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Unit3 Who Sept24 PDF
Unit3 Who Sept24 PDF
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Lecture 18 18.01 Fall 2006
a b a b
(i) (ii)
Figure 1: (i) Area under a curve; (ii) sum of areas under rectangles
2. Heights:
� �2
b b
• 1st : x = , height =
n n
� �2
2b 2b
• 2nd : x = , height =
n n
1
Lecture 18 18.01 Fall 2006
a=0 b
n=4
Next, the volume of the pyramid is greater than the volume of the inner prism:
1 1 1
12 + 22 + · · · + n2 > (base)(height) = n2 · n = n3
3 3 3
and less than the volume of the outer prism:
1 1
12 + 22 + · · · + n2 < (n + 1)2 (n + 1) = (n + 1)3
3 3
2
Lecture 18 18.01 Fall 2006
In all,
1 3
1 n 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 1 (n + 1)3
= 3 3 < <
3 n n3 3 n3
Therefore,
b3 2 1
lim (1 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 ) = b3 ,
n→∞ n3 3
b3
and the area under x2 from 0 to b is .
3
Example 2. f (x) = x; area under x above [0, b]. Reasoning similar to Example 1, but easier, gives
a sum of areas:
b2 1
(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n) → b2 (as n → ∞)
n2 2
This is the area of the triangle in Figure 4.
b
Figure 4: Area under f (x) = x above [0, b].
Pattern:
b3
��
d
= b2
db 3
d b2
� �
=b
db 2
The area A(b) under f (x) should satisfy A� (b) = f (b).
3
Lecture 18 18.01 Fall 2006
General Picture
y=f(x)
a ci b
Figure 5: One rectangle from a Riemann Sum
b−a
• Divide into n equal pieces of length = Δx =
n
• Pick any ci in the interval; use f (ci ) as the height of the rectangle
• Sum of areas: f (c1 )Δx + f (c2 )Δx + · · · + f (cn )Δx
n
�
In summation notation: f (ci )Δx ← called a Riemann sum.
i=1
Definition:
n
� � b
lim f (ci )Δx = f (x)dx ← called a definite integral
n→∞ a
i=1
This definite integral represents the area under the curve y = f (x) above [a, b].
Example 3. (Integrals applied to quantity besides area.) Student borrows from parents.
P = principal in dollars, t = time in years, r = interest rate (e.g., 6 % is r = 0.06/year).
After time t, you owe P (1 + rt) = P + P rt
The integral can be used to represent the total amount borrowed as follows. Consider a function
f (t), the “borrowing function” in dollars per year. For instance, if you borrow $ 1000 /month, then
f (t) = 12, 000/year. Allow f to vary over time.
Say Δt = 1/12 year = 1 month.
ti = i/12 i = 1, · · · , 12.
4
Lecture 18 18.01 Fall 2006
f (ti ) is the borrowing rate during the ith month so the amount borrowed is f (ti )Δt. The total is
12
�
f (ti )Δt.
i=1
5
Lecture 19 18.01 Fall 2006
�b �x=b
Notation: F (x) � = F (x) � = F (b) − F (a)
� �
a x=a
b �b
x3 x3 �� b3 a3
�
Example 1. F (x) = , F � (x) = x2 ; 2
x dx = = −
3 a 3 �a 3 3
1 �1
x6 ��
�
5 1 1
Example 3. x dx = = −0=
0 6 �0 6 6
1
Lecture 19 18.01 Fall 2006
R.H.S. is how far x(t) went from time t = a to time t = b (difference between two odometer readings).
L.H.S. represents speedometer readings.
n
�
v (ti )Δt approximates the sum of distances traveled over times Δt
i=1
The approximation above is accurate if v (t) is close to v (ti ) on the ith interval. The interpretation
of x(t) as an odometer reading is no longer valid if v changes sign. Imagine a round trip so that
x(b) − x(a) = 0. Then the positive and negative velocities v(t) cancel each other, whereas an
odometer would measure the total distance not the net distance traveled.
� 2π �2π
Example 4. sin x dx = − cos x � = − cos 2π − (− cos 0) = 0.
