What do we mean by Distance Education?

Theories and
Practices: A Study for New Beginning

Nurul Mostafa Kamal Zafari

Abstract

Distance education is not a very brand new concept having said that it is taking time to get
momentum. But it is true that distance education will take its place very soon. Distance
education can be defined as, we see it is delivered through several modalities, using phone,
tablet, television, internet, CD-ROM, apps, handouts-worksheets, audio devices etc., a mode
of delivering educational topics via a second media to reach the learners at home or in distant
place. With its advantages and disadvantages, distance education is so important in the wake
of emergencies and as well as during normal situations. As amicable theories and approaches
are yet to evolve to a considerable extent on distance education, enthusiasts around the world
now trying to define distance education from their independent point of view. This paper will
try to focus on the overall thoughts on distance education and will try to make a minimum
idea box for the practitioners.

Keywords

Distance Education, Distance Learning, Online Education, Online Learning, Digital

Learning, Lifelong Learning, Open Education, Open Learning, eLearning

Objective of the Study

This study is aimed to

- Provide a comprehensive idea of distance education

- Create a general concept paper for the practitioners for further reference
- Generate a meaning among its readers what does it mean by distance education

Scope of the Study

This study will lay the fundamental concepts of distance education for a comprehensive
reading purpose. It will check the existing facilities of the distance education and will try to
fill the gap of having no combined effort to present distance education for the young
researchers. This paper will recommend some important issues to address for better
development of distance education.
Limitation of the Study

Conceptualization: This study can not conceptualize all relevant aspects of distance education
as it deals with the primary issues which is fundament in nature for the purpose of
introducing distance education for academic practice.

Finding solution to existing challenges: The study can not suggest solid solutions to the
existing challenges of distance education.

Implication of the Study

This study includes the major areas of distance education. It will be helpful for the young
professionals in the field of distance education, practitioners of distance education in
organizations, policy makers for the education in emergency service providers, educators and
instructors of online and elearning programmes and platforms. The study will bring forward
all necessary information and concepts regarding distance education for the abovementioned
people from a wide range of service providers.

Research Methodologies

This research is done through using primary and secondary sources. So one could consider
this paper as contend based research result. The primary sources are – informal interview
with the teachers and students of Bangladesh Open University, chat and video discussions
with online teachers on UDEMY, Khan Academy and some other providers; and
professionals worked in distance tab based education programmes during emergencies i.e.
humanitarian emergencies. The secondary sources include – published research papers and
books available in the open sources.

1. Introduction

Correspondence education, distance education, open education, online education and

elearning, this is the terminological evolution of offcampus education and the word
offcampus is now replace by ecampus. Distance education is now online, on time, on demand
and open for all. Distance education has its charming way of presentation and this is one of
the most influential educating mode that brought groundbreaking change the way we used to
with classroom teaching. Traditional classroom teaching now has been replaced by virtual
classroom where even you could raise your hand (ZOOM) and could get your answer in real
time.
 1.1. Some Quotes on Distance Education

E-Learning exploits interactive technologies and communication systems to improve the

learning experience. It has the potential to transform the way we teach and learn across the
board. It can raise standards, and widen participation in lifelong learning. It cannot replace
teachers and lecturers, but alongside existing methods it can enhance the quality and reach
of their teaching, and reduce the time spent on administration. It can enable every learner to
achieve his or her potential, and help to build an educational workforce empowered to
change. It makes possible a truly ambitious education system for a future learning society.
Towards a Unified e-Learning Strategy
The DfES e-Learning Strategy Unit, 2003
Technology has revolutionized the way we work and is now set to transform education.
Children cannot be effective in tomorrow's world if they are trained in yesterday's skills. Nor
should teachers be denied the tools that other professionals take for granted.
Tony Blair
1998
A click of a mouse button provides any student anywhere with unprecedented opportunities
to learn. So if a child in Grand Junction wants to master Japanese, it's possible online. If a
budding artist in Five Points wants to study the masterpieces of the Louvre, it's possible
online. If a future Stephen Hawking in La Junta wants to study Gravitational Entrophy with
the man himself, it's possible online. If military parents want continuity in their children's
education throughout frequent moves to serve our country, then it's possible online.
Rod Paige
US Secretary of Education, 2002
With every special newspaper supplement, it seems, those in the business [of e-learning]
offer new visions, new services we didn't know we needed, yet more exciting equipment and
software possibilities that lie just over the horizon and, less well-publicized, an increasing
number of routes to what may be educational dead ends.
Online Learning and Teaching With Technology
Murphy, Walker, Webb, 2001

1.2. Book Review on Distance and Open Education

Bates, AW (2004): Managing technological change: Strategies for leaders in higher
education. CARNet, Zagreb. (181 pages) A rather detailed review and development strategy
for managing e-education at universities and colleges. It is necessary to understand the
context in which it develops products and services of e-education. Useful to managers in e-
education and authors of online courses or course.
Rosenberg, MJ (2001): E-learning: Strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age.
McGraw-Hill, New York. (343 pages) Detailed analysis of the role and possibilities of e-
learning in business organizations. It contains practical examples. Very useful for the
management of continuing education in corporations.
Picciano, AG (2001): Distance Learning: Making Connections Accross Virtual Space and
Time, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. (253 pages) Overview of the area of
distance education in respect of different technologies and media, educational institutions,
teachers and students. The comprehensive view of the broader context of distance education
that allows for the e-learning in the perspective of other analogous forms of education. Good
for general information on distance education, and useful to managers in e-education.
Melton, RF (2002): Planning and developing open and distance learning: A quality
assurance approach. RoutledgeFalmer, London. (223 pages) A detailed overview of the
different elements that contribute to the quality of the course or courses for distance
education. Very appropriate for an academic institution, the managers of distance education
and authors of on-line courses or course.
McVay Lynch, M. (2002): The Online Educator: A Guide to Creating the Virtual
Classroom, RoutledgeFalmer, London. (170 pages) Overview of different technologies,
forms of communication, techniques, strategies and pedagogical principles in e-learning.
Succinct reminder of the many important factors in shaping the success of on-line courses or
courses in e-learning. It is necessary for authors, instructors and managers of on-line courses
or course.
Salmon, G. (2000): E-Moderating: The Key to Teaching and Learning Online, Kogan Page,
London. (180 pages) Is often cited work on moderating on-line communication, ie. the
interaction in relation to tasks and conduct dialogue and discussion with students in teaching
e-learning. Contains recognized theoretical model of e-moderating, and numerous examples
of situations with concrete messages exchanged between the moderator and the participants
on-line teaching. Very useful for the development of competences in moderating online
interactions.
Palloff RM. & Pratt, K. (1999): Building learning communities in cyberspace: Effective
strategies for the online classroom. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. (206 pages) Collection of
numerous guidelines and examples for successfully organizing and managing groups in e-
education, and for more effective communication in individual and group interactions with
students. Useful for trainers, mentors and moderators in online teaching.
Collison, G., Elbaum, B., Haavind, S., Tinker, R. (2000): Facilitating online learning:
Effective strategies for moderators. Atwood Publishing, Madison. (216 pages) Overview of
the role (moderator, initiator), dialog techniques and strategies to interact with the users of
e-education. Especially useful for better understanding and management of on-line dialogue.
Horton, W. (2000): Designing Web-based training: How to teach anyone anything
anywhere anytime. Wiley, New York. (607 pages) A lot of useful tips and examples with
images from various on-line courses. Simple and understandable written and very
comprehensive guide that step-by-step leads to a successful design and management course
or courses in e-learning. Very useful for authors and designers of on-line courses or courses.
Hanna, DE, Glowacki-Dudka, M., Conceição-Runlee, S. (2000): 147 practical tips for
teaching online groups: Essentials of Web-based education. Atwood Publishing,
Madison. (74 pages) A collection of tips on on-line teaching for those who already know
something about the area. It can serve as a reminder for designers and instructors of courses
and courses in e-learning.
Gilbert, SD (2001): How to be a successful online student. McGraw-Hill, New York. (267
pages) View the many factors that influence the success of e-education students, the self-
assessment of personal needs and abilities, to apply to attend the on-line courses or course, of
obligations and execution of successful participation in on-line interaction with other
students. Designed for e-learners.
Adams, T., Clark, N. (2001): The Internet: Effective online communication. Harcourt, Fort
Worth. (368 pages) Basic communication technologies and services on the Internet, as well
as tips for successful personal, group and public communication using electronic mail,
network news, discussion groups, electronic conferences, web pages, multimedia content on
the web, etc.. Useful for authors of online content, instructors and moderators, and
participants in e-education, which are not sufficiently familiar with the basics of Internet
communication.

