or rock -- and-the s h a f t diameter m o d e r a t e , t h e
s a f e s t procedure is t o blind drill t h e shaft u s i n g drilling mud t o
s t a b i l i z e the w a l l s a n d floating in a s t e e l lining.
-

W h e r e differential movements b e w e e n s h a f t a n d overburden a r e anti-

c i p a t e d , a carefully d e s i g n e d bitumen outer lining w i l l protect the
s h a f t . This a l s o is a n e f f e c t i v e w a t e r s e a l i n g procedure.

If a b s o l u t e prevention of w a t e r reaching t h e mining l e v e l s is e s s e n t i a l

t o a project a n d if grouting c a n n o t g u a r a n t e e t h i s c o n d i t i o n , picotage
or keilkranz m u s t be u s e d on one or more l e v e l s t o provide a positive
shutoff for w a t e r migrating down t h e o u t s i d e w a l l of t h e s h a f t .
'
An observation c h a s e c u t - in t h e bed rock o u t s i d e t h e s h a f t a n d w e l l
below t h e l o w e s t w a t e r infiltration a r e a a n d above t h e h i g h e s t storage
-level-provides a s a f & y c h e c k , a s s u r i n g :no vertically migrating fluid
c a n r e a c h t h e mining a r e a a s a r e s u l t of s h a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Unlike above ground s t r u c t u r e s i n s e i s m i c z o n e s , earth'quake h a z a r d s

t o s h a f t s a r e minimal ( u n l e s s t h e s h a f t is in ,the' rift zone) b e c a u s e
t h e deformation of the s h a f t i s c o n s t r a i n e d by t h e ground t o very sm-all
movements i n relation t o .shaft depth w h i c h c r e a t e only minor s t r e s s e s
in t h e lining.

iii.
 CHAPTER 1

A. General

The current state-of-the-art in s h a f t s i n k i n g is described i n this

report. The.intent is not to provide a t e c h n i c a l compendium for t h o s e
already knowledgeable but rather to s e t forth .the various problems which
may be encountered and construction methods iillhich-can be used i n such a
manner t h a t t h o s e unfamiliar with s h a f t sinking w i l l gain understanding and,
insight into the subject.

This report is not s i t e s p e c i f i c s i n c e four bedrock geologies a r e to be

considered.. These a r e s a l t b e d s , s h a l e d e p o s i t s , non-cavernous limestone
formations, and igneous (granite) rocks. Therefore, to keep t h e r e p ~ r t
within reasonable limits, the emphasis is on problems 'and procedures
common t o a l l , with differences due t o s p e c i f i c geologies noted only w h e r e
pertinent.

The excavation by mining of approximately 12,000 tons of rock per d a y

is one f a c e t of the study of which t h i s report is a part; The tunnels being
considered a r e horeshoe s h a p e d , i.e. , a n inverted U i n c r o s s s e c t i o n ,
about 18 f e e t in height and width. The production rate and tunnel c r o s s
s e c t i o n combined require mining approximately 500 l i n e a l f e e t of tunnel a
d a y , a very s u b s t a n t i a l undertaking. The resulting ventilation a n d muck
kxcavated 'material) transport requirements c a l l f o r large diameter principal
s h a f t s and smaller diameter auxiliary s h a f t s .

B. ' Scope of Investigation

Originally, the scope of work indicated t h i s report w a s to cover

the following:

1. Review of a n e a r l i e r report o n d e e p s h a f t s .

\ 2. Developments s i n c e the d a t e of that report (1972).

3. The e f f e c t s of the four geologic bedrocks on s h a f t construction.'

4. Problems i n reaching the operating levels through the overburden .

5. The e f f e c t s of earthquakes.

6. The t y p e s and s p a t i a l requirements of s h a f t s for various functions.

7. Geotechnical investigations required prior to i h t i a t i o n of

s h a f t design.
 Later, informal d i s c u s s i o n s indicated a state-of-the-art and
a s s o c i a t e d problems approach w a s desired.

It h a s been necessary,for c o n c i s e n e s s , t o confine the d i s c u s s i o n

of geology t o generalization indicating favorable and unfavorable
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s they apply t o shafts., citing t h e specific ~ h a r a c t ~ r i s t i c s
of t h e bedrocks only where major and pertinent differences occur among
the four types considered. Unfavorable ground conditions, e s p e c i a l l y
ground w a t e r , are d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l under construction techniques
rather than in t h e chapter on geology.

Among t h e factors affecting shaft s i z i n g , ventilation and materials

transport are t h e most important. The former is .common to a l l underground
'

developments and h a s been emphasized, while material. transport, being

a function that varies in effect w i t h e a c h project, h a s not been covered
in d e t a i l . Since absolute c o s t s are primarily a function of the specific
geology encountered, t h e discus'sion .of t h i s subject h a s been limited t o
indicating how costs. vary relatively with diameter and depth.

Non-routine procedures s u c h a s ground freezing and the u s e of

bitumen linings have been considered in some d e t a i l , the former t o i l l u s -
trate how t h e w o r s t of conditions may be handled, the second .because
of i t s importance i n certain geologies where differential movements may
occur during service life.

Geotechnic investigation must be tailored t o the specific geology

of the shaft site; h e n c e i t h a s not been d i s c u s s e d .
 CHAPTER 2

GEOLOGY

Shaft sinking in s a l t , s h a l e , non-cavernous limestone, and granite is

considered here. Each h a s i t s own c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Unfortunately, the
range of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s sufficiently broad t h a t the b e s t ' o f the
worst c l a s s i f i c a t i o n may be better than the worst of t h e b e s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
Furthermore, the presence or a b s e n c e of w a t e r may drastically a l t e r t h e
desirability of a given c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . (For example, t h e mining character-
i s t i c s of a fine sand may range from bad t o good t o terrible a s the w a t e r
content i n c r e a s e s from dry t o moist t o saturated.) In addition, the over-
burden c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a specific s i t e may be of far greater importance
t o the shaft sinker than the bedrock c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . These considerations
l e a d inevitably t o the conclusion that making generalizations in a short
d i s c u s s i o n of alternative geologies may be misleading a n d ' a d i s s e r v i c e
while t o treat the subject adequately t o avoid misleading the reader would
'require a m a s s i v e t r e a t i s e entirely out of keeping with the purpose of t h i s
report. Having warned t h e r e a d e r , generalizations w i l l now be made.

1. Any meaningful d i s c u s s i o n of geology relating to constructability

a n d economics of shafts must be s i t e s p e c i f i c , i . e . , b a s e d on
a comparison of specific, s i t e s , and not genera lized .
2. The more competent the material, the better the potential for
shaft sinking.

Competence i s considered here a s meaning t h e ability t o be self

supporting. Competence d e c r e a s e s a s t h e requirement 'for support i n c r e a s e s
and r e l a t e s more t o t h e m a s s rock c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s than the intact rock
(laboratory sample) properties. In other w o r d s , a m a s s i v e , low.er strength
material t h a t does not come apart i s better than a high strength'material t h a t
is in small p i e c e s or i s separated by openings 'that permit pieces t o f a l l ,
and t o continue t o f a l l , into the shaft or tunnel. Competence i s most
commonly a function of the joint and fracture systems in the rock.

3. Moderate strength competent materials are frequently su perior

t o high strength o n e s .

A greater range of excavation techniques are available in the moderate

compressive strength rocks than in the very hard r o c k s . This w i l l be
apparent from the d i s c u s s i o n s on conventional and mechanical shaft sinking
techniques.

4. The l e s s t h e overbreak c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the better t h e geology.

 If an othenvise competent material overbreaks e x t e n s i v e l y , the e x c a -
vation must proceed more carefully and much greater quantities of concrete
w i l l be required in t h e permanent concrete lining, thereby increasing c o s t s .
It i s worth noting t h a t , even in good material, the design requirement for a
minimum 12 -inch lining may actually require concrete equivalent t o a 2 2 -inch
lining. Substantial overbreak could w e l l double t h i s . Unfortunately, one
characteristic of many s h a l e s i s the tendency t o overbreak badly and t o
c a v e a s w e l l . Obviously, t h i s influence the excavation technique t o be
selected.

5. The l e s s w a t e r encountered, the better the geology.

W a t e r i s always a problem in shaft sinking. It c a n be handled, but i t

. h a s a pronounced e f f e c t on c o s t s . The c o s t . m a y be nominal a s in the c a s e
when only pumping from a sump in the shaft i s required. When the water
supply i s unlimited in an unstable m a t e r i a l , freezing may be the only solution;
the c o s t then c a n approach t h e astronomical. In the middle i s the geology
wherein grouting c a n effect a sufficient shutoff; the c o s t similarly i s in
t h e mid-range. Unfortunately, few s h a f t s do not encounter w a t e r problems
somewhere; fortunately, very few encounter exceedingly s e v e r e s i t u a t i o n s .

6. The l e s s t h e unconsolidated overburden, the better t h e geology.

Construction of a shaft i s generally appreciably more difficult in un-

consolidated material, i . e . , s o i l or s o f t ground, than in rock. .If t h e
unconsolidated material i s t o o deep or too unstable t o permit excavating
a n open pit t o the t o p of the r o c k , temporary support in the form of a ring
of s h e e t piling or t h e u s e of segmental s t e e l liner plate rings w i l l be
required. In particularly adverse c o n d i t i o n s , conci-ete w a l l s tremied in a
circular, slurry filled trench or installation of a freeze ring may be required
prior t o beginning excavation; both are expensive operations.

7. The fewer adverse rock strata above the mining l e v e l , the better
the geology.

Unfavorable rock strata such a s heavily w a t e r bearing aquifers or

unstable .ground (crushed z o n e s , "squeezing ground" t h a t inexorably expands
into the shaft after excavating, e t c .) a r e difficult a n d expensive t o penetrate.
Pregroutinq the troublesome zone i s one procedure; sometimes, however, i t
sometimes i s necessary t o i n s t a l l a freeze ring more than 1 , 0 0 0 f e e t below the
surface t o s t a b i l i z e the formation.

8. The. better the long term c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the better the geology.

If one characteristic of the bedrock geology i s long term c r e e p under

low or moderate l o a d , the gradual settlement of the s h a f t foundation c a n
l e a d t o d i s t r e s s in t h e s h a f t . S a l t , unfortunately, h a s t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .
This general statement a s s u m e s t h e overlying geology' is s u c h that it does
not permit'an effective tieing-off:..or intermediate founding of the s h a f t .
 9. The higher the long term modulus of the formation being mined,
the better t h e geology.

The lower the long term modulus i s , the greater the a r e a l settlement
resulting from e x t e n s i v e mining operations. (Creep and long term modulus,
while r e l a t e d , are considered separate c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s here .) This areal
settlement in turn c a n c r e a t e differential settlement between the shaft and
the surrounding m a t e r i a l s , again leading t o d i s t r e s s in t h e shaft. However,
if too much material is removed from even a high modulus medium, i . e . , if
multiple tunnels a r e too c l o s e l y s p a c e d , a r e a l settlement and resulting
problems c a n occur.

10. For e a s e , s a f e t y , and performance of t h e s h a f t , the preferred

geology c o n s i s t s of a minimum, relatively dry overburden overlying
m a s s i v e , nnn water-bearing limestones or moderately jointed
to m a s s i v e granitics with the joints and fractures c l o s e d or
h e a l e d , both geologies t o be in the moderate strength range.
Certain of the s h a l e s w i l l c a u s e e x c e s s i v e problems. S a l t s a l s o
will c r e a t e problems which must be reflected i n t h e shaft design.
 C HAPTER 3

SHAFT SIZING

The s i z e of a s h a f t depends a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y 'on i t s intended u s e ,

i .e. , w h e t h e r i t is intended s o l e l y for ventilation, s e r v i c e s , p e r s o n n e l ,
or m a t e r i a l s haulout, or some combination of t h e s e . A secondary c o n s i d e r a -
tion is t h e construction method, a n d t h i s may r e s u l t e i t h e r i n some minor.
c h a n g e of s i z e or i n revision of t h e arrangement of t h e s h a f t s .

A. Re s e a r c h a n d Development

More than o n e s h a f t is normally required t o develop a new mining

project. However, t h e d e s i r e t o begin production a s e x l y a s p o s s i b l e
w i t h a minimum c a p i t a l outlay generally r e s u l t s i n t h e l a r g e s t , or production,
s h a f t being c o n s t r u c t e d f i r s t . If t h e geology is not w e l l known or unfavorable,
t h e s h a f t sinker m u s t a d d a s i z e a b l e contingency in h i s b i d , i n c r e a s i n g
c o s t s . W h e n early return on i n v e s t e d c a p i t a l is not t h e primary c r i t e r i o n ,
a different approach may r e s u l t i n better and more economical c o n s t r u c t i o n .

All of t h e t e c h n i c a l d a t a required for confirmation (or alteration) of

t h e main s h a f t d e s i g n b e s t c a n b e o b t a i n e d from a s i z a b l e pilot project.'
Since a t ].east four s h a f t s a r e required for the development being s t u d i e d ,
t h i s pilot project c a n a n d should be one of t h e smaller s h a f t s . The in s i t u
rock r e s p o n s e t o a n eccavation more t h a n 15 f e e t in diameter c a n n o t b e
determined w i t h sufficient a c c u r a c y from a borehole c o r e only a few i n c h e s
i n diameter. The time a n d d i s t a n c e - r e l a t e d e f f e c t s of t h e e l a s t i c rock
deformation, any i n e l a s t i c deformation, and t h e e x c a v a t i o n procedure
minimizing a n d preferably eliminating e v e n minute w a l l c r a c k i n g , a l l must b e
a s c e r t a i n e d . If the s h a f t p a s s e s through one or more s t r a t a containing w a t e r
under high p r e s s u r e , a demonstration of t h e ability t o c o n s t r u c t a sufficiently
watertight lining might. b e a project requirement. If s o , the ability t o
effectively s e a l off w a t e r migration from t h e aquifer downward a l o n g s i d e
t h e s h a f t a l s o should be demonstrated. All e v i d e n c e t o d a t e i n d i c a t e s the
demonstrations of construction a b i l i t y w i l l be s u c c e s s f u l u s i n g t e c h n i q u e s
a l r e a d y . proven. heb be demonstrations obviously require time t o perform.

B. Safety '

O n e of t h e principal r e a s o n s for constructing a t l e a s t & O s h a f t s i n

any s i z e a b l e underground project is s a f e t y . Practically a l l , i f not a l l , mining
l a w s require two s h a f t s for s a f e t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . The requirement is.
sometimes w a i v e d temporarily during development work on t h e b a s i s of both
c o s t a n d t h e f a c t . t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e of more t h a n o n e development l e v e l '
provides s a f e refuges within climbing d i s t a n c e in the early s t a g e s of a
project. Eventually, however, t h e s e c o n d s h a f t m u s t be c o n s t r u c t e d .
 The requirement for more than one e s c a p e route, however, d o e s not
extend t o the construction of individual mining-level tunnels. It i s a c c e p t e d
that only one route is required from a working area (heading) t o a trunk line
tunnel; it is the collective e g r e s s from the d e e p working l e v e l s t o the ground
surface that must be duplicated.

C. Ventilation

The u s e of two or more ventilation s h a f t s always should be considered

for any s i z e a b l e mining project. M i n e s frequently add s h a f t s for the s o l e
purpose of increasing ventilation c a p a c i t y . In f a c t , some of the present
development in "big-hole" drilling c a n be traced t o t h i s need. Shafts having
a lined diameter of s i x t o eight f e e t normally suffice for t h i s purpose.
Ventilation of e x t e n s i v e underground workings is greatly simplified, improved
and c o s t s reduced by providing a t l e a s t two s h a f t s in the ventilation system.

The ambient rock temperature undergound is related t o t h e average

annual surface temperature and i n c r e a s e s w i t h depth of shaft. About one
degree i n c r e a s e per 100 feet of depth c a n be assumed if more definitive
information i s not available. This c a n greatly i n c r e a s e ventilation require-
ments if the project is located in certain a r e a s i n t h e United S t a t e s . For
example, ambient temperatures of 970 F have been recorded 2 , 0 0 0 f e e t below
-
the surface in the South Carolina Georgia a r e a . Another ventilation factor
is the type of material being mined. Ventilation i n uranium mines recently
h a s been increased drastically b e c a u s e of t h e s i l i c o s i s problem.

Tunnel s a f e t y orders require a n air supply of from 50 t o 100 cubic f e e t

per minute (cfrn) per square foot of heading a t the working f a c e , o r a
minimum of 200 cfm per person plus (typically) 75 cfm per d i e s e l horsepower
u s e d , or a n overall a i r velocity of not l e s s than 30 f e e t per minute (fpm)
where drilling, b l a s t i n g , or other a c t i v i t i e s produce d u s t , fumes, or similar
pollutants in harmful quantities. Assuming for t h i s d i s c u s s i o n that two
80-horsepower muck hauling u n i t s w i l l be required, for the 325 square foot
tunnels c o n s i d e r e d , t h a t only one heading a t a time w i l l be a c t i v e , and t h a t
no more than 30 men w i l l be underground a t o n e time, t h e s e a r e a l , personnel,
and velocity criteria result in minimum theoretical volumes of from 10,000 t o
3 2 , 0 0 0 c f m , without any consideration of h e a t buildup, w h i c h , a s w i l l be
shown, .could be intolerable.

If an open plenum exhaust velocity in the shaft of 20 m i l e s per hour,

or 1 , 7 5 0 f e e t per minute, is u s e d , the required c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a is
10 square f e e t for supply and the same for e x h a u s t i f the men and machines
criteria apply and 19 square f e e t if the larger of t h e heading area criteria
a p p l i e s . If 500 f e e t of tunnel per day i s required and t h e advance r a t e is
80 f e e t per day per tunnel, e a c h shaft a r e a must be i n c r e a s e d SIX-fold.
The required shaft diameter f0.r combined supply and e x h a u s t would
be 12.5 for t h e smaller requirement, 19 for t h e larger. Using separate/
,
1
s h a f t s , the requirements would be 9 a n d 13.5 f e e t , respectively. If t h e
tunnels are spread over a wide a r e a , i t might be more efficient a n d economical
t o u s e two exhaust s h a f t s ; t h e s e would have diameters of 6 or 9.5 f e e t .
These s i z e s do not consider a r e a reduction due t o equipage, the 2000-foot
elevation. c h a n g e , or heat inputs from tunnel lighting, equipment, transpor-
t a t i o n , or excavation, or from the supply f a n s themselves.

The ventilation requirements set forth by various a g e n c i e s vary greatly.

Therefore, the controlling c o d e s a n d laws should be a s c e r t a i n e d a t a n
early s t a g e in design. Factors other than code requirements, however, w i l l
undoubtedly govern.

There h a s been insufficient time in t h i s study t o make a .detailed

a n a l y s i s of ventilation requirements. Such a study would have had little
validity in any event considering t h i s w i d e range of variables t h a t could be
encountered within t h e United S t a t e s . Some idea of what could be required,
however, c a n be obtained from s u c h a n a n a l y s i s made for a similar facility
in the 970 F ambient .rock temperature c i t e d previously. The equivalent of
two of the 325 square-foot headings were t o be advanced 40 f e e t per day.
The d i s t a n c e from surface to'furthest heading w a s limited t o 6,000 f e e t . ~ l l
construction heat load sources w a s considered i n addition t o the personnel
and equipment ventilation requirements. It w a s .considered n e c e s s a r y t o
i n s t a l l a chilled a i r system w i t h a refrigeration capacity of 500 t o n s t o c h i l l
the a i r t o a 300 c h i l l relative to the rock. Even with t h e s u b s t a n t i a l chilling,
t h e ventilation requirements w e r e approximately 180,000 cfm Using a i r .
velocities of 1 , 7 5 0 fpm t o permit shaft u s e for other functions--access and
muck transport--required separate shaft a r e a s i n e x c e s s of 100 square f e e t
for ventilation a i r alone.

If t h i s requirement is applied t o 6 simultaneous 80 f e e t per day h e a d i n g s ,

and if 100 square f e e t i s added for equipage--materials s k i p s , personnel
.
h o i s t s , partitions, l a d d e r s , p i p e l i n e s , e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u i t s , e t c --cross
s e c t i o n a l a r e a s on the order of 400 square f e e t for separate s h a f t s are required.
The corresponding shaft lined diameters are 23 f e e t a n d 32 f e e t , respectively.
Since t h e ,largest shaft now known is e l l i p t i c a l with diameters of 33'-6"
a n d 35'-O", the advisability of multiple. s h a f t s , become obvious.

An extreme c a s e h a s been c i t e d above, admittedly. The flow velocities

could be doubled, halving t h e area requirements, but then neither s h a f t
could be u s e d for a c c e s s . Elimination of the c h i l l e d a i r plant m a k e s , t h e
analysis applicable t o a greater geographic a r e a .
D. Other Size Considerations

Continuing the minimum two-shaft c o n c e p t , one shaft would supply a i r

and .also provide personnel a c c e s s t o permit maximum efficiency in t h e
exhaust/materials shaft. The materials shaft must be s i z e d for two spoil
o r materials s k i p s or buckets operating simultaneously t o handle t h e 500 t o n s
per hour resulting from excavating 500 f e e t of tunnel per d a y , s i n c e 12 trips
per hour i s a practical maximum for a 2000-foot s h a f t .

A 4.2 cubic yard muck bucket 5.0 f e e t in diameter and 5 . 8 f e e t d e e p is

a standard shaft sinking unit. Buckets mounted on,wire rope guides should
have a t l e a s t 12 i n c h e s c l e a r a l l around. This r e s u l t s in a minimum operating
diameter of 14 f e e t , which is a l s o considered by shaft sinking s p e c i a l i s t s
t o be the most economic shaft size in c v s t per lirleal fowt.

If a full f a c e tunnel boring m.achine on the, order of 22 feet in diameter

is u s e d for tunnel excavation t o circumscribe t h e planned 1 8 x 18 horseshoe
section in a n effort t o meet planned production n o t e s the materials shaft
must be capable of lowering large subassemblies. A 14-foot shaft c a n handle
a t most a' unit 9.5 f e e t square or 6 by 12 f e e t in c r o s s s e c t i o n , w h e r e a s u n i t s
11 f e e t square or ,6 by 14 f e e t c a n be handled in a 16-foot shaft. While
e x a c t dimensions cannot be e s t a b l i s h e d without further investigation of
both rock properties and equipment d e s i g n , there is a possibility t h a t a
shaft even larger than 16 f e e t i n diameter w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o provide for
s u c h a machine.

In sound rock, a permanent concrete lining 12 inches thick w i l l

normally suffice. Thus two f e e t should be added t o lined diameters t o '.
arrive. a t excavated diameters. If t h e w a t e r problem is severe or t h e ground
b a d , adding four f e e t (24-inch lining) i s more appropriate.

When planning large s h a f t s , i t should be remembered that only con-

ventio'nal t e c h n i q u e s , described in the following c h a p t e r , c a n be u s e d .

Mechanized equipment, described in the second chapter following, h a s

potential advantages in time and c o s t but, with a few exceptions i s ' . .
limited t o the smaller diameters. Raise boring (excavating a shaft from the
bottom up --which requires a n existing s h s f t and development level) 'has
been used only t o the 15-feet and under diameters; the maximum possible
with existing units is 20 f e e t . Blind-hole drilling (blind, or "big-hole"
drilling u s c s a large diameter bit or cutter to drill 'from the surface without
benefit of a guide h o l e , using technique similar t o oil-well drilling), if i t i s
required,should be considered only for holes l e s s than 12 feet in diameter
in relatively soft rocks; a 16-.foot diameter might be possible under certain
conditions. Down-hole boring equipment i s presently limited t o 12 f e e t or
l e s s , although 1977 may s e e a doubling of t h a t capability. These limitations
of techniques should be borne in mind when sizing and costing s h a f t s .
E, Costs

The c o s t s of s h a f t s vary widely. The principal variables affecting '

c o s t s are geologic--the type a n d s p e c i f i c s of the bedrock, the type and .

amount of overburden, and t h e groundwater conditions. Poor geology c a n
e a s i l y double or triple the c o s t of a s h a f t in favorable ground. - S.ince most
s h a f t s are constructed for private b u s i n e s s e s , c o s t information is rarely ' -
included in specific project descriptions in the technical p r e s s . .Two s u c h
reports, however, indicate the great range .in c o s t s . A s h a f t completed in
1976 near Lafayette, La. , w a s reported to c o s t . $ 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . Driven intb '

a s a l t dome, i t w a s only 244 f e e t d e e p a n d had a lined diameter of only

eight feet; s e e "Representative Projects" in the next chapter for further
d e t a i l s . In c o n t r a s t , a shaft for 500 f e e t d e e p a n d 28.5 f e e t in lined
diameter constructed in 1964 for the National Aeronautics Space Agency in
..
Cleveland, Ohio, c o s t only $800,000. (2)

In c o n t r a s t , the .variables which man controls--size, depth, use--

change the shaft c o s t s only a small fraction a s much a s the geologic
variables. A shaft with a lined diameter of 20 f e e t and depth of 2 , 0 0 0 f e e t
w i l l quite likely c o s t between, s a y , three a n d ' s i x million dollars a t today's
prices , depending on the geology. Adding or deducting.,! 7000..feet of depth
quite likely would change the c o s t by only one t'z
two millions. The high *
c o s t of setting u p the s h a f t sinking operation is indicated by a c o s t of a ' shaft
only 300 t o 500 f e e t d e e p a l s o costing shy one t o two million dollars.

The minimum economic diameter of shafts sunk by conventional methods

h a s already been d i s c u s s e d . The above 20-foot diameter shaft is larger
than t h i s s i z e . Increasing the diameter t o s a y 30 f e e t would likely i n c r e a s e .
.
t h e c o s t by, s a y , 50 percent, i . e , the ratio of the diameters rather than
the c r o s s sectional a r e a s . Diameter c h a n g e s near the minimum economic
diameter, which i s roughly 15 f e e t , r e s u l t in a considerably l e s s e r c o s t
c h a n g e , probably l e s s than half the percentage diameter change.

The u s e of the s h a f t , a s reflected. by i t s equipping, c a u s e s a very minor

.
change in c o s t for conventional u s e s The most pronounced effect of u s e ,
however, i s if the s h a f t must be kept perfectly dry a n d migration of water
on the outside of the shaft down t o mining level prevented. Such a combi-
nation of requirements might i n c r e a s e the c o s t ten t o twenty percent. The
hidden factor here is that while the difficulty, a n d therefore the c o s t , of
meeting t h e s e requirements i n c r e a s e s rapidly a s t h e groundwater conditions
become more s e v e r e , t h e s e same rock conditions a l s o increase 'the general
s h a f t construction c o s t s very rapidly. A s a result the a c t u a l dollar range
of the c o s t of positive water control i s much greater than .the small percentage
range indicates .
 . I t must be emphasized t h a t the above d i s c u s s i o n on c o s t according
t o diameter, depth, and u s e is very generalized and is intended only to
provide a rough rule-of-thumb comparison for evaluating differe.nt diameters,
s i t e s , a n d ground conditions. . . .

The c o s t of a shaft a l s o depends on project s t a t u s . Obviously, the

first shaft on a project must be sunk conventionally or blind drilled. If
blind drilled, the shaft must be relatively small, s a y l e s s than t e n f e e t i n
diameter. Subsequent s h a f t s on the project could be r a i s e d bored if con-
ditions w e r e suitable. The economy p o s s i b l e and effect on project layout
is s u b s t ntial. A 1973 report on the s t a t e of the art in blind and r a i s e
d r i l l i n g J 3 ) indicated that a s e r i e s of shallow s h a f t s , 300 t o 600 f e e t d e e p
a n d about 12 f e e t in diameter, in W e s t e r n Pennsylvania w e r e sunk conven-
tionally and lined but not grouted for $500 t o $550 per foot w h i l e r a i s e bored
s h a f t s w e r e pregrouted, drilled, a n d lined for about $400 t o $500 per foot
in 50 t o 75 percent of t h e time required for conventional methods. Presumably,
multiple u s e of equipment and c r e w s aided in holding c o s t s down.
 CHAPTER 4

CONVENTIONAL SHAFT CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

"Conventional" refers here t o the method of s h a f t sinking t h a t h a s

been practiced for y e a r s . It is a method that h a s proven c a p a b l e of handling
any s h a f t condition y e t encountered. There are other t e c h n i q u e s , a l s o
proven now, that c a n or should be u s e d in s p e c i a l i n s t a n c e s , and t h o s e
are d i s c u s s e d in the following chapter.

A, General Procedure

The standard, or conventional, or traditional, method of s h a f t sinking

involves "collaring t h e h o l e " , erecting a headframe and sinking s t a g e , and
proceeding downward using a repetitive c y c l e of drilling, b l a s t i n g , and
mucking. During drilling and mucking portions of the c y c l e , concrete forms
a r e s e t and the w a l l s poured above t h e excavated a r e a .

The first s t e p in shaft sinking, collaring ,the h o l e , c o n s i s t s of removing

t h e overburden t o expose the bedrock. Procedures vary according t o the
s p e c i f i c s of the s i t e . To the shaft s i n k e r , t h e l e s s overburden, the better.
If t h e overburden i s shallow, a large pit with sloping s i d e s i s e x c a v a t e d
until the bedrock i s exposed. ~ h e n ' acircular shaft,generally of reinforced
c o n c r e t e , is formed and poured back u p t o surface level. Meanwhile, the
foundation for the sinking headframe is constructed. Where practical, the
foundation w i l l be the same a s for the permanent headframe.. In other c a s e s ,
a circular s h e e t piling cofferdam i s driven, the interior e x c a v a t e d , and the
c o l l a r constructed within i t s protection. If the overburden i s d e e p , the u s e of
segmental s t e e l liner plate rings may be the appropriate temporary support
system; t h i s requires a slow, ring by ring advance through t h e overburden.
Grouting.may be required t o s t a b i l i z e the ground. In certain a d v e r s e
s i t u a t i o n s , s'lurry .walls (walls with concrete placed by tremie
in a circular trench filled with a s p e c i a l fluid t o s t a b i l i z e t h e trench w a l l s )
may he required. In o t h e r s , a freeze ring is the only practical temporary
support. In e x t r e m e ' c a s e s , great depths of overburden today may dictate
t h e shaft sinking method. For example, the shaft may be drilled blind
a n d t h e c a s i n g floated in i n s t e a d of slowly fighting down through t h e over--
burden using soft ground mining techniques. (This i s d i s c u s s e d in the
following chapter.) After the shaft is c o l l a r e d , the headframe is e r e c t e d .

The collaring process w i l l normally result i n a n excavation a t l e a s t

50 f e e t d e e p for a major shaft, even though the overburden may be only five
f e e t thick. This is t o provide s p a c e within which t o erect t h e multi-level
excavating s t a g e and t o reeve the supporting wire ropes. Figure 4-1
i l l u s t r a t e s one type of collar and excavating process; i t , a s w e l l a s the

P
other illustrations in the c h a p t e r , i s taken from "Complex Equipment for
Sinking and Drilling of Vertical S h a f t s , " by I T . A. Malevich.

The headframe w i l l be from 100 t o 200 f e e t high, again depending upon

s p e c i f i c s . Sometimes the permanent headframe is constructed, sometimes
the permanent housing with temporary hoisting g e a r i n s t a l l e d , and sometimes
only a temporary headframe is i n s t a l l e d for the equipment. Figure 4-2 shows
.
t h e rather complex arrangement of w i n c h e s , h o i s t s , e t c required a t a
shaft s i t e . (Dimensions thereon are in metric .)

The excavating s t a g e i s a multideck affair designed t o support s e v e r a l

simultaneous operations. In t h i s country, a four-deck Galloway s t a g e is
most often u s e d . Figure 4-3 shows a five-deck platform, and most of t h e
equipment required. Figure 4-4 shows the location of the major items of
equipment; it is a composite, not a l l are located on the same d e c k . Figure
4-5 show^ the sequence of oper-atluns; the equipment depicted is Russian.
U s e of a w a l l protection s h i e l d i s not common in North American practice,
althougn i f concreting is c l o s e l y following excavating, mats may be u s e d
t o reduce fly rock and damage to forms.

The work c y c l e in sinking through rock is the b a s i c mining c y c l e of

drilling, shooting, and mucking. Holes a r e drilled into the rock a t t h e
heading (bottom of shaft) in a pattern c a l c u l a t e d t o produce the b e s t
breakage a t l e a s t c o s t . The s t a g e is then r a i s e d 50 f e e t or more, the h o l e s
charged with e x p l o s i v e , and the b l a s t initiated. After "blowing smoke"
(ventilating), the s t a g e i s lowered, and the muck (broken rock) excavated.
Two general t y p e s of equipment are u s e d , a Cryderman mucker (a clamshell
on the e n d of a n extendable arm) or a c a c t u s grab (a relative of the orange
peel bucket). The muck is hoisted t o the surface in. large buckets of
5 c u b i c yard c a p a c i t y , or larger. The buckets travel a t high s p e e d (3000 fpm)
on rope guides. After t h e bottom is c l e a n e d , the c y c l e is repeated'.

Even though the rock is of good quality, the shaft may be advanced in
s t e p s (half-faces) rather than full f a c e (full shaft c r o s s section). That i s ,
there may be a s t e p on the order of 4 f e e t high between the two b e n c h e s ,
( f a c e s ) , with work alternating between benches. This permits sumping if
w a t e r is present, i t a l s o permits "blowing down" with a i r t o c l e a n the f a c e
of rock before drilling begins. This is a n important safety feature that h e l p s
locate any h o l e s containing unexploded dynamite cartridges. (A 9-foot d e e p
round may be drilled, and 9 f e e t "pulled"; t h i s lowers t h e bench, originally
4 feet above the other shaft bench t o four f e e t below t h e other bench.)

Forming and pouring of the concrete w a l l s proceed simultaneously

w i t h the drilling and r-lucking portions of t h e c y c l e , from the upper s t a g e
l e v e l s . This s a v e s construction time, but, more importantly, i f the rock
quality i s not good, or i f the rock i s w a t e r bearing, i t s t a b i l i z e s the wall
and./or r e d u c e s water inflow.
Fig. 74. SurJbce hyout of cquipnrent while' sinking with the complex m e 1
KS-ZU,
- -
1 hoist; 2 winch LPM-10 for rope guides; 3 - winch L P K w 5 0 0
for suj$ovCilrg safety ladder;4 - winch LP-35 fw supparting sink-
-
ing scaffold; 5 winch f m holding pipeline for lowerixg conmete
-
mix; 6 wmch LP-5 f' dischmging concrete mix to bunker;
-
7 winch LPM-10 f m shuffw@?;8 - winch 2LPM-10 fw uenfib-
- -
tion pipe; 9 winch 2LPM-10 for compressed air pipe; 10 winch
LMP-10 f b PUT@.
~

Figure 4-2
Fig. 62. Dhgrammatic sketch of equipment b c a t i a in shajt while sinking
wiih complex KB -1.
-
1 bucket BPS-2;2 - p u m p PPN-50x12; 3 - pipeline fm lozucring
concrefe mix; 4 - winch LPPG for suspending pneulnatic loader
-
KS-3F;5 -pipeline for compressed a i r ; 6 safely ladder; 7 - p i p e -
-
line for venfilafion;8 - rope for srspending shuttering; 9 r o p e
-
fw srtspending platform; 10 -guide ropes; I 1 cables for signall-
~ connection; 12 - firw cuble.
ing, l i g l ~ t i n gand

Figure 4 - 4
 Phase n Phase m Phase n

7 7 Cyclic o p e r a t i a s in the parallel method of shaftsinking using mono -

Zithic concrete lining.
-
pnuse I - rock loading, loruering of cwb ring; phase 11 lowerbg
of shrrttwing, Iirlitfg, Imding nf m e k s : films,! TIT - Ip?awix.s" of
-
shield.and drilling of holes; pltase IV raising of deck, charging
of holes, lowering of shield, blasting, and face ventilation.

Figure 4-5
 The shaft is partially equipped from t b t o p deck of the s t a g e a s i t
d e s c e n d s . The concrete forms are first removed for r e u s e , then the various
pipe l i n e s installed. A separate trip o f the s t a g e is n e c e s s a r y t o complete
the equipping of t h e shaft -- placing buntons, brattice w a l l s , e t c .
The rate of sinking varies greatly with s p e c i f i c s . At l e a s t three
months i s typically required t o collar the s h a f t , erect t h e headframe, and
equip for sinking. A r a t e of sinkin'g of 150 t o 200 f e e t per month is considered
a good advance in the United S t a t e s , but new techniques may i n c r e a s e t h i s
by 50 percent. (As a n item of i n t e r e s t , a Southern African shaft .--Western
Reefs No. 4 -- w a s sunk 1 , 1 1 8 f e e t in October, 1961, but t h e daily down
shaft crew totalled 450 men!)

Shaft sinking is rarely a s .simple a s s e t forth above.. Ground .water

co!.~ditionsvary tremendously and dictate .numerous control procedures.
Required linings a l s o vsry widely. The follo-fling s e c t i o n s consider some of
t h e s e factors; much of t h i s material i s taken directly from the October, 1972
"Status Report, Deep Shaft Studies" for the Bedrock W a s t e Storage Project
for the Savannah River Plant of the United States Atomic Energy Commission.

B. W a t e r Control Techniques

Other elements not controlling, a shaft location involving a minimum

of ground w a t e r should be s e l e c t e d . Unfbrtunately , t h e underground workings
and surface developments rarely permit t h i s . The shaft sinker then must
have a variety of w a t e r control methods a t h i s command.

i
If ground w a t e r is minimal, the shaft may be advanced through both
overburden and bedrock using only sumping in t h e bottom of the excavation.
If greater control i s required in t h e overburden a d the overburden is granular,
a few d e e p w e l l s w i l l control t h e w a t e r and permit excavation in t h e dry.
If the s o i l is fine grained, one or more s t a g e s of w e l l p o i n t s . c a n be u s e d o r ,
if s p a c e i s r e s t r i c t e d , eductors may be u s e d .

Grouting h a s a longer historical record of ground stabilization in rock

than any. other method. It h a s proven most effective in porous or f i s s u r e d
rocks w h e r e , even though permeabilities a r e small, openings are large
enough for cement particles t o enter and hydrate or for chemical grouts t o
penetrate. It a l s o h a s application in the overburden. However, i t is not
effective in very fine grained s o i l s . The degree of w a t e r shutoff i n c r e a s e s
in some proportion to. the time and money spent. Reduction of flow s a r e
rapid a t first; complete shutoff, however, is normally unnecessary on most
projects. Numerous types of grouts are u s e d depending on the s i z e of
f i s s u r e s t o be grouted. C l a y , c e m e n t , and chemical grouts are u s e d for
s u c c e s s i v e l y smaller pores; AM9 and TDM are two of the better known low
viscosity grouts u s e d t o s e a l off very small c h a n n e l s . Structural capacity

P of the grouts varies a s does the g e l time. The problem in grouting is t o inter-
s e c t a l l of the flow c h a n n e l s . A "shoot and grout" technique h a s been
developed recently where small explosive charges a r e s e t off for the Purpose
of creating more, but intersecting, f i s s u r e s ; the method appears t o improve
grouting efficiency.

Grouting is u s e d in preference t o freezing whenever i t is e f f e c t i v e , for

the savings in both c o s t and time i s substantial. Analysis of complete
s o i l samples i s required t o determine which method must be u s e d . At l e a s t
one Canadian potash shaft incurred considerable unwarranted c o s t because
of t h e inadequacy of t h e sampling program. Grouting is not e f f e c t i v e in
unconsolidated materials having a significant percentage of f i n e s . Freezing,
on the other hand,introduces expansion s t r e s s e s sufficjent t o crack concrete
linings a s the ground thaws and the shaft r e a c h e s operating temperature.
Accordingly, i t i s standard procedure in frozen s h a f t s t o grout behind the
lining a s t h e ground thaws back from the shaft t o counteract t h e effect of t h i s
cracking. Grni.iting i s effective here where i t would not be without freezing
a s grout travel is inhibited and therefore i t c a n be forced into the smaller
pores. Grouting h a s t h e advantage of being a b l e t o permanently improve
t h e structural c a p a c i t y of t h e formation w h e r e a s 'freezing cannot.

The freezing process h a s been u s e d for nearly 90 y e a r s t o stabilize

w a t e r bearing sediments during shaft sinking operations. No other method
i s a s versatile in handling a s wide a range of s o i l s and rock conditions.
Many f a c t o r s must be considered --the depth t o be frozen, the quality,
quantity, and velocity of w a t e r in t h e s t r a t a , t h e thermal and structural
.
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the frozen s o i l s , e t c In designing a freezing system ,
the required t h i c k n e s s of i c e w a l l must be c a l c u l a t e d a n d , in: turn', the
spacing of the freeze holes a n d t h diameter on which the holes a r e t o be
placed determined. Spacings w i l l vary from 3.5 t o 6 . 5 f e e t , and must t a k e
i n t o account the drilling accuracy; the f r e e z e ring diameter w i l l b e located
from 6 t o 12 f e e t outside the excavated diameter, with a rough rule of thumb
being the lined diameter plus 20 f e e t in typical c a s e s . The frozen d i s t a n c e
on t h e i n s i d e of the ring typically i s 50% greater than on .the o u t s i d e . A
c e n t r a l observatio'n and pressure relief hole is e s s e n t i a l , fluid pressure
i n c r e a s e s a s high a s 400 p s i having been developed a s freeziny progressed
i n s i d e a c l o s e d ring. Calcium chloride brine i s t h e freezing agent most
frequently u s e d . The freezing agent is circulated down a polyethylene pipe
2 t o 3 i n c h e s in i n s i d e diameter and back u p the annulus between i t and a
5.5- t o 6.5-inch diameter s t e e l c a s i n g which i s i n s t a l l e d a n d grouted in
a somewhat larger drill hole. These freeze holes must be accurately
loacted; t h i s w a s impossible before the advent of t h e turbo drill; now the
drill holes are sueveyed and when n e c e s s a r y a one- t o two-degree angle
correction made in a run of perhaps 30 f e e t with a turbo drill.

C . Excavation Techniques

Excavation is generally routine once the surrounding formations have

been stabilized. Unconsolidated formations are e x c a v a t e d by pneumatic
t o o l s a s required --air s p a c e s , jackhammers, a n d pavement breakers. Small
rippers may b e employed. Drilling a n d blasting correspond w i t h normal
practice in rock. Controlled b l a s t i n g t e c h n i q u e s s u c h a s " smooth w'all" or
"presplitting" a r e u s e d t o minimize damage t o the surrounding rock. T h e s e
t e c h n i q u e s a l l employ c l o s e l y s p a c e d h o l e s drilled around .the periphery of
t h e s h a f t . The h o l e s may be left unfilled or f i l l e d w i t h s p e c i a l reduced
strength c h a r g e s w h i c h a r e exploded e i t h e r just a h e a d of or following t h e
c h a r g e s in t h e primary h o l e s . The trademark of t h i s t e c h n i q u e is a s e r i e s
of half round drill h o l e s left o n t h e w a l l of t h e s h a f t .

U n l e s s a shaft i s very l a r g e , t h e e x c a v a t e d material w i l l be picked

u p by equipment mounted on t h e underside of t h e s h a f t sinking s t a g e a n d
d e p o s i t e d in m a t e r i a l s s k i p s w h i c h in turn a r e h o i s t e d through openings in
t h e s t a g e and u p t o t h e . s u r f a c e . ~ o n n a l two l ~ hoisting compartments a r e
u s e d t o permit e x c a v a t i o n t o continue without interruption. In s m a l l s h a f t s
w h e r e only a s i n g l e s k i p c a n be u s e d , d e t a c h a b l e b u c k e t s a r e employed.
In m o s t c a s e s either a c a c t u s grab o r a Crydennan mucker is used' t o c o l l e c t
a n d place t h e e x c a v a t e d material in t h e s k i p s .

D. ' Linings

C o n c r e t e , e i t h e r plain or reinforced, is u s e d w h e n e v e r p r a c t i c a l due

t o i t s pronounced c o s t advantage and e a s e ot placement. C o n c r e t e lliiiiigs
a r e frequently placed concurrently w i t h e x c a v a t i o n b e c a u s e of t h e protec-
tion afforded t h e workmen below. W h e n t h i s is d o n e , a multi-level s t a g e
is u s e d s o t h a t forms may be removed, handle.d, a n d r e s e t a n d c o n c r e t e
poured w h i l e e x c a v a t i o n is continuing below. Approximately 20 -foot l i f t s
a r e poured. A kerb-ring is s e t a c c u r a t e l y t o line a n d grade for repositioning
t h e forms. When minimal inflow is a n t i c i p a t e d , t h e c l o s u r e joint between
a new pour and t h e prior pour above is drypacked; w h e n more w a t e r or w a t e r
under high pressure is a n t i c i p a t e d , t h e new pour i s placed a g a i n s t t h e old a n d
t h e joint g r o u t e d . . The formation o u t s i d e of t h e s h a f t is a l s o grouted when-
e v e r infiltration must b e r e d u c e d .

W h e n a c o n c r e t e lining is u s e d in ground s t a b i l i z e d by f r e e z i n g , some

s h a f t sinking s p e c i a l i s t s , p r e f e r t o line permanently a s t h e y e x c a v a t e ,
allowing a generous w a l l t h i c k n e s s t o c o m p e n s a t e for pouring a g a i n s t t h e
frozen g r o l ~ n d . The d i s c u s s i o n of t h e Dutch S t a t e M i n e s l a t e r in t h i s c h a p t e r
g i v e s i n s i g h t into t h e temperature conditions encountered. Other s p e c i a l i s t s
prefer pouring a minimal protective lining w h i l e e x c a v a t i n g a n d "dry-
w a l l i n g " back u p w i t h t h e permanent lining w h i c h c a n t h e n be, somewhat
thinner.

Very thick c o n c r e t e w a l l s ' a r e required w h e n t h e a n t i c i p a t e d w a t e r

p r e s s u r e s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l . Even t h e n , t h e pressures, w i l l e n l a r g e very small
l e a k a g e further into c o n s i d e r a b l e l e a k s requiring repair after some y e a r s , or
perhaps after only months. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , c a s t iron segmental
rings ("tubbingu) h a v e been employed in t h e p a s t . The s e g m e n t s , typically
five f e e t high, 6 . 2 8 f e e t i n l e n g t h , a n d w i t h w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s of four i n c h e s
or more, a r e joined by bolting. Lead s h e e t s in t h e joints a n d grommets
around t h e b o l t s a r e u s e d t o minimize inflow. W h e n u s e d in frozen ground,
r e p e a t e d tightening of t h e b o l t s a n d c a u l k i n g of t h e j o i n t s , particularly the
horizontal o n e s , a r e n e c e s s a r y a s t h e ground t h a w s .

W h e n tubbing is u s e d without a c o n c r e t e l i n i n g , t h e void behind t h e

tubbing, and t h e rock formation a s w e l l , m u s t b e grouted. More o f t e n , t h e
tubbing is employed i n conjunction w i t h a c o n c r e t e lining e i t h e r i n s i d e or
o u t s i d e t h e tubbing. Again s h a f t sinking s p e c i a l i s t s differ. Some e r e c t
tubbing a s they proceed downward; o t h e r s prefer t o s t a r t from a firm founda-
tion a t t h e bottom. The more-unstable t h e ground, t h e more. likely t h a t t h e
tubbing w i l l be i n s t a l l e d a s e x c a v a t i o n p r o g r e s s e s . Leakage is rarely
eliminated completely w i t h c a s t iron linings: rather it is minimized t o
a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s . Some c a s t i r o n lined s h a f t s have , a n e x p e r i e n c e record of
ncsrly 100 y e a r s .

German trained s h a f t s i n k e r s i n s i s t t h a t only a w e l d e d s t e e l l i n i n s

.
c a n provide a d e q u a t e w a t e r t i g h t n e s s W h i l e s t e e l linings a l o n e c a n b e
u s e d , w h e n - t h e w a t e r p r e s s u r e is g r e a t a composite lining composed of outer
a n d inner w e l d e d s t e e l cylinders with c o n c r e t e sandwiched between is u s e d .
Except for floated-in linings u s e d w i t h t h e fluid f i l l e d big-hole drilling
technique d e s c r i b e d i n t h e next c h a p t e r , t h e s e linings a r e invariably c o n -
structed upwards from t h e bottom of t h e s h a f t . Grout pipes for c o n t a c t
(formation) grouting may be i n s t a l l e d . The annular s p a c e between t h e o u t e r
s t e e l s h e e l and t h e ground i s filled w i t h grout.

E . In-Service ~ e a k a q e ' c o n t r o l

It is c o n s i d e r e d axiomatic for some p r o j e c t s , e . g . , p o t a s h m i n e s or

nuclear w a s t e s t o r a g e , t h a t n o w a t e r b e allowed t o e n t e r t h e bedrock formation
anywhere i n t h e vicinity of t h e mining or storage a r e a s .. It follows t h a t
no liquid b e allowed t o e n t e r t h e mining or s t o r a g e formation through or
around the s h a f t w h i c h undoubtedly w i l l b e p a s s i n g through w a t e r bearing
formatiot~s.

The amount of w a t e r permitted t o infiltrate thr0ugh.a lining a s defined

by the term " s a t i s f a c t o r y w a t e r shutoff" d e p e n d s on t h e u s e for the s h a f t .
A coal. mine c a n t o l e r a t e c o n s i d e r a b l e inflow; a potash mine practically none;
a n u c l e a r w a s t e repository a b s o l u t e l y none. Grouting s p e c i a l i s t s maintain
t h a t any required infiltration minimum c a n be met in rock without r e c o u r s e t o
a w e l d e d s t e e l lining. Satisfactory conditions have been a c h i e v e d e v e n i n
the running s a n d s of t h e Blainnore by grouting behind the lining a s the
surrounding ground t h a w s back from the w a l l s . A s many a s t h r e e s t a g e s of
grouting a t s u c c e s s i v e l y higher p r e s s u r e s have been u s e d . O b v i o u s l y , a
properly c o n s t r u c t e d w e l d e d s tee1 lining should not require t h i s ground
treatment.
 It i s worth noting here that specific studies may demonstrate that a n
infiltration of a few gallons a day may be acceptable due t o the large volume
of a i r required for ventilation. It h a s been noted in some s h a f t s for ventila-
tion and other functions that damp s p o t s on the w a l l do not c r e a t e trickles of
w a t e r a t a lower elevation. This is probably because the infiltratilig water
is evaporated by the ventilation a i r . The allowable amount certainly i s
influenced by both combined temperatures and ventilation requirements.
While the amount cannot be f o r e c a s t , i t i s felt quantities a s high a s four
t o five gallons per hour range might be acceptable.' The problem i s w h a t w i l l
be the situation when large a i r volumes a r e no longer required for mining
purposes.

When major aquifers a r e contained .between impermeable formations,

a s occurs w i t h . t h e Blairmore in the Saskatchewan potash f i e l d s , it is
necessary t o instal;. s e a l s outside the shaft pro.per t o prevent t h e flow of
t h i s w a t e r up or down the exterior of the shaft t o other permeable formations
a n d then find i t s way into the mine b y some other route. In recent y e a r s
' ,

chem.ica1 s e a l s have, been developed which effectively prevent this migration.

Inasmuch a s the service records for s u c h s e a l s are short while t h e require-
ments of a project may be' long term, they are not considered further here
s i n c e a satisfactory sealing method e x i s t s which h a s a long and proven
history of e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

Picotage rings (sometimes spelled.'pikotage) , a l s o known a s "Keikranz"

or wedging rings',' are the time honored system for preventing migration
along the exterior of shaft w a l l s . These s e a l s normally are llsed in conjunc-
tion with c a s t irnti tubbing, but s p e c i a l fabricated s t e e l rings may a l s o be
u s e d ,locally. A s p e c i a l ring is fabricate.d which i s much deeper in the
through.wal1 dimension than the standard, tubbing. The s e a l is then con-
structed between the s p e c i a l c a s t iron ring and the impermeable rock
formation. U s e of t h e s e rings i s described for specific s h a f t s later i n t h i s
chapter. Up t o 15,000 dimensioned wooden wedges may be required t o
construct s u c h a s e a l only 8 -inches wide around' a 16-foot diameter shaft.

Since picotage is a relatively little known technique outside the shaft

sinking s p e c i a l t y , i t merits a few words of explanation. Ba.sically, i t i s a
process of driving ever smaller wedges into an ever tightening r i n g until
absolute refusal i~ encountered. The ring i s laid originally with rectangular
mating w e d g e s typically about eight i n c h e s long, of a nominal one by eight
i n c h e s in blunt c r o s s .section, and tapered t o a feathered e d g e . Smaller
wedges are driven 'xito a l l s p a c e s . These initial filling w e d g e s vary frov
the original one by eight blunt c r o s s section t o 1/2 by 2 t o 1/4 to 1 . 5 and
tKen from one-inch square t o 3/8-inch.square. These rectangular w e d g e s
are 10 i n c h e s long and tapered t o a feather edge. The square. w e d g e s hav?
only the bottom inch.or so tapered t o a diamond point. One driving dilficulty
becomes too great,round, tapered, pointed .dowels from 5/8 by 8 t o 1/2 by 5
a r e driven. A7r:ood such a s a straight 'grained, c l e a r oak i s used; the grain
 p a r a l l e l s t h e t a p e r . W h e n t h e wooden d o w e l s c a n n o longer be d r i v e n ,
tapered s t e e l n e e d l e s varying i n blunt e n d diameter from o n e i n c h t o 1/4
i n c h a n d nine t o t h r e e i n c h e s long a r e driven until they t o o meet r e f u s a l .
The n e e d l e s h a v e a hexagonal h e a d a n d a r e r o t a t e d t o improve penetration.

Bitumen a l s o h a s a long history of u s e i n waterproofing. A c o n s i d e r a b l e

t h i c k n e s s is required i f i t is t o be e f f e c t i v e . It h a s p a r t i c u l a r ~ a p p l i c a t i o n
for long term u s e w h e r e d i f f e r e n t i a l m0vement.s a r e a n t i c i p a t e d s i n c e i t
r e t a i n s a p l a s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h i c h permits it t o a d a p t t o t h e s e movements.
I t s u s e of c e r t a i n Dutch State M i n e s ' s h a f t s w h e r e a r e a l s e t t l e m e n t s due t o
t h e extraction of c o a l were a n t i c i p a t e d a n d w h e r e t h e v a l u e of c o a l l e f t i n
t h e conventional s h a f t support pillar w a s sufficient t o warrant reducing t h e
pillar s i z e by adding t h e protective ring of bitumen is d e s c r i b e d in t h e next
section.

F. - - R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Projects
-

Large d i a m e t e r , d e e p c i r c u l a r s h a f t s h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d i n a t . l e a s t
three widely s e p a r a t e d geographical a r e a s w h i c h a r e pertinent t o t h i s d i s -
c u s s i o n . T h e s e i n c l u d e t h e p o t a s h s h a f t s in S a s k a t c h e w a n , C a n a d a , s h a f t s
i n t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n United S t a t e s a n d c o a l mining s h a f t s in t h e Netherlands
a n d t h e German Ruhr. T h e s e a r e d e s c r i b e d in t h e following paragrslphs o r
i n t h e following c h a p t e r . Emphasis is g i v e n t o t h e difficult p r o j e c t s t o
i l l u s t r a t e t h e t r o u b l e s t h a t c a n be encountered i n s h a f t s i n k i n g .

The p o t a s h m i n e s of S a s k a t c h e w a n province i n C a n a d a a r e renowned

t o s h a f t s i n k e r s for t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered i n s h a f t s i n k i n g . The
s o u r c e of t h e trouble is a geologic stratum named t h e Blainnore w h i c h is a
f i n e , running or quick s a n d w i t h grain sizes of l e s s t h a n 0 . 1 mm accom-
panied by s i l t a n d c l a y . The formation typically is 300 t o 400 f e e t t h i c k ,
generally b e g i n s s o m e 1 , 4 0 0 t o 1 , 8 0 0 f e e t below t h e ground s u r f a c e , and
h a s w a t e r p r e s s u r e s e s s e n t i a l l y e q u a l t o t h e depth below ground. The Nisqu
formation, generally 200 f e e t t h i c k , l i e s below t h e Blairmore a n d is a
heavily w a t e r - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e formation having w a t e r p r e s s u r e s a s high
a s 9 4 0 p s i , w h i c h m a k e s for c o n s i d e r a b l e difficulty in s e a l i n g s h a f t s against: i n -
filtration w ithout exccediny t h e s t r i c t v a l u e s required t o protect t h e
p o t a s h workings. Freezing is t h e only method w h i c h h a s been u s e d s u c c e s s -
fully t o penetrate t h e Blairmore, but grouting is s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e N i s q u .

A s h a f t begun i n 1953 r a n afoul of t h e Blainnore a n d w a s a b a n d o n e d .

The f i r s t s h a f t t o b e sunk s u c c e s s f u l l y w a s for PCA's (Potash Company of
~ m e r i c a )Nn. 1 Shaft a t Patience L a k e , 15 m i l e s e a s t of S a s k a t o o n . The
shijft w a s 16 f e e t i n l i n c d diameter a n d w a s e x c a v a t e d by f r e e z i n g t h e
upper 3 , 0 0 0 f e e t of i t s 3,450-foot d e p t h .

Freezing w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d by drilling 2 7 f r e e z e h o l e s a t four-foot

P c e n t e r s on a 35-foot diameter c i r c l e (plus o n e o b s e r v a t i o n hole on t h e

s h a f t c e n t e r l i n e a n d another o u t s i d e t h e f r e e z e ring) a n d u s i n g a n 800-ton
 refrigeration plant. The shaft w a s constructed i n 28 months with excavation
and lining proceeding concurrently. The shaft lining w a s of reinforced
concrete exclusively, 48 inches thick through t h e Blairmore (extending from
1,400 t o 1,800 feet below the surface) and 18 i n c h e s thick in the s h a l e s
and limestones. Pre- and post-grouting w a s u s e d and a t t h e time of shaft
completion in June, 1958, 10 gallons per minute (gpm) were infiltrating the
s h a f t . Mining began but had t o be halted temporarily in l a t e 1959 a s
leakage had increased t o 40 gpm. Lining s p a l l s up t o 3 inches d e e p were
found. By the time repair crews were assembled in November 1959, the r a t e
had i n c r e a s e d to 200 gpm. Before the corrective treatments became e f f e c t i v e ,
the flow exceeded 300 gpm, graphic evidence of the deteriorating e f f e c t
of minute flows a t high pressure on concrete. M o s t shaft contractors
consulted f e l t a s t e e l inner lining w a s n e c e s s a r y , but the c h o s e n repair
contractor e l e c t e d grouting. The trouble showed a t the 2,000-foot level
where natural water content w a s small. The water w a s found t o be migrating
down,the outside of the original freeze tube c a s i n g s , presumably from the
Blairmore, following withdrawal of the inner freeze tubes t o 2,000 ' f e e t t o
permit the lower freeze w a l l t o melt naturally. Injection of nearly 1,000
s a c k s of cement dropped the inflow t o 33 gpm. The Blairmore w a s then
allowed t o thaw. A s the freeze retreated from the concrete lining, the back
w a s s e a l e d with chemical grout. Chemical grout w a s a l s o injected outside
the ice ring, which by then averaged 26 f e e t thick. After thawing w a s
completed, the water w a s drained from between the two rings and the m a s s
saturated w i t h grout; a l l freeze c a s i n g s w e r e similarly grouted. The leakage
having been reduced t o satisfactory l e v e l s , the mine then reopened.

Another difficult shaft i s a t t h e Alwinsal mine of Guernsey some

. 50 miles e a s t of Saskatoon. It h a s a lining composed of a double s t e e l
s h e l l with a n infill of concrete constructed within the protection of a
temporary concrete lining. (In January, 1966, a record 570 f e e t of shaft w a s
sunk and lined.) According t o t h e shaft superintendent, who h a s been
continuously engaged in shaft sinking s i n c e working on the completion of
Yarbo No. 1 in 1957, t h i s lining produced the driest shaft he h a s e v e r
constructed (personal communication).

Two shafts constructed in 1965 and 1968 near t h e above shaft shed
some interesting light on the .matter of shaft c o s t s . A shaft 18.5 f e e t in
lined diameter w a s constructed a t only four percent more c o s t than the
adjacent shaft with a lined diameter of 16 f e e t , despite t h e 15 percent
greater diameter and 33 percent greater c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a . It should
be noted, however, t h a t t h e s e diameters are c l o s e . t o the optimum s i z e for
sha.ft sinking, a n d , therefore the variation i s l e s s than probably would
occur with substantially greater diameters.

The Saskatchewan experiences show that freezing c a n be u s e d t o

penetrate formations that cannot be controlled by grouting. (The s u c c e s s
of grouting in unconsolidated strata c a n be forecast reliably only by
obtaining a d e q u a t e s a m p l e s covering t h e e n t i r e range of particle s i z e s
a n d then analyzing t h e s a m p l e s .) On t h e other h a n d , grouting c a n be
u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y in heavily water-bearing r o c k s t o s e a l off t h e formations.
A lining of c o n c r e t e a l o n e p l a c e d in a frozen s h a f t is unlikely t o b e s u c -
c e s s f u l , although in t h e case c i t e d , the lining undoubtedly w a s t o o thin.
C a s t iron lining c a n b e s u c c e s s f u l l y employed, but t h e claim made by
proponents of composite s t e e l a n d c o n c r e t e linings t h a t s u c h a lining is
superior a p p e a r s merited.

Two s h a f t s r e c e n t l y completed for C l e v e l a n d P o t a s h , Ltd. of Boulby

mine between T e e s i d e a n d Whitby near t h e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t of Yorkshire,
England, give further i n s i g h t i n t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of e x c a v a t i o n methods and
lining t y p e s .(4) TWO s h a f t s , 18 f e e t in diameter a n d 3 , 7 1 0 f e e t d e e p a r e
only 300 f e e t a p a r t . They a r e c o n s t r u c t e d through e s s e n t i a l l y dry and
competent 1~rea.ks h a l e s . , s i l t s t o n e s , a n d mudstones for 2 , 0 7 6 f e e t . The
Bunter formation, a fractured s a n d s t o n e major aquifer containing s a t u r a t e d
brine under full hydrostatic p r e s s u r e ( 1 , 4 0 0 p s i ) , o c c u r s for t h e n e x t
920 f e e t , followed by dry marls a n d then t h e potash d e p o s i t s . Both s h a f t s
w e r e e x c a v a t e d conventionally a n d simultaneously t o the 2,000-foot l e v e l ,
u s i n g drilling a n d b l a s t i n g t o e x c a v a t e , rock bolts f o r structural support
a n d a f i n i s h lining of 3 , 7 5 0 p s i c o n c r e t e . Shaft sinking r a t e s in e x c e s s of
400 f e e t per month w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d in both s h a f t s .

The u p c a s t (ventilation return air). or "Rock Shaft" w a s e x c a v a t e d

through t h e Bunter t o t h e 3,100-foot l e v e l behind t h e protection of a n ice
w a l l . An 18-inch c o n c r e t e lining w a s i n s t a l l e d i n 20-foot l i f t s c o n -
currently w i t h a n d about 60 f e e t above the e x c a v a t i o n . The permanent
lining w a s e r e c t e d upward from a s p e c i a l foundation and c o n s i s t s of inner
a n d outer s t e e l c y l i n d e r s (maximum s t e e l t h i c k n e s s 1.625 i n c h e s ) s e p a r a t e d
a n d joined by a high strength c o n c r e t e infill 2 . 5 f e e t t h i c k . The s t e e l
lining w a s delivered t o working l e v e l in 12-foot high s e c t i o n s weighing
u p t o s e v e n tons w i t h four s e c t i o n s forming t h e complete c i r c l e . Inner
a n d outer s h e l l s w e r e w e l d e d simultaneously in a s i n g l e p a s s u s i n g inert
g a s automatic w e l d i n g m a c h i n e s w i t h laterally w e a v i n g e l e c t r o d e s a n d
without preheat or s t r e s s r e l i e v i n g . The horizontal w e l d w a s made in
s e v e r a l p a s s e s . W e l d s w e r e ultrasonically t e s t e d . The lining is d e s i g n e d
for only t h e hydrostatic p r e s s u r e . The narrow s p a c e (about t h r e e i n c h e s )
between t h e s h e l l and t h e temporary lining as grouted. Also of i n t e r e s t
is t h e f a c t t h a t the 27 f r e e z e h o l e s w e r e drilled from t h e s u r f a c e on a
1 10-foot diameter c i r c l e a n d s l a n t e d t o a 41-foot diameter a t the 1,840-foot
l e v e l and through t h e Bunter; a f r e e z e chamber w a s e x c a v a t e d t o a 50-foot
diameter some 50 f e e t above t h e Bunter, w h e r e the a v e r a g e deviation of
t h e drill h o l e s w a s o b s e r v e d t o be about eight i n c h e s .

The downcast (ventilation supply) or "Wan Shaft" w a s e x c a v a t e d

through t h e Bunter in 70-foot l i f t s u s i n g pregrouting w i t h a s p e c i a l l y
formulated c h e m i c a l grout. A c u r b ring w a s poured a n d a c a s t iron
segmental lining (tubbing) i n s t a l l e d up t o the previous lift a n d backfilled
with a high strength sulfate r e s i s t i n g concrete. Ten four-ton, five-foot
high segments with full width l e a d gasketing in a l l joints formed a ring.
The segments were flanged, 10 i n c h e s . d e e p , and had w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s of
four i n c h e s . They were consistently furnished t o tolerances of plus or
minus .004 inches in height and w e l l within plus 0.375 minus 0 i n c h e s in
assembled diameter. Leakage through the completed lining totalled four
gallons per minute and i t w a s planned t o reduce t h i s by further grouting of
the sandstone.

Reasons given for the different procedures and linings were that the
rock shaft had t o be absolutely watertight and constructed within a rigid
schedule t o meet a production deadline w h i l e the man shaft did not have
t o meet t h e s e conditions; a l s o , the man shaft w a s estimated t o c o s t a
million dollars l e s s , a savings which w a s not r e a l i z e d due t o grouting
difficulties and the high c o s t of the s p e c i a l grout. The c o n s u l t a n t s (a
German firm) f e l t t h a t the freezing technique w a s the only one predictable
enough t o meet the deadline and the only way the shaft could be made dry
enough for welding. They considered that the tubbing could not be made
sufficiently watertight a t the high water pressures t o be encountered; i t
w a s a l s o f e l t that s e a s o n a l temperature variations would eventually produce
new l e a k s through the tubbing.

Five shafts constructed in 1950-60 decade for the Dutch State M i n e s

a r e of particular i n t e r e s t . (5) All were constructed through a s o f t , water-
bearing overburden from 700 t o 1 , 6 0 0 f e e t thick. Two, e a c h 22 feet in
lined diameter, were constructed by freezing and had reinforced concrete
linings. Three, with interior diameters of 13.7 and 18.4 f e e t , were drilled
and had a lining which w a s floated into place w h i l e the hole w a s s t i l l
filled with drilling mud; t h e s e are described in the next chapter. All s h a f t s
had a thick bituminous s e a l o n the o u t s i d e intended for waterproofing in
the reinforced concrete lined s h a f t s a s w e l l a s for protection of a l l shafts
a g a i n s t settlements and movements in the overburden c a u s e d by t h e mining.

The bituminous s e a l for the frozen s h a f t s (Statemines Hendrik and

Maurits) w a s five i n c h e s thick for the upper 350 f e e t and three i n c h e s below.
The bitumen w a s placed in 20- by 24-inch blocks cooled to 23O F t o maintain
their shape during transport and handling. The bitumen t y p e w a s Mexphalt
20-30; the mixture had a viscosity of 109 p o i s e s a t 770 F. Previously,
bitumen only 0.50 t o 0.75 i n c h e s thick had been u s e d for shaft s e a l i n g . The
reinforced concrete lining, increasing from 20 i n c h e s thick a t the surface
for one shaft and 23 i n c h e s for the other t o 34 i n c h e s a t the bottom, w a s
then placed from the bottom u p within the protection of a temporary lining
of brick. Reinforcement varied from one percent a t the surface to 1 . 8 percent
a t a depth of 700 f e e t .

The concrete lining a t Hendrik Shaft IV contracted during freezing and

expanded more than a n inch during thawing. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the reinforced
c o n c r e t e a n d bitumen combination e f f e c t i v e l y limited infiltration i n t h e
e n t i r e s h a f t through i t s 725 f e e t of w a t e r - b e a r i n g overburden t o only four
g a l l o n s per hour. M o r e c a r e f u l m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e m a d e a t M a u r i t s Shaft 111,
r e s u l t i n g i n t h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t t h e lining in a c l a y s t r a t a 500 f e e t below
t h e s u r f a c e c o n t r a c t e d four i n c h e s i n i t s 22-foot diameter during f r e e z i n g
although a c o n t r a c t i o n of two t o t h r e e i n c h e s w a s more t y p i c a l in m o s t of
t h e overburden. Temperature m e a s u r e m e n t s a t t h e c o n c r e t e a n d frozen s o i l
i n t e r f a c e i n d i c a t e d c o n c r e t e p l a c e d a t 400 F r o s e t o 700 F , t h e n s u b s i d e d
i n a few d a y s t o f r e e z i n g a n d t h e n more slowly t o lS°F, remaining t h e r e f o r
several months and then rising again to slightly above freezing. Measure-
m e n t s i n t h e middle of a 16-inch lining r e a c h e d f r e e z i n g 80 hours a f t e r
pouring; for a 23-inch l i n i n g , more t h a n 300 hours e l a p s e d b e f o r e f r e e z i n g
o c c u r r e d a t t h e midpoint.

The M a u r i t s s h a f t w a s not l i n e d w i t h reinforced c o n c r e t e t o f u l l over-

burden d e p t h (990 f e e t ) , although i t w o u l d h a v e , h a d t h e r e s u l t s of t h e
Hendrik s h a f t b e e n a v a i l a b l e . Below 750 f e e t , . c a s t iron w a s a g a i n u s e d t o
a maximum d e p t h of 1,100 f e e t . W a l l t h i c k n e s s e s of 3 . 3 5 t o 4 . 7 5 i n c h e s
w e r e u s e d i n t h e 5-foot h i g h , 12 s e g m e n t r i n g s w h i c h w e r e manufactured t o
0.004-inch v e r t i c a l t o l e r a n c e . Lead p l a t e s , 0 . 1 2 i n c h e s t h i c k w e r e p l a c e d
i n a l l joints a n d a minimum of 20 i n c h e s of c o n c r e t e p l a c e d behind t h e
l i n i n g . During thawing r e p e a t e d c a u l k i n g w a s n e c e s s a r y , t h e h o r i z o n t a l
joints o p e n i n g t o a maximum of 0 . 2 8 i n c h e s .

S i n c e t h e t h i c k l a y e r of bitumen prevented i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p o r t ,
e h e e n t i r e l i n i n g s h a d t o b e supported o n a foundation c u t i n t o b e a r i n g
s t r a t a of a d e q u a t e s t r e n g t h . T h i s o c c u r r e d a t t h e 800-foot l e v e l of Hendrik a n d
t h e 750-foot l e v e l a t M a u r i t s w h e r e a stratum w i t h a c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h
of 1 , 4 0 0 p s i w a s a v a i l a b l e .

The u s e of c a s t iron l i n i n g s in t h e D u t c h m i n e s w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d
s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a u s e of t h e i n a b i l i t y of s u c h liningssto t a k e u n e q u a l r a d i a l
l o a d s , t o work e f f e c t i v e l y c o m p o s i t e l y w i t h c o n c r e t e , or t o work w i t h t h i c k
bitumen l a y e r s ; b e c a u s e t h e joints m u s t b e r e c a u l k e d r e p e a t e d l y a s t h e
s h a f t is t h a w e d a n d b e c a u s e of c o s t .

O t h e r difficult s h a f t s u s i n g s p e c i a l t e c h n i q u e s a r e d e s c r i b e d a t t h e
e n d of t h e following c h a p t e r .
 CHAPTER 5

MECHANIZED SHAFT SINKING TECHNIQUES

The high a n d c o n s t a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g c o s t of c o n v e n t i o n a l s h a f t sinking

h a s l e d in r e c e n t y e a r s t o i n t e n s i v e e f f o r t s t o m e c h a n i z e t h e p r o c e d u r e s , a n
effort t h a t is now paying d i v i d e n d s .

A s u s e d in t h i s r e p o r t , c o n v e n t i o n a l s h a f t sinking r e f e r s s p e c i f i c a l l y
t o t h e . u s e of drill a n d b l a s t procedures a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g intermittent ' a d v a n c e
of t h e f a c e w h e r e a s m e c h a n i z e d s h a f t s i n k i n g i n v o l v e s t h e u s e of m a c h i n e s .
rather than e x p l o s i v e s t o break t h e r o c k a n d r e s u l t s in a nearly c o n t i n u o u s
a d v a n c e of t h e f a c e . The term "drilled s h a f t s 1 ' is frequently u s e d a s t h e
procedure is not u n l i k e t h e u s e of g i a n t d r i l l s .

Although there is a difference i n manpower r e q u i r e m e n t s , i t is a

m i s t a k e t o c o n s i d e r t h e difference a s being s o l e l y b e t w e e n labor i n t e n s i v e
a n d m a c h i n e i n t e n s i v e m e t h o d s . A high d e g r e e of m e c h a n i z a t i o n is em-
ployed in c o n v e n t i o n a l sinking; for e x a m p l e , jumbo or g a n g d r i l l s u s e d today
a r e highly m e c h a n i z e d t o o l s ; t h e e x c a v a t i n g equipment - both t h e Cryderman
mucker a n d t h e c a c t u s g r a b s ;re m a c h i n e s o p e r a t e d by a s i n g l e m a n . There
is n o a p p r e c i a b l e difference i n pregrouting procedures b e t w e e n t h e s y s t e m s ,
although blind drilling may a t t a c k t h e problem by dril-ling in a w a t e r - f i l l e d
.
h o l e rather t h a n u s i n g pregrouting If grouting is required a t d e p t h , t h e
c o n v e n t i o n a l system permits g r e a t e r flexibility i n a p p r o a c h . If t h e s h a f t
is t o b e l i n e d w i t h c o n c r e t e , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s y s t e m is probably preferable
b e c a u s e both e x c a v a t i o n a n d lining c a n be done s i m u l t a n e o u s l y Y

Procedures u s e d i n m e c h a n i z e d s h a f t sinking c a n r e s u l t i n s i g n i f i c a n t
a d v a n c e s i n sinking r a t e s , a n d therefore i n reduction of c o s t s . C e r t a i n
of t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s c a n b e combined w i t h t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l procedures t o
provide similar i n c r e a s e s i n r a t e a n d d e c r e a s e s i n c o s t . For' e x a m p l e , a
l a r g e diameter s h a f t f i r s t may b e r a i s e bored t o a n intermediate diameter
a n d t h e s h a f t then i n c r e a s e d t o f i n a l diameter by " b r e a s t i n g u p " o r " s l a s h i n g
down" u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l , o r drill a n d b l a s t , p r o c e d u r e s .

A. General

M e c h a n i z e d s h a f t sinking w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d h e r e a s d i v i d e d i n t o
t h r e e g e n e r a l a r e a s - - r a i s e boring, blind d r i l l i n g , a n d down h o l e boring
m a c h i n e s . A fourth procedure, reaming u p o r down is r e a l l y a modification
of r a i s e boring a n d is so c o n s i d e r e d h e r e . The g r e a t e s t a d v a n c e s i n r e c e n t
y e a r s i n s h a f t sinking technology h a v e b e e n i n t h e f i e l d of r a i s e boring;
h o w e v e r , t h i s t e c h n i q u e r e q u i r e s a n e x i s t i n g m i n e , o r a t l e a s t s o m e prior
development a t t h e proposed mining l e v e l . It is a highly d e v e l o p e d t e c h n i q u e
a n d future a d v a n c e s w i l l be i n s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of equipment.
. . Blind drilling a d v a n c e s have not been a s dramatic. It i s f e l t t h e
g r e a t e s t potential for t h i s method l i e s in 'handling c e r t a i n very difficult
ground conditions .
Down hole boring m a c h i n e s a p p e a r t o hold the g r e a t e s t poteGtial.
A Bureau of M i n e s funded demonstration project sche.duled for the summer
of 1977 may a c h i e v e t h e breakthrough, long d i s c u s s e d , t h a t w i l l make t h i s
procedure a n effective', practical s h a f t s i n k e r ' s tool.