�
0 0
The integral represents the sum of areas under the curve, above the x-axis minus the areas below
the x-axis. (See Figure 2.)
1
+ 2�
2
Lecture 19 18.01 Fall 2006
a b c
Figure 3: Illustration of the additive property of integrals
New Definition:
� a � b
f (x)dx = − f (x)dx
b a
This definition is used so that the fundamental theorem is valid no matter if a < b or b < a. It also
makes it so that the additive property works for a, b, c in any order, not just the one pictured in
Figure 3.
3
Lecture 19 18.01 Fall 2006
Estimation:
� b � b
If f (x) ≤ g(x), then f (x)dx ≤ g(x)dx (only if a < b)
a a
Example 5. Estimation of ex
Since 1 ≤ ex for x ≥ 0, � 1 � 1
1dx ≤ ex dx
0 0
� 1 �1
ex dx = ex � = e1 − e0 = e − 1
�
0 0
Thus 1 ≤ e − 1, or e ≥ 2.
1 ��1
x2 ��
� �
3
(1 + x)dx = x+ =
0 2 �0 2
3 5
Hence, ≤ e − 1,or, e ≥ .
2 2
Change of Variable:
� 2 � 3 �4
Example 7. x + 2 x2 dx
1
du
Let u = x3 + 2. Then du = 3x2 dx =⇒ x2 dx = ;
3
x1 = 1, x2 = 2 =⇒ u1 = 13 + 2 = 3, u2 = 23 + 2 = 10, and
� 2 � 10 �10
� 3 �4 du u5 �� 105 − 35
x + 2 x2 dx = u4 = =
1 3 3 15 3� 15
4
Lecture 20 18.01 Fall 2006
Yes, this antiderivative exists. No, it’s not a function we’ve met before: it’s a new function.
The new function is defined as an integral:
� x
2
F (x) = e−t dt
0
� −x2
It will have the property that F (x) = e .
2 2 sin x
Other new functions include antiderivatives of e−x , x1/2 e−x , , sin(x2 ), cos(x2 ), . . .
x
Geometric Proof of FTC 2: Use the area interpretation: F (x) equals the area under the curve
between a and x.
ΔF = F (x + Δx) − F (x)
ΔF
≈ f (x)
Δx
ΔF
1
Lecture 20 18.01 Fall 2006
∆F
F(x)
a x x+∆x
Figure 1: Geometric Proof of FTC 2.
Therefore,
F � (x) = f (x)
which is FTC 1.
Remark. In the preceding proof G was a definite integral and F could be any antiderivative. Let
us illustrate with the example f (x) = sin x. Taking a = 0 in the proof of FTC 1,
� x �x
G(x) = cos t dt = sin t� = sin x and G(0) = 0.
�
0 0
2
Lecture 20 18.01 Fall 2006
If, for example, F (x) = sin x + 21. Then F � (x) = cos x and
� b
sin x dx = F (b) − F (a) = (sin b + 21) − (sin a + 21) = sin b − sin a
a
The error function, which is often used in statistics and probability, is defined as
� x
2 2
erf(x) = √ e−t dt
π 0
and lim erf(x) = 1 (See Figure 2)
x→∞
Another “new” function of this type, called the logarithmic integral, is defined as
� x
dt
Li(x) =
2 ln t
This function gives the approximate number of prime numbers less than x. A common encryption
technique involves encoding sensitive information like your bank account number so that it can be
sent over an insecure communication channel. The message can only be decoded using a secret
prime number. To know how safe the secret is, a cryptographer needs to know roughly how many
200-digit primes there are. You can find out by estimating the following integral:
� 10201
dt
10200 ln t
We know that
ln 10200 = 200 ln(10) ≈ 200(2.3) = 460 and ln 10201 = 201 ln(10) ≈ 462
3
Lecture 20 18.01 Fall 2006
There are LOTS of 200-digit primes. The odds of some hacker finding the 200-digit prime required
to break into your bank account number are very very slim.
Another set of “new” functions are the Fresnel functions, which arise in optics:
� x
C(x) = cos(t2 )dt
0
� x
S(x) = sin(t2 )dt
0
C � (x) = cos(x2 )
� x
dt
We will use FTC 2 to discuss the function L(x) = from first principles next lecture.