1.3. Key Definitions

Andragogy: The term is derived from the Greek words “anere,” meaning “man” and
“agogus” meaning “to lead,” and refers to a theory of education for adult learners.
Connectivism: As a learning theory applicable to the digital knowledge age, connectivism
focuses on where knowledge derives from and how learners interact on networks, and it
further argues that knowledge exists and is distributed on networks, and therefore, learning
consists of the ability to construct and traverse these networks.
Distance Education (DE): Planned and organized teaching and learning in which learners are
separated from teachers or facilitators in time and space.
Electronic Learning (E-Learning): It is a learning paradigm that uses educational
technologies in employing the principles of multimedia learning.
Giga University: A giga university is a higher education institution with 1M or more students
and is capable of providing educational approaches to masses.
Heutagogy: The term is derived from the Greek word for “self”; with “agogos” meaning “to
lead” and based on theories of self-determined learning,
Learner: An individual who demands knowledge at any age in any of the learning processes
(e.g., formal, informal, and non-formal learning) as part of a lifelong learning pursuit.
Mega University: A mega university is a higher education institution with 100K or more
students and is capable of providing educational approaches to masses.
Mobile Learning (M-Learning): As an extension of e-learning, it is a learning paradigm that
uses mobile technologies to provide a just in time, just in place, and just for me experience.
Open and Distance Learning (ODL): Any learning activities within formal, informal, and
nonformal domains that are facilitated by information and communication technologies to
lessen distance, both physically and psychologically, and to increase interactivity and
communication among learners, learning sources and facilitators.
Open University: These types of higher education institutions embrace openness in education
as a core value and provide flexible learning opportunities through distance education or open
and distance learning, with minimal or no entry requirements.
Openness (in Education): This term has many forms and dimensions, but in essence, it
supports the idea that knowledge is a public good and anyone who demands it should have
access to it without being faced with any barriers.
Pedagogy: The term is derived from the Greek words “paidos,” meaning “child” and
“agogus” meaning “to lead”; which combined gives us ‘to lead the child, and it refers to a
theory of education for young learners.
Rhizomatic Learning: Rhizomatic learning focuses on how learners navigate through the
network and pursue knowledge as a creative quest for learning.
Student: An individual who demands knowledge as part of a planned and organized learning
pursuit and who is attending an educational institution.
Ubiquitous Learning (U-Learning): As an extension of e-learning and m-learning, it is a
learning paradigm that uses ubiquitous technologies to provide a seamless, just in time, just in
place, and just for me experience.
1.4. Literature Review
Distance Learning by Amani Mubarak Al-Khatir Al-Arimi: A small literature but outlines
major aspects of distance learning. The author tries to find out the specifics of distance
education where he puts the distance education from a beginners point of view which is
helpful for the researchers in getting at a glance idea on distance education.
Growing Importance of Distance Education by Milena Bogdanović: In her paper, she
objects the ideals of absoluteness of distance education but she agrees to receive the fact that
importance of distance education is growing and it is unstoppable and so shouldn’t be. She
concludes her paper with a positive impression on distance education, “Finally, the use of
technology should be cost-effective, ie. trainer/instructor and designer of on-line content
should always strive to objectively evaluate how the expensive technology that they want to
apply (and to impose the students) more effective ways in which education of the well-
organized and illustrated books of similar education content.”
From Distance Education to Open and Distance Learning: A Holistic Evaluation of
History, Definitions, and Theories by Aras Bozkurt: While searching the paradigm shift of
educational dimensions of distance education towards open and distance learning the author
opines that “Distance education (DE) and open and distance learning (ODL) are
interdisciplinary fields that emerged in a near history of humankind”. Distance education
history and development was the major point of discussions in his paper. He also lays a brief
but constructive outline of theories of distance education.
The Evolution, Principles and Practices of Distance Education by Börje Holmberg: Having
started with a positive comment, “This book is a fairly comprehensive presentation of
distance education, how it has developed and what it is like in the first decade of the twenty-
first century.” Holmberg covers wide range of subject matters and he envisions to find out
sophisticated way towards the development of distance education as he believes that
“Distance education is a theme of great interest as it plays a very important part in many
societies.” His book covers those topics i.e. Concepts and Terminology – Student Bodies,
The Evolution of Distance Education, Distance Education in the Twenty-first Century - An
Overview, Principles, Practices and Problems, Presentation of Subject-matter, Interaction in
Distance Education, Counselling, Supervised Distance Learning , The Organisation and
Administration of Distance Education, Theoretical Approaches, Evaluating Distance
Education, Distance Education as an Academic Discipline and through his research he
establishes some new facts on distance education outlining the framework for future of
distance education.
A Shift from Classroom to Distance Learning: Advantages and Limitations by Manijeh
Sadeghi: The author observes the changes very closely and defines the pathways of the
mutation. He also curves the advantages and disadvantages of distance education while he
also mentioning some important suggestions that can be brought forward to the upbringing of
distance education.
1.5. Defining Distance Education
Authors have applied a wide variety of alternative terms for distance education, including
open learning, open teaching, non-traditional education, distance learning, distance teaching,
correspondence education, independent study, home study, extension study, external study,
external learning, flexible education, flexible learning, life-long education, lifelong learning,
contract learning, experiential learning, directed private study, drop-in learning, independent
learning, individualized learning, resource-based learning, self-access learning, self-study,
supported self-study or continuing education, in the related literature (Demiray & İşman,
2003 in King, Young, Drivere-Richmond, & Schrader, 2001).
Correspondence education is “conducted by postal services without face-to-face interaction
between teacher and learner. Teaching is done by written or tape-recorded materials through
written or taped exercises to the teacher, who corrects them and returns them to the learner
with criticisms and advice” (Titmus, Buttedahl, Ironside, & Lengrand, 1979 in King, Young,
Drivere-Richmond, & Schrader, 2001).
Dohmen (1967), former director of the German Distance Education Institute (DIFF), defined
distance education as “A systematically organized form of self-study in which student
counselling, the presentation of learning material and the securing and supervising of
students’ success are carried out by a team of teachers, each of whom has [distinct]
responsibilities. [This form of self-study] is made possible at a distance by means of media
which can cover long distances. The opposite of ‘distance education’ is ‘direct education’ or
‘face-to-face education’, a type of education that takes place with direct contact between
lecturers and students” (ibid.).
Peters (1973) defines DE as follows: “Distance teaching/education (Fernunterricht) is a
method of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalized by the application
of division of labour and organizational principles, as well as by the extensive use of
technical media, especially for the purpose of reproducing high quality teaching material
which makes it possible to instruct great numbers of students at the same time wherever they
live. It is an industrialized form of teaching and learning” (ibid.).
According to Moore (1973), distance teaching can be defined as “The family of instructional
methods in which the teaching behaviours are executed apart from the learning behaviours,
including those that, in a contiguous situation, would be performed in the learner’s presence,
so that communication between the teacher and the learner must be facilitated by print,
electronic, mechanical, or other devices” (ibid.).
Holmberg (1977) defined distance teaching/education as “a method of imparting knowledge,
skills and attitudes which is rationalized by the application of division of labor and
organizational principles as well as by the extensive use of technical media, especially for the
purpose of reproducing high quality teaching material which makes it possible to instruct
great numbers of students at the same time wherever they live. It is an industrialized form of
teaching and learning” (ibid.).
Garrison and Shale (1987) states, “Distance education implies that the majority of
educational communication between the teacher and student(s) occurs non-contiguously. It
must involve two-way communication between the teacher and student(s) for the purpose of
facilitating and supporting the educational process. It uses technology to mediate the
necessary two-way communication” (ibid.).
Barker Frisbie and Patrick (1989) define DE in terms of the rise of telecommunication
technologies. They state, “Telecommunications-based distance education approaches go
beyond the limits of correspondence study. The teaching-learning experience for both the
instructor and student(s) occur simultaneously – it is contiguous in time. When an audio
and/or video communication link is employed, the opportunity for live teacher-student
exchanges in real time is possible, thereby permitting immediate responses to student
inquiries and comments. Much like a traditional classroom setting, students can receive on-
the-spot clarification from the speaker” (ibid.).
Moore (1990) provided another definition of DE, stating “Distance education involves all
arrangements for providing instruction through print or electronic communications media to
person engaged in planned learning in a place or time different from that of the instructor or
instructors” (ibid.).
According to Moore and Kearsley (1996), distance education can be defined as “Planned
learning that normally occurs in a different place and requires a well-defined system of
delivery that includes modified teaching techniques, alternative modes for communication,
including, but not limited to technology, as well as alternative administrative and
organizational components” (ibid.).
UNESCO (2002) presents a definition of distance education: “Distance education is any
educational process in which all or most of the teaching is conducted by someone removed in
space and/or time from the learner, with the effect that all or most of the communication
between teachers and learners is through an artificial medium, either electronic or print”
(ibid.).
According to Schlosser and Simonson (2009), distance education is now often defined as
“Institution-based, formal education, where the learning group is separated and where
interactive telecommunications systems are used to connect learners, resources, and
instructors” (ibid.).
Moore and Kearsley (2011) redefined distance education as “Teaching and planned learning
in which teaching normally occurs in a different place from [the] learning, requiring
communication through technologies, as well as special institutional organization” (ibid.).
According to Shale (1988), distance education involves a noteworthy paradox, puts forward
its existence with it but cannot identify itself. From the definitions listed above, it is clear that
the term “distance education” is a generic, umbrella term that can be used synonymously with
other like terms (ibid.).

