CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM PART 1 ■ Alteration in allosteric

factors
What is metabolism? ● Intercellular Communication
● Totality of chemical reactions in an ○ Between cells
organism ○ Slower response
● Composed of metabolic pathways ○ Types of Signaling:
■ Synaptic - neurotransmitter
Two Types of Metabolic Pathways → target cell
● Anabolism ■ Endocrine - hormones →
○ Synthetic target cell
○ Monomers → Polymers ■ Direct Contact - cell surface
○ Consumes energy (ATP) → target cell surface
○ Reductive ( NADH & NADPH) ● Secondary Messenger
● Catabolism ○ Neurotransmitters and hormones
○ Degradative act on receptors
○ Polymers → Monomers ○ Secondary messenger receptor
○ Releases energy (ATP)
○ Oxidative (NAD+) Glycolysis
● Breaks down glucose
● Occurs in the cytoplasm
● Net Products per 1 Glucose:
○ 2 Pyruvate
○ 2 NADH
○ 2 ATP
● Stages:
○ Energy-investment phase
○ Energy payoff phase

Substrate Product Enzyme and

(Cofactor)

Stages of Catabolism 1. Glucose * G-6-P Hexokinase

(Mg²⁺)
1. Hydrolysis of complex molecules
2. Conversion of building blocks to simple 2. G-6-P F-6-P Phosphohexose
intermediates or Acetyl CoA Isomerase
3. Oxidation of Acetyl CoA which generates
ATP via oxidative phosphorylation 3. F-6-P * F-1,6-BP PFK-1 (Mg²⁺)

4. F-1,6-BP G-3-P Aldolase

Regulation of Metabolism
● Use to meet cellular needs 5. G-3-P DAP TPI
● Intracellular Communication
○ Within the cell 6. G-3-P 1,3-BPG G-3-PD (Mg²⁺)
○ Rapid response
7. 1,3-BPG 3-PG PGK (Mg²⁺)
○ Rate of reaction is influenced by:
■ Availability of substrate 8. 3-PG 2-PG PGM
■ Product inhibition
 9. 2-PG PEP Enolase (Mg²⁺)
Electron Transport Chain
10. PEP * Pyruvate PK (Mg²⁺) ● Complex I: NADH Dehydrogenase
○ Rotenone amytal - blocks electron
* = Irreversible transfer from Complex 1 to CoQ
○ Removes H in NADH
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase ● Complex II: Succinate Dehydrogenase
● Transforms pyruvate to Acetyl CoA ○ Removes H from succinate
● 3 enzyme complex ○ Observed in kreb’s cycle
● Five Coenzymes: ● Complex III: Ubiquinone - Cytochrome C
○ Lipoic acid Oxidoreductive
○ Thiamine ○ Coenzyme Q transfers electrons
○ FAD from Complex II to III
○ NAD ○ Antimycin A - blocks electron
○ Coenzyme A transfer with complex III
● Complex IV: Cytochrome Oxidase
Kreb’s Cycle ○ Chemiosmotic Theory - H+
● Also called TCA or citric acid cycle gradient drives ATP Synthesis
● Amphibolic
● Product per 1 Pyruvate: CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM PART 2 AND
○ 3 NADH₂ SPECIAL PRODUCTS OF CARBOHYDRATES
○ 1 FADH
○ 1 GTP Fates of Pyruvate
○ 2 CO₂ ● Kreb’s cycle
● Gluconeogenesis
● Anaerobic respiration
Substrate Product Enzyme ● Fermentation
1. Acetyl CoA Citrate Citrate
& oxaloacetate Synthase Anaerobic Respiration
● Occurs in the lack of O₂
2. Citrate Isocitrate Aconitase ● Converts pyruvate to lactate
● Uses LDH as enzyme
3. Isocitrate * AKG Isocitrate
● Present in anaerobic organisms
Dehydrogenase
● Takes place in poorly vascularized tissues
4. AKG Succinyl AKGD complex and RBC
CoA
Ethanol Fermentation
5. Succinyl Succinate Succinate ● Occurs in yeast and other microorganisms
CoA Thiokinase
● Converts pyruvate to acetaldehyde to
6. Succinate Fumarate Succinate ethanol
Dehydrogenase ● Uses pyruvate decarboxylase and alcohol
dehydrogenase as enzyme
7. Fumarate Malate Fumarase
Gluconeogenesis
8. Malate Oxaloaceta Malate
te Dehydrogenase ● Creation of new glucose from
non-carbohydrate sources
* = Irreversible
 ● Provides constant glucose supply needed
1. Glycogen G-1-P Glycogen
for human life (brain and RBC) Phosphorylase
● Constant but slow, is done when glycogen
is depleted 1.2. G-1-P Reduction of Debranching
● Takes place in the kidney, liver, and Steric Enzyme
intestines Hindrance
● Non-carbohydrate precursors:
2. G-1-P G-6-P Phosphogluco
○ Glycerol mutase
■ Glycerol → G3P → DHAP
→ F-1,6-BP → Glucose 3. G-6-P Glucose G-6-P
○ Lactate (Cori Cycle) Translocase
■ Lactate → Pyruvate → and
Glucose Phosphatase
○ Glucogenic Amino Acid
■ Glucogenic Amino Acid → Lysosomal Degradation
Pyruvate → Glucose ● Lysosomal Acid α(1→4) Glucosidase
○ Only degrades small amounts
Pyruvate Carboxylation ○ Deficiency can lead to disease
● Uses mitochondrial enzymes
○ Pyruvate carboxylase Glycogen Storage Disease
■ Pyruvate → Oxaloacetate
■ Uses ATP and vitamin B7 Type Deficient Symptoms
(biotin) as a cofactor Enzyme
○ PEP Carboxykinase
■ Oxaloacetate → PEP 0 Glycogen - ↓ Blood
■ Uses GTP Synthase Glucose
- Early Death
F 1,6 BP Dephosphorylation Ia - Von G-6- - Enlarged
● Regulation point for gluconeogenesis Gierke Phosphatase Liver
● F-1,6-BP → F-6-P - Kidney Failure

