Chapter 2

Fluid Statics
Prof. N. Zgheib
Learning objectives
• Determine the pressure at various locations in a fluid at rest.
• Explain the concept of manometers and apply appropriate equations
to determine pressures.
• Calculate the hydrostatic pressure force on a plane or curved
submerged surface.
• Calculate the buoyant force and discuss the stability of floating or
submerged objects
Pressure at a point
Pressure at a point
• Does pressure at a point vary
with the orientation of the plane
passing through that point?
• No shearing stresses
• Only forces due to pressure and
weight
• We consider general case where
fluid element can have
accelerated motion (however as
a rigid body, i.e. no relative
motion)
Pressure at a point
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧 − 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑠 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌 𝑎𝑦
2
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
෍ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑠 cos 𝜃 − 𝛾
2
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
=𝜌 𝑎𝑧
2
• 𝑝𝑠 , 𝑝𝑦 , and 𝑝𝑧 are the average pressures on
the corresponding faces
• 𝛾 is the fluid specific weight
• 𝜌 is the fluid density
• 𝑎𝑦 and 𝑎𝑧 are the accelerations
• From geometry, we find that
• 𝛿𝑦 = 𝛿𝑠 cos 𝜃 ; 𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑠 sin 𝜃
 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑧 − 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑠 sin 𝜃 = 𝜌 𝑎𝑦
Pressure at a point 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
2
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
෍ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑠 cos 𝜃 − 𝛾 =𝜌 𝑎𝑧
2 2
• The pressures simplify to
𝛿𝑦
𝑝𝑦 − 𝑝𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑎𝑦
2
𝛿𝑧
𝑝𝑧 − 𝑝𝑠 = 𝜌𝑎𝑧 + 𝛾
2
• Since we are really interested in
what is happening at a point, we
take the limit 𝛿𝑥 → 0, 𝛿𝑦 →
0, 𝛿𝑧 → 0 to obtain
𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑠
 The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest
Pressure at a point is independent of direction.

• The angle 𝜃 was arbitrarily

chosen so we can conclude that
the pressure at a point in a fluid
at rest, or in motion, is
independent of direction as long
as there are no shearing stresses
present.
• This important result is known as
Pascal’s law
Pressure at a point
Basic equation for pressure field
• The resultant surface force in the 𝑦-direction

𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝛿𝑦
𝛿𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝 − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 − 𝑝 + 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹𝑦 = − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑦
• Similarly, for the x and z directions the
resultant surface forces are
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹𝑥 = − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝐹𝑧 = − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑧
Basic equation for pressure field
• The resultant surface force in vector form

𝛿𝑭𝑠 = 𝛿𝐹𝑥 𝐢 + 𝛿𝐹𝑦 𝐣 + 𝛿𝐹𝑧 𝐤

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝛿𝑭𝑠 = − 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
pressure gradient

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝛻𝑝 = 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• where
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻 = 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Basic equation for pressure field
• The resultant surface force per unit volume
𝛿𝑭𝑠
= −𝛻𝑝
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧

• Since the z axis is vertical, the weight of the

element is
−𝛿𝑊𝐤 = −γ𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧𝐤

• Newton’s second law with 𝛿𝑚 = 𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧

∑𝛿𝑭 = 𝛿𝑚 𝒂
∑𝛿𝑭 = 𝛿𝑭𝑠 − 𝛿𝑊𝐤 = 𝛿𝑚 𝒂
• or
−𝛻𝑝 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − γ𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧𝐤 = 𝜌𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 𝒂
• therefore
−𝛻𝑝 − γ𝐤 = 𝜌 𝒂
 −𝛻𝑝 − γ𝐤 = 𝜌𝒂
Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
𝛾 is not necessarily
• For a fluid at rest (𝒂 = 0)
constant.
𝛻𝑝 + γ𝐤 = 0
• In component form
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
=0 =0 = −𝛾
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• Since 𝑝 depends only on z
𝑑𝑝
= −𝛾
𝑑𝑧
Fundamental equation
for fluid at rest.
Pressure variation in incompressible fluid
γ = 𝜌𝑔
• Variation in 𝑔 are negligible
• For incompressible fluid,
Variation in 𝜌 are negligible
• γ can be regarded as constant
• Integrate
𝑝2 𝑧2
න 𝑑𝑝 = −𝛾 න 𝑑𝑧
𝑝1 𝑧1

𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = −𝛾 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
Pressure variation in incompressible fluid
𝑝1 = 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝2
• This type of pressure distribution
is commonly called a hydrostatic
distribution.