2. History of Distance Education

2.1. 1st Age: The Age of Correspondence Distance Education
Distance education is defined as correspondence study as the tutorial materials were sent to
the students and the materials correspond the interactions (Sadeghi, 2019). Many called
distance education, in eighteen century, at that time as “home study” and “independent
study” targeting the remotest masses ranging farmers, industry workers, women and
enthusiast to get an urban education from home using the fastest railway networks (Moore &
Kearsley, 1996; Nasseh, 1997; Smaldino et al., 2000 in Bozkurt, 2019).
Some datelines in the development of distance education from Bozkurt (2019):
 The earliest evidence of the origin of DE can be traced to 1728, when Caleb Phillips
advertised shorthand lessons by mail in the Boston Gazette (Verduin & Clark, 1991).
 In 1833, a Swedish newspaper advertised the opportunity to study “composition
through the medium of the post” (Smaldino et al., 2000, p. 37).
 In the 1840s, Isaac Pitman used the postal service in Great Britain to teach shorthand
lessons. Soon after, Pitman’s lessons were formalized through the founding of the
Phonographic Correspondence Society (Smaldino et al., 2000; Moore & Kearsley,
1996).
 In Europe, in the mid-1850s, Charles Toussaint and Gustav Langenscheidt taught
language in Berlin, Germany through correspondence study. Later, they developed a
language instruction exchange program, which lead to the establishment of a
correspondence language school (Moore & Kearsley, 1996; Smaldino et al., 2000;
Watkins, 1991).
 From 1873 to 1897, correspondence study flourished in America. Anna Eliot Ticknor,
who is recognized as the mother of American correspondence study, founded the
Boston-based Society to Encourage Study at Home (Holmberg, 1986). This initiative
reached more than 10K students in 24 years. Learners, mostly made up of women,
corresponded monthly with teachers, who offered guided readings and frequent tests
(Smaldino et al., 2000; Watkins, 1991). The purpose of this correspondence study was
to help provide women, who were restricted from accessing formal educational
institutions, with the opportunity to study through materials delivered to their homes
(Nasseh, 1997).
 In 1882, in Chautauqua, New York, William Rainey Harper developed
correspondence program teaching courses in Hebrew, the results of which eventually
led to the recognition of correspondence courses by the State of New York. In 1892,
when Harper was assigned as the first president of the University of Chicago, he
benefited from his previous experiences and initiated the world’s first formal program
of university distance education. (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). As a result of this
movement, Correspondence University was established in Ithaca, New York in 1883
(Erazo & Derlin, 1995).
 In 1886, Hermod began teaching English by correspondence in Sweden. Following
that, he founded Hermods in 1898, which grew to become the world’s largest and
most influential distance teaching organizations at this time (Smaldino et al., 2000). In
1891, Foster, the editor of the Mining Herald, a daily newspaper in eastern
Pennsylvania, began offering correspondence courses in mining and the prevention of
mine accidents (Smaldino et al., 2000). Foster’s efforts led to the development of
International Correspondence Schools (ICS), which aimed to train iron and railroad
 workers, as well as miners (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). The number of enrolled
students exploded from 225K in 1900 to more than 2.5M students by 1923 (Moore &
Kearsley, 1996; Smaldino et al., 2000).
 In the last decade of the 1800s, a series of new correspondence institutions helped
correspondence study to flourish (e.g., Skerry’s College in Edinburgh in 1878 and
University Correspondence College in London in 1887). In parallel to these
developments, the university extension movement in the USA and Great Britain
promoted the acceptance of correspondence study (Smaldino et al., 2000).
 In 1892, distance learning achieved academic recognition when the University of
Chicago offered the first college-level distance learning program. Students were able
to learn through correspondence study by using the United States Postal Service to
submit assignments and lessons (Hansen, 2001).
 In 1885, with the development of short courses and farmers’ institutes at the
University of Wisconsin, another form of university extension of correspondence
study appeared. By 1891, a program of correspondence study, led by eminent
historian Frederick Jackson Turner, was offered by the same university. However, the
public showed little interest in the correspondence programs, resulting in their closure
in 1899. It took seven years to recreate a new, stronger correspondence study
department within the school’s university extension division (Smaldino et al., 2000).
 In 1900, Cornell University developed a program for women in rural up-state New
York. This program was a great success, with more than 20K women enrolling in it
(Cornell University, 2001). Correspondence education through the Land Grant
universities was developed based on the policies of the 1862 Morril Act, whose
democratic ideals dictated that educational opportunity be open for people from all
backgrounds (Moore & Kearsley, 1996). The Morril Act serves as an significant
cornerstone in the history of distance education because of its visionary approach to
openness in education.
 In 1901, Moody Bible Institute, which was established in 1886, founded a
correspondence study department which continues to still exist, having more than a
million enrolled students (Smaldino et al., 2000).
 In 1915, the National University Extension Association (NUEA) emphasized the need
for new pedagogical models and national-level guidelines for correspondence
educators (Nasseh, 1997).
  In the 1920s, distance education broadened its focus to secondary school curriculum
(Smaldino et al., 2000).
 By 1930, courses specifically designed as correspondence study were being offered
by 39 American universities (Bittner & Mallory, 1933).
 The United States Military Institute, founded in 1941, was converted to the United
States Armed Forces Institute (USAFI) in 1943. Throughout World War II, USAFI
offered correspondence courses to military personnel and continued offering them
until its closure in 1974. Before the closure of USAFI, more than seven million
military personnel had taken high school courses and approximately 261 thousand
personnel had taken courses at the graduate level. The giving and reading of
