WEEN 213 : FLUID MECHANICS II

2.0 FLUID DYNAMICS

Fluid dynamics is the branch of fluid mechanics that deals with the study of a fluid in motion with the
consideration of the forces producing or changing the fluid motion and the energy in the system.

2.1 ENERGY IN A FLOWING FLUID

A flowing fluid may possess three (3) forms of energies namely (i) Potential energy (ii) Pressure energy and
(iii) Kinetic energy

(i) POTENTIAL ENERGY

This is the energy possessed by a fluid due to its elevation above a certain datum level. Let mass (m) be at
an elevation (z) above a datum level.

Potential energy = mgz

mgz
Potential energy per unit weight = = z This is referred to as the potential head.
mg

(ii) PRESSURE ENERGY

This is the energy possessed by a fluid due to the pressure causing the flow. Let pressure (p) act on a
cross-sectional area (A) of the fluid, causing mass (m) to pass through this cross-sectional area.

m mg m mg
Volume (V) passing = = Distance (d) moved by the liquid = =
 g A  gA

mg
Force on cross-section area A = pA Work = F x d = pA x
 gA

pmg
Work done (Pressure energy) =
g

pmg 1 p
Pressure energy per unit weight =  = This is referred to as the pressure head.
g mg g

(iii) KINETIC ENERGY

This is the energy possessed by a fluid due to its motion (velocity). Let mass (m) have a velocity (v)

mv 2 mgv 2
Kinetic energy = =
2 2g
mgv 2 1 v2
Kinetic energy per unit weight = x = This is referred to as the velocity head.
2g mg 2g

TOTAL ENERGY at a particular point per unit weight = (i) + (ii) + (iii)

p v2
Total energy per unit weight = z+ + This is referred to as the Total head (H).
pg 2g

Since

The total head (H) can be written as;

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( )

In a flow, piezometric head (static head) is measured using a piezometer tube (static probe) while total head
is measured using a stagnation tube.

2.2 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Bernoulli’s equation describes the motion of a fluid particle along a streamline when the flow is steady and
the fluid is incompressible and non-viscous. The equation states that the total energy of each particle in a
body of fluid remains constant from point to point provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at
any point.
p v2
Mathematically : z+ + = constant = H
pg 2g

Note: The individual head terms may change, but the total head (H) remains the same.

Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation

Consider a stream line in which flow is taking place in the s-direction as shown in the figure. Consider the
cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length ds in which steady and incompressible flow of an ideal
fluid is taking place.

F2
s

θ
W cos θ z2

F1 z1 F3 -W

Forces acting on the cylindrical element are:-

(a) F1 = Pressure force in the direction of flow

(b) F2 = Pressure force acting in the opposite direction of flow

( )
(c) F3 = Weight of the fluid in the cylindrical element

From Newton’s second (2nd) law of motion,

Force = Mass x Acceleration = ma

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Resolving forces in the direction of s, and taking as as the acceleration in the direction of s, we have:-

( )

For steady flow (dv/dt = 0) it is known that;

Substituting cos θ and as in the F = ma with the expressions above we get;

Dividing through by we get:-

Rearranging the equation gives

This is EULER’S equation of motion.

Integrating Euler’s equation along a streamline yields;

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

For compressible fluids (ρfluid ≠ constant) we have;

For incompressible fluids (ρfluid = constant) we have;

Dividing through by g gives the Bernoulli’s equation

Considering two points (i.e. 1 and 2) in a flowing fluid and provided that no energy is lost or added, then
Bernoulli’s equation takes the following form:

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2.3 HYDRAULIC AND ENERGY GRADE LINES

Consider a liquid flowing through the pipe shown where no energy is added and no energy is lost.

Piezometer tube Stagnation tube

H
h

z
Datu
m

a) If a piezometer is inserted into the pipe, water would rise to a height (h = p/ρg) above the pipe, giving the
pressure head at that point.
 If the pressure heads at all points along the length of the pipe are plotted as vertical ordinates using the
centreline of the pipe as the baseline, a straight line AB would be obtained. This line is called the
hydraulic grade line (HGL).
 A hydraulic grade line is therefore a line which joins all the points (p/ρg) distance from the centreline
of the pipe, or (p/ρg + z) distance from any arbitrary datum.

b) If a stagnation tube is inserted into the pipe, water would rise to a height (p/ρg + v2/2g) above the pipe,
giving the total head at that point.
 If the total heads at all points along the length of the pipe are plotted as vertical ordinates using the
centreline of the pipe as the baseline, a straight line CD would be obtained. This line is called the
energy grade line (EGL).
 An energy grade line is therefore a line which joins all the points (p/ρg + v2/2g) distance from the
centreline of the pipe, or (p/ρg + v2/2g + z) distance from any arbitrary datum.

2.4 HAED LOST OR ADDED IN A FLOW SYSTEM

Head or Energy can be lost in a flow system through:-
(i) The fluid doing work against friction
(ii) The fluid driving a machine such as a turbine
(iii) Disturbance of flow at changes of pipe cross-section
(iv) Disturbances as a result of changes in flow direction.

Head or Energy can be added in a flow system through:-

(i) The introduction of a pump

Taking into account the energy added and lost in a flow system, the Bernoulli’s equation becomes :-

Total energy per + Head added – Head lost = Total energy per
unit weight at 1 unit weight at 2

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Mathematically,

Head Lost to Friction

When a real fluid flows through a pipe, it is subjected to frictional resistance depending on the:-
(i) velocity of flow
(ii) nature of the fluid
(iii) nature of the pipe surface
The energy that is lost in overcoming the frictional resistance is known as the head lost to friction
This head is expressed in terms of the height of the fluid column, hf .