Pressure increases linearly

with depth to “hold up”
overlying fluid.
Pressure head
a pressure difference
• The pressure difference between
two points can be specified by of 10 psi can be specified
the distance h in terms of pressure
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 head as 23.1 ft of water
ℎ=
𝛾 or 518 mm of Hg
• In this case h is called the
pressure head and is interpreted
as the height of a column of fluid 𝛾water = 62.4 lb/ft 3
of specific weight 𝛾 required to 𝛾Hg = 133 kN/m3
give a pressure difference Δ𝑝 =
𝑝1 − 𝑝2
Free surface pressure
• It is convenient to use the free
surface pressure as a reference
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝0
• The pressure in a homogeneous,
incompressible fluid at rest
depends on the depth of the
fluid relative to some reference
plane
• It is not influenced by the size or
shape of the tank or container in
which the fluid is held.
Free surface pressure
• The pressure is the same at all
points along the line AB even
though the containers may have
the very irregular shapes shown
in the figure.
• The actual value of the pressure
along AB depends only on the
depth, h, the surface pressure
𝑝0 , and the specific weight 𝛾, of
the liquid in the container
 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝0
𝑝1 = 𝑆𝐺 × 𝛾𝐻2𝑂 × ℎ + 𝑝0
𝑝1 = 0.68 × 62.4lb/ft 3 × 17ft + 𝑝0
If we measure pressure relative to atmospheric
Pressure (i.e. gage pressure), then 𝑝0 = 0
𝑝1 = 721lb/ft 2
𝑝2 = 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 × ℎ𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑝1
721lb/ft 2 2 𝑝2 = 62.4lb/ft 3 × 3ft + 721lb/ft 2
𝑝1 = = 5.01lb/in
144 in2 /ft 2 𝑝2 = 908 lb/ft 2
𝑝1 721lb/ft 2 908 lb/ft 2
= 3
= 11.6 ft 𝑝2 = = 6.31lb/in2
𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 62.4lb/ft 144 in2 /ft 2
𝑝2 /𝛾𝐻2𝑂 = 14.6 ft
 Pressure equality at same elevation
• The transmission of pressure
throughout a stationary fluid is
the principle upon which many
hydraulic devices are based.
𝐹2 = 𝐴2 /𝐴1 𝐹1
• The piston area 𝐴2 can be made
much larger than 𝐴1 and
therefore a large mechanical
advantage can be developed;
A small force applied at the smaller
piston can be used to develop a large
force at the larger piston!
 • Rearrange and integrate
𝑝2 𝑧2
Compressible fluid න
𝑑𝑝 𝑔 𝑑𝑧
=− න
𝑝 𝑅 𝑇
𝑝1 𝑧1
• The density in a compressible ideal
gas varies with pressure and • If we consider isothermal conditions
temperature (constant temperature)
𝑝 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝜌= ln 𝑝2 − ln 𝑝1 = −
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇0
• Recall that 𝑝2 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
ln =−
𝑑𝑝 𝑝1 𝑅𝑇0
= −𝛾
𝑑𝑧 𝑝2 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
= exp −
• 𝛾 is not a constant, we cannot 𝑝1 𝑅𝑇0
integrate directly, instead we use the
ideal gas law 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 exp −
𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑅𝑇0
=− 𝑔
𝑑𝑧 𝑅𝑇
 Isothermal vs incompressible conditions
• For a 10,000-ft altitude change
the difference between the 𝑝2 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
constant temperature 𝑝1
= exp −
𝑅𝑇0
(isothermal) and the constant
density (incompressible) results
are relatively minor.
𝑝2 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
• For nonisothermal conditions a 𝑝1
=1−𝛾
𝑝1
similar procedure can be
followed if the temperature–
elevation relationship is known.
Example 2.2 Incompressible and Isothermal
Pressure–Depth Variations
𝑝2 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
= exp −
𝑝1 𝑅𝑇0