assignments through computers in USAFI pioneered the 24-hour active phone
counselling service for students and classrooms, with the group studies being based
on a correspondence curriculum; that is teaching via mail service (Watkins, 1991). All
these contributions provided by USAFI have led to the rise of a new era in the history
of distance education.
 The Ministry of National Education in France established a distance education
training program in response to the oncoming Second World War. The Centre
National d’Enseignement par Correspondences had been originally founded for
children mainly but was eventually converted to a distance training institution for
adults (Smaldino et al., 2000).
2.2. 2nd Age: Distance Education via Visual-Auditory Media
Invention of radio has made it inevitable to shifting from correspondence education to radio
centered audio modal education (Casey, 2008 in Bozkurt, 2019). Later invention of television
has made a tremendous change in the history of distance education, it was really ground
breaking as distance education providers around the globe started using this visual-auditory
modality to reach much more learners in the furthest possible corner of the world.
A chronological timeline has been given below cited in Bozkurt (2019):
 By 1921, licenses for educational radio were being granted to the higher education
institutions in the USA (Saettler, 1990; Casey, 2008).
 Between 1918 and 1946, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) issued a
license to more than 200 higher education institutions (Pittman, 1986a; Casey, 2008).
In 1925, Iowa State University launched the first five-credit radio lessons (Pittman,
1986b).
 By 1923, educational institutions owned around 10% of the radio stations used for
educational purposes (Public Broadcasting Service, 2003).
 In 1925, the federal government emphasized the importance of educational radio and
allocated special frequencies to educate agricultural communities (Department of
Commerce, 1926).
 In 1930, the U.S. Department of Education had an active role in educational radio. A
variety of programs, ranging from science to history, were sponsored by the U. S.
Department of Education (Laine, 1939).
 In the early 1930s, broadcasters experimented with many different educational
television programs.
 In the 1950s, courses for credit started to be offered by higher education institutions
(Smaldino et al., 2000).
 In 1956, a closed-circuit television service was launched, and Chicago TV College
pioneered teaching by television (Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
 In the early 1960s, Airborne Television Instruction (Midwest Program on Airborne
Television Instruction: MPATI) launched the first “flying classroom” on an airfield
near Purdue University in Lafayette, Indiana (Smith, 1961). The program aimed to
broadcast educational television programs to 400 thousand people (Gordon, 1990).
 In 1963, the FCC created the Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS), a band of
20 television channels available to educational institutions (Public Broadcasting
Service, 2003).
 In 1964, the University of Wisconsin launched the Vocalized Educational Media
(VEM) project, which was the first attempt to identify, categorize, and systematize
distance education practices. This project put forward instructions on how to create
and use multimedia educational packages for the advantage of the independent
student (Gooch, 1998).
 By the 1970s, there were 233 educational television stations in the USA (Gooch,
1998).
 The AIM Project, which encouraged higher education institutions to deliver
educational content through educational television, was implemented in Great Britain,
Australia, and Germany (e.g., Open University in Great Britain and Fern Universität
in Germany) (Casey, 2008).
  In 1970, Coastline Community was the first to present a lesson completely on
television (Casey, 2008).
 By the 1980s, with the help of communication satellites, educational television was
available throughout the continental United States and beyond (Saba, 2013).
 In 1982, the National University Teleconference Network used satellites to broadcast
its programs to 40 institutional members. In 1985, the National Technology
University (NTU) launched online courses using satellite signals in order to access,
download, and distribute course materials for both undergraduate and graduate
education. In 1989, the University of Phoenix emerged on the stage as a for-profit
online open learning institution by providing courses to meet these needs (Casey,
2008).
 During the 1970s and 1980s, the increase in telecommunication satellites led to the
testing of many television programs (Saba, 2013).
2.3. 3rd Age: Computer-Based Distance Education
This age brought a revolution in the concept of distance education. Now people are interested
to replace the term ‘distance education’ with the terms ‘digital learning’, ‘elearning’, ‘lifelong
learning’ and ‘online learning’. Hundreds of thousands of students are now getting enrolled
and certified using their mobile phones, computer and tablets. Now teachers are conducting
deep learning based interviews and examinations with their learners. This elearning era is
allowing both synchronous and asynchronous opportunities for the learners. Businesses,
governments, corporations and organizations are now accepting the certifications and
credentials (Daniel, 1996; Saba ,2000 in Bozkurt, 2019). From mid-90s we are enjoying the
opportunities of getting involved in the online learning (Sadeghi, 2019) and now the things
are now getting more and more sophisticated.

3. Theories and Philosophies of Distance Education

3.1. Models of distance education
Two leading models of distance education is Iowa Model and Norwegian Model.
3.1.1. The Iowa Model is theoricized by Schlosser and Anderson on the basis of Desmond
Keegan’s distance education theory. The ideals of this model are - artificially recreate
the teaching-learning interaction and re-integrate it back into the instructional process
and the distance education must be an experience as much like traditional, face-to-
face instruction, via intact classrooms and live, two-way audio-visual interaction.
 Keegan (1986 in Fozkurt, 2012) classified theories of distance education into three
groups: First, theories of independence and autonomy; second, theories of
industrialization of teaching; and third, theories of interaction and communication.
3.1.2. Norwegian Model has a long tradition of combining mediated distance teaching with
local face-to-face teaching (Rekkedal, 1994 in Arimi, 2014).

3.2. Educational Approaches

In the world of education, there are three broad educational approaches, namely, pedagogy,
andragogy, and heutagogy.
3.2.1. Pedagogy
Having Greek origins, the term pedagogy means ‘to lead the child’. Most of the assumptions
underlying pedagogy were made and developed based on observations by monks when
teaching simple skills to young learners. In the 18th and 19th centuries, these assumptions
were adopted for primary and elementary school level learners. The research conducted by
educational psychologists in the 20th century served to establish an empirical ground for
pedagogy and reinforced it as an educational approach. However, when adult education (e.g.,
distance education, open and distance education) began to be developed in more a systematic
fashion, it was criticized by some educators because it basically emphasized transferring
knowledge, and the skills and assumptions developed for young learners were insufficient for
adult learners (Knowles, 1980 in Fozkurt, 2012).
3.2.2. Andragogy
Also having Greek origins, the term andragogy means “to lead the man [adults]” and is a
system used to explain adult learning (Knowles, 1990 in Fozkurt, 2012). It focuses on learner
control, self-responsibility, and self-directed and self-regulated learning processes.
Andragogy further asserts that adult learners should define their own learning needs and
develop strategies accordingly (Knowles, 1984; McAuliffe, Hargreaves, Winter, &
Chadwick, 2008 in Fozkurt, 2012).
3.2.3. Heutagogy
Like the terms pedagogy and andragogy, the term heutagogy also has Greek origins and
means ‘to lead the self”. This term emerged as an extension of pedagogy and andragogy.
Heutagogy explains adult learners in terms of lifelong learning and focuses on the internet
and internet technologies as the learning environment and learning tools (Blaschke, 2012 in
Fozkurt, 2012). Heutagogy is a “net-centric” theory, like connectivism (Anderson, 2010 in
Fozkurt, 2012).
 3.3. Learning Theories
Anderson and Dron (2011) proposed that learning theories for distance educaiton could be
categorized under three distinct generations, namely, cognitive-behaviourist, social-
constructivist, and connectivist. As a complementary approach to connectivism, rhizomatic
learning is also significant.
3.3.1. Behaviourism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism
Traditional learning theories, that is, behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism, are the
three most dominant learning approaches, and as such, they are widely known and have
heavily influenced the study of learning to date. Based on the operant conditioning,
behaviourism suggests that learning is observable and measurable, being simply a mechanical
process with repeated experiences. As a response to behaviourism, cognitivism focuses on
internal learning processes and argues that learners process information to learn, and that
information can be stored and retrieved when needed. As a response to behaviourism and
cognitivism, constructivism places value on experiences, claiming that learners build
knowledge through their own experiences. Carver (2012) stated, “Behaviourism challenged
the idea that knowledge was metaphysical. Cognitivism brought to light what could not be
seen, [that is,] the inner workings of the mind. Constructivism held that learning was shaped
by individuals based on experience, thoughts, and interactions”.
3.3.2. Connectivism and Rhizomatic Learning
Connectivism seeks to explain how learning occurs in the digital age through networks
(Siemens, 2004; Downes, 2012). It argues that “knowledge is distributed across a network of
connections, and therefore that learning consists of the ability to construct and traverse those
networks” (Downes, 2012, p. 9).
While “connectivism focuses on where knowledge is derived from and how learners interact
on networks, rhizomatic learning focuses on how learners navigate through the network and
pursue knowledge as a creative quest for learning” (Bozkurt et al., 2016). Rhizomatic
learning is further thought to be a heutagogical approach, where learning is seen as an
intrinsic process and experience has a pivotal role (Deleuze, 1994). Rhizomatic learning rests
on the assumption that knowledge is resilient, nonlinear, and uncertain and applies these
assumptions to the learning process (Cormier, 2015).
3.4. Teaching-Learning Theoretical Approaches
3.4.1. The Empathy Approach
An essential part of this theory is presented already here as it constitutes the background and
inspiration of my overarching view of distance-education methodology. The thinking behind
it emerges from an understanding of empathy between on the one hand students, on the other
hand tutors and others representing teaching and counselling. The conviction that empathy in
this sense influences study favourably has, in fact, pervaded distance education since the very
beginning even though it was not stated expressis verbis until I articulated it in terms of
theory and hypotheses. I regard empathy and personal relations between the parties involved
in the teaching-learning process as central to distance education. These feelings are brought
about by real and simulated dialogue, i.e. personal, friendly interaction between students and
tutors and conversation-like presentations of subject matter. This thinking is based on the
following postulates:
1. Feelings of a personal relation between the learning and teaching parties promote
study pleasure and motivation.
2. Such feelings can be fostered by well-developed self-instructional material and
communication at a distance.
3. Intellectual pleasure and study motivation are favourable to the attainment of study
goals and the use of proper study processes and methods.
4. The atmosphere, language and conventions of friendly conversation favour feelings of
personal relation according to postulate
5. Messages given and received in conversational forms are comparatively easily
understood and remembered.
6. The conversation concept can be successfully applied to distance education and the
media available to it.
These six postulates attempt to describe a reality that gives rise to the idea of a kind of
simulated conversation brought about by course texts being written not as neutral hand-book
pieces but as personal communications to students including explicit advice and suggestions
to the students as to what to do and what to avoid, clear statements about what is particularly
important, relevant references to what the student has already learnt, reasons for stressing
certain points etc. The course text may say, simulating a conversation: ‘This is tricky. You
may well draw the conclusion that…, but look out! In course unit x we discussed …. And
hen found that …. Consider this and ask yourself ….’.
This is what at elementary levels a self-contained course text may say. Similar comments are
due in guides to complicated scholarly presentations, which cannot at university level be
replaced by such discussions but may well supplement and help students to read and
understand them. This personal, conversation-like way of writing may include attempts to
involve the student emotionally, to make him/her develop a feeling of belonging, inviting
personal comments, questions etc. The empathy-encouraging presentation, which simulates
conversations, must then be followed up in the real interaction, i.e. in the tutor comments on
assignments submitted and other contacts between students and tutors.
My theory implying that the approach described is attractive to students, supports study
motivation and facilitates learning has been duly operationalised and rigorously tested by
three empirical investigations. It has not been possible to falsify it; the tendency apparent in
all three studies favoured the theory. The students taking part in the investigations felt
personally involved by the conversational presentations and they did marginally better in
their assignments than a control group studying without them. I cannot claim, however, that a
statistically significant corroboration emerged. The few objections to my approach from
students taking part in the study were expressed by a couple of German students who seemed
to feel that it lacked academic dignity, whereas the English and Swedish students taking part
were unanimously in favour. While a great number of scholars have expressed their
acceptance of my theory two have expressly criticised it, (cf. Peters 1998, pp. 20-23), whose
objections may be based on a misunderstanding (see my uncontested comment of 1999), and
Rumble, who is categorical in his rejection, stating that it is ‘clearly unconvincing’
(Rumble, 2004, p. 120). This theory will be discussed more in detail in Chapter 10.
Independently of my work similar approaches have been developed by other scholars, thus by
Lewis (1975), who equals ‘conversational activity with more solitary activities such as
private reasoning and silent reading (Lewis, 1975, p. 69), by Nation and Elliott (1985, p. 12)
and Swanepoel (1987, p. 185). Some more or less parallel approaches are of particular
interest, thus, e.g. the following approaches.
3.4.2. Shin’s Transactional Presence
A late example is the construct of ‘Transactional Presence’ presented by Shin (2002) and
described as being ‘concerned with the degree to which a distance student perceives the
availability of, and connectedness with, teachers, peer students, and institution’ (Shin, 2002,
p. 132), i.e. feelings of social presence, ‘the dynamics through which media users construct
their own subjective perceptions of other people’s presence’ (ibidem, p. 126). The connection
with learning achievement, on which Shin refers to Hackman and Walker (1990) only, a
study of communication ‘in the televised classroom’, has been more clearly shown to exist by
Rekkedal (1985) and Stein (1960).
3.4.3. Harri-Augstein’s Learning Conversations
Learning conversation is a designation used by Harri-Augstein and her group of scholars to
denote a form of dialogue about a learning experience in which the learner reflects on some
event or activity in the past. Ultimately, it is intended that people will internalize such
conversations so that they are able to review learning experiences systematically for
themselves, but at the beginning, the learning conversation is carried out with the assistance
of a teacher or tutor ...
It must first of all be said that a learning conversation is not idle chatter, nor is it an exchange
of prescriptions, instructions or injunctions. Instead, it is a dialogue on the process of
learning: the learner reflects on his or her learning with the assistance of a teacher or tutor.
(Candy, Harri-Augstein & Thomas, 1985, p. 102)
There can be little doubt that this approach is less directive and has more of a metacharacter
in its relation to learning than mine. It is concerned with bringing ‘to a level of conscious
awareness the [learning] strategies and values which were previously implicit’ with a view to
putting students ‘in a position to modify them’ (ibid. p. 115). This, to quote from another
paper, requires three parallel dialogues. Together these reflect the learner's cognitive process
back to him, support him through painful periods of change and encourage him to develop
stable referents which anchor his judgement of the quality of his assessment. The three
dialogues can be described as:
(a) commentary on the learning process;
(b) personal support of the learner's reflection; and
(c) referents for evaluating learning competence.
Each of these three dialogues can become internalized, but people differ in the ease with
which they can sustain each of them. Effective internalization of the complete learning
conversation produces the self-organized learner and the fully functioning man or woman.
Such people learn from experience and continue to learn through life. Frozen internal
conversations disable us as learners, and it is only when the external conversation is re-
established that the frozen process can be revived. Living then becomes an ongoing
opportunity for learning. (Thomas & Harri-Augstein, 1977, pp.101-2)
3.4.4. The Tutorial-in-print
A more directive approach primarily relevant to subject-matter presentation strongly
characterises what Derek Rowntree has called a tutorial-in-print. Like any tutorial it has a
conversational character but it seems to be concerned more with knowledge acquisition than
with discussing problems, more with downto- earth suggestions and exhortations than with
reflection on the learning. Rowntree advises course developers to imagine that they are
tutoring one individual learner, thus providing a substitute for individual face-to-face
teaching:
Everything you might want to say to this individual will need to be written down, forming
what I have called a tutorial-in-print. This is what you will need to do in your tutorial-in-print
if you are to teach your individual learners:
 Help the learners find their way into and around your subject, bypassing or repeating
sections where appropriate.
 Tell them what they need to be able to do before tackling the material.
 Make clear what they should be able to do on completion of the material (e.g. in terms of
objectives).
 Advise them on how to tackle the work (e.g. how much time to allow for different
sections, how to plan for an assignment, etc.).
 Explain the subject matter in such a way that learners can relate it to what they know
already.
 Encourage them sufficiently to make whatever effort is needed in coming to grips with the
subject.
 Engage them in exercises and activities that cause them to work with the subject matter,
rather than merely reading about it.
 Give the learners feedback on these exercises and activities enabling them to judge for
themselves whether they are learning successfully.
 Help them to sum up their learning at the end of the lesson. (Rowntree, 1990, pp. 82-83)
The conversational character of the ‘tutorial-in-print’ is stressed more clearly in other
contexts, for example by Donnachie in a discussion of history teaching at a distance, in which
it is said not only to involve ‘the teacher in a one-to-one relationship with the student’ but
allow to challenge ‘the student in a dialogue with the tutor’ (Donnachie, 1986, p. 55). This
implies stressing the importance of simulated communication in a way closely resembling my
teaching-learning conversation.
The same applies to a presentation by Cooper and Lockwood:
The simulation of a ‘tutorial in print’ (Rowntree, 1975) is the procedure whereby an author
regards the student time spent working on his material as time spent by the student in the
author’s company. In such a situation it is unlikely that an author would expect a student to
simply read an exposition from start to finish without reacting to it in some way or producing
anything themselves. They may, for example, be asked to recall items of information, define
concepts, draw together arguments, justify particular statements, consult other sources,
interpret data, compare different interpretations of the same data, work out examples, and so
on. In short to exercise certain study skills by which they can construct their own picture of a
subject and integrate what they have just been taught with what they had learnt before.
(Cooper & Lockwood, 1979, p. 253)
3.4.5. Cybernetic Conversation Theory
A sophisticated conversation theory has been developed by Gordon Pask, who applies a
cybernetic approach to networks of concepts and interaction with a computer; he describes
his theory as ‘an attempt to investigate the learning of realistically complex subject matter
under controlled conditions’ (Pask, 1976, p. 12).
Pask’s theory is complicated, indeed. Entwistle, who recognises its difficulties, provides the
following presentation: Essentially this theory describes learning in terms of a conversation
between two representations of knowledge. In the most familiar situation these
representations reflect the cognitive structures of two people, the teacher (or subject-matter
expert) and the student. Learning takes place through a dialogue between the two and, in
conversation theory, understanding has to be demonstrated by applying that knowledge to an
unfamiliar situation in a concrete non-verbal way (often using specially designed apparatus).
Reproductive responses based on memory are not accepted as evidence of understanding.
Learning need not, however, involve an interaction between the cognitive structures of two
people. The student may converse silently with himself in trying to understand a topic, or he
may interact with a formal representation of the knowledge structure and supplementary
learning materials which have been specially designed to facilitate understanding of the
chosen subject-matter area. Such a ‘surrogate tutor’ is described as a conversational domain
in a standard experimental condition. (Entwistle, 1978, p. 255)
Pask’s thinking has been very fruitfully applied and further developed by
Kathleen Forsythe.
Forsythe considers instructional design primarily as design for learning interactions and has
developed a ‘learning system as a new paradigm for the information age’ (Forsythe, 1985), in
which the learner, the learning partner (the teacher) and ‘the knowledge that may be the
substance of their conversation’ (Forsythe, 1985, p. 10) are the basic components. She
elaborates this system to facilitate the understanding of the effectiveness of media.
Forsythe’s identification of the evocative, provocative, and convocative functions
characteristic of ‘interactions for learning’ can be seen as something of a guideline for a
conversational approach to distance education:
Evocative.
The conversation with another, or the conversational agent, evokes or calls forth a reaction
within the participant that is often based on a feeling of awakening or of experiencing. This
often comes from experiencing one thing in terms of another – the isophor. In designing
systems that evoke interactions for learning, use of isophor is particularly helpful.
Provocative.
The conversation with another, or the conversational agent, rouses forth a reaction from the
participant that is often unsettling or disturbing, often because it represents a perspective or
state significantly different from our own. The feeling of provocation is experienced as we
feel we must reassess our own point of view in light of the new perspective.
Convocative.
The conversation or the conversational agent gathers participants together for a shared
experience mediated by the conversational agent. (Forsythe, 1986, pp. 22-23) (Holmberg,
2005)
4. Characteristics of Distance Education
The most important characteristic of Elearning (distance education in another form) is it the
ability to transform itself into new contexts (Arimi, 2014). Distance education brings new
ideas and newer approaches in terms creativity in the minds of learners.
To characterize distance education and open education, this table will help to see the
boundaries considering teaching strategies:
Traditional learning Distance or open learning/elearning
Controlled entry Free access
Directly taught classes Student focused
High proportion of attended time Possibly resource based
Timetabled activity Less strictly timetabled
On-campus Based on information rather than structured
teaching
On-campus
Independent learning
Resource-based learning
Collaborative learning

