Switched Reluctance Motor – Construction

and Working
June 16, 2018 by admin
Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) is also known as Variable Reluctance Motor. This
motor works on the principle of variable reluctance. This means, the rotor always tries
to align along the lowest reluctance path. As the name suggests, a switching inverter
is required for the operation of Switched Reluctance Motor.
Construction of Switched Reluctance Motor
Variable Reluctance Motor or Switched Reluctance Motor has two different
constructions: Singly Salient Construction and Doubly Salient Construction. Stator
and rotor magnetic circuits are laminated to reduce the core losses in both type of
SRM.
Singly Salient Construction:
A singly salient construction SRM comprises of a non-salient stator and a salient two
pole rotor. The rotor do not have any winding wound over it but the stator have two
phase winding as shown in figure below.

It should be noted that, in actual SRM the number of phase winding on stator may be
more than two. Since the rotor is of salient construction, the inductance of stator phase
winding varies with the rotor position. The inductance is minimum when the rotor
axis and stator phase winding axis coincides whereas it is maximum when both the
axis are in quadrature.
Doubly Salient Construction:
Unlike singly salient type, the stator of doubly salient Switched Reluctance Motor is
of salient construction and consists of four poles as shown in figure below. The rotor
do not carry any winding and is of salient construction but have two poles. Thus this
type of SRM is a hetropolar motor where the numbers of stator and rotor poles are not
same.

The stator phase windings are concentrated winding. These concentrated windings on
radially opposite poles are either connected in series or parallel to result into two
phase winding on stator.
A doubly salient type Switched Reluctance Motor or variable Reluctance Motor
produces more torque as compared to singly salient type for the same size. Therefore
a doubly SRM is more common and widely used.
Working principle of Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM)
As we know that magnetic flux have a tendency to flow through lowest reluctance
path, therefore rotor always tends to align along the minimum reluctance path. This is
the basic working principle of Switched Reluctance Motor or Variable Reluctance
Motor.
Therefore, when stator phase winding A is energized, the rotor align along this phase
as shown in figure below.
When stator phase winding A is de-energized and winding B is energized, the rotor
align itself along B phase as shown in figure below.

Similarly, the rotor occupies a position along phase winding C when this phase is
energized.
Thus rotor rotation in clockwise direction is achieved by energizing the phase winding
in a ABC sequence. If rotor rotation in anti-clockwise direction is require, stator phase
winding must be energized in ACB sequence.
It must also be noted that, a particular phase winding must be energized / de-
energized in synchronism with rotor position. This means as soon as the rotor align
along the A phase, B phase must be energized and A phase must be de-energized if
clockwise rotor rotation is required.
To better understand the working principle, carefully observe the animation of
Switched Reluctance Motor given below.
 Synchronous reluctance motor
By Dmitry Levkin
 Construction
 Working principle
 Features
Synchronous reluctance motor is a synchronous electric motor, the torque of
which is due to the inequality of permeance (magnetic conductivities) by
quadrature and direct axes of the rotor, which has no field windings or
permanent magnets [1].
Construction of synchronous reluctance motor
The stator of reluctance motor may be with distributed and
with concentrated winding and consists of a frame and a core with a winding.

Synchronous reluctance motor

Stator of synchronous reluctance motor with distributed winding

Three main types of the rotor of reluctance motor are distinguished: a rotor
with salient poles, an axially laminated rotor, and a transversally laminated
rotor.