B. R a i s e Boring

A vertical or i n c l i n e d shaft interconnecting two or more level's of a

mine without extending t o t h e ground surface is generally c a l l e d a r a i s e .
These frequently c a n b e of rather s m a l l diameter. Sinking a s h a f t or r a i s e
a l w a y s involves the problem of removing e x c a v a t e d material from t h e
bottom of t h e s h a f t 11p through t h e e x c a v a t e d s e c t i o n . The n e e d a n d t h e
problem combined t o r e s u l t i n t h e development of t h e technique c a l l e d
r a i s e boring.

Raise boring involves drilling a pilot h o l e , about 12 i n c h e s i n diameter,

downward from t h e t o p l e v e l and then pulling u p a reamer or r a i s e boring
t o o l , u s i n g t h e pilot hole for q u i d a n c e a n d for transmitting pull (thrust)
a n d torque via a drill stem c o n n e c t e d t o t h e motive power equipment a t ehe .
'
t o p of t h e r a i s e . The c u t t i n g s f a l l t o t h e bottom of t h e hole w h e r e they a r e
removed t o another shaft for haul-out a n d d i s p o s a l . R a i s e s may b e drilled
vertically or inclined. The combination longest-largest r a i s e a t present is
one 12 f e e t in diameter r a i s e d 2660 f e e t . The l a r g e s t diameter s h a f t
r a i s e bored in t h e United S t a t e s had a n e x c a v a t e d diameter slightly over
15 f e e t . The Swedish Alimak r a i s e c l i m b e r , a completely different type of
r a i s e boring procedure, h a s c u t 376 square foot r a i s e s (22-foot equivalent
diameter) in Sweden.
- .- -
R a i s e boring technology h a s expanded t r e m e n d o u ~ l yin t h e l a s t d e c a d e .
Prior t o 1967, there w e r e only t c n m a c h i n e s i n e x i s t e n c e ; records on r a i s e
bored s h a f t s before t h a t d a t e are almost n o n - e x i s t e n t . By 1972, t h e number
had i n c r e a s e d t o 100. M o s t w e r e in the four'to-six-foot diameter r a n g e ,
t h e l a r g e s t being f o r a hole 12 f e e t i n e x c a v a t e d diameter. Today, t h e number
h a s almost d o u b l e d , w i t h t h e l a r g e s t s i z e a c t u a l l y bored being t h e afore-
mentioned 15 f e e t . There a r e m a c h i n e s a v a i l a b l e noJv c a p a b l e of r a i s e
boring t o 20 f e e t in diameter; o n e , t h e Rohhins 85R,is c a p a b l e of a million-
pound pull (thrust) a torque of approximately 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 - f o o t - p o u n d s , and a
1,000-foot r a i s e .

W h i l e some c o n s i d e r r a i s e boring in the 10 t o 20 foot diameter r a n g e

t o b e competitive pricewise w i t h conventional s h a f t s i n k i n g , t h i s would be
true under only the most favorable c o n d i t i o n s . A more generally held v i e w ,
it i s b e l i e v e d , is t h a t r a i s e boring, w h e r e p r a c t i c a l , currently is more
economic in the 12-foot a n d under r a n g e b e c a u s e of t h e penalty paid by t h e
 conventional s y s t e m d u e t o l a c k of working s p a c e i n t h e s h a f t . In t h e larger
s i z e s a n d under s u i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , the combination method .of r a i s i n g a n
'intermediate s h a f t , s a y 6 f e e t in d i a m e t e r , followed by slashing-to f u l l s i z e
w i t h conventional equipment, is proba.bly more economic.

Raise borers d o not a p p e a r .to be .limited by rock h a r d n e s s , having --

operated s u c c e s s f u l l y i n r o c k s having c o m p r e s s i v e strengths in t h e 4 0 , 0 0 0
t o 50,00'0 p s i r a n g e . In t h i s r e g a r d , they have a significant a d v a n t a g e over
other mechanized s h a f t drilling m e t h o d s .

Raise borers have two significant a d v a n t a g e s over conventional

equipment -- s p e e d a n d s a f e t y . The advantage of not having w o r k m e n in
' t h e hole is obvious. Advance r a t e s ' of 500 f e e t per month, -while not common-
, p l a c e , a r e n o longer c o n s i d e r e d u n u s u a l . In c o n t r a s t , 200 f e e t per month
is 'considered a n e x c e l l e n t r a t e for conve.ntiona1, s h a f t sinking in North
Amer-lcii .
R a i s e borers a l s o p o s s e s s significant d i s a d v a n t a g e s r e l a t i v e t o c o n -
ventional procedures, limiting t h e i r u s e t o t h e more favorable geologic
c o n d i t i o n s . W a t e r bearing formations c a n be pregrouted from t h e s u r f a c e or
t o p l e v e l ; t h i s procedure d o e s not a l w a y s accomplish t h e d e s i r e d shutoff,
although i t d o e s e f f e c t a significant reduction in flow. If additional treatment
is required, i t c a n b e accomplished readily a t t h e f a c e , or from a n inter-
mediate l e v e l w i t h conventional equipment. W.ith r a i s e borers ,' however,
t h e boring h e a d h a s t o be lowered for a c c e s s t o the f a c e a n d a s p e c i a l s t a g e
r a i s e d from t h e bottom of the s h a f t . Also, the grouters a r e working from
below t h e w a t e r r a t h e r than a b o v e , a n additiona.1 d i s a d v a n t a g e .

.
C a v i n g ground (e g . s h a l e ) a l s o p o s e s problems for r a i s e borers. W h i l e
a light lining c a n b e s u s p e n d e d from t h e s h a f t of the boring m a c h i n e , a n d
brought u p the hole w i t h the h e a d , i t is difficult t o control t h e ground ,in t h i s
f a s h i o n . In conventional p r o c e d u r e s , t h e lining c a n b e brought down t o
w i t h i n a few f e e t of t h e f a c e , a n d s p e c i a l procedures, b a c k p a c k i n g , a n d
grouting accomplished a s required for control.

For smaller t o moderate diameter s h a f t s and favorable c o n d i t i o n s ,

r a i s e boring w i l l probably b e t h e preferred method for t h e f o r e s e e a b l e future.
The e c o n v n ~ i c sof t h e large r a j s e bored s h a f t s (12 t o 20 f e e t in diameter) ,

remains t o b e proven by u s a g e . The a d v a n t a g e s of combining r a i s e boring

w i t h conventional procedures h a s been dramatically proven in a s h a f t nearing
completion a t Bathurst, New Brunswick, w h i c h is 4 , 5 0 0 f e e t d e e p and 26 f e e t
in diameter; a description is included i n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r .

C. Rlind Drilling

The p r e d e c e s s o r t o blind-hole d r i l l i n g , c a l y x d r i l l i n g , h a s been u s e d

o n o c c a s i o i ~in s h a f t work for more t h a n 40 y e a r s , but e s s e n t i a l l y became
 obsokete w i t h t h e a d v e n t of blind-hole drilling. It is c a l l e d "blind" b e c a u s e
unlike r a i s e boring, t h e r e is n o guide-hole a v a i l a b l e a n d , therefore, some-
t i m e s w a n d e r s from a true v e r t i c a l . Blind-hole d r i l l i n g , a s now known, h a s
b e e n u s e d only . s i n c e about 1960. It is frequently c a l l e d "big-hole drilling"
b e c a u s e , i t i s b a s i c a l l y a n e x t e n s i o n of oil-field drilling t e c h n i q u e s . M o s t
of the relatively few blind drilled mine s h a f t s h a v e been i n t h e s i x t o eight
\ foot r a n g e , a very few i n t h e 10 t o 12-foot r a n g e . However, some 200 h o l e s
14'-8" h diameter but only 65 f e e t d e e p w e r e drilled i n Wyoming i n 1963 for
m i s s i l e s i l o s . The l a r g e s t diameter blind drilled s h a f t in North America is
1 6 ' - 6 " in diameter; further d e t a i l s a r e given in t h e l a s t s e c t i o n of t h i s
chapter.

Three s h a f t s for theDutch State m i n e s w e r e drilled t o a diameter of

25 f e e t by methods considerably d i f f e r e n t s h a n North American p r a c t i c e .
They w e r e drilled t o a depth of 1640 fe.eTi further d e t a i l s on their c o n s t r u c -
tion a r e given in t h e l a s t s e c t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r . The l a r g e s t drilled s h a f t
reported is 28.7 f e e t in drilled diameter a n d 2674 f e e t d e e p , c o n s t r u c t e d for
a Russian c o a l miqe. Four s t a g e reaming w a s reportedly u s e d . The
d e e p e s t known blind-hole drilled s h a f t is 5 , 5 0 0 f e e t d e e p ; i t h a s a drilled
diameter of 10 f e e t a n d w a s c o n s t r u c t e d for t h e (then) Atomic Energy
Commission. (6)

Compared t o r a i s e boring, much more equipment a n d a c o n s i d e r a b l y

g r e a t e r i i v e s t m e n t is required for blind-hole drilling. There h a s been no-
w h e r e near t h e development effort or coordination i n t h i s f i e l d t h a t there h a s
been i n r a i s e boring. Blind-hole drilling is a l s o much more limited in
application in o n e s e n s e , being confined t o t h e softer range of r o c k s .

The enormity of big-hole equipment c a n be g r a s p e d w h e n i t is r e a l i z e d

t h a t t h e derrick must b e c a p a b l e of lifting w e i g h t s in e x c e s s of one million
pounds. On the order of a million g a l l o n s of drilling mud m u s t be c i r c u l a t e d
w h e n drilling a 1.2-foot diameter hole a t a depth of 1 , 0 0 0 f e e t . D e s p i t e
t h e magnitude of t h e s e numbers, t h e technology a n d equipment a r e a t hand.
T h e w e a k ~ s tpart of t h e c h a i n appears to be i n t h e amount of torque t h a t
c a n b e applied; n e c e s s a r y w e i g h t c a n be a p p l i e d t o t h e c u t t i n g h e a d , but t h e
e x i s t i n g rotary tables. h a v e only limited c a p a c i t y for delivering torque.

The major a d v a n t a g e s of blind-hole drilling a r e s a f e t y and control of

b a d ground, i . e . , unconsolidated or running g r ~ u n d w , e a k formations, and
g a s s y ground. A s in raise-boring , no men a r e in t h e hole until e x c a v a t i o n
a n d , g e n e r a l l y , i n i t i a l lining a r e c o m p l e t e .

Big-hole drilling i n unconsolidated alluviums must b e done w i t h a

slurry (mud) f i l l e d hole in order t o prevent sloughing a n d failure of t h e w a l l s .
However, t h e effective control of s u c h ground is probably t h e outstanding
a d v a n t a g e of t h i s method. The slurry is de,signed s o t h a t a thin c a k e forms
on t h e s h a f t . w a l l a n d , . combined w i t h t h e fluid p r e s s u r e , holds t h e
unconsolidated material in p l a c e . Excellent r e s u l t s have b e e n obtained in
alluviums w h e n t h e particle s i z e is not t o o l a r g e . For e x a m p l e , 3-inch
c o b b l e s c a n be handled e a s i l y ; but 6-inch o n e s a r e difficult t o break down
or t o lift o u t , and they tend t o c a u s e s e r i o u s w a l l c a v i n g . Large diameter
h o l e s must b e drilled w i t h r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e fluid e n t e r s t h e
hole directly a n d returns u p t h e hollow drill stem. This is n e c e s s a r y in
order t o a c h i e v e v e l o c i t i e s sufficient t o r a i s e t h e c u t t i n g s . On d e e p h o l e s ,
high pressure a i r ( " r e v e r s e c i r c u l a t i o n , a i r - a s s i s t " ) is introduced part w a y
down t h e stem t o lighten the f l u i d column a n d i n c r e a s e t h e flow v e l o c i t y .
An a d v a n t a g e of t h e heavy drill string w h i c h is required both for support a n d
t o obtain n e c e s s a r y bit p r e s s u r e s is t h e plumb bob effect w h i c h t e n d s t o
k e e p h o l e s s t r a i g h t . Heavy annular w e i g h t s c a l l e d "donuts " are generally
a d d e d t o i n c r e a s e p r e s s u r e on t h e drill b i t . Ground w a t e r is not a problem
s i n c e the g r e a t e r s p e c i f i c gravity of t h e slurry prevents inflow; t h e mud c a k e
prevents o r r e d u c e s c a v i n g , a n d there a r e no harmful e f f e c t s on t h e permanent
lining requiring correction a s there a r e w i t h f r e e z i n g .

. Big-hole drilling c a n a l s o b e u s e d i n rock; i t is most s u c c e s s f u l in t h e

s o f t e r range of r o c k s . Such drilling h a s been u s e d more i n rock t h a n in
unconsolidated s e d i m e n t s , but i t is limite'd normally t o moderate diameters --
generally t e n f e e t o r l e s s . The drawbacks. t o big-hole drilling in rock a r e t h e
very heavy drill s t r i n g s -- on t h e order of 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 pounds or more m u s t be
h o i s t e d in d e e p s h a f t s e a c h time a bit is c h a n g e d - - t h e q u a n t i t i e s of power
a n d c i r c u l a t i n g media - - a i r , w a t e r , or mud, a s t h e formation d i c t a t e s --
required and t h e inability t o r e d u c e t h e effect of d e s t r e s s i n g on t h e a d j a c e n t
rock immediately a f t e r e x c a v a t i o n .

W h e n h o l e s a r e drilled w i t h fluid supporting t h e s h a f t w a l l s , t h e

linings a r e c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e s u r f a c e w h e r e , i n c i d e n t a l l y , working c o n d i t i o n s
a r e f a r superior t o t h o s e i n s i d e the s h a f t . W e l d e d s t e e l linings a r e invariably
u s e d , a s s u r i n g complete w a t e r t i g h t n e s s . A s i n g l e lining is most common,
but sometimes a double s t e e l lining w i t h a n in-fill of c o n c r e t e is required.
A temporary bottom is a d d e d t o provide buoyancy. The lining f l o a t s , i n t h e
f l u i d f i l l e d h o l e . Depending on t h e s p e c i f i c s of t h e s i t u a t i o n , w a t e r may b e
a d d e d i n s i d e t h e completed l i n i n g , o r comp1,etion of the interior of t h e lining
d e l a y e d as required t o a s s u r e t h e proper degree of buoyancy.

Several significant big-hole drilling p r o j e c t s a r e d e s c r i b e d in t h e la s t

s e c t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r .

D . Down -Hole Boring M a c h i n e s

The f i r s t u s e of a down-hole boring m a c h i n e in t h i s country apparently

w a s in 1955 i n the c o a l f i e l d s of W e s t Virginia. More t h a n 20 s h a f t s , s i x
f e e t in diameter a n d u p t o 700' f e e t d e e p , w e r e bored i n t h e f i r s t f i v e y e a r s .
The f i r s t 8-foot diameter hole w a s bored i n 196 1. By 1968, a t o t a l of more
than 60 c o a l mine s h a f t s had been e x c a v a t e d u s i n a down-hole boring m a c h i n e s .
In a l l c a s e s , however, muck w a s d i s p o s e d of by f i r s t drilling a 12-inch
diameter pilot hole a n d then flushing t h e c u t t i n g s downhole into t h e e x i s t i n g
mine.

The l a r g e s t a n d d e e p e s t shaft e x c a v a t e d by a down-hole boring

machine w a s c o n s t r u c t e d in 1969 for t h e W h i t e Pine Copper I\/line in M i c h i g a n .
It w a s 12 f e e t i n e x c a v a t e d diameter a n d 1591 f e e t d e e p a n d w a s e x c a v a t e d
in s a n d s t o n e a n d s h a l e formations. The l a r g e s t known down-hole boring
attempted in t h i s country w a s 1 7 ' - 8 " in diameter a n d i n a competent s h a l e .
Reasons for abandonment have not been verified.

