Bioenergy Seminar 15th to 25th August 2016

Exercise Instruction
Solid Biofuels
Measuring and calculating the heating values of biofuels

1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................2
2 Fundamentals...........................................................................................................................2
2.1 Heating values........................................................................................................................2
2.2 Water content........................................................................................................................3
3 Instruments..............................................................................................................................3
4 Measurements and experiments..............................................................................................4
5 Evaluation.................................................................................................................................4
6 Measurement data...................................................................................................................5
7 Annex.......................................................................................................................................6
7.1 Calculation of lower heating value using higher heating value...............................................6
7.2 Lower and higher heating values of selected combustibles...................................................7
 Solid Biofuels
Heating Value

1 Introduction
The objective of this lesson is the preparation and analysis of samples. Analysis comprises
measurements of water content of wood and determination of energy content of substrates.

2 Fundamentals

2.1 Heating values

Heating values give the specific energy content of substances. Common units are kJ/kg or MJ/kg.
There are two quantities:
 Higher heating value HHV (also referred to as gross calorific value)
 Lower heating value LHV (also referred to as net calorific value)
The HHV is greater than the LHV. It assumes water generated during the combustion process to be in
liquid form. The LHV assumes water to be in vapor form. The energy required for vaporization 1
determines the difference between HHV and LHV.
In condensing boilers, generated water condenses after the combustion. Thereby the energy
required for vaporization is returned to the process. Condensing boilers utilize the HHV of
combustibles almost completely. Apart from condensing boilers, the LHV is the relevant parameter
because only the LHV can be energetically utilized.
To calculate the LHV from the HHV, Tab. 1 gives a conversion factor for wood and the difference ∆
between HHV and LHV and for other solid biofuels (see annex):

Tab. 1: Determining LHV from HHV for solid biofuels

Energy crop ∆25 Conversion

[MJ/kg] factor
Wood 0.926
Miscanthus 1.40
Bamboo 1.16
Bagasse (sugar cane) 1.36

1
thermal and latent energy

2
 Solid Biofuels
Heating Value

2.2 Water content

Water content must not be confused with water generated during combustion. Water content
indicates the share of water contained in the substrate.
In theory, water content has little effect on the utilizable energy of the substrate. In practice, the
higher the water content is, the more difficult it becomes to utilize the energy content of the
substrate. Water contained in the substrate must be heated and vaporized, resulting in low
combustion temperatures.
Fig. 1 gives the LHV of wood depending on its water content. Harvested wood has a water content of
50 % or higher; air-dried timber reaches a minimum of 15 %.

LHV of wood vs. water content

20
15
LHV in Mj/kg

10
5
0
% % % % % % % % % % % % %
9 0 17 0 2 5 0 33 0 4 1 0 49 0 57 0 6 5 0 73 0 8 1 0 89 0 9 7 0 0 5 0
1
Water content

Fig. 1: LHV of wood vs. water content

The formula to calculate the LHV of damp substrates is:

MJ
LH V wet =LH V dry ∙ ( 1−w ) − w ∙2.448 ( kg ) w: water content in %

3 Instruments
 Cutting mill
 Balances
 Drying cabinet
A drying cabinet decreases the water content of substrates.
 Calorimeter
A calorimeter determines the HHV of substrates. In a water bath, a known quantity
of the substrate is combusted, heating the water. The calorimeter calculates the
energy released during the combustion by measuring the rise of water temperature.
Using the mass of the sample, the HHV is determined.

3
 Solid Biofuels
Heating Value

4 Measurements and experiments

The experiments include the sample preparation, determination of the substrates’ water content and
calorific analysis of dry samples.

i) Preparing samples
The samples must be chopped in the cutting mill. Use the XXX mm-sieve.

ii) Measuring water content

Weigh the sample before placing it in the drying cabinet. After 24 h at 105°C of drying, all
the water contained in the sample has evaporated. The difference in mass determines
the water content.

iii) Preparing samples for calorific analysis

Before starting calorific analysis in the calorimeter, samples must be pressed to tablets in
the pelleting press.

iv) Calorific analysis

All samples must be weighed precisely before calorific analysis. The analysis must be
carried out according to the manual of the calorimeter.
See also http://www.ika.com/ika/product_art/manual/c200/start.html

5 Evaluation

a) Determine the original water content of the samples.

b) Calculate the LHV of the measured samples using the measured HHV.
c) Determine the LHV of the samples with the original water content
d) Calculate the energy yield per hectare
e) In theory, production of ethanol from sugar cane does not require auxiliary energy, as the
side-product bagasse contains more energy than needed in the process.
Calculate the maximum energy required per hectare for ethanol production from sugar cane
using the yield figures in the bioenergy feedstock lesson

4
 Solid Biofuels
Heating Value

6 Measurement data
Group number: ……… Date:……………………………….
Names:…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....

a) Measuring the water content

Sample Mass of sample Mass of sample Mass of Water content of
before drying after drying evaporated sample before
water drying
[g] [g] [g] [%]

b) Measuring the higher heating value (HHV)

Sample Mass of sample Higher heating value
[g] [MJ/kg]

c) Calculating the LHV (dry and with original water content)

Sample HHV LHV (dry) Original water LHV (original
[MJ/kg] [MJ/kg] content water content)
[%] [MJ/kg]

5
 Solid Biofuels
Heating Value

7 Annex

7.1 Calculation of lower heating value using higher heating value

Example calculation with ethanol:

When combusted, ethanol (C2H5OH) produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O):
C 2 H 5 OH +3 O2 → 2C O2+3 H 2 O
The reaction equation shows that 1 mol C2H50H produces 3 mol H2O.
1 mol of ethanol weighs 46.07 g and 3 mol of water weigh 54.05 g, which means that the combustion
of 1 kg ethanol produces 1.17 kg water.2

The heat of vaporization of water is 2257 kJ/kg.

kJ kJ
Heating water from 25°C to 100°C consumes 4.187 ∙(100 K −25 K )=314.025
kg ∙ K kg

The energy contained in water vapor and therefore the energy difference between HHV and LHV of
ethanol is calculated as follows:

kJ kJ MJ
[
∆ 25=1.17 ∙ 2257
kg
+ 4.187
kg ∙ K ]
∙75 K =3.0162
kg

Literature indicates the HHV of ethanol as 29.7 MJ/kg and the LHV as 26.8 MJ/kg.

2:

54.05 g
1.17 kg=1 kg ∙
46.07 g

Alternatively, it is sufficient if the mass percentage of hydrogen in the substrate is known. The example
calculation for H2O shows how to calculate the mass percentage (u is the atomic mass unit, it is indicated in the
periodic table of the elements):

2 ∙1.01 u
m p H ( Ethanol ) =13.12% ; m p H ( H 2 O )= =11.19 %
2 2
2∙ 1.01 u+16.00u

m p H ( Ethanol )
2 13.12 %
= =1.17
m p H ( Water )
2
11.19 %

6
 Solid Biofuels
Heating Value

7.2 Lower and higher heating values of selected combustibles

State Combustible Lower Heating Value Higher Heating Value

LHV in MJ/kg HHV in MJ/kg
Liquid Biodiesel 36.4…37.2 40
Diesel 42.6…43.4 45.4
Ethanol 26.8 29.7
Jatropha oil 37.6…41.8
Methanol 19.5 22.32
Peanut oil 36.8 39.6
Rapeseed oil 37.29…38.4 39.7
Soy bean oil 37.1 39.6
Sunflower oil 36.8…37.1 39.5
Palm oil 37
Solid Timber (w = 15 %) 17.7…19 18…22
Madero negro 17…20.6
Miscanthus giganteus(w=0 %) 18.2 19.6
Miscanthus grass (w=0 %) 16.8 17.9
Wood chips (w = 15 %) 15.48
Wood pellets (w = 8 %) 16.9…18
Bamboo (w=10.4 %) 15.85
Wheat straw 17.1
Willow (w=0 %) 17.2 18.6
Straw (bale) 14.4…17
Bagasse (w= 0 %) 17.0…17.7 18.2…18.9
Coal 29.7

Some values differ depending on the sources used, this table is a reference only.
Please note that the values indicated for wood are European averages.
w: water content