𝑝2 32.2 ft/s 2 2275 ft

= exp −
𝑝1 1716ft ∙ lb/slug ∙ °R 59 + 460 °R
𝑝2
= 0.921
𝑝1
𝑝2 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
=1−𝛾
𝑝1 𝑝1

𝑝2 3
2275 ft
= 1 − 0.0765lb/ft
𝑝1 14.7 lb/in2 144 in2 /ft 2

𝑝2
= 0.918
𝑝1
Example 2.2 Incompressible and Isothermal
Pressure–Depth Variations
• There is little difference between • Pressure decreases by
the two results. approximately 8% as we go from
• Since the pressure difference ground level to the top of this
between the bottom and top of tallest building.
the building is small, it follows • This result supports the earlier
that the variation in fluid density statement that the changes in
is small and, therefore, the pressures in air and other gases
compressible fluid and due to elevation changes are
incompressible fluid analyses very small, even for distances of
yield essentially the same result. hundreds of feet.
Pressure measurement In this course, pressures will be
assumed to be gage pressures unless
• Absolute pressure: measured specifically designated absolute
relative to a perfect vacuum
(absolute zero pressure)
• Gage pressure: measured relative
to the local atmospheric pressure
• Absolute pressure is always
positive. Gage pressure may be
positive or negative
• Vacuum pressure: A negative gage
pressure is also referred to as a
suction or vacuum pressure
Pressure differences are independent of the
reference, so that no special notation is required
Pressure measurement In this course, pressures will be
assumed to be gage pressures unless
• For example if atmospheric specifically designated absolute
pressure is 14.7 psi:
10 psi abs = 10 − 14.7
= −4.7 psi gage
= +4.7 psi(vaccum)

Pressure differences are independent of the

reference, so that no special notation is required
Measuring atmospheric pressure
• Measurement of atmospheric
pressure is usually accomplished
with a mercury barometer.
𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝vapor
≈0
• It is conventional to specify
atmospheric pressure in terms
of the height, ℎ, in millimeters or
inches of mercury
• Why do we use mercury and not
water for example
 𝛾𝐻2 𝑂 = 9.804 kN/m3
𝑝 = 𝛾𝐻2𝑂 ℎ + 𝑝0
𝑝 = 𝛾𝐻2𝑂 ℎ + 𝑝0
𝑝0 = 𝑝𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 × 𝛾𝐻𝑔
𝑝 = 9.804 kN/m3 40m + 79.5kN/m2
𝑝0 = 598 × 10−3 m 133kN/m3
𝑝0 = 79.5 kN/m2
𝑝 = 472kPa abs
Manometry
• A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of
liquid columns in vertical or inclined tubes.
• Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are called
manometers.
• The mercury barometer is an example of one type of manometer, but
there are many other configurations possible, depending on the
particular application.
• Three common types of manometers include the piezometer tube,
the U-tube manometer, and the inclined-tube manometer.
Piezometer
• Since manometers involve
columns of fluids at rest, the
fundamental equation
describing their use is
𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ + 𝑝0
• Application of this equation to
the piezometer tube gives
𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾1 ℎ1
Piezometer
• Advantages
• Simple and accurate
• Disadvantages.
• 𝑝𝐴 > 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
• Pressure to be measured must be
relatively small so the required
height of the column is
reasonable.
• The fluid in the container in which
the pressure is to be measured
must be a liquid rather than a gas
U-Tube manometer
𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾1 ℎ1 − 𝛾2 ℎ2 = 0
• Advantages 𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾2 ℎ2 − 𝛾1 ℎ1
1. Simple and accurate
2. Gage fluid can be different from the
fluid in the container in which the
pressure is to be determined
3. Depending on the value of 𝑝𝐴 ,
different gage fluids can be used so
that ℎ2 is “appropriate”
4. 𝑝𝐴 > 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 or 𝑝𝐴 < 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
5. Pressure to be measured can be
small or large (different gage fluids
must be used as indicated in point
2)
6. Fluid in container can be gas or
liquid
𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ1 + ℎ2

𝑝2 = 𝛾𝐻𝑔 ℎ3 = 13.6𝛾𝐻2𝑂 ℎ3

𝑝1 = 𝑝2

𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ1 + ℎ2 = 13.6𝛾𝐻2𝑂 ℎ3

𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 13.6𝛾𝐻2𝑂 ℎ3 − 0.9𝛾𝐻2𝑂 ℎ1 + ℎ2

𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 3.06 psi

 For highly accurate measurements, special attention should be

U-Tube manometer given to temperature since the various specific weights of the
fluids in the manometer will vary with temperature.

• The U-tube manometer is also

widely used to measure the
difference in pressure between
two containers or two points in a
given system

𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾1 ℎ1 − 𝛾2 ℎ2 − 𝛾3 ℎ3 = 𝑝𝐵

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾2 ℎ2 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 − 𝛾1 ℎ1
𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 𝑝4 = 𝑝5 𝑝3 = 𝑝4 + 𝛾2 ℎ2

𝑝1 = 𝑝𝐴 − 𝛾1 ℎ1 𝑝5 = 𝑝𝐵 − 𝛾1 ℎ1 + ℎ2

𝑝𝐴 − 𝛾1 ℎ1 = 𝑝𝐵 − 𝛾1 ℎ1 + ℎ2 + 𝛾2 ℎ2

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾1 ℎ1 − 𝛾1 ℎ1 + ℎ2 + 𝛾2 ℎ2

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = ℎ2 𝛾2 − 𝛾1 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 0.5 15.6 − 9.8 = 2.9 kPa

Inclined-Tube manometer
For relatively small angles the differential
reading along the inclined tube can be made
• Better suited for measuring large even for small pressure differences.

small pressure differences

𝑝𝐴 + 𝛾1 ℎ1 − 𝛾2 𝑙2 sin 𝜃 − 𝛾3 ℎ3 = 𝑝𝐵

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾2 𝑙2 sin 𝜃 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 − 𝛾1 ℎ1
Inclined-Tube manometer
• The inclined-tube manometer is 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾2 𝑙2 sin 𝜃 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 − 𝛾1 ℎ1
often used to measure small
differences in gas pressures so 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾2 𝑙2 sin 𝜃 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 − 𝛾1 ℎ1
that if pipes A and B contain a
gas then
Inclined-Tube manometer
• Differential reading 𝑙2 (for a
given pressure difference) of the
inclined- tube manometer can
be increased over that obtained
with a U-tube manometer by the
factor 1/ sin 𝜃.
Hydrostatic force on plane surface
Hydrostatic force on
an inclined surface
𝐹𝑅 = න 𝛾ℎ𝑑𝐴 = න 𝛾𝑦 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴
• For constant 𝛾 and 𝜃
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 න 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝐴
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
• 𝑦𝑐 is the 𝑦-coordinate of the
centroid of 𝐴
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴
• ℎ𝑐 is the vertical distance from the
surface to the centroid of 𝐴
Hydrostatic force on
an inclined surface
• 𝐹𝑅 is independent of 𝜃!
• 𝐹𝑅 is normal to plate.
• 𝐹𝑅 does not act through the
centroid.
• The 𝑦 coordinate, 𝑦𝑅 , of the
resultant force can be
determined by summation of
moments around the 𝑥 axis
𝐹𝑅 𝑦𝑅 = න 𝑦𝑑𝐹 = න 𝛾𝑦 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴
 𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
Hydrostatic force on
an inclined surface 𝐹𝑅 𝑦𝑅 = න 𝑦𝑑𝐹 = න 𝛾𝑦 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴
‫ 𝑦 𝐴׬‬2 𝑑𝐴 𝐼𝑥
𝑦𝑅 = =
𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
• 𝐼𝑥 is the second moment of the area with
respect to an axis formed by the
intersection of the plane containing the
surface and the free surface (𝑥-axis).
• Using the parallel axis theorem
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥𝑐 + 𝑦𝑐2 𝐴
• 𝐼𝑥𝑐 is the second moment of the area
with respect to an axis passing through its
centroid and parallel to the 𝑥-axis
𝐼𝑥𝑐
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 +
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
Hydrostatic force on
an inclined surface
• The 𝑥 coordinate, 𝑥𝑅 , of the resultant force
can be determined by summation of
moments around the 𝑦 axis
𝐹𝑅 𝑥𝑅 = න 𝑥𝑑𝐹 = න 𝛾𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴
‫𝑦𝑥𝐼 𝐴𝑑𝑦𝑥 𝐴׬‬
𝑥𝑅 = =
𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝐴
• 𝐼𝑥𝑦 is the product of inertia with respect to
the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes. Again, using the parallel axis
theorem, we can write
𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐
𝑥𝑅 = 𝑥𝑐 +
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
• 𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐 is the product of inertia with respect to
an orthogonal coordinate system passing
through the centroid of the area and formed
by a translation of the 𝑥–𝑦 coordinate system
Hydrostatic force on
an inclined surface
• The point through which the
resultant force acts is called the
center of pressure
• As 𝑦𝑐 increases the center of
pressure moves closer to the
centroid of the area!