5. Difference Between Traditional and Distance Education

Traditional education refers to a standing teacher in front of the learners where distance
education means and helps experiencing the education tools and his own future vision or
learning ambition is in front of the learners. Keegan (1990 and 1998 in Holmber, 2005) draws
a line of demarcation between traditional and distance education
 Indicator
Learner-teacher separation
Mode of study
Use of technical media in
lesson delivery and
interaction
Two-way communication
Group dynamics
Traditional
No separation at all
Private study with less
planned and less student
support
Only the standing teacher
Less emphasize
Group dynamic during the
class hours only
Distance
Quasi permanent separation
Teach-yourself study with
highly planned and profound
student support
(individualized)
Many more media is used –
print, audio, video, tab,
mobile, computer
Emphasize higher
interaction
Group discussion can be
held any agreed time and for
agreed duration

6. Conceptualizing Course Design

6.1. Methodical approaches to course design
Two major methodologies are included here in designing course materials for distance
education. The first one is one developed by Rustinsches Fernlehrinstitut in Berlin in 1903:
1. Subject-matter presentation in a self-instructional form.
2. Conversation about the subject matter, in which the main points of the subject-matter
presentation are repeated by questions and answers.
3. A summary.
4. Revising questions with references to the sections of the subject-matter presentation
where the answers to the questions are to be found.
5. Exercises in the form of questions developed in such a way that the students must be
able to answer them on the basis of what has been learnt through the preceding parts
of the course unit. The correct answers to these questions are provided at the
beginning of the following course unit.
6. Individual correspondence teaching aimed at developing autonomous thinking by
means of a comprehensive assignment to be performed in writing. (Holmberg, 2005)
6.2. The course materials should encounter the essential categories given below for
better output:
1. To arouse attention and motivate; the presentation of objectives that are within
2. To close reach appears to be of particularly great importance in this respect.
 3. To make students aware of the expected outcomes of the study.
4. To link up with previous knowledge and interest.
5. To present the material to be learned.
6. To guide and structure, offering guidance for learning.
7. To activate.
8. To provide feedback.
9. To promote transfer.
10. To facilitate retention. (Holmberg, 2005)
6.3. Why course design so important?
Courses should be developed to meet the requirements, needs and interests of students or
learners. A well constructed course could guide the students throughout the learning and at
the end of the it would give the chance to review the course. In addition to this, the designed
materials could be kept for future recapping and rewinding learning outcomes. (Holmberg,
2005)
6.4. Content and Structure
 Contents: Defining content includes some major facts. Continuity with previous and
next topic, smaller in size, brighter in terms of combination. Those ideals are the bone
of contents.
 Naming the contents: Content contains a very sprightly headline with smaller but
eyecatching subheads.
 Learning objectives: Every contents contains some learning objectives. Objectives are
defined in the nature of the course topic and limitized into 3 to 5 for each content.
 Presentation of the main content: Main content presentation is a continuous process
with some intermission after small chunk of the content to ask feedback questions
from the learners or questions for the presenter.
 Summary: Summary is to give the learners a flashback on the delivered lessons.
 Key terms and definitions: It can be a part of the content to allow the learners in
diving into the delivered subject in a quick manner.
 Questions and quzzes: Questions can be in many forms and types. It depends on the
type and nature of the course content.
6.5. Course Character
In most cases, distance teaching and learning are based on courses pre-produced for the
purpose (Holmberg, 2005) and for online or elearning audios, videos, chat bodies, webinars
are used as modalities of lesson delivery. As text is the dominating medium for the
presentation of learning matter in distance education, not only in print but also as scripts for
recordings etc., the relation between distance-education courses and other text presentations
is of prime interest. A printed study course is basically different from a textbook with
questions. A textbook gives all relevant facts and, if it is a good textbook, does so in a clear
and logical way, but it does not guide or teach.
7. Lesson Delivery Modalities
Lesson delivery includes a variety of dimensions to get the lesson outcome successful.
Lessons can be delivered as a printed form, picture, video, audio message or dialogue, mobile
message, and so on (Holmberg, 2005). The media of communication can be – mail, internet,
radio or television shows, CD-ROM, Pocket-PC or mobile phone (Arimi, 2014).
Arimi (2014) presents four basic pedagogic model for lesson delivery in distance education:

 Distributed classroom model – synchronous and asynchronous

 Group conference model - tutor and off campus groups and individuals are interactive
 Individual learning model - tutor manages individual content with student and their
study programmers
 Independent learning model - based on materials, self-direction and group interaction.
Least contacts with tutor.
8. Interaction in Distance Education
Interaction is one of the greatest criteria of lesson delivery or educational systems. Can
distance education provides active interactions? Fantastic to say that, distance education
provides more interaction than the face to face education. As students are free and
empowered to ask any questions and they could multiple way of interactions.
Student-tutor Interaction: This interaction has three dimension prescribed by Baath (1980, in
Holmberg, 2005); these are prviding feedback (‘help them to correct their mistakes
and control their progress’), motivation (‘supported by submission assignments
serving as sub-goals’) and formative evaluation based on the experiences made
of students’ difficulties. The interactions can happen through a wide range of interactive
activities like - questions, problems, tasks, assignments, quizzes, puzzles, audio-video films,
and a regular feedback mechanisms to make the learning synchronous and asynchronous by
giving on demand experiences.
Student student interaction: Student student interaction is equally possible in distance
education. Instructors could facilitate the interactions or even the interactions can be in
absence of teacher or instructor. Only thing is important in this regard, a well designed
methodology for having interaction fruitfully and in a controlled environment.

9. Supervision in Distance Learning

Supervision in distance learning is critical and also tough. To make it happen, considering its
natural challenges, educator should track the learners participation and follow the learners
behaviour online. A self checking system could help it better and educator could understand
how the learner is acting clearly on the basis of his own learning attainment. Educator needs
to take the learners into various learning topologies to help them travel through the learning
journey with authentic experiences.

10. Monitoring and Evaluation in Distance Education

Having said that education is an experience and in distance education a learner could
experience her education as her own. It provides the opportunity for the learners to make sure
that she has real time chance to get the real experience of educating herself. So monitoring
and evaluation should be less important here (Arimi, 2014). On the other hand, monitoring
and evaluation is a part of certifications, assessment and conferring credits after a certain
period of study. Evaluation refers to the assessment of students for the purpose of awarding
marks, sometimes to the judgement of complete educational systems. Evaluation can be both
formative and summative. Monitoring and evaluation also should happen on the courses and
programmes, how it works, what are the implications and limitations posed during the
learners taking the courses or participating in the programmes (Holmberg, 2005).
11. Role of Different Actors in Distance Eucation
11.1. Role of Learners in Distance Education

In distance education programmes, learners are vital as they are the receivers and users of the
learning contents. It needs a well motivated learner group that intends to learn with their own
motivation and dedicated pace. How could it be doen? It depends on the way the providers of
distance education, programme design and structures, design of learning materials, the way
educator interacts with them and finally the understanding between the leaners and educators.
So learners’ role in distance education is quite passive and educators’ role active and game
changing.

11.2. Role of Teacher or Educator

Schlosser and Anderson (1993, cited in Arimi, 2014) identify the new skills which teachers
must learn as they assume the role of distance educators:
􀁸understanding the nature and philosophy of distance education
􀁸identifying learner characteristics at distant sites
􀁸designing and developing interactive courseware to suit each new technology
􀁸adapting teaching strategies to deliver instruction at a distance
􀁸organizing instructional resources in a format suitable for independent study
􀁸training and practice in the use of telecommunications systems
􀁸becoming involved in organization, collaborative planning, and decision-making
􀁸evaluating student achievement, attitudes, and perceptions at distant sites
􀁸dealing with copyright issues. (See Sherry and Morse, 1995, for rankings of these skills
by Denver educators.) Bogdanovic (2012) suggests to use student centered devices and
modalities to allow maximum and uninterrupted access of the learners.
11.3. Role of Technology and Assistive Devices
Technology and assistive devices play a vital role in delivering distance education. The
design and delivery method of technologies and devices must look at the usability by the
learners. Appropriate and inclusive methods and delivery system can ensure large number of
participation and completion of courses.
There is overview of technologies and assistive devices that enhances distance education:
Technologies used in distance education – information communication technologies,
broadcasting technologies, transportation technologies, communication technologies etc.
Softwares used for distance education – apps, apulates, CD-ROM, DVD, cassettes etc.
Distance education platforms – Moodle, Legos, and so on.
Distance education providers – Coursera, EDX, Udemy, Khan Academy, PhilU,
DisasterReady etc.
Devices – mobile phone, tab, television, radio, computer etc.

