What is psychology?

 Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes.

 The field is scientific in that psychologists approach their studies in an orderly and

systematic way in order to obtain objective evidence.

 Psychologists study:

 Overt or observable behaviour, as well as

 Covert behaviour – private mental processes that cannot be directly observed or measured
and must be inferred from overt behaviour.

 The primary goals of psychology are to:

 Decribe behaviour – what is the nature of this behaviour?

 Understand and explain behaviour - why does it occur?

 Predict behaviour– can we forecast when and under what circumstances it will occur?

 Control behaviour - what factors influence this

Verities of psychologist:

 Several types of psychologists exist. These include:

 Cognitive psychologists:
 study the ways humans perceive and understand the world around them.
 Physiological psychologists:
 study the role of brain functions in behaviour.
 Developmental psychologists:
 study how individuals grow and change throughout their lives.
 Social psychologists:
 study how people influence and are influenced by others.
 School psychologists:
 test and evaluate students, analyze learning problems, and counsel teachers and parents.
 Industrial/Organizational psychologists:
 work on a wide variety of issues in work settings.

 Forensic psychologists:
 work on behavioural issues in the legal, judicial and correctional systems.
 Health psychologists:
 focus on ways to improve health by altering behaviour.
 Sports psychologists:
 Study how psychological factors influence performance in sports, physical activity and
exercise.

 Most psychologists are involved in the areas of clinical and counseling

psychology.

 The primary focus of clinical psychologists is the diagnosis and treatment of mental and
behavioural disorders.

 There is some overlap between clinical and counseling psychology but the latter typically
involves working with people who have less severe social, emotional and vocational problems.
 Psychology rich history

 Several schools of thought have helped to shape the field of psychology into
what it is today. These include:

 Structuralism
 Functionalism
 Psychoanalysis
 Behaviourism
 Gestalt psychology
 Humanistic psychology

 Assignment Of psychology
Presented To:- Dr.Ali Hassan
Presented by:
 Maria
 Huma
What are the Different Schools of Psychology?
There are Different Schools in Psychology, among of these are:

I. Structuralism,  II. Functionalism, III. The Gestalt psychology, 

IV. Behaviorism,  V. Psychoanalysis,  VI. Humanism and Cognitive Psychology.

Structuralism:
Structuralism is lead by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward B. Titchener. This school of

psychology is primarily deals with the study of the element which form the structure of

the mind. Structuralist used the method of “Introspection”.

Functionalism:

Functionalism was developed at the University of Chicago. It was lead by John Dewey

and James Angell. It also developed at the Harvard University with William James.

Functionalist are involved in studying the functions of consciousness. They believed that

the learning process was aided by consciousness. The study of functionalist also deals

with personality, intelligence and other practical problem related to the field of

education. The functionalist is interested in the learning process because the learning

process is one of the means of adjustment of man to the environment where he lives.

The Gestalt Psychology:

Gestalt psychology is lead by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Wertheimer and Koffha

(German psychologist). The Gestalt psychologist analyzes experience by configuration,

whole or pattern. These psychologists give importance to the wholeness in the process

of learning. They give emphasis that the whole is greater than the sum to its parts.

Furthermore, they give emphasis of form in perception, they believed that shapes and

forms need to be describe by the organization of the entire perceptual field.

Behaviorism:

Behaviorism was lead by John B. Watson. He is a professor of psychology at John

Hopkins University. The psychologists believed that psychology should be concerned

with behaviors. They stressed that behaviors are observable and they are not conscious

experience that is subjective and only known to the person involved.

Psychoanalysis:

Psychoanalysis was developed by Dr. Sigmund Freud. He developed this theory

explaining the physical, nervous and emotional disorders with the organic explanations.

Sigmund Freud is interested on the sub-conscious mind.

Humanism:

Humanism, humanistic and humanist are terms in psychology relating to an approach

which studies the whole person, and the uniqueness of each individual.  Essentially,

these terms refer the same approach in psychology.

Cognitive Psychology:

Cognitive Psychology is a blend of humanism and behaviorism. It gives special

attention on thought process, the reasoning as well as problem solving. Cognitive

psychologists are concerned on understanding the basic methods of the operation of

the human brain.

Humanistic psychology, a movement in psychology supporting the belief that

humans, as individuals, are unique beings and should be recognized and treated as
such by psychologists and psychiatrists. The movement grew in opposition to the two
mainstream 20th-century trends in psychology, behaviourism and psychoanalysis.
Humanistic principles attained application during the “human potential” movement,
which became popular in the United States during the 1960s.
Other Definitions:
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in
the mid-20th century in answer to the limitations of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic
theory and B. F. Skinner's behaviorism. With its roots running from Socrates through
the Renaissance, this approach emphasizes the individual's inherent drive toward self-
actualization, the process of realizing and expressing one's own capabilities and
creativity
This psychological perspective helps the client gain the belief that all people are
inherently good. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence and pays special
attention to such phenomena as creativity, free will, and positive human potential. It
encourages viewing ourselves as a "whole person" greater than the sum of our parts
and encourages self exploration rather than the study of behavior in other people.
Humanistic psychology acknowledges spiritual aspiration as an integral part of
the psyche. It is linked to the emerging field of transpersonal psychology. The concept
of the self is a central focal point for most humanistic psychologists. In the “personal
construct” theory of American psychologist George Kelly and the “self-centred” theory of
American psychotherapist Carl Rogers, individuals are said to perceive the world
according to their own experiences. This perception affects their personality and leads
them to direct their behaviour to satisfy the needs of the total self. Rogers stressed that,
in the development of an individual’s personality, the person strives for “self-
actualization (to become oneself), self-maintenance (to keep on being oneself), and
self-enhancement (to transcend the status quo).” Primarily, this type of therapy
encourages a self-awareness and mindfulness that helps the client change their state of
mind and behaviour from one set of reactions to a healthier one with more productive
self-awareness and thoughtful actions. Essentially, this approach allows the merging of
mindfulness and behavioural therapy, with positive social support. In the 20th century,
humanistic psychology was referred to as the "third force" in psychology, distinct from
earlier, less humanistic approaches of psychoanalysis and behaviorism.

Its principal professional organizations in the US are the Association for Humanistic

Psychology and the Society for Humanistic Psychology (Division 32 of the American
Psychological Association). In Britain, there is the UK Association for Humanistic
Psychology Practitioners.
The humanistic psychology perspective is summarized by five core principles
or postulates of humanistic psychology first articulated in an article written by James
Bugental in 1964 and adapted by Tom Greening, psychologist and long-time editor of
the Journal of Humanistic

Psychology.
 The five basic principles of humanistic psychology are:
 1. Human beings, as human, supersede the sum of their parts. They cannot be
reduced to components.
2. Human beings have their existence in a uniquely human context, as well as in a
cosmic ecology.
3. Human beings are aware and are aware of being aware—i.e., they are
conscious. Human consciousness always includes an awareness of oneself in
the context of other people.
4. Human beings have the ability to make choices and therefore have responsibility.
5. Human beings are intentional, aim at goals, are aware that they cause future
events, and seek meaning, value, and creativity.
While humanistic psychology is a specific division within the American Psychological
Association (Division 32), humanistic psychology is not so much a discipline within
psychology as a perspective on the human condition that informs psychological
research and practice. A human science view is not opposed to quantitative methods,
but, following Edmund Husserl:

1. favors letting the methods be derived from the subject matter and not uncritically
adopting the methods of natural science, and
2. Advocates for methodological pluralism. Consequently, much of the subject
matter of psychology lends itself to qualitative approaches (e.g. the lived
experience of grief), and quantitative methods are mainly appropriate when
something can be counted without leveling the phenomena (e.g. the length of
time spent crying).
*………………………*
Clinical Psychology:
Clinical psychology is the psychological
specialty that provides continuing and comprehensive mental and behavioral
health care for individuals and families; consultation to agencies and
communities; training, education and supervision; and research-based practice.
It is a specialty in breadth — one that is broadly inclusive of severe
psychopathology — and marked by comprehensiveness and integration of
knowledge and skill from a broad array of disciplines within and outside of
psychology proper. The scope of clinical psychology encompasses all ages,
multiple diversities and varied systems.
Advanced Scientific and Theoretical Knowledge Germane to the
Specialty :
 Understanding of psychopathology and diagnostic/intervention considerations.
 Mental health issues across the lifespan based on a solid understanding of
psychopathology.
 Assessment: ability to integrate and synthesize personality test data with
additional standardized assessment measures.
 Consultation: ability to consult with other health and behavioral health care
professionals and organizations regarding severe psychopathology, suicide and
 violence.
Research Base: engagement with specific research and critical review of
science, knowledge and methods pertaining to those areas identified as
distinct to clinical psycholo
Parameters to Define Professional Practice in Clinical Psychology
Populations
Clinical psychology as a specialty provide services to individuals and families across the
lifespan and from all ethnic, cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds, as well as groups
and communities.
Problems/Issues
The specialty of clinical psychology addresses behavioral and mental health issues
faced by individuals across the lifespan including:
 Intellectual, emotional, psychological, social and behavioral maladjustment.
 Disability and discomfort.
 Minor adjustment issues as well as severe psychopathology.
Procedures
 Assessment: diagnostic interviewing, behavioral assessment, administration and
interpretation of psychological test measures
 Intervention (primary, secondary and tertiary levels): clinical services to
individuals, families and groups
 Consultation: inter- and intra-professional practice with other health and
behavioral health professionals and organizations
 Research: engagement with specific research and critical review of science,
knowledge and methods pertaining to clinical psychology.
* THANK YOU *
Variable
1. “A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that (a)
researchers can measure or observe and (b) varies among individuals or organizations.”
They are the key ideas that researchers seek to collect information on to address the
purpose of their study [ CITATION Cre12 \l 1033 ].
2. “The Concept that is capable of measurement and hence capable of taking on different
values is called variable” [ CITATION Kum1 \l 1033 ]
Types of Variables

From the View Point of Causal Relationship

In studies that attempt to investigate a causal relationship or association, four sets of variables
may operate.

Independent variable:

1. “An independent variable is an attribute or characteristic that influences or affects an

outcome or dependent Variable”.
2. Also known as change variables, which are responsible for bringing about change in a
phenomenon, situation or circumstances.
3. A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is called a independent
variable.

Dependent variable:
“A dependent variable is an attribute or characteristic that is dependent on or influenced by the
independent variable”. You may find them labeled in the literature as the outcome, effect,
criterion, or consequence variables.
Example:
“Students who spend more instructional time in class on math have higher math scores than
students who spend less time.”
Independent variable: Time on math instruction
Dependent variable: Math scores
Intervening variable:

An intervening variable is an attribute or characteristic that “stands between” the independent

and dependent variables and exercises an influence on the dependent variable apart from the
independent variable. Intervening variables transmit (or mediate) the effects of the independent
variable on the dependent variable. Thus, they are also called mediating variables. As they
become bridge between independent and dependent variables, so these variables are also known
as connecting or linking variables.
Example:
Intervening variable = willingness of students to exert effort

Extraneous Variable:

Several factors which operate in real life situations may affect changes in the dependent variable.
These factors may increase or decrease the magnitude or strength of the relationship between
independent and dependent variables.
For Example:
Demographic variables such as age, gender, race, or socioeconomic level, and classroom
instruction method.

From the View Point of the Study Design

Active Variables:

Those variables that can be manipulated changed or controlled.

For Example:

 Different teaching models

 Experimental intervention
 Program service etc

Attribute Variables:

Those variables that cannot be manipulated, changed or controlled, and that reflect the
characteristics of the study population.
For Example:

 Age
 Gender
 Level of Education
 Attitudes
 Religion etc.

From the View Point of the Unit of Measurement

From the view point of the unit of measurement, there are two ways of categorizing variables:

 Whether the unit of measurement is categorical or continuous in nature

 Whether it is qualitative or quantitative in nature

Categorical Variable or Qualitative Variable

When characteristic being studied is non-numerical, it is known as qualitative or categorical

variable.
Example:
Color, gender, religion, marital status etc

Continuous Variable or Quantitative Variable

“A variable that can take on a range of values that correspond to some quantitative amount is
known as continuous variable”.

When characteristic being studied is numerical, it is known as quantitative or continuous

variable.
Example:
Age, Income, height, weight etc.

Research methods psychology

Some Terms
 Hypothesis testing: Scientifically testing the predicted outcome of an experiment or an

educated guess about the relationship between variables

 Operational definition: Defines a scientific concept by stating specific actions or procedures

used to measure it

 Example: Research regarding “difficult teachers”

 Difficult because the teacher’s grading is so challenging or difficult to stay awake because

the class is too boring and unchallenging

 Theory: A system of ideas that interrelates facts and concepts, summarizes existing data, and

predicts future observations

 A good theory must be falsifiable (i.e., operationally defined) so that it can be disconfirmed

Scientific Fact

 Modern sciences are built on observations that can be verified by two or more independent

observers regarding the same event. This is what gives them validity and reliability. Which

of the psychology theories meet this standard?

Psychology Today

 Biopsychology: All of our behavior can be explained through physiological processes Uses

brain scans to gather data (CT, MRI, PET)

 Positive Psychology: Study of human strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior . Looks at

positive side of human behavior

 Sociocultural: Focus on importance of social and cultural contexts influencing our behavior

 Cognitive: Study thoughts, memory, expectations, perceptions, and other mental processes

Many Flavors of Psychologists

 Psychologists: Usually have master’s or doctorate degree; trained in methods, knowledge,

and theories of psychology

 Clinical psychologists: Treat more severe psychological problems or do research on mental

disorders

 Counseling psychologists: Treat milder problems, such as school or work troubles

More Helping Professionals

 Psychiatrists: MD; usually use medications to treat problems; generally do not have

extensive training in providing “talk” therapy

 Psychoanalysts: Receive additional training post-PhD or MD at an institute for

psychoanalysis

Experiments

 To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experiments

 Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior

 Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except the condition you are varying

 Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior

Types of Variables

 Any conditions that can change, and might affect an experiment's outcome

 Independent variable: Condition(s) altered by the experimenter; experimenter sets their

size, amount, or value; these are suspected causes for behavioral differences

 Dependent variable: Demonstrates effects that independent variables have on behavior

Extraneous Variables

Conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment

(e.g., number of hors slept before the exeperiment).

 Evaluating Experiments’ Results

 Statistically significant: Results gained would occur very rarely by chance alone. The difference
 must be large enough so that it would occur by chance in less than 5 experiments out of 100

 Meta-analysis: Study of results of other studies

 Random Assignment:

 Subject has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group

 In our daily lives, we often conduct little experiments to detect cause-and-effect connections. If you

are interested in gardening, for example, you might try adding plant food to one bed of flowers but
 not another. The question then becomes: Does the use of plant food (the independent variable)

affect the size of the flowers (the dependent variable)? By comparing unfed plants (the control

group) to those receiving plant food (the experimental group) you could find out if plant food is

worth using.

 In groups, think of at least one informal experiment you’ve done in the last month. What were the

variables? What was the outcome? Did they adequately control for the variables?

Experiment Types

 Single-blind experiment: Only the subjects have no idea whether they get real treatment or

placebo

 Double-blind experiment: The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the

subjects get real treatment or placebo Best type of experiment, if properly set up

Experimenter Effects

 Experimenter effects: Changes in behavior caused by the unintended influence of the experimenter

 Self-fulfilling prophecy: A prediction that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come

true . Common problem

Problems

 Observer effect: Changes in subject’s behavior caused by an awareness of being observed

 Observer bias: Occurs when observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details

Correlational Studies

 Studies designed to measure the degree of a relationship (if any) between two or more events,

measures, or variables

 How is this measured?

 Coefficient of Correlation

 Statistic ranging from –1.00 to +1.00; the sign indicates the direction of the relationship

 The closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to +1.00, the stronger the relationship

 Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship between the variables

 Positive correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by increases in the other variable

 Negative correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by decreases in the other

variable

 Correlation does not demonstrate causation: Just because two variables are related does NOT

mean that one variable causes the other to occur

 The Clinical Method

 Case study: In-depth focus on all aspects of a single person

 Natural clinical tests: Natural events, such as accidents, that provide psychological data

 Survey method: Using public polling techniques to answer psychological questions

Sampling

 Representative sample: Small group that accurately reflects a larger population

 Population: Entire group of animals or people belonging to a particular category (e.g., all

married women)
 Internet surveys: Web-based research; low cost and can reach many people

INTERVIEW METHOD OF PSYCHOLOGY

INTERVIEW METHOD
The word "interview" refers to a one-onone

conversation with one person acting in the role of the interviewer and the other in the role of the
interviewee

In their words….