Down-hole boring m a c h i n e s differ from blind-hole drilling i n t h a t t h e

t h r u s t a n d torque a r e developed near t h e f a c e in t h e s a m e frame housing t h e
c u t t i n g h e a d of t h e down-hole borer w h e r e a s in blind drilling t h e rotary e f f o r t
m u s t b e a p p l i e d through t h e rotary t a b l e t o a drill kelly ( a l a r g e , s o l i d s t e e l
s q u a r e bar a s long a s a length of drill stem pipe) a t t h e s u r f a c e a n d d e l i v e r e d
t o t h e f a c e by t h e drill s t e m . Adequate force c a n be provided on t h e c u t t i n g
b i t s in t h e big-hole equipment by s t e e l donuts riding t h e drill stem but m u s t
b e provided by thrusting off t h e w a l l i n t h e down-hole equipment. The down-
h o l e boring machine t h u s is e s s e n t i a l l y - - i n d e p e n d e n tof s u r f a c e equipment,
w h i l e t h e blind-hole equipment is completely dependent on t h e s u r f a c e .
motive power. At p r e s e n t both t y p e s a r e r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e rocks i n t h e lower
compressive range. -

Down-hole boring m a c h i n e s a p p e a r t o combine t h e a d v a n t a g e s of both

c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d mechanized s h a f t s i n k i n g . M e n n e e d not be in t h e hole
during e x c a v a t i o n . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , there is direct a c c e s s a v a i l a b l e a t
a l l t i m e s , unlike blind-hole drilling, s o t h a t effective remedial a c t i o n c a n b e
t a k e n w h e n required. If d e s i r e d , e r e c t i o n of t h e lining c a n follow c l o s e l y
behind t h e machine. Pregrouting'from t h e s u r f a c e is p o s s i b l e a s w i t h t h e
other methods. If n e c e s s a r y , additional grouting c a n b e performed from a n
intermediate l e v e l s p e c i a l l y e x c a v a t e d for t h a t p u r p o s e , unlike t h e other
mechanized methods.

There h a s b e e n much d i s c u s s i o n about t h e development of s a t i s f a c t o r y

down-hole boring equipment o v e r t h e y e a r s . In view of t h e tremendous
developments in r e c e n t y e a r s - o f tunnel boring m a c h i n e s w h i c h a r e c l o s e l y
r e l a t e d t o the down-hole equipment, i t is s t r a n g e t h a t similar development h a s
not occurred w i t h t h e latter equipment. The problems a p p e a r t o be two-fold.
The muck removal problem is q u i t e different w i t h a horizontal f a c e borer t h a n
i t is w i t h a v e r t i c a l f a c e d o n e . And, of c o u r s e , the development c o s t s a r e
s o high t h a t private c o m p a n i e s h e s i t a t e t o underwrite'them w h e n other m e t h o d s
c a n be u s e d .

It a p p e a r s t h a t both problems h a v e b e e n r e s o l v e d . Work is s c h e d u l e d

t o begin next April on a 24-foot e x c a v a t e d , 22-foot f i n i s h e d diameter s h a f t
1100 f e e t d e e p for t h e U . S . S t e e l C o r p . , c o a l mine n e a r Birmingham, Alabama.
C Development work is being funded by t h e Bureau of M i n e s . The boring machine
w i l l be manufactured by the Robbins Company. Shaft a n d a s s o c i a t e d work
w i l l b e performed 'by t h e c e m e n t a t i o n c o m p a n y of America. . ~ n s t r u m e n t a t i o n '
a n d monitoring w i l l b e done by t h e Batel'le .Institute. The primary formation is
a s a n d s t o n e w i t h a c o m p r e s s i v e strength of about 3 0 , 0 0 0 psi, plus sdme
s h a l e a n d c o a l horizons. The machine is d e s i g n e d t o operate t o a 2,000-foot
depth. D i s c c u t t e r s w i l l probably be u s e d w i t h a n e l e c t r i c drive through g e a r
b o x e s . At p r e s e n t , a vacuum muck pickup is planned w i t h bucket e l e v a t o r s
leading into two muck s k i p s . Thrust w i l l be t a k e n from t h e w a l l , probably
through a n expanding s h i e l d about 10 f e e t long. It is hoped t h a t a n a d v a n c e
r a t e of' 2 . 5 f e e t per hour w i l l b e o b t a i n e d . Pending c o r e drilling exploration,
pregrouting from t h e s u r f a c e i s planned. . There w i l l be probe drilling a h e a d
of t h e machine. A 12-inch c a s t - i n - p l a c e c o n c r e t e lining is planned.

E. , R e p r e s e n t a t i v e projects

The melding of r a i s e boring a n d conventional t e c h n i q u e s t o a n efficiency

greater than achievable by either method a l o n e h a s . b e e n demonstrated. by
work n,ow u n d e ~ w a yby t h e J. S. Redpath organization a t the Brunswick Mining
a n d Smelting Company mine a t Bathurst, New ~ r u n s w ' i c k . ( ~The ) f i r s t ste.p w a s
t o r a i s e bore a n d e q u i p a s m a l l auxiliary s h a f t s e v e n f e e t in diameter from a
depth of 2 , 8 0 0 f e e t . Had t h i s been a new d e v e l o p m e n t , . t h e s h a f t presumably
c o u l d have b e e n blind drilled. The rock w a s of s u c h quality t h a t lining w a s
u n n e c e s s a r y . Although t h e deviation of th& s h a f t from v e r t i c a l is a s much a s
one percent i n 800 f e e t , a 7-ton c a p a c i t y s k i p is operating s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .

The next s t e p w a s r a i s e boring a pilot s h a f t of t h e s a m e diameter from

t h e 3,700-foot l e v e l for t h e principal s h a f t , which h a s a lined diameter of 26 f e e t .
This shaft is now being s l a s h e d downward t o the f u l l e x c a v a t e d diameter. M u c k
from both t h e pilot a n d t h e s l a s h is removed via t h e auxiliary s h a f t . Had a n
e x i s t i n g mine level\not been a v a i l a b l e for the interconnection, a c o n n e c t i n g
c.ross drift c o u l d have b e e n e x c a v a t e d f o r t h e s a m e purpose.

There are- a number of a d v a n t a g e s r e s u l t i n g from t h i s com bined method.

The mucking operation is simplified a n d s a f e r . I n s t e a d of hoisting a l l muck
t o the s u r h c e , t h e r e b y imposing a c o n s t r a i n t on sinking r a t e , i t is dropped
down t h e glory-hole pilot s h a f t , eliminating t h e n e e d , f o r filling bucket type
s k i p s . The danger inherent in undiscovered bootlegs i s minimized in C a n a d i a n
s h a f t sinking by blowing down t h e h o l e , t h a t i s , using a i r jets t o thoroughly
c l e a n the f a c e . This ordinarily n e c e s s i t a t e s a benched f a c e , or advancing
only half t h e i a c e a t one tin~e. W i t h t h c pilot ho1.e a v a i l a b l e i n s t e a d for both
mucking a n d f a c e c l e a n i n g t h e full f a c e c a n b e a d v a n c e d . More efficient
drilling i s ' t h u s p o s s i b l e ; longer rounds c a n b e u s e d , 15 f e e t being t h e s t a n d a r d
in t h i s shaft; a n d more e f f i c i e n t ' b l a ~ t i nis~ p o s s i b l e s i n c e t h e pilot a c t s a s
a gigantic "burn hole" (expansion chamber).
B There is another d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e t o t h i s auxiliary bore t e c h n i q u e .
Development work f o r c r u s h e r rooms a n d other a c t i v i t i e s is required a t the
b a s e of the s h a f t before ore production c a n begin. Normally t h i s work must
w a i t until the s h a f t h a s been e x c a v a t e d a n d equipping is underway, compli-
c a t i n g t h e l a t t e r operation. The a d v a n c e bore g i v e s early a c c e s s t o t h e
development a r e a s o t h a t s h a f t a n d development c a n be completed a t nearly
t h e same time. A s a r e s u l t , i t is e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e s h a f t c a n be u s e d for
mine production nearly a year sooner than if only t h e conventional method
were used.

The a d v a n c e r a t e s p o s s i b l e w i t h r a i s e borers w a s demonstrated within

t h e p a s t year i n a s h a f t c o n s t r u c t e d for the Cayuga Rock Salt M i n e in Lansing,
New ~ o r k . ( * )The 12-foot diameter s h a f t Was completed t o a depth of 2300
f e e t i n 65 operating d a y s for a n average ?dvance of nearly three f e e t per hour.
The l a s t 1000 f e e t w e r e reamed a t nearly t w i c e t h a t r a t e . The c o m p r e s s i v e
s t r e n g t h s of the r o c k s bored ranged from 1 5 , 0 0 0 t o 2 5 , 0 0 0 p s i . The pilot
h o l e w a s 14 i n c h e s in diameter a n d w a s bored t o w i t h i n 4 f e e t of true v e r t i c a l
for t h e 2000-foot J e n g t h , a deviation of only 0.2%.
'

Two of t h e f i v e s h a f t s c o n s t r u c t e d in 1950-60 d e c a d e for t h e Dutch

S t a t e M i n e s w e r e d e s c r i b e d in t h e previous c h a p t e r . The other t h r e e , w i t h
interior diameters of 13.7 or 1 8 . 4 f e e t ,' w.ere blind-drilled a n d had a lining
w h i c h w a s floated i n t o p l a c e .while t h e hole w a s s t i l l f i l l e d w i t h drilling mud.
The lining w a s composed of two c o n c e n t r i c structural s t e e l s h e l l s a n d a
structural c o n c r e t e i n f i l l . All s h a f t s a l s o had a thick bituminous s e a l on t h e
o u t s i d e intended for waterproofing, for protection a g a i n s t s e t t l e m e n t s ,and a g a i n s t
movements in t h e overburden c a u s e d by the mining.

The two m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g of t h e three drilled s h a f t s (for Statemine

Beatrix) w e r e drilled t o a diameter of 25 f e e t a n d a depth of 1 , 6 4 0 f e e t , t h e
f i r s t 1 , 3 4 0 f e e t c o n s i s t i n g of unconsolidated water-bearing s t r a t a of quick-
s a n d a n d c l a y . After t h e lining w a s f l o a t e d i n t o p l a c e , t h e l o w e s t 330 f e e t
w a s grouted w h i l e t h e annulus remained f i l l e d w i t h drilling mud. This
annular s p a c e w a s 16.75 i n c h e s w i d e . A s t h e lining s a n k , c a r e f u l m e a s u r e -
m e n t s w e r e t a k e n a n d i t c a m e no c l o s e r t o the e x c a v a t e d s h a f t w a l l than
10 i n c h e s . The 1,640-foot long lining w a s i n s t a l l e d in 44 d a y s for t h e f i r s t
s h a f t I a n average a d v a n c e of nearly 40 f e e t per d a y . Progress on t h e s e c o n d
w a s e v e n b e t t e r , requiring only 31 d a y s , for a n a v e r a g e of 5 4 f e e t per day.

After t h e bottom of t h e a n n u l u s w a s grouted, bitumen a t a temperature of

3 0 ~ t' 6~ 4000F w a s then pumped i n t o d i s p l a c e t h e mud. The two filling
p i p e s w e r e s i x i n c h e s i n diameter a n d 1 , 3 15 f e e t long. Pouring o i the
bitumen mixture took 10 d a y s w i t h pumping p r e s s u r e s of from 45 t o 450 p s i
being u s e d . The s p e c i f i c gravity of t h e mixture w a s 1 . 3 a n d w a s obtained
by adding finely ground marl. Bitumen type w a s Spramex 400-500 w i t h a
v i s c o s i t y of 2x103 p o i s e s a t 7 7 0 F . This method of hot placing h a d b e e n
thoroughly t e s t e d a t a pilot i n s t a l l a t i o n . Subsequent t o t h e a b o v e i n s t a l l a t i o n
the procedure of floating a lini'ng into place and filling the annular s p a c e
with hot bitumen w a s u s e d a t Shaft VII of the Aulguste Victoria mine in
Germany, that shaft w a s excavated by the freezing method.

The structural lining of the Beatrix s h a f t s totalled 20 inches thick

for the upper 920 f e e t and 23.5 i n c h e s for the remainder. At Statemine Emma
(the first of the three drilled shafts) t h e s t e e l s h e l l s w e r e of w e l d e d mild
s t e e l p l a t e s , w h e r e a s a t Beatrix they w e r e formed'of s t e e l channe'ls bent
t o curvature. Maximum s t e e l plate t h i c k n e s s w a s 1.35 i n c h e s with a
'computed working s t r e s s of 2 5,600 p s i . The channels u s e d a t Beatrix
resulted in a flexible pipe c a p a b l e of bending t o a 3,280-foot radi'us while
remaining watertight ... he. .inn&.. s h e l l w a s .bolted, w a s not designed t o be
.
watertight, and w a s not 'connected (by s t e e l ) t o the outer s h e l l . Shells w e r e
placed in u n i t s 4 5 f e e t high. Injection concrete w a s u s e d in the annular
s p a c e in order to provide the b e s t quality of concrete possible and t o insure
a good bond t o the s t e e l s h e l l s .

, The drilling method w a s quite different from United States practice.

Beginning with a pilot hole- 6 . 5 8 f e e t in diameter, reaming w a s u s e d with
s u c c e s s i v e p a s s e s limited t o the removal of 65 square f e e t of shaft c r o s s
s e c t i o n . A s a consequence more than l., 100 drilling days w e r e required,
s i n c e two hours w e r e required t o r a i s e the bit t o the surface from maximum
depth, 20 percent of the time w a s spent in roundtrips and only 70 percent
devoted t o a c t u a l drilling, w i t h the remainder spent in making'measurements,
.
r e p a i r s , e t c Some 8 . 3 ~ 1 6 0 kilowatt hours of energy were consumed, the
bulk of i t for t h e a i r lift compressors; 78,000 cubic feet of drilling mud with
a specific gravity of 1.18 w a s required t o fill t h e hole.
-
As a result of the experience w i t h the five s h a f t s , the engineer for t h e
Dutch State M i n e s h a s concluded "mainly soft t o medium hard strata and
smaller diameters tend to the application of the drilling method, w h e r e a s
hard, water-bearing strata and larger diameters tend t o the application of
the freezing method. "

The largest diameter- shaft drilled t o d a t e i n t h e ' u n i t e d S t a t e s w a s

drllled in-'1970,iieaf.--G(;rarit-s , Ne-w Mexico. It w a s drilled full s i z e , 16'-6"
in diameter, in relatively dry s h a l e s , and t o a depth of 800 feet with a
maximum deviation from the vertical of s i x i n c h e s . However,. the s h a l e s
c a v e d in some p l a c e s t o 30 f e e t in diameter. The ground had been pre-
treated by a new "shoot and grout" technique designed t o improve inter-
ception of ground f i s s u r e s . The anticipated 350 gpm inflow w a s t h u s . r e d u c e d
t o 50 gpm; even t h i s small amount w a s difficult to handle w i t h the reverse
a i r circulation u s e d . The hole w a s drilled dry under a i r pressure contained
by a n air deck a t the.surface designed for 10 psi; only 4 t o 6 psi we're
n e c e s s a r y . Had the inflow been more than perhaps 100 gpm , w a t e r circu-
lation would have been ' n e c e s s a r y ,. a s w a s t h e c a s e .with a n earlier 11-foot
diameter shaft drilled by the same company near C a r l s b a d , New Mexico.
The Grants hole w a s lined t o a diameter of 14 f e e t w i t h a s t e e l c a s i n g
s u s p e n d e d in t h e 'hole w h i l e s u p p o r t e d by a t t a c h e d drill .pipes l a t e r u s e d
f o r grouting t h e a n n u l u s . The c a s i n g w a s fabricated i n 33-foot i n c r e m e n t s ,
w e l d e d a t t h e s u r f a c e , a n d lowered a s t h e next s e c t i o n w a s a d d e d . Thick-
hess varied from 1/4 t o 5/8 i n c h e s ; t o t a l hung w e i g h t w a s 7 0 0 , 0 0 d pounds.
- . . .