1 t
1 The middle equality in this approximation is a very basic and useful fact
� b
c dx = c(b − a)
a
Think of this as finding the area of a rectangle with base (b − a) and height c. In the computation above, a =
1
10200 , b = 10201 , c = 500
4
Lecture 21 18.01 Fall 2006
Geometry
Thus L is increasing and crosses the x-axis at x = 1: L(x) < 0 for 0 < x < 1 and L(x) > 0 for
x > 1. Differentiating a second time,
L�� (x) = −1/x2
It follows that L is concave down.
The key property of L(x) (showing that it is, indeed, a logarithm) is that it converts multiplication
into addition:
Claim 1. L(ab) = L(a) + L(b)
Proof: By definition of L(ab) and L(a),
� ab � a � ab � ab
dt dt dt dt
L(ab) = = + = L(a) +
1 t 1 t a t a t
1
Lecture 21 18.01 Fall 2006
� ab
dt
To handle , make the substitution t = au. Then
a t
Therefore,
� ab � u=b � b
dt adu du
= = = L(b)
a t u=1 au 1 u
This confirms L(ab) = L(a) + L(b).
Two more properties, the end values, complete the general picture of the graph.
Claim 2. L(x) → ∞ as x → ∞.
Proof: It suffices to show that L(2n ) → ∞ as n → ∞, because the fact that L is increasing fills in
all the values in between the powers of 2.
Thus L(x), defined on 0 < x < ∞ increases from −∞ to ∞, crossing the x-axis at x = 1. It is
concave down and its graph can be drawn as in Fig. 1.
This provides an alternative to our previous approach to the exponential and log functions.
Starting from L(x), we can define the log function by ln x = L(x), define e as the number such that
L(e) = 1, define ex as the inverse function of L(x), and define ax = exL(a) .
to +∞
.(1,0)
to −∞
2
Lecture 21 18.01 Fall 2006
f(x)
y g(x)
dx
a b
Refer to Figure 2. Find the crossing points a and b. The area, A, between the curves is
� b
A= (f (x) − g(x)) dx
a
(4, 2)
x = y2
y=x−2
(0, 0)
(1,−1)
(0, -2)
3
Lecture 21 18.01 Fall 2006
First, graph these functions and find the crossing points (see Figure 3).
y+2 = x = y2
y2 − y − 2 = 0
(y − 2)(y + 1) = 0
Crossing points at y = −1, 2. Plug these back in to find the associated x values, x = 1 and x = 4.
Thus the curves meet at (1, −1) and (4, 2) (see Figure 3).
There are two ways of finding the area between these two curves, a hard way and an easy way.
(4, 2)
x = y2
dx
y=x−2
(0, 0)
(1,−1)
(0, -2)
Where x > 1, the region’s lower bound is the straight line. For x < 1, however, the region’s lower
bound is the lower half of the sideways parabola. We find the area, A, between the two curves by
integrating the difference between the top curve and the bottom curve in each region:
� 1 � 4
√ �
�
�√ �√ �
A= x − (− x) dx + x − (x − 2) dx = (ytop − ybottom ) dx
0 1
y=2
y2 −y 3
� � � ��
�2 4 8 1 1 9
(y + 2) − y 2 dx =
� �
A= (xleft −xright ) dy = + 2y + � = +4− −( −2+ ) =
y=−1 2 3 −1 2 3 2 3 2
4
Lecture 21 18.01 Fall 2006
(4, 2)
x = y2
dy
y = x − 2 ; (x = y +2)
(0, 0)
(1,−1)
(0, -2)
Rotate f (x) about the x-axis, coming out of the page, to get:
f(x)
dx
Figure 6: A solid of revolution: the purple slice is rotated by π/4 and π/2.
We want to figure out the volume of a “slice” of that solid. We can approximate each slice as a
disk with width dx, radius y, and a cross-sectional area of πy 2 . The volume of one slice is then:
dV = πy 2 dx (for a solid of revolution around the x-axis)
Integrate with respect to x to find the total volume of the solid of revolution.
5
Lecture 21 18.01 Fall 2006
−a a x
dx
If we spin the upper part of the curve about the x-axis, we get a ball of radius a. Notice that x
ranges from −a to +a. Putting all this together, we find
� x=a
πx3 ��a
� � � � �
2 2 4
V = πy 2 dx = π(a2 − x2 )dx = πa2 x − � = πa3 − − πa3 = πa3
x=−a 3 −a 3 3 3
One can often exploit symmetry to further simplify these types of problems. In the problem
above, for example, notice that the curve is symmetric about the y-axis. Therefore,
� a � a
x3 ��a
� �
V = π(a2 − x2 )dx = 2 π(a2 − x2 )dx = 2 πa2 x −
3
�
−a 0 0
(The savings is that zero is an easier lower limit to work with than −a.) We get the same answer:
x3 ��a
� �
2
� π � 4
V = 2 πa x − � = 2 πa3 − a3 = πa3
3 0 3 3
6
Lecture 22 18.01 Fall 2006
Method 1: Disks
thickness of dy
x
The area of the disk in Figure 2 is πx2 . The disk has thickness dy and volume dV = πx2 dy.
The volume V of the cauldron is
� a
V = πx2 dy (substitute y = x2 )
0
� a
y 2 ��a πa2
V = πy dy = π � =
0 2 0 2
1
Lecture 22 18.01 Fall 2006
π 2
If a = 1 meter, then V = a gives
2
π 3 π π
V = m = (100 cm)3 = 106 cm3 ≈ 1600 liters (a huge cauldron)
2 2 2
20 cm
100 cm
Method 2: Shells
x
a
x
√a
2
Lecture 22 18.01 Fall 2006
The thin shell/cylinder has height a − x2 , circumference 2πx, and thickness dx.
dV = (a − x2 )(2πx)dx
� x=√a � √a
2
V = (a − x )(2πx)dx = 2π (ax − x3 )dx
x=0 0
� 2 � √
x4 �� a
� 2
a2
� 2�
πa2
�
x a a
= 2π a − � = 2π − = 2π = (same as before)
2 4 0 2 4 4 2
70oC
100oC x
temperature decreases linearly between the top and the bottom (y = 0) of the cauldron:
Use the method of disks, because the water’s temperature is constant over each horizontal disk. The
total heat required is
� 1
H = T (πx2 )dy (units are (degree)(cubic meters))
0
� 1
= (100 − 30y)(πy)dy
0
� 1 �1
= π (100y − 30y 2 )dy = π(50y 2 − 10y 3 )� = 40π (deg.)m3
�
0 0
There are about 250 kcals in a candy bar, so there are about
� �
1
# of calories = candy bar × 103 ≈ 500 candy bars
2
So, it takes about 500 candy bars’ worth of energy to boil the water.
3
Lecture 22 18.01 Fall 2006
velocity
Figure 6: Flow is faster in the center of the pipe. It slows– “sticks”– at the edges (i.e. the inner surface of the pipe.)
v = c(R2 − r2 )
distance
v = speed =
time
v
cR2
v=c(R2-r2)
r
R
Figure 7: The velocity of fluid flow vs. distance from the center of a pipe of radius R.
The flow through the “annulus” (a.k.a ring) is (area of ring)(flow rate)
4
Lecture 22 18.01 Fall 2006
dr
� R � R
total flow through pipe = v(2πrdr) = c (R2 − r2 )2πrdr
0 0
� R � 2 2
r4 ��R
�
R r
= 2πc (R2 r − r3 )dr = 2πc −
2 4
�
0 0
π 4
flow through pipe = cR
2
Notice that the flow is proportional to R4 . This means there’s a big advantage to having thick pipes.
Example 4. Dart board
You aim for the center of the board, but your aim’s not always perfect. Your number of hits, N , at
2
radius r is proportional to e−r .
2
N = ce−r
This looks like:
y = ce-r
2
r 2
Figure 9: This graph shows how likely you are to hit the dart board at some distance r from its center.
5
Lecture 23 18.01 Fall 2006
y=f(x)
y4.