𝐼𝑥𝑐
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 +
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = 1.23 × 106 N
𝐼𝑥𝑐 𝜋𝑅4 /4
𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 + = 𝑦𝑐 + 2
= 11.6 m
𝑦𝑐 𝐴 𝑦𝑐 𝜋𝑅
𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐
𝑥𝑅 = 𝑥𝑐 + = 𝑥𝑐 = 0
𝑦𝑐 𝐴
𝑀𝑐 = 𝐹𝑅 𝑦𝑅 − 𝑦𝑐
𝑀𝑐 = 1.23 × 106 0.0866 = 107KN ∙ m
 1
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = 64lb/ft 3 0.9ft 20.3 × 0.3ft 2 = 2.59lb

𝐼𝑥𝑐 0.3ft 0.3ft 3 /36

𝑦𝑅 = 𝑦𝑐 + = 0.9ft + 1 = 0.906 ft
𝑦𝑐 𝐴 0.9ft 20.3 × 0.3ft 2

0.3ft 0.3ft 2
𝐼𝑥𝑦𝑐 0.3 − 0 ft
𝑥𝑅 = 𝑥𝑐 + =0+ 72 = 2.78 × 10 −3 ft
𝑦𝑐 𝐴 0.9ft 120.3 × 0.3ft 2
Pressure prism
Pressure prism The resultant force must pass through
the centroid of the pressure prism
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑝avg × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝛾ℎ
𝐹𝑅 = × 𝑏ℎ
2
• This volume in the pressure-area
space is called the pressure prism
• The magnitude of the resultant
force acting on the rectangular
surface is equal to the volume of
the pressure prism
1
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ 𝑏ℎ
2
Pressure prism
 The resultant force is still equal in magnitude
Pressure prism to the volume of the pressure prism, and it
passes through the centroid of the volume!
• Decompose the prism
into 2 parts 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐸 &
𝐵𝐶𝐷

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
1
𝐹𝑅 = 𝛾ℎ1 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝑏 + 𝛾 ℎ2 − ℎ1 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝑏
2
𝐹𝑅 𝑦𝐴 = 𝐹1 𝑦1 + 𝐹2 𝑦2 ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑦1 = ℎ1 +
2
𝐹1 𝑦1 + 𝐹2 𝑦2
𝑦𝐴 = ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝐹𝑅 𝑦2 = ℎ1 + 2
3
 ℎ1 𝑙
Pressure prism on inclined surfaces 𝑦1 = +
sin 𝜃 2
ℎ1 𝑙
𝑦2 = +2
• For inclined plane rectangular sin 𝜃 3
surfaces the pressure prism can
still be developed, and the cross 𝜃
section of the prism will
generally be trapezoidal

𝑙
The use of the pressure prism concept
to determine the force on a submerged
area is best suited for plane rectangular
𝐹1 𝑦1 + 𝐹2 𝑦2
surfaces. 𝑦𝐴 =
𝐹𝑅
Influence of atmospheric pressure
• The effect of atmospheric
pressure on a submerged area
has not yet been considered,
and we may ask how this
pressure will influence the
resultant force.
Influence of atmospheric pressure
• 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 cancels on both sides
𝐹1 = 𝑝𝑠 + 𝛾ℎ1 𝐴 = 24.4kN
𝛾 ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝐹2 = 𝐴 = 954N
2
0.6
𝑦1 = ℎ1 + = 2.3m
2
0.6
𝑦2 = ℎ1 + 2 = 2.4m
3
𝐹1 𝑦1 + 𝐹2 𝑦2
𝑦𝐴 =
𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝑦𝐴 = 2.304m
Hydrostatic force on curved surfaces

𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹2 ; 𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹1 + 𝑊
𝐹1 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = 62.4lb/ft 3 1.5ft 3 × 1ft 2 = 281lb
𝜋𝑅 2 62.4lb 𝜋 3ft 2
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉 = 𝛾 𝑙 = 1ft = 441lb
4 ft 3 4
𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹1 = 281lb
𝐹𝑉 = 𝑊 = 441lb

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹𝐻2 + 𝐹𝑉2 = 523lb

𝐹
−1 𝐻
𝜃 = tan = 32.5°
𝐹𝑉
𝐹1 = 𝛾ℎ𝑐 𝐴 = 62.4lb/ft 3 1.5ft 3 × 1ft 2 = 281lb
𝜋𝑅 2 62.4lb 𝜋 3ft 2
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉 = 𝛾 𝑙 = 1ft = 441lb
4 ft 3 4
Buoyancy
 Buoyancy
𝐹2 − 𝐹1 − 𝑊 − 𝐹𝐵 = 0

𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝛾 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝐴

𝐹𝐵 = 𝛾 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝐴 − 𝛾 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝐴 − 𝑉

𝐹𝐵 = 𝛾𝑉

Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force has a magnitude equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body and is directed vertically upward.
Buoyancy
• The location of the line of action of
the buoyant force can be
determined by summing moments
of the forces shown on the free-
body diagram with respect to some
convenient axis.
• For example, summing moments
about an axis perpendicular to the
screen through point D we have 𝐹𝐵 𝑦𝑐 = 𝐹2 𝑦1 − 𝐹1 𝑦1 − 𝑊𝑦2
𝛾𝑉𝑦𝑐 = 𝛾ℎ2 𝐴𝑦1 − 𝛾ℎ1 𝐴𝑦1 − 𝛾 ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝐴 − 𝑉 𝑦2
𝑉𝑦𝑐 = ℎ2 𝐴𝑦1 − ℎ1 𝐴𝑦1 − ℎ2 − ℎ1 𝐴 − 𝑉 𝑦2
Buoyancy
• Buoyant force passes through the centroid
of the displaced volume.
• The point through which the buoyant force
acts is called the center of buoyancy
• Same results apply to floating bodies which
are only partially submerged
• provided the specific weight of the fluid
above the liquid surface is very small
compared with the liquid in which the
body floats.
• Since the fluid above the surface is usually
air, for practical purposes this condition is
satisfied
Buoyancy
• In the previous discussion, the fluid is assumed to have a constant
specific weight, 𝛾.
• If a body is immersed in a fluid in which 𝛾 varies with depth, such as
in a layered fluid, the magnitude of the buoyant force remains equal
to the weight of the displaced fluid.
• However, the buoyant force does not pass through the centroid of the
displaced volume, but rather, it passes through the center of gravity
of the displaced volume.
Buoyancy
𝑦𝐶𝐵 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑦1 𝐹𝐵1 + 𝑦2 𝐹𝐵2
𝑦1 𝐹𝐵1 + 𝑦2 𝐹𝐵2
𝑦𝐶𝐵 =
𝐹𝐵
𝑦1 𝜌1 𝑔𝑉1 + 𝑦2 𝜌2 𝑔𝑉2
𝑦𝐶𝐵 =
𝑔 𝜌1 𝑉1 + 𝜌2 𝑉2
𝑦1 𝜌1 𝑉1 + 𝑦2 𝜌2 𝑉2
𝑦𝐶𝐵 =
𝜌1 𝑉1 + 𝜌2 𝑉2
𝑦1 𝑚1 + 𝑦2 𝑚2
𝑦𝐶𝐵 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
 𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝐵 = 𝑊 − 𝐹𝐵

𝑊 = 𝛾𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝑉 = 𝛾𝑆𝐺𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝑉

𝑊
𝐹𝐵 = 𝛾𝑉 = 𝛾 = 𝑊/𝑆𝐺𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑟
𝛾𝑆𝐺𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑟

𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝐵 = 𝑊 1 − 1/𝑆𝐺𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑟

1
𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝐵 = 0.4lb 1 − = 0.365lb
11.3
Stability
• A body is said to be in a stable
equilibrium position if, when
displaced, it returns to its
equilibrium position.
• It is in an unstable equilibrium
position if, when displaced (even
slightly), it moves to a new
equilibrium position.
 Stability of fully submerged objects

Since the centers of buoyancy and gravity do not necessarily coincide, a

small rotation can result in either a restoring or overturning couple.
 Stability of a fully submerged body

A completely submerged body with its center of gravity above its center of
buoyancy is in an unstable equilibrium position
 Stability of a floating body

a floating body such as a barge that rides low in the water can be stable
even though the center of gravity lies above the center of buoyancy
Stability of a floating body
• For the relatively tall,
slender body, a small
rotational displacement
can cause the buoyant
force and the weight to
form an overturning
couple.
Stability of a floating body
• Although both the relatively
narrow kayak and the wide
houseboat shown in the figures
are stable, the kayak will
overturn much more easily than
the houseboat.
Pressure variation for rigid body motion
• For fluids with no shearing • In component form
stresses, the general equation of
motion 𝜕𝑝
− = 𝜌𝑎𝑥
𝜕𝑥
−𝛻𝑝 − 𝛾𝐤 = 𝜌𝒂
𝜕𝑝
− = 𝜌𝑎𝑦
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑝
− = 𝛾 + 𝜌𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑧
Linear motion
• Consider an open container of a
liquid translating along a straight
path with a constant
acceleration 𝒂.
• Since 𝑎𝑥 = 0, the pressure
gradient in the 𝑥-direction is

𝜕𝑝
= 𝜌𝑎𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥
Linear motion
𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌𝑎𝑦
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌 𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑧
• Change of pressure can be expressed
as

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌 𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑑𝑧
Linear motion 𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌 𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑑𝑧

• Constant pressure 𝑑𝑝 = 0 lines

have slope
𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑦
=−
𝑑𝑦 𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝑦
𝑧=− 𝑦 + 𝑧0
𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧
• Free surface will be inclined if 𝑎𝑦 ≠
0
• All lines of constant pressure will
be parallel to the free surface
Linear motion
𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌𝑎𝑦
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑝
= −𝜌 𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑧
• Change of pressure can be expressed
as

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑎𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜌 𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑦 𝜕𝑝 𝑎𝑦
=− =− 𝑧=− 𝑦 = −𝜌 𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧 = −𝜌𝑔 𝑝 = 𝛾 0.5 + 0.75
𝑑𝑦 𝑔 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑔 𝑔 𝜕𝑧 𝑔
𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑦 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ 𝑎𝑦
𝑧 = − 𝑦 + 𝑧0 𝑧 𝑦 = 0.75 = − 0.75 𝑝 = 20.3 − 30.4
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝑝 = 𝛾 0.5 − 𝑧1
𝑎𝑦
𝑧 𝑦 = 0 = 𝑧0 = 0 𝑧1 = − 0.75
𝑔
 𝑎𝑦 2𝑔
𝑧1 = − 0.75 𝑎𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 21.5 ft/s 2
𝑔 3
𝑎𝑦,𝑚𝑎𝑥
0.5 = − 0.75
𝑔
End of Chapter 2