Flow through Different Pipe Systems

The figures below, illustrate the Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines for flows occurring through different
pipe systems.

Flow

Fig. (a): Flow in a pipe : No energy lost and no energy added

Flow

Fig. (b): Flow in a pipe : Energy lost to frictional Resistance

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hp

Flow P

Fig. (c): Flow in a pipe : Energy lost to friction and added through pumping

hp

Flow P

Fig. (d): Energy lost to friction, added through pumping and changes in pipe diameter

Note:
(a) At pipe contraction
 Velocity increases, pressure reduces resulting to increased velocity head
 Higher velocity and narrow diameter result to increases frictional loss
(b) At pipe expansion
 Velocity decreases, pressure increases resulting to increased pressure head
 Lower velocity and wider diameter result to decreased frictional loss
(c) At the pump
 Energy is added and HGL and EGL rise with head equivalent to (hp) generated by the pump

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3.0 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Introduction
The pressure term in Bernoulli equation is known as the static head (piezometric head) and is measured
using a static probe which is perpendicular to the velocity direction. The total head is measured using a
stagnation probe which faces upstream in the velocity direction. The velocity term, which is the difference
between the total head and the static head, is known as the dynamic head. It is measured using any
arrangement capable of measuring the difference in the liquid levels in the static and the stagnation probes.

(a) Pitot Tube

This is a device which is used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel. It’s
operation is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero (stagnation point),
the pressure there (stagnation pressure) is increased due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into
pressure energy. In its simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a glass tube, bent at right angles. The lower
end, which is bent through 90° is directed in the upstream direction as shown in figure (a) below. The liquid
rises up in the tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. The velocity is determined
by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube.

Fig. (a) : Pitot Tube (Source: Bansal R. K., 2013)

Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is just at the inlet of the pitot
tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.

Since points (1) and (2) are on the same line, z1 = z2 and v2 = 0,

= pressure head at (1) = H and = pressure head at (2) = (h + H)

Substituting these values, we get:

( ) √

Since this is the theoretical velocity, actual velocity after calibration is given by;

( ) √

Where Cv is the coefficient (constant) of the pitot tube.

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Velocity Measurement Using a Pitot Tube

Measurement of velocity at any point in a pipe using a pitot tube can be accomplished using any of the
arrangements shown in figure (b).

(i) Pitot along with a piezometer (ii) Pitot connected to the piezometer

(iii) Pitot & piezometer connected with manometer (iv) Pitot-static tube

Fig (b) Different Pitot Arrangements (Source: Bansal R. K., 2013)

A Pitot-static tube consists of two circular concentric tubes one inside the other with some annular
space in between. The inner tube measures the dynamic pressure and the outer tube one which has
holes measures the static pressure. The outlet of these two tubes are connected to a differential
manometer where the difference of pressure head “h” is measured by knowing the difference of the
levels of the manometeric fluid say “x”.

* +

Where sgm = Specific gravity of the manometric fluid

sgf = Specific gravity of the flowing fluid

(b) Venturi Meter

This is a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid (discharge) through a pipe. It consists
of a short converging conical tube leading to a cylindrical portion called the "throat" which is followed by a
diverging section. The entrance and exit diameter is the same as that of the pipe line into which it is inserted.
The angle of the convergent cone is usually 21°, the length of throat is roughly equal to the throat diameter,
and the angle of the divergent cone is 50 to 70 to ensure a minimum loss of energy, but where this is

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unimportant this angle may be as large as 140. Pressure tappings are taken at the entrance and at the throat,
either from single or multiple holes. The pressure difference is measured by a suitable gauge. See figure (c).

Fig. (c) : Venturi Meter (www.test-and-measurement-world.com)

Application of Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1 and 2 we have;

Considering a horizontal meter ( z1 = z2 ) and ignoring losses;

From the continuity equation, i.e. a1v1 = a2v2 we have;

Substituting the value of v2 in equation above, we have;

( ) ( ) √[ ( )]
√( )

Discharge through the venturi meter is given by;

√[ ]
√( )

Where h is the pressure difference expressed as a head of the liquid flowing through the meter. If the area
ratio is given as a1/a2 = m, then the equation above becomes;

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The theoretical discharge Q can be converted to actual discharge by multiplying by the coefficient of
discharge Cd found experimentally.

Computation of “h” value from “x” Read from Differential Manometer

Case 1 : Horizontal Venturi meter with differential manometer containing a liquid which is heavier ( h )
than the liquid flowing through the meter

* +

Case 2 : Horizontal Venturi meter with differential manometer containing a liquid which is lighter ( l ) than
the liquid flowing through the meter

* +

Case 3 : Inclined Venturi meter with differential manometer containing a liquid which is heavier ( h ) than
the liquid flowing through the meter

( ) ( ) * +

Case 4 : Inclined Venturi meter with differential manometer containing a liquid which is lighter ( l ) than the
liquid flowing through the meter

( ) ( ) * +

(c) Orifice Meter

This is a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid (discharge) through a pipe. It works
on the same principle as the venturi meter. It consists of a flat circular plate, with a circular sharp edged
orifice (0.5 - 0.7 pipe diameter) which is concentric with the pipe. See figure (d) shown below.

D d

Fig. (d) : The Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate

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A differential manometer is connected at section 1 which is 1.5 - 2.0 pipe diameters (D) upstream of the
orifice plate and at section 2 which is 0.5 orifice diameter (d) downstream of the orifice plate.

Application of Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1 and 2 and simplifying the resulting expression,
yields the following discharge equation.

Where
Cd - Coefficient of discharge of the plate
Ap - Area of the pipe
a0 - Area of the orifice
g - Acceleration due to gravity
h - Pressure difference expressed as a head of the flowing fluid

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