.
a x4 b
y1 + y2 + ... + yn
Average ≈
n
where
a = x0 < x1 < · · · xn = b
y0 = f (x0 ), y1 = f (x1 ), . . . yn = f (xn )
and
b−a
n(Δx) = b − a ⇐⇒ Δx =
n
and
The limit of the Riemann Sums is
b
b−a
�
lim (y1 + · · · + yn ) = f (x) dx
n→∞ n a
1
Lecture 23 18.01 Fall 2006
y=√1-x2
area = �/2
√
Example 1. Find the average of y = 1 − x2 on the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. (See Figure 2)
� 1
1 � 1 �π� π
Average height = 1 − x2 dx = =
2 −1 2 2 4
Example 3. Find the average height y on a semicircle, with respect to arclength. (Use dθ not dx.
See Figure 3)
equal weighting in θ
different weighting in x
2
Lecture 23 18.01 Fall 2006
y = sin θ
� π π
1 1 � 1 2
Average = sin θ dθ = (− cos θ) � = (− cos π − (− cos 0)) =
�
π 0 π 0 π π
Example 4. Find the average temperature of water in the witches cauldron from last lecture. (See
Figure 4).
2m
1m
First, recall how to find the volume of the solid of revolution by disks.
� 1 � 1
πy 2 ��1 π
V = (πx2 ) dy = πy dy = � =
0 0 2 0 2
Recall that T (y) = 100 − 30y and (T (0) = 100o ; T (1) = 70o ). The average temperature per unit
volume is computed by giving an importance or “weighting” w(y) = πy to the disk at height y.
�1
0
T (y)w(y) dy
�1
0
w(y) dy
The numerator is
� 1 � 1 �1
T πy dy = π (100 − 30y)ydy = π(500y 2 − 10y 3 ) � = 40π
�
0 0 0
T is linear. Largest T = 100o C, smallest T = 70o C, and the average of the two is
70 + 100
= 85
2
3
Lecture 23 18.01 Fall 2006
The answer 85o is consistent with the ordinary average. The weighted average (integration with
respect to πy dy) is lower (80o ) because there is more water at cooler temperatures in the upper
parts of the cauldron.
Last time, we said that the accuracy of your aim at a dart board follows a “normal distribution”:
2
ce−r
Now, let’s pretend someone – say, your little brother – foolishly decides to stand close to the dart
board. What is the chance that he’ll get hit by a stray dart?
dart board
r₁ 3r₁
2r₁ little
brother
Figure 5: Shaded section is 2ri < r < 3r1 between 3 and 5 o’clock.
To make our calculations easier, let’s approximate your brother as a sector (the shaded region
in Fig. 5). Your brother doesn’t quite stand in front of the dart board. Let us say he stands at a
distance r from the center where 2r1 < r < 3r1 and r1 is the radius of the dart board. Note that
your brother doesn’t surround the dart board. Let us say he covers the region between 3 o’clock
1
and 5 o’clock, or of a ring.
6
Remember that
part
probability =
whole
4
Lecture 23 18.01 Fall 2006
width dr,
circumference 2πr
r weighting ce-r 2
dr
� b � �
1 2 �b 1 1 d −r2
�
−r 2 2 2 2
re dr = − e−r � = − e−b + e−a e = −2re−r
a 2 a 2 2 dr
Denominator: � ∞
1 2 �R→∞ 1 1 1
2
� 2 2
e−r rdr = − e−r � = − e−R + e−0 =
0 2 0 2 2 2
−R2
(Note that e → 0 as R → ∞.)
� 3r1 2 � 3r1 2
1
ce−r 2πr dr 1
e−r r dr 3r1 2
−e−r ��3r1
�
6 2r1 6
2r1 1 2
Probability = �∞ = �∞ = e−r r dr =
ce−r2 2πr dr −r 2 r dr 3 6
�
0 0
e 2r1 2r1
5
Lecture 23 18.01 Fall 2006
2 2
−e−9r1
+ e−4r1
Probability =
6
Let’s assume that the person throwing the darts hits the dartboard 0 ≤ r ≤ r1 about half the time.
(Based on personal experience with 7-year-olds, this is realistic.)