12. The Positive of Distance Education

The distance education has benefits over traditional classroom education, the obvious benefits
are the flexibility and the cost saving (that spend in travel and be out of work). There are also
benefits also that might not be obvious, for example:
- The students don’t have to travel to attend a course: attend your class in what time are
stable for you day or night and that will be so flexible to many students
- The hard subjects can be easier and interesting.
 - The students will have more experiences can be achieved, because learn from the
content as well learn from using online communities and networks. In this way, e
learning can support "learning through reflection and discussion".
- Distance education empower learners to manage their way of learning and the way he
like to learn. Because each one has his way of learning.
- Distance education so help full to the companies because it saves time and costs when
the learner or the employees learn at job and it also improve their performance and
help the organizations to be active.
- It's less expensive to produce
- It's self – paced
- It provides a consistent message
- It can work from any location and any time It can be updated easily and quickly
- It can be easily managed for large groups of students – Information (such as health
and safety) can be kept current by updating the intranet site.
- Staff can train as and when they want to, and can break the course up into section as
they see fit (removing the problem of concentration loss).
- Avoids timetabling constraints
- Enables 'just in time' learning.
- Money is saved by reducing the need to book venues and trainers. Staff is released
from their desks for a minimum amount of time.
- One could download the course and save for future recapping.
13. Disadvantages of Distance
High Chances of Distraction: In distance education, there is high chances of distraction as
there is no teacher and classmates to interact with, someone needs extreme and regular
motivation and should be focused for completion of the course but it doesn’t go with human
minds and no chance to take help from any bystanders. (Bijesh, 2017; Nagrale, 2013 &
Brown 2017 in Sadeghi, 2019)
Complicated Technology: Brown (2017, in Sadeghi, 2019) complains that the technology is
complex and the types of technology used in distance education can interrupt normal process
of teaching learning process. If there is any technological miseries the class gets stuck
somewhere in the midst of the session.
No Social Interaction: Isolation from social physical environments in a traditional classroom
is another big issue in terms of distance education (Dyrud, 2000 in Sadeghi, 2005). Brown
(2017 in Sadeghi, 2005) held the idea that distance learning limitized the movement of the
learners to their practical world as it is based on the materials presented online or at home but
life is larger than a chatroom or computer. In distance education, learners can understand less
and working at night or alone can cause depressing experiences (Hara & Kling, 2000 in
Sadeghi, 2019).
Difficulty Staying in Contact with Instructors: In the case of distance education, a learner can
only send an email, chat in the chatbox, send a message or other platform, but Hutt (2017 in
Sadeghi, 2019) complains that this is not helpful for the learners as they need the answer
immediately but in distance learning answering immediately is not possible where it can be
possible in sit down session with the instructors face to face.
Job Markets Do Not Accept Online Degrees
Nagrale (2013 in Sadeghi, 2019) believed this is could be quite dangerous if you are totally
relying on distance education for a degree. You might get a degree but that is not going to be
recognized by private companies in the job market and the same problem in government jobs.
Still employers prefer a degree from a regular college over online or distance education. They
think that distance education is still not a serious form of education.
In addition to these, as distance education solely depends on the media (communication,
technology, transportation, presentation media) so it can bring interruption between the
learners and educators as they are not present in the real physical spaces. A list of negatives
or limitations are (Arimi, 2014):
- May encounter language barriers/translation problems.
- Can be obstructed by time zones.
- Requires forms of institutional support to be projected to distant students
- Is complex in relation to copyright issues?
- Often requires establishment of regional centers
- Can be costly for students to obtain equipment
- Staffs are resentful, as they feel obliged/are encouraged to do the training in their own
time
- It may be difficult to gage whether or not staff are actually completing the training
fully/benefiting from it as much as they would from a classroom based training
session.
- Staff may need support to use the technology.

14. Challenges and Solutions of Distance and Open Education

The challenges in terms of technology is not only regarding the electronics but also
methodologies and approaches. Challenges in terms of availability of materials (like a
suitable tab or a mobile phone, network of internet or intranet, a television set or radio, radio
or television frequency) and affordability of materials or media or sources (like a tab or other
devices and internet or intranet devices or expenses) by both users and providers (in some
instances NGOs or institutions in development sector). Also problems exists in the delivery
and feedback mechanisms. Common challenges are cheating in exams, teacher’s feedback in
real time, uniform questionnaire that helps the bystander to copy, and so on. Some solutions
could be – building advanced technology:- an advanced technology (and methodology) is
needed to help the instructors or administers to minimize cheating in exams (Kim & Shih,
2003) alongwith a healthy amount of investment. Instance hints and intelligent tutoring:-
while a student is navigating an online course, an intelligent agent may analyze her behavior,
and provide useful suggestions in real-time, for example, by guiding her through different
learning topologies. FAQ summarization and automatic reply:- it is time-consuming for an
instructor to answer students’ e-mails. An auto-reply system should be able to use
information retrieval techniques to summarize frequently asked questions, and reply to new
questions with answers to past questions. Unbiased examination:- it is difficult to ensure
proper behavior of students when administering online examinations without a human
monitor. A surveillance tool can randomly take a snapshot of students’ screens.
Individualized quizzes:- some distance learning systems are able to generate different test
questions for different students according to difficulty levels. This type of system should
ensure unbiased examinations. Online supervision of chat room discussions:- chat room
discussions can be assigned points in student’s performance. An intelligent agent can be
implemented to grade chat room participations. Misleading or irrelevant conversations can be
reported to the instructor. Universal and mobile accessibility:- students and instructors
should be able to access distance learning websites from any location with any of a variety of
different devices, such as PDA or cellular phone. Wireless communication techniques may be
incorporated into distance learning systems. Remote lab and simulation: domain-specific
remote labs connected to the Internet need to be developed to support online experiments. If
remote labs are not available, online simulation tools (i.e., virtual lab) should be provided.
Recommendations
1. The quality of the teaching is an important factor influencing student satisfaction. This is
an especially important consideration for distance education managers and decision makers,
who can organize distance learning in a way that allows them to provide ongoing guidance
and improvement strategies for teaching staff.
2. Communication with students on distance learning programs requires special attention, due
to the fact that this type of study involves the increasing use of asynchronous video
communication, as well as a lack of personal contact, which is essential for the development
of trust. Some teachers delay responses to students’ messages without apparent reason, and
communication is sometimes not enough.
3. Students find that some teachers do not upload enough learning and testing resources
suitable for distance learning. The Moodle platform, which is nowadays used in many
countries, offers a wide variety of content, applications, and forms of communication
available in the e-learning environment, with a detailed description of option.
4. Teachers set deadlines for the preparation of tests, mid-terms, and finals, which do not fit
all the students. As a matter of fact, the students should be informed in advance and teachers
should provide more support to the students when they underestimate the time and effort
required in online learning, since the lack of support is shown to be one of the main reasons
for dropping out of university.

Conclusion

Distance learning is getting a worldwide momentus as world is facing COVID 19 pandemic.

It happens never before. This is the first time whole world is missing the opportunities of
distance education specially for the school goers and others working in the education in
emergencies sector. Meanwhile we can not also deny the fact that in a busy 21st century life
people are getting less time for budgeting for on campus education and as the means of self
development is now in peoples finger tip so corporations, companies, organizations and
governments are not bothering in accepting online certifications and credentials. Because this
is the reality and productive.

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……………………………………………………………………………………………..........

Nurul Mostafa Kamal Zafari

Having a BEd and DPEd with an MSc in Innovative Teaching

and Education, the author is now doing research for his Doctor
of Education degree from European International
University, France and working as an education officer for
Norwegian Refugee Council. He holds journals publications, books, and attended a good
number of conferences. He could be reached at nmkzafari@gmail.com .