RESPIRATION

Glucose – pyruvate – ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy (2

ATP)
In absence of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration
Occurs in cytoplasm
Glucose – pyruvate – carbon dioxide + water + energy (38
ATP)
In presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration
Occurs in mitochondria
Pyruvate – 3-carbon molecule + energy

Lack of
Glucose – pyruvate oxygen -------lactic acid + energy
Lactic acid- 3 carbon molecule
In muscle cells it is formed due to physical activity for cramps
ATP is broken down giving rise to a fixed amount of energy
which can drive the endothermic reactions taking place in the
cell
ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes. The
energy released during the process of respiration is used to
make an ATP molecule from ADP and inorganic phosphate
Since the aerobic respiration pathway depends on oxygen,
aerobic organisms need to ensure that there is sufficient
intake of oxygen.
 We have seen that plants exchange gases through stomata,
and the large inter-cellular spaces ensure that all cells are in
contact with air
The direction of diffusion depends upon the environmental
conditions and the requirements of the plant.
At night, when there is no photosynthesis occurring, CO2
elimination is the major exchange activity going on. During
the day, CO2 generated during respiration is used up for
photosynthesis, hence there is no CO2 release. Instead,
oxygen release is the major event at this time.
Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller
tubes which finally terminate in balloon-like structures which
are called alveoli
The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases
can take place
The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of
blood-vessels
When we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our
diaphragm, and the chest cavity becomes larger as a result
respiratory pigments take up oxygen from the air in the lungs
and carry it to tissues which are deficient in oxygen before
releasing it.
haemoglobin which has a very high affinity for oxygen
The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for
release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the alveolar air is
taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be
transported to all the cells in the body
NUTRITION
All autotrophs convert the carbon dioxide and oxygen in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll to carbohydrates
Heterotrophs convert these complex compounds to simple in
presence of bio- catalyst enzyme.
Photosynthesis
*it absorbs the light energy by the chlorophyll
*it converts it to chemical energy and splits the water
molecule into hydrogen and water
*it reduces carbon dioxide into carbohydrates
Massive amounts of gaseous exchange takes place through
the stomata which are small pores
It does not always occur here as there is loss of water
But it is important to note here that exchange of gases occurs
across the surface of stems, roots and leaves as well. Since
large amounts of water can also be lost through these
stomata, the plant closes these pores when it does not need
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The opening and closing
of the pore is a function of the guard cells. The guard cells
swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore
to open. Similarly the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.
Heterotrophic nutrition
It depends upon how the food is obtained from sources
Some organisms break-down the food material outside the
body and then absorb it.
Some take in as complex substance and break it down inside
the body others are parasitic in nature
Many organisms simple organisms absorb food through their
whole body while they are amoeba which absorbs food
through the finger like extension and it wraps around the
food to form food vacuole which digests the complex foods.
Paramecium absorbs through one part and digests through
one part to another by movement of cilia
In human beings
The food needs to be first converted into soft small bolus.
Chewing helps in this process. The food is also wetted to
make the passage through oesophagus smooth. Saliva
produced by salivary gland.
Saliva also contains salivary amylase which breaks complex
molecule into sugar.
Peristaltic movements occurs all over the gut. The stomach
enlarges when the food enters it the muscular walls help in
mixing with digestive juices.
There are gastric glands which releases HCL and enzyme
pepsin and mucus layer is present which neutralizes the
effect of HCL.
Food is introduced into small intestine in small amounts this
is regulated by sphincter muscles.
The small intestine – bile and pancreatic juices bile fats-
emulsified fat and also alkaline the pancreatic juices contain
certain trypsin-protein and lipase-fats
Protein-amino acids, fats-fatty acids and glycerol, carbs-
glucose
Large intestine and small intestine has many villi helps in
absorption
TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS
Blood consists of a fluid medium called plasma in which the
cells are suspended. Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide
and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form
The blood helps in carrying both oxygen and carbon dioxide
to the parts of body.
Carbon dioxide from the different body parts are transported
to the lungs and oxygen is carried to different body parts
The blood flow through left atrium and relaxes then the
blood flows inside the left ventricle, the left ventricle expands
and blood flows inside.
Since the ventricles pump blood to larger part of the body
they thicker muscular walls
The separation of left and right side prevents the mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the heart.
The blood flows through the heart two times in one
circulation this is called double circulation.
The blood flows only once through the heart in one
circulation this occurs in fishes and other organisms.
The blood flows through arteries to the other body parts
away from heart, the blood flows towards to the heart by
veins with valves.
The arteries have thick valves to prevent them from getting
damaged due to high pressure while veins have thinner
valves as the blood does not flow with that much high
pressure
Coagulation or clotting of blood
Thromboplastin
Converts prothrombin into thrombin
With calcium ions
Converts fibrinogen(soluble)=fibrin(insoluble)
Lymph is a leaking of blood plasma and some protein also
called tissue fluid is essentially serum
TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
The xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of roots ,stems and
leaves. The roots constantly absorb ions from soil so there is
movement of water from soil to root to equalize this
difference in concentration of ions. There is a pressure
created which is not enough for the movement of water to
the leaf. Evaporation helps in the creation of suction effect
on the xylem in root
Transpiration helps in movement of water and other minerals
to the leaf. The loss of excess water from aerial parts of
plant.
The root pressure is very important in night as there is no
transpiration. While in the morning the transpiration pull is
very important.
Translocation of food occurs in vascular tissue called phloem.
It occurs in sieve tubes and other companion cells. It occurs
when energy in form of ATP is used to transfer sucrose into
cell and then there is increase in osmotic pressure which
causes the water to flow causing the translocation from high
to low pressure based on need.
In both upwards and downwards direction.
WHY DO WE FALL ILL
Health is the state of social, physical and metal well being
When there is disease there is malfunction of certain part of
body.
ACUTE AND CHRONIC DISEASES
Very short period time is called acute diseases.
The disease lasting for a very long time can be for a lifetime is
called chronic disease.
Causes of diseases
Immediate cause for disease is a virus
Infectious causes-microbes and other micro-organisms
Non infectious-cancer which do not spread among
community
Many infectious diseases are caused by viruses and other
microbes. They are causes of many widespread diseases.
There are different characteristics in the virus, bacteria etc.
Bacteria can be treated using penicillin , cell wall is destroyed
so it prevents the cell from growing further.
Viruses can’t be treated using antibiotic because they don’t
have a cell wall
Microbial agents can spread from one to another they are
communicable diseases .There is a spread of airborne
diseases.
Animals carrying the infecting agent from a sick person to
potential host are called vectors
Jaundice -liver
Air borne-lungs
Typhoid and TB – gut lining
HIV virus enter will spread through lymph nodes. Mosquito
bites will go through liver and then to red blood cells. Brain
fever can be caused by mosquito bite.
An active immune system recruits many cells to the affected
tissue to kill off the
disease-causing microbe. Which causes the inflammation.
inflammation is done to prevent the spread of the disease or
to localize the injury. Reaction of tissue.
Pus is mainly composed of dead WBC and tissue cells
destroyed by bacteria.
The HIV virus damages the immune system.
To reduce the symptoms and to kill the microbes. The
antibiotics are used to kill different microbes and not effect
our own microbes.
Antiviral medicines can be used to treat viruses they are
harder to treat since they do not have characteristics of their
own.
Immunisation can be done by vaccination is the process by
which dead, weakened germs are introduced into our body
Causing formation of antibodies.