� r1
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
e−r1
=
2
� �9
2 9 1
2
� �
−9r1
−r1
e = e = ≈0
2
2
� 2 �4 � 1
�4 1
e−4r1
= e−r1
= =
2 16
So, the probability that a stray dart will strike your little brother is
� �� �
1 1 1
≈
16 6 100
In other words, there’s about a 1% chance he’ll get hit with each dart thrown.
� ∞
2
Compute Q = e−x dx
−∞
2
Figure 8: Q = Area under curve e(−x ) .
This is one of the most important integrals in all of calculus. It is especially important in probability
and statistics. It’s an improper integral, but don’t let those ∞’s scare you. In this integral, they’re
actually easier to work with than finite numbers would be.
To find Q, we will first find a volume of revolution, namely,
2 �
V = volume under e−r (r = x2 + y 2 )
We find this volume by the method of shells, which leads to the same integral as in the last problem.
2
The shell or cylinder under e−r at radius r has circumference 2πr, thickness dr; (see Figure 9).
2
Therefore dV = e−r 2πrdr. In the range 0 ≤ r ≤ R,
� R
2 �R
2
� 2
e−r 2πr dr = −πe−r � = −πe−R + π
0 0
2
When R → ∞, e−R → 0,
� ∞
2
V = e−r 2πr dr = π (same as in the darts problem)
0
7
Lecture 23 18.01 Fall 2006
width dr
Next, we will find V by a second method, the method of slices. Slice the solid along a plane
where y is fixed. (See Figure 10). Call A(y) the cross-sectional area. Since the thickness is dy (see
Figure 11), � ∞
V = A(y) dy
−∞
z
A(y)
y
x
8
Lecture 23 18.01 Fall 2006
dy
x
above level of y
in cross-section
of area A(y)
top view
and the fact that y is a constant in the A(y) slice (see Figure 12). In other words,
� ∞ � ∞
2 2 2
ce−x dx = c e−x dx with c = e−y
−∞ −∞
y fixed
ce-x
2
x -∞ x ∞
9
Lecture 23 18.01 Fall 2006
It follows that
� ∞ � ∞ � ∞
−y 2 2
V = A(y) dy = e Q dy = Q e−y dy = Q2
−∞ −∞ −∞
Indeed, � ∞ � ∞
−x2 2
Q= e dx = e−y dy
−∞ −∞
because the name of the variable does not matter. To conclude the calculation read the equation
backwards: √
π = V = Q2 =⇒ Q = π
√
We can rewrite Q = π as �
∞
1 2
√ e−x dx = 1
π −∞
√
An equivalent rescaled version of this formula (replacing x with x/ 2σ)is used:
� ∞
1 2 2
√ e−x /2σ dx = 1
2πσ −∞
1 2 2
This formula is central to probability and statistics. The probability distribution √ e−x /2σ on
2πσ
−∞ < x < ∞ is known as the normal distribution, and σ > 0 is its standard deviation.
10
Lecture 24 18.01 Fall 2006
Numerical Integration
We use numerical integration to find the definite integrals of expressions that look like:
� b
(a big mess)
a
We also resort to numerical integration when an integral has no elementary antiderivative. For
instance, there is no formula for
� x � 3
2
2
cos(t )dt or e−x dx
0 0
a b
Here,
xi − xi−1 = Δx
1
Lecture 24 18.01 Fall 2006
2. Trapezoidal Rule
The trapezoidal rule divides up the area under the function into trapezoids, rather than rectangles.
The area of a trapezoid is the height times the average of the parallel bases:
� � � �
base 1 + base 2 y3 + y4
Area = height = Δx (See Figure 2)
2 2
y4
y3
∆x
� �
y3 + y 4
Figure 2: Area = Δx
2
a b
� �
y0 + y1 y1 + y2 y2 + y3 yn−1 + yn
Total Trapezoidal Area = Δx + + + ... +
2 2 2 2
�y yn �
0
= Δx + y1 + y2 + ... + yn−1 +
2 2
2
Lecture 24 18.01 Fall 2006
Note: The trapezoidal rule gives a more symmetric treatment of the two ends (a and b) than a
Riemann sum does — the average of left and right Riemann sums.
