Lecture 2

REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS

The operation of gas turbine engines and of rocket motors is governed by the
laws of mechanics, thermodynamics and gas dynamics. Understanding and
predicting the basic performance of gas turbine engines and rocket motors requires
a closed set of governing equations (e.g., conservation of mass, energy,
momentum, and entropy).
Assumptions:
- fluid type: perfect gas;
- one-dimensional flow (in which the fluid properties are constant across the flow
and vary only in the axial direction);
- steady flow;
- mass forces (e.g., gravity force) are neglected.

2.1 General Definitions.

Control mass: a fixed quantity of mass that is being analyzed. It is separated from
its surroundings by a boundary. A control mass is also referred to as a closed
system.
Control volume: a region of space that is being analyzed. The boundary separating
it from its surroundings is called the control surface. Matter as well as energy
may cross the control surface, and thus a control volume is also referred to as an
open system.
Properties: characteristics that describe the state of a system; any quantity that has
a definite value for each definite state of a system (e.g., pressure, temperature,
color, entropy).
Cycle: a sequence of processes in which the system is returned to the original state.
Some special processes:
Adiabatic → no heat transfer
Isothermal → T = constant
Isobaric → p= constant
Isentropic → s = constant.

2.2 Definition of Steady Flow.

Consider the flow of fluid through the control volume σ shown in Fig. 2.1. If
the properties of the fluid at any point i in the control volume do not vary with
time, the flow is called steady flow. For such flows we may conclude that for any
property R within σ
1
 dR  0 in steady flow
dt

Fig. 2.1 Control volume for steady flow.

2.3 Definition of One-Dimensional Flow

If the intensive stream properties at a permeable control surface section
normal to the flow directions are uniform, the flow is called one-dimensional.
Many flows in engineering may be treated as steady one-dimensional flows. The
term one-dimensional is synonymous in this use with uniform and applies only at a
control surface section.

2.4 Equation of State.

The state of a system is described by specifying the values of the properties of
the system. Pressure p, temperature T, specific internal energy e, and density ρ or
specific volume   1 are some basic thermodynamic properties.

A function relating one dependent and two independent thermodynamic
properties of a simple system of unit mass is called an equation of state. For a
given amount of substance contained in a system, the temperature, volume, and
pressure are not independent quantities; they are connected by a relationship of the
general form:
f ( p, ,T )  0 (2.1)
The thermodynamic equations of state for a perfect gas are:
p  RT or p   RT (2.2)
e  e(T ) (2.3)
where R is the gas constant, and e is the internal energy per unit mass.

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2.5 Conservation of Mass Equation.
The law of mass conservation for any control volume system σ is simply
dm  .  . (2.4)
min mout
dt
.
where m    V dA , (2.5)
and V is the velocity component normal to area A.
If the flow is steady and one-dimensional through a control volume with a
single inlet and exit such as shown in Fig. 2.2. The flow is uniform at sections 1
and 2, hence one-dimensional, even though the flow direction may vary elsewhere
in the flow.

Fig. 2.2 One-dimensional flow through a convergent duct.

For steady flows through any control volume, Eq. (2.4) simplifies to:
. .

mout min (2.6)

If the flow is steady and one-dimensional through a control volume with a

single inlet and exit such as shown in Fig. 2.2, then by Eq. (2.5):
.
m   AV (2.7)
which is called the one-dimensional mass flow equation, and
1 A1 V1  2 A2 V2 (2.8)

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2.6 Steady Flow Energy Equation
We consider steady one-dimensional flow of a fluid through a control volume
and surface σ (Fig. 2.3). Fluid crosses or at the in and out stations only. A shaft
. .
work interaction W x and heat interaction Q occur at the boundary of σ. If the
energy within the control volume does not change with time (steady flow), the first
law of thermodynamics can be written as:
. . . V  g z )  . (h  V  g z )
2 2
Q  W x  m( h  out m in (2.9)
2 gc g c 2 gc g c
.
Dividing by m gives:
2 2
V g V g
q  wx  (h   z )out  (h   z )in (2.10)
2 gc g c 2 gc g c
where q and wx are the heat and shaft-work interactions per unit mass flow
through σ;
2
V - the kinetic energy represented by the movement of the system as a whole;
2 gc
gz
- the potential energy caused by the position of the system in a field of gravity;
gc
g c - a proportionality factor whose value depends on the units being used. For SI
kg.m
system gc  1 .
N.s 2

Fig. 2.3 Steady flow through control volume.

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2.7 General Characteristics of Perfect Gas.
Enthalpy per unit mass h for a perfect gas can be written as:
h  e  RT (2.11)
Differentiating Eq. (2.11) gives:
dh  de  R dT (2.12)
The differentials dh and de in are related to the specific heat at constant pressure
and specific heat at constant volume, respectively, as follows:
dh  c p dT (2.13)
de  c dT (2.14)
Both specific heats can be functions of temperature. These equations can be
integrated from state 1 to state 2 to give:
T2
h2  h1   c p dT (2.15)
T1

T2
e2  e1   c dT (2.16)
T1

Substitution of the equations for dh and de into Eq. (2.12) gives the
relationship between specific heats for a perfect gas:
c p  c  R (2.17)
and γ is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at
constant volume:
c
γ p (2.18)
c
R
and  γ 1 (2.19)
c
R γ 1
 (2.20)
cp γ

For a perfect gas, the local sonic velocity (a) can be expressed as:
V
a   γ p   γ RT   γ  1 c p T (2.21)
M

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 For adiabatic process, the stagnation properties in terms of M and the static
values are:
T0 V2  γ-1 2 
1   1  M  (2.22)
T 2c pT  2 

γ γ
p0  T0  γ 1  γ-1 2  γ 1
   1  M  (2.23)
p T   2 

1 1
0  p0   γ-1 2  γ1
γ
  1
  p  
M  (2.24)
2 