G-6-P Dephosphorylation Ib G-6-P - Enlarged

● Yields 6 ATP and 2 NADH for every Translocase Liver
- Kidney Failure
glucose from 2 pyruvates
● G-6-P → Glucose II - Pompe Lysosomal - Myopathy
Acid
Glycogen Metabolism - occurs in the liver and
muscles III - Cori Debranching - Enlarged
Enzyme Liver
- Myopathy
Glycogenesis
● Breakdown of glycogen to glucose for IV - Branching - Enlarged
energy Andersen Enzyme Liver & Spleen
● Occurs in the liver and muscles - Myoglobinuria

V - McArdle Muscle - Exercise

Substrate Product or Enzyme Glycogen Induced Cramp
Result Phosphorylase - Myoglobinuria
 VI - Hers Liver Glycogen - Enlarged Substrate Product Enzyme and
Phosphorylase Liver (Cofactor)

VII - Tarui Muscle PFK-1 - Exercise 1. G-6-P 6- G-6-P

Induced Cramp Phosphogluc Dehydrogenase
- Myoglobinuria onolactone

2. 6 - 6- Gluconolactona
Blood Glucose Control Phosphogluc Phosphogluc se
● Insulin onolactone onate
○ β cells of pancreatic islets of
Langerhans 3. 6 - Ribulose-5- 6-
○ Release: Fed State Phosphogluc Phosphate Phosphoglucon
onate ate
○ Lowers blood glucose level
Dehydrogenase
● Glucagon
○ α cells of pancreatic islets of
Langerhans Glucose-6-Biphosphate Dehydrogenase
○ Release: Fasted State Deficiency
○ Increases blood glucose level ● Most common disease-producing enzyme
abnormality
● Example: Heinz Bodies - oxidative
damage in hemoglobin
Insulin Glucagon

F-6-BP ↓ ↑ Endogenous Heteropolysaccharide

● Glycosaminoglycan
Glycogen Activate Inactivate ○ Mucopolysaccharide
Synthase ○ Long, unbranched, (-) charged
○ Has a gel-like matrix found in:
Glycogen Inactivate Activate
Phosphorylase ■ ECM
■ Synovial Fluid
■ Vitreous Humor
Pentose Phosphate Pathway ● Proteoglycans
● Also known as Hexose Monophosphate ○ Protein + Glycosaminoglycan
Shunt ○ Found in connective tissues
● Has two phases: ● Glycoprotein
○ Oxidative phase ○ Protein + Oligosaccharide
○ Non-oxidative sugar phosphate ○ Associated with:
interconversion ■ Cell Surface Recognition
● Does not consume or produce ATP ■ Cell Surface Antigenicity
● Produces NADPH used for: ■ Extracellular Matrix
○ Glutathione Reduction ■ Mucins
○ FA Synthesis
○ Cholesterol Synthesis LIPID METABOLISM
● Product per 1 G-6-P molecule:
○ 2 NADPH Lipids
○ 1 Ribulose-5-Phosphate ● Heterogenous group
● Functions:
○ Energy
 ○ Barrier for partition
○ Regulatory
○ Homeostasis
● Water-insoluble organic molecule
● Usually associated with protein

Initial Digestion of Lipids