Another significant "hung" c a s i n g w a s u s e d on t h e f i r s t 10-foot

diameter s h a f t drilled for t h e Atomic Energy Commission. A 144-inch
diameter s u r f a c e h o l e ("collar") w a s f i r s t drilled t o 400 f e e t a n d c a s e d i n
s u c c e s s i v e u n i t s 20 f e e t long a t t h e s u r f a c e w h i l e preceding u n i t s w e r e
supported i n t h e h o l e by double e l e v a t o r s on t h e hoisting equipment. The
following 120-inch diameter drilled hole w a s c a s e d t o 54 i n c h e s w i t h s u c -
c e s s i v e u n i t s a l s o s u r f a c e w e l d e d - a n d supported a t t h e t o p of t h e hole by
t h e e l e v a t o r s . S t e e l t h i c k n e s s e s ranged from 0.75 t o 1.625 i n c h e s . The
5 , 6 0 0 f e e t of t h i s c a s i n g w e i g h e d about 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 pounds. (A 16-foot
diameter s t e e l c a s i n g averaging o n e i n c h i n t h i c k n e s s a n d I ,200 f e e t long
would w e i g h t about 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 pounds .)
 CHAPTER 6

LONG TERM PROBLEMS

The two previous chapters have considered construction techniques.

This chapter c o n s i d e r s the in-service problems. The materials u s e d in
construction must withstand the service environment if it i s a d v e r s e . Proper
construction must ensure water or fluid leakage i s either eliminated or
minimized; a s appropriate; it must be demonstrated by observation that there
i s no hidden w a t e r migration. Differential settlement between the shaft
and the surrounding ground, rather than water or bad ground conditions, may
w e l l be the principal shaft problem i f shaft is founded in a s a l t bed or i f
areal settlerne.nt occurs a s a r e s u l t of e x c e s s i v e mining operations. Since
esrfhquakes cause great damage above ground, i t might be'thought their effect
onmines and s . h . a b would be even greater. Such quite definitely i s not t h e
ca,se , however. Finally, project layouts involving auxiliary s h a f t s for e a c h
s t a g e of mine expansion may reduce initial shaft and c a p i t a l requirements;
t h e s e should be given consideration.
.
--
A. Materials

M a t e r i a l s ' u s e d in the shaft are affected by t h e shaft environment

created by the shaft construction, the shaft u s a g e , and the mining below.
In e s s e n c e , the s h a f t environment w i l l be favorable (inert)' or unfavorable
(aggressive) a s it a f f e c t s the materials of construction. Actually, "design
considerations" i s a more appropriate name than "problems" for t h e s e i t e m s .

The nature of t h e w a t e r outside the shaft c a n . d i c t a t e the c h o i c e of

shaft lining. If it is a g g r e s s i v e in that i t w i l l a t t a c k either s t e e l or
c o n c r e t e , appropriate precautions must be t a k e n . Specific mate'rials' -- s u l f a t e -
r e s i s t a n t cement, non-expansive aggregate, .and corrosion r e s i s t a n t s t e e l --
c a n be s e l e c t e d once the s p e c i f i c s are known. If n e c e s s a r y , the lining c a n
be of c a s t iron or ductile iron. A thick bitumen lining vlould provide the
n e c e s s a r y outer protection s o that standard materials could be u s e d .

The amount of w a t e r outside the shaft a l s o influences the d e s i g n . In

t h i s regard, i t i s more a matter of pressure than of quantity. A veritable
ocean of w a t e r c a n be stopped effectively by grouting if conditions a r e
favorable. But a c u p of water could impose very substantial pressure i f it
is 111 d s111al1 channel with a high effective head. If t h e pressure i s not
a s s o c i a t e d with a n inexhaustible supply, it may be advisable t o admit the
w a t e r and relieve the pressure rather than to attempt t o keep it out and r e s i s t
the hydrostatic pressure.

If significant w a t e r inside the s h a f t i s a c c e p t a b l e t o the project opera-

t i o n s , the shaft equipage must be corrosion r e s i s t a n t , a matter again of the
proper choice of materials and c o a t i n g s .
 The more likely s i t u a t i o n is t h a t t h e material being mined w i l l , a s
minute particles of i t e n t e r t h e ventilation a i r , d e v e l o p a c o r r o s i v e atmosphere.
Galvanizing of a l l s t e e l may b e a d v i s a b l e . If s o , every s u r f a c e , including
t h e h o l e s for c ~ n n e c t i o n s m , u s t b e t r e a t e d . The solution may l i e in the
s e l e c t i o n of corrosion r e s i s t a n t s t e e l s - copper bearing, Cor-Ten, Mayari-R,
e t c . or e v e n s t a i n l e s s s t e e l .

B. OutsideMigration

The migration of fluid down t h e exterior of t h e s h a f t t o t h e b a s e of t h e

s h a f t c o u l d occur e v e n though impervious l a y e r s s e p a r a t e t h e foundation
medium from t h e aquifer. Postgrouting should handle t h i s condition. However,
s t o r a g e requirements may w e l l require extreme precautions or a multiple pro-
t e c t i o n approach. Picotage a n d i t s u s e have been d e s c r i b e d in a n e a r l i e r
c h a p t e r and m a y be n e c e s s a r y in addition t o t h e postgrouting. Such a n
approach should g u a r a n t e e t h a t no w a t e r w i l l r e a c h the b a s e uf the s h a f t .

C. Observation C h a s e s

Engineering g u a r a n t e e s notwithstanding, i t m u s t be proven t h a t t h e r e

is no downwarcl migrating w a t e r , if t h i s is a project requirement. The
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the w a t e r control c a n be demonstrated readily by the simple
expedient.of c u t t i n g a n unlined c h a s e perhaps four f e e t w i d e around t h e
s h a f t w e l l below t h e w a t e r shutoff point a n d above t h e o p e r a t i o n s e l e v a t i o n .
If t h e methods w e r e not a s e f f e c t i v e a s e x p e c t e d , t h e c h a s e w o u l d a l s o
provide a location a n d m e a n s for trapping any r e s i d u a l migration a n d pumping
i t t o the s u r f a c e .

D . Differential Settlements

C o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n h a s been paid in t h i s a n d o t h e r c h a p t e r s t o t h e
problems of w a t e r in s h a f t s i n k i n g . This is b e c a u s e i t is a common problem.
In s a l t , however, t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t long term problems may b e long term
c r e e p (settlement) under t h e s h a f t a n d differential s e t t l e m e n t s between
s h a f t a n d surrounding formations d u e t o a r e a l s e t t l e m e n t s . This concern
h a s prompted t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n given e l s e w h e r e t o bitumen protective
l i n i n g s . If a thick layer of properly d e s i g n e d bitumen surrounds t h e struc-
tural lining, it w i l l a b s o r b t h e s e movements without undue d i s t r e s s in t h e
lining.

A shaft completed i n J u l y , 1976, near Lafayette , L a . , for t h e Diamond

C r y s t a l Salt C o . i l l u s t r a t e s one problem a n d t h e s o l u t i o n . The shaft is
244 f e e t d e e p , c o n s t r u c t e d through u n s t a b l e ground, a n d founded in a s a l t
doine. The shaft w a s e x c a v a t e d w i t h i n the protection of a f r e e z e ring a n d
f i r s t l i n e d w i t h a 12 g a g e outer corrugated iron liner 13 f e e t i n diameter, a n d
b a c k e d by c o n c r e t e . A 0.375-inch thick s t e e l liner 9 . 5 f e e t i n diameter w a s
t h e n e r e c t e d . I n s i d e t h i s l i n e r , t h e r e is a p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e lining composed
of 69 r i n g s e a c h 40 i n c h e s h i g h , w i t h t h e f i n a l i n s i d e diameter being 8 f e e t .
The 0.25-inch a n n u l u s between s t e e l a n d c o n c r e t e l i n i n g s w a s grouted. The
18-inch a n n u l u s b e t w e e n t h e two s t e e l l i n e r s w a s f i l l e d w i t h a bituminous
m a t e r i a l t o a b s o r b t h e ground movements. The d e s i g n c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h e t w o
l i n e r s may e v e n t u a l l y b e i n c o n t a c t a n d m a k e s a l l o w a n c e for t h e r e s u l t i n g
bending s t r e s s e s . The inner l i n e r s a r e supported o n a foundation pad n i n e
f e e t t h i c k . C o s t of t h e s h a f t w a s about $ 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , or more t h a n $ 1 2 , 0 0 0
per l i n e a l f e e t .

E. Earthquakes

The e f f e c t of a n earthquake o n a n underground structure c o n s t r u c t e d by

mining is entirely different t h a n on a n a b o v e ground s t r u c t u r e . Above ground,
t h e structure s h a k e s a n d is damaged by i t s own r e s p o n s e t o t h e ground a c t i o n .
Below ground, t h e structure is c o n s t r a i n e d t o t h e movements occurring i n
t h e ground. T h e s e movements a r e a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of a n i n c h i n t h e b e d r o c k ,
but may b e amplified t o s e v e r a l i n c h e s a s they t r a v e l upward through a very
d e e p alluvium or s o i l . So long a s t h e s h a f t s t r u c t u r e is f l e x i b l e enough t o
d e f l e c t w i t h t h e earthquake w a v e s , there w i l l be no b a s i c d a m a g e . This
a s s u m e s , of c o u r s e , t h a t there is no s h a r p . c l e a v a g e or o f f s e t i n t h e ground
a s o c c u r s immediately a c r o s s t h e f a u l t . O b v i o u s l y , n o engineering s t r u c t u r e
should b e l o c a t e d a s t r i d e a n a c t i v e f a u l t i f i t c a n b e p l a c e d e l s e w h e r e .

D e s p i t e i t s a p p a r e n t m a s s , t h e s h a f t is a n extremely f l e x i b l e s t r u c t u r e
i n s o f a r a s seismic r e s p o n s e is c o n c e r n e d . The deflection of t h e t o p of t h e
s h a f t w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s b a s e is a function of t h e fourth power of t h e r a t i o of
i t s length t o diameter. Since t h i s length-diameter r a t i o is unlikely t o be l e s s
t h a n 6 0 , t h e extreme flexibility of t h e s h a f t is a p p a r e n t . The s h a f t , t h e r e f o r e ,
w i l l b e c o n s t r a i n e d t o t h e limits of motion i n t h e surrounding medium. T h e s e
a r e unlikely t o e x c e e d 1/200th of t h e s h a f t d e p t h . Therefore, t h e f a c t t h a t a
major earthquake w i l l produce s t r e s s e s of l e s s t h a n o n e p s i i n t h e s h a f t
lining is readily u n d e r s t a n d a b l e .

F. Alternative Layouts

One layout of t h e proposed s t o r a g e f a c i l i t y h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h i n

t h e limited , s c o p e of t h e current o v e r a l l a s s i g n m e n t . Other l a y o u t s a r e p o s s i b l e .
The intent here is t o show t h a t v a r i a t i o n s o n t h a t l a y o u t , or other l a y o u t s ,
a r e p r a c t i c a l w i t h different s h a f t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .

Ventilation is a l w a y s a problem w i t h underground m i n e s . Intake a n d

e x h a u s t ventliation c a n be handled in t h e s a m e s h a f t , or s e p a r a t e s h a f t s ,
d o w n c a s t (supply) a n d u p c a s t ( e x h a u s t ) , c a n b e u s e d . If v e n t i l a t i o n quan-
t i t i e s a n d underground travel d i s t a n c e s a r e l i m i t e d , a s i n g l e s h a f t probably
is t h e a n s w e r . If t h e q u a n t i t i e s a r e l a r g e , or t h e underground d i s t a n c e
e x t e n s i v e , s e p a r a t e s h a f t s a r e almost c e r t a i n t o b e more economic. This is
th? r e a s o n ventilation s h a f t s a r e continually being a d d e d t o c o a l a n d other
m'ines. As a n example, i f it is 1 . 5 miles from a single ventilation shaft t o
the furthest heading, the air must travel (be propelled) a d i s t a n c e of 3.0
m i l e s , with i t s quality constantly deteriorating e n route. On the other h a n d ,
separa,te s h a f t s would halve the travel d i s t a n c e , reducing the required.
It would a l s o reduce the shaft s i z e (beyond a certain diameter, shaft c o s t s
begin t o increase rapidly) and eliminate the portion of s h a f t equipage required
for separation of air flows.

Another f a c e t of the project i s the constantly increasing demand for

muck transport over the y e a r s , ultimately on the order of 1 2 ,000 t o n s per day
or more. Constructing t h e initial 'shaft t o . t h e ultimate capacity may result
in e x c e s s i v e initial c o s t . It should be noted a l s o that t h i s high volume
occurs for only a very few y e a r s , after which mining w i l l c e a s e completely.
Durjng these final few years of construction there w i l l be a large demand
for material t o refill the caverns constructed e a r l i e r , on the order of 40 percent
of the material e x c a v a t e d , apparently. Economy might be achieved if the
reused material were not hoisted t o the surface but rather stored temporarily
until required. Muck t o be r e u s e d would be hoisted t o a reprocessing level
via a separate relatively small diameter r a i s e , reducing the s i z e of the
principal shaft accordingly. Suitable is'olation of the reprocessing area could
be achieved by a controlled air flows .and a system of conveyor belts for
delivery back t o the principal l e v e l .
 REFERENCES
,

(1) "Air Shaft W i l l Move W i t h t h e Soil Around I t " , .Enqineering

N ~ W S - ~ e c o r August
d, 1 9 , 1976, p.27.

(2 "New Shaft-Sinking Techniques Speed NASA J o b " , Construction . -

Methods a n d Equipment, February, 1965.

(3) "Shaft Drilling. State of t h e Art", U . S. Bureau of M i n e s

Report OFR 29-73, M a r c h , 1973, p. 13.

I (4) . " B o u l b y M i n e " , Mininq, October, 1971, Vol. 125, No. 4 .

(5) "New Shafts of t h e Dutch S t a t e M i n e s " Proceedinqs of t h e

S~ymposiumon Shaft Sinking end Tunnelling, London, J u l y , 1959.

(6) "Progress i n Continuous Nr ining for M etalliferous M i n e s " ,

Mining Conqress, December, 1975.

(7) "Borehole Hoisting for Shaft Sinking a n d Development a t

Brunswick Mining' a n d Smelting Corpora tion Limited, Bathurst ,
New Brunswick" , Proceedings 1976 R3pid Excavation a n d
Tu.nnelling C o n f e r e n c e , p. 165 .
(81 "Hai.~:?. .
S ~ I - i nag 12 Ft Diameter Shaft 2300 Ft : a t t h e Cayuga
Rock Salt V i n e " , ' M i n i n g M a g a z i n e , M a y , 1976, p. 3 6 4 . .