P.V. Young:
Interview is a scientific method through which a person enters into the life of a stranger.

Good & Hatt:

Interview is a process of social interaction between interviewer and interviewee.

Kerlinger:
A face to face interpersonal situation in which one ask questions from the other to get answer
about a social problem.

What is an interview method ?

 An interview is a method of conversation with a specified purpose.

 Psychologists uses interview method in order to gain information in an efficient and

streamlined manner.

Interview method…..

 Oldest and most widely used method

 The conducting way depends on the objectives or goals in question.

 Investigate issues in an in depth way

 Discover how individuals think and feel about a topic and why they hold certain opinions

Points should be noted while having an interview ….

• Researchers can ask different types of questions which in turn generate different types of data.

• Interviews will be recorded by the researcher and the data written up as a transcript (a written
account of interview questions and answers) which can be

analyzed at a later date.

• The interviewer must ensure to provide special care when interviewing vulnerable groups, such
as the children.

• The language the interviewer uses should be appropriate.

The Interviewer effects:

 Because an interview is a social interaction the appearance or behavior of the interviewer

may influence the answers of the respondent.

• The gender, ethnicity, body language, age, and social status of the interviewer can create an
interviewer effect.

For example :

If a female interviewer interviews a male interviewee he will try to keep his impression good and
this may leads to interviewer effect.

Merits of interview
 Useful to obtain detailed information about personal feelings, perceptions and opinions

 Usually achieve a high response rate

 Respondents' own words are recorded

 Interviewees are not influenced by others

 Enable teacher to tackle everyday classroom problems

 Superior data collecting device 

 Creates friendly atmosphere

Demerits of interview
 This method is very time-consuming for setting up, interviewing, transcribing,
analyzing, feedback, reporting

 It can be costly

  Different interviewers may understand and transcribe interviews in different ways.

 Preplanning is important .i.e.)to know who you are going to interview, when and where.

 It is subjective and artificial

 Interpretation is difficult.

Types of interview

Interview methods

 Structured Interview

 Semi-structured Interview

 Unstructured interview

TYPE I

Definition of structured interview

 A structured interview is a type of interview in which the interviewer asks a particular set
of predetermined questions.

 In structured interviews, questions are planned and created in advance, which means that
all candidates are asked the same questions in the same order.

 It uses highly systematized techniques of recording.

 It is a method of quantitative research used for the purpose of the survey.

Structured Interview ….
Structured Interview is also known as,

 Formal interview
  Patterned interview.

 Planned interview.

 Standardized interviews

Steps of structured interview

a) Develop and write down interview questions

b) Develop and write down a scale that will be used to

grade candidates answers.

c) Print out your questions and bring them with you

to the interview site.

d) Take detailed notes of each candidate’s answers.

e) Grade your candidate’s answers according to previously determined scale.

Structured interview questions

Structured interview questions can be open-ended or closed-ended.

Closed-ended questions ask respondents for specific pieces of information, and often require the
respondent to choose from a list of given alternatives.

E.g. : 'Are you currently taking any drugs ?‘

Here, the respondent can either answer by saying yes or no.

Open-ended questions are those that can be answered in many ways and allow the respondent to
give elaborate, thoughtful answers.

E.g. : ‘Tell about yourself’

Here, the respondent can answer thoughtfully.

Advantages of structured interview

  Since in structured interviews all the candidates are asked the same questions, it’s easy to
compare their answers

 We can evaluate candidates in a most objective and fair way

 Structured interviews are more legally defensible

 Can reach a large sample

 Can ensure questions are fully understood.

 There is a pre-developed system or guide to check the results.

 These are easy to replicate, as a fixed set of closed questions are used.

 It is easy to test for reliability

 Can take place within a short amount of time.

 Allows generalization of results

Disadvantages of structured interview

 Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new questions cannot be asked during the
interview

 The answers from structured interviews lack detail

 Restrictive questioning leads to restrictive answers

 Structured interviews are harder and more complicated to develop.

 Before giving questions we have to write them, test them and make sure interviewers stick
to them.

 Interview questions may be leaking out

 The method seem a bit cold and impersonalized

 It is harder to provide an excellent candidate experience

TYPE II

Definition of semi-structured interview

 A semi-structured interview is a type of interview in which the interviewer asks only a
few predetermined questions while the rest of the questions are not planned in advance.

 In semi-structured interviews, some questions are predetermined and asked

all candidates, while others arise spontaneously in a free-flowing conversation.

 Open –ended questions with answers solicited in writing- typically in the for of short essays

 Respondents are free to write as much as or as little as they choose

 It has a general set of questions but the interview flows like conversation and topics are
covered as they come up.

Semi-structured interview….

Semi-structured interviews are also known as:

# Moderately structured interviews

# Hybrid interviews
# Combined interviews
Steps of Semi-structured interview
a) Write down most important questions that you want to ask all the candidates.

b) Develop a few conversation starters to explore specific interesting points from

your candidate’s resume.

c) Depending on your candidates' answers, ask follow up questions to gain a more

in-depth understanding of their qualifications and motivation.

d) Follow the natural flow of conversation and feel free to explore

Advantages of semi-structured interview

 It can secure objective comparison of candidates

 It provide a more personalized and spontaneous approach that allows exploration of

interesting points in a specific candidate.

 Less prone to interviewer’s bias.

 More information can be explored.

 Needed data is collected.

 Interviewer and the interviewee create the interview together.

 Flexibility to follow up interviewee’s responses ad interests.

 Provide much more detailed information.

 Provide more relaxed atmosphere to collect data.

Disadvantages of semi-structured interview

• Spontaneous questioning makes answers difficult to evaluate

• The outcome largely depend on the skill of the interviewer

• The process is highly time consuming

• It is very expensive

• Sees to be un reliable

• Difficult to analyze the relevance of answers

• Some of the information may not be revealed

• Needs preparation

• Semi-structured interviews are less objective

• legally harder to defend.

TYPE III

Definition of unstructured interview

• An unstructured interview is a type of interview in which the interviewer asks

questions which are not prepared in advance.

• In unstructured interviews, questions arise spontaneously in a free-flowing

conversation, which means that different candidates are asked different

questions.

• As the interview is unplanned, it has an informal approach where a friendly

conversation takes place between the interviewer and interviewee.

• They will contain open-ended questions that can be asked in any order.
Unstructured interview….
 Discovery interviews

 Guided conservation
 Informal interviews

 Casual interviews

 Free-flowing interviews

Steps of unstructured interview

 Keep in mind interview’s purpose and the general experiences and qualities you are
looking to asses in candidates.

 The goal is to gather and record important information about candidates.

 Make sure you have a focus

 Be flexible to proceed based on the candidate’s responses.

 Explore specific interesting points

Advantages of unstructured interview

 The main advantage of an unstructured interview is their personalized approach.

 They seem much more casual and help candidates relax and feel more comfortable during
the interview.

 Observing direct behavior

 Allows control of extraneous variable

 Reliability of results by repetitive study

 Try to establish rapport ad trust

 Gently guide discussion towards goal

 Explorative and qualitative studies

 They have increased validity

Disadvantages of unstructured interview

• Time consuming

• Employing and training interviewers is expensive

• Control can effect behavior

• Not possible to know intentions behind the behavior

• Unable to produce data a whole

• Information cannot be compared

• Analysis will be difficult

Comparison Chart

Structured interview Unstructured interview

• Predetermined questions are prepared by the • The questions to be asked to the respondents
interviewer in advance. are not set in advance.

• Quantitative • Qualitative

• Closed-ended questions • Open-ended questions

• To validate results, when the number of • To probe personal details of the candidate, so
candidates is quite large. as to judge if he is the right person for the job.

• Research type is descriptive • Research type is exploratory

• Same set of questions are put to all the • Different questions are put to different
candidates candidates

• Structured interviews are used by positivists • Unstructured interview is used by

interpretivists

• In a structured interview, the characteristics • In an unstructured interview, the

evaluated are explicit characteristics evaluated are implicit.