Rotor with salient poles

Axially laminated rotor

Transversally laminated rotor

Working principle of synchronous reluctance motor

The alternating current passing through the stator windings creates a rotating
magnetic field in the air gap of the electric motor. Torque is created when the
rotor attempts to establish its most magnetically conductive axis (d-axis) with
an applied field in order to minimize the reluctance (magnetic resistance) in
the magnetic circuit. The amplitude of the torque is directly proportional to
the difference between the direct Ld and quadrature Lq inductances.
Therefore, the greater the difference, the greater the torque created.
 Magnetic field lines of a synchronous reluctance motor

The main idea can be explained with the help of the figure below. The object
"a" consisting of anisotropic material has a different conductivity along the d
axis and the q axis, while the isotropic magnetic material of the object "b" has
the same conductivity in all directions. The magnetic field that is applied to
the anisotropic object "a" creates a torque if there is an angle between the d
axis and the lines of the magnetic field. Obviously, if the d axis of the object
"a" does not coincide with the lines of the magnetic field, the object will
introduce distortions into the magnetic field. In this case, the direction of the
distorted magnetic lines will coincide with the q axis of the object.

An object with anisotropic geometry (a) and isotropic geometry (b) in a magnetic field
 Magnetic field lines around an object with anisotropic geometry

In a synchronous reluctance motor, a magnetic field is created by a

sinusoidally distributed stator winding. The field rotates at synchronous speed
and can be considered sinusoidal.
In such a situation, there will always be a torque aimed at reducing the whole
system potential energy by reducing the field distortion along the q axis
(δ→0). If the angle δ is kept constant, for example, by controlling the
magnetic field, then the electromagnetic energy will be continuously
converted into mechanical energy.
The stator current is responsible for magnetization and for creating a torque
that attempts to reduce field distortion. The torque is controlled by controlling
the current angle, that is, the angle between the current vector of the stator
winding and the rotor d-axis in a rotating coordinate system.
Features of the synchronous reluctance motor
Advantages:
 Simple and robust rotor construction::
the rotor has a simple structure consisting of sheet electrical steel, without
magnets and short-circuited winding.
 Low heat:
since there are no currents in the rotor, it does not heat up during operation,
increasing the service life of the electric motor.
 No magnets:
the final price of the electric motor is reduced since rare earth metals are not
used in production. In the absence of magnetic forces, the maintenance of the
electric motor is simplified.
 Low moment of inertia of the rotor::
since there is no winding and magnets on the rotor, the moment of inertia of the
rotor is lower, which allows the electric motor to accelerate faster and save
energy.
 Speed control:
in view of the fact that synchronous reluctance motor for its operation
 requires a frequency converter, it is possible to control the speed of rotation
of reluctance motor in a wide range of speeds.
Disadvantages:
 Frequency control:
to work requires a variable frequency drive.
 Low power factor:
due to the fact that the magnetic flux is generated only by the reactive
current. Solved by the use of a variable frequency drive with power
correction.

Permanent magnet synchronous motor

 Constructions and types
 Working principle
 Permanent magnet synchronous motor control
o Trapezoidal control
o Field oriented control
A permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) - is a synchronous
electric motor whose inductor consists of permanent magnets.
The main difference between a permanent magnet synchronous motor
(PMSM) and an induction motor is in the rotor. Studies1 show that the PMSM
has an efficiency of approximately 2% more than a highly efficient (IE3)
induction electric motor, provided that the stator has the same design, and the
same variable frequency drive is used for control. In this case, permanent
magnet synchronous electric motors in comparison with other electric motors
have the best performance: power/volume, torque/inertia, etc.
Permanent magnet synchronous motor constructions and types
A permanent magnet synchronous motor, like any rotating electric motor,
consists of a rotor and a stator. The stator is the fixed part. The rotor is the
rotating part.

Interior permanent magnet synchronous motor

Typically, the rotor is located inside the stator of the electric motor, there are
also structures with an external rotor - inside out electric motors.
 Constructions of a permanent magnet synchronous motor: on the left - standard, on the right -
inside out.

The rotor consists of permanent magnets. Materials with high coercive force
are used as permanent magnets.
According to the rotor design, synchronous motors are divided into:
 electric motors with salient pole rotor;
 electric motors with non-salient pole rotor.
An electric motor with non-salient pole rotor has an equal direct and
quadrature inductances L d = Lq, whereas for an electric motor with salient
pole rotor the quadrature inductance is not equal to the direct L q ≠ Ld.
 The cross sections of the rotors with a different ratio of Ld/Lq. Magnets marked black. Figure
e, f shows axially layered rotors, figure c, and h shows the rotors with barriers.