3. Simpson’s Rule
This approach often yields much more accurate results than the trapezoidal rule does. Here, we
match quadratics (i.e. parabolas), instead of straight or slanted lines, to the graph. This approach
requires an even number of intervals.
y0
y2
y1
x₀ x₁ x₂
∆x ∆x
� �
y0 + 4y1 + y2
Area under parabola = (base)(weighted average height) = (2Δx)
6
Simpson’s rule for n intervals (n must be even!)
� �
1
Area = (2Δx) [(y0 + 4y1 + y2 ) + (y2 + 4y3 + y4 ) + (y4 + 4y5 + y6 ) + · · · + (yn−2 + 4yn−1 + yn )]
6
1 4 1
1 4 1
1 4 1
1 4 2 4 2 4 1
3
Lecture 24 18.01 Fall 2006
0 1 2 3 4
Simpson’s rule:
� b
Δx
f (x) dx ≈ (y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + 2y4 + . . . + 4yn−3 + 2yn−2 + 4yn−1 + yn )
a 3
1 4 1 = sum 6
1 4 2 4 1 = sum 12
1 4 2 4 2 4 1 = sum 18
Δx Δx � �n� �n ��
(1 + 4 + 2 + 4 + 2 + · · · + 2 + 4 + 1) = 1+1+4 +2 − 1 = nΔx (n even)
3 3 2 2
4
Lecture 24 18.01 Fall 2006
� 1
0 ∆x ∆x 1
1
Figure 6: Area under (1+x2 )
above [0, 1].
x 1/(1 + x2 )
0
1
1
4
2
5
1 2
By Simpson’s rule:
� � ��
Δx 1/2 4 1
Exact answer:
� 1 �1
1 π π
dx = tan−1 x� = tan−1 1 − tan−1 0 = − 0 = ≈ 0.785
�
1+x 2 0 4 4
0
Roughly speaking, the error, | Simpson’s − Exact |, has order of magnitude (Δx)4 .
5
Exam 3 Review 18.01 Fall 2006
Integration
1. Evaluate definite integrals. Substitution, first fundamental theorem of calculus (FTC 1), (and
hints?)
2. FTC 2: � x
d
f (t) dt = f (t)
dx a
� x
If F (x) = f (t) dt, find the graph of F , estimate F , and change variables.
a
1. solids of revolution
2. other (do by slices)
In these problems, there will be something you can draw in 2D, to be able to see what’s going on in
that one plane.
In solid of revolution problems, the solid is formed by revolution around the x-axis or the y-axis.
You will have to decide how to chop up the solid: into shells or disks. Put another way, you must
decide whether to integrate with dx or dy. After making that choice, the rest of the procedure is
systematically determined. For example, consider a shape rotated around the y-axis.
• Disks (washers): area πx2 (or πx22 − πx21 ), thickness dy; integrate dy.
Work
1
Exam 3 Review 18.01 Fall 2006
Consider a pendulum of length L, with mass m at angle θ. The vertical force of gravity is mg (g =
L
θ
mass m
mg
Figure 1: Pendulum.
In Figure 2, we find the component of gravitational force acting along the pendulum’s path
F = mg sin θ.
mg
θ
2
Exam 3 Review 18.01 Fall 2006
Is it possible to build a perpetual motion machine? Let’s think about a simple pendulum, and
how much work gravity performs in pulling the pendulum from θ0 to the bottom of the pendulum’s
arc.
Notice that F varies. That’s why we have to use an integral for this problem.
� θ0 � θ0
W = (Force) · (Distance) = (mg sin θ)(L dθ)
0 0
�θ0
W = −Lmg cos θ� = −Lmg(cos θ0 − 1) = mg [L(1 − cos θ0 )]
�
0
In Figure 3, we see that the work performed by gravity moving the pendulum down a distance
L(1 − cos θ) is the same as if it went straight down.
θ
L
L(1-cosθ)
In other words, the amount of work required depends only on how far down the pendulum goes.
It doesn’t matter what path it takes to get there. So, there’s no free (energy) lunch, no perpetual
motion machine.