Also, according to the design of the rotor, the PMSM are divided into:
 surface permanent magnet synchronous motor;
 interior permanent magnet synchronous motor.

Rotor of a surface permanent magnet synchronous motor

 Rotor of an interior permanent magnet synchronous motor

The stator consists of an outer frame and a core with windings. The most
common design with two- and three-phase winding.
Depending on the stator design, a permanent magnet synchronous motor can
be:
 with distributed winding;
 with concentrated winding.

Electric motor stator with distributed winding

 Electric motor stator with concentrated winding

Distributed call such a winding, in which the number of slots per pole and
phase Q = 2, 3, ...., k.
Concentrated called such a winding, in which the number of slots per pole
and phase Q = 1. In this case, the slots are evenly spaced around the
circumference of the stator. The two coils forming the winding can be
connected both in series and in parallel. The main disadvantage of such
windings is the impossibility of influencing on the form of the EMF curve [2].

Three-phase distributed winding circuit

Three-phase concentrated winding circuit

 The form of the back EMF of the electric motor can be:
 trapezoidal;
 sinusoidal.
The form of the EMF curve in the conductor is determined by the distribution
curve of the magnetic induction in the gap around the stator circumference.
It is known that the magnetic induction in the gap under the salient pole of the
rotor has a trapezoidal shape. The EMF induced in the conductor has the same
form. If it is necessary to create a sinusoidal EMF, then the pole tips are given
such a shape that the induction distribution curve would be close to sinusoidal.
This is facilitated by the bevels of the pole tips of the rotor [2].
Working principle of a synchronous motor
The principle of operation of a synchronous motor is based on the interaction of
the rotating magnetic field of the stator and the constant magnetic field of the
rotor. The concept of the rotating magnetic field of the stator of a synchronous
motor is the same as that of a three-phase induction motor.

The principle of operation of a synchronous motor is based on the

interaction of the rotating magnetic field of the stator and the constant
magnetic field of the rotor.

Stop

Rotating magnetic field of a synchronous motor

The magnetic field of the rotor, interacting with the synchronous alternating
current of the stator windings, according to the Ampere's Law, creates torque,
forcing the rotor to rotate (more).
 Permanent magnets located on the rotor of the PMSM create a constant
magnetic field. At a synchronous speed of rotation of the rotor with the stator
field, the rotor poles interlock with the rotating magnetic field of the stator. In
this regard, the PMSM cannot start itself when it is connected directly to the
three-phase current network (current frequency in the power grid 50Hz).
Permanent magnet synchronous motor control
A permanent magnet synchronous motor requires a control system, for
example, a variable frequency drive or a servo drive. There are a large number
of control techniques implemented control systems. The choice of the optimal
control method mainly depends on the task that is put in front of the electric
drive. The main methods for controlling a permanent magnet synchronous
motor are shown in the table below.

Control Advantages Disadvantage

Control is not optimal, not suitable for

Sinusoidal Scalar Simple control scheme tasks where the variable load, loss of

control is possible
 Requires rotor position sensor and
With
Smooth and precise setting of the rotor position and motor
position powerful microcontroller inside the
rotation speed, large control range
sensor
control system
Field
oriented Sensorless field oriented control over full
control
Vector Without No rotor position sensor required. Smooth and precise speed range is possible only for PMSM
position setting of the rotor position and motor rotation speed, large
sensor control range, but less than with position sensor with salient pole rotor, a powerful control

system is required

Simple control circuit, good dynamic performance, wide

Direct torque control High torque and current ripple
control range, no rotor position sensor required

Control is not optimal, not suitable for

Open loop Simple control scheme tasks where the variable load, loss of

control is possible

Trapezoidal Hall sensors required. There are torque ripp

With position sensor (Hall
Simple control scheme PMSM with trapezoidal back EMF, when co
sensors)
back EMF, the average torqu
Closed
loop
Not suitable for low speed operation. There
Without sensor More powerful control system required for control of PMSM with trapezoidal back
with sinusoidal back EMF, the averag

Popular methods to control permanent magnet synchronous motors

To solve simple tasks is usually used trapezoidal control with Hall sensors
(for example, computer fans). To solve problems that require maximum
performance from the electric drive, field-oriented control is usually selected.
Trapezoidal control
One of the simplest methods of control of a permanent magnet synchronous
motor is - trapezoidal control. Trapezoidal control is used to control the
PMSM with trapezoidal back EMF. At the same time, this method also allows
you to control the PMSM with a sinusoidal back EMF, but then the average
torque of the electric drive will be lower by 5%, and the torque ripples will be
14% of the maximum value. There is a trapezoidal control without feedback
and with feedback by the rotor position.
The open loop control (without feedback) is not optimal and may lead to the
release of the PMSM out of synchronism, i.e. to loss of controllability.
The closed loop control can be divided into:
 trapezoidal control by position sensor (usually by Hall sensors);
 trapezoidal control without sensor (sensorless trapezoidal control).
As a rotor position sensor for three-phase trapezoidal control, three Hall
sensors built into an electric motor are commonly used, which allow
 determining the angle with an accuracy of ± 30 degrees. With this control, the
stator current vector takes only six positions for one electric period, as a result
of which there is ripple torque at the output.

Trapezoidal control by Hall sensors

Field oriented control
Field-oriented control (FOC) allows you to smoothly, accurately and
independently control the speed and torque of a brushless motor. For the
operation of the field oriented control algorithm, it is necessary to know the
position of the rotor of the brushless motor.
There are two ways to determine the rotor position:
 by the position sensor;
 sensorless - by calculating the angle by the real-time control system based on
the information available.

PMSM field oriented control by position sensor

The following types of sensors are used as angle sensors:
 inductive: resolver, inductosyn, etc .;
 optical;
 magnetic: magnetoresistive sensors.
 Field Oriented Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor using a rotor position
sensor

Field-oriented control of PMSM without a position sensor

Since the 1970s sensorless vector control methods for brushless
AC motors began to be developed, thanks to the rapid development of
microprocessors. The first sensorless methods for estimating the angle were
based on the property of the electric motor to generate back EMF during
rotation. The motor back EMF contains information about the position of the
rotor, therefore, by calculating the value of the back EMF in the stationary
coordinate system, you can calculate the position of the rotor. But when the
rotor is not rotating, the back EMF is absent, and at low speed the back EMF
has a small amplitude, which is difficult to distinguish from noise, therefore
this method is not suitable for determining the position of the motor rotor at
low speed.
There are two common techniques for sensorless start PMSM:
 start by the scalar method - start on a predetermined characteristic of voltage
dependence to frequency. But scalar control severely limits the capabilities of
the control system and the parameters of the electric drive as a whole;
 high frequency signal injection method – works only with the salient pole
PMSM.
 Field Oriented Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor without rotor position
sensor with scalar start

At present, sensorless field-oriented control of PMSM in the full speed range

is possible only for motors with salient pole rotor.

References
1. Markus Lindegger. Economic viability, applications and limits of
efficient permanent magnet motors.- Switzerland: Swiss Federal Office of
Energy, 2009
2. N.I.Volkov. Electromachine devices of automatics: A textbook for
universities.- Мoscow: 1986.

/https://en.engineering-solutions.ru/motorcontrol/pmsm
 Wound-rotor synchronous motor
By Dmitry Levkin

 Construction
 Working principle
 Synchronous speed
 Direct-on-line starting
 Out of synchronism
 Synchronous condenser
Wound-rotor synchronous motor is a synchronous electric motor, the rotor
of which is made with a field winding.
Construction of wound-rotor synchronous motor
Wound-rotor synchronous motor like any rotating electric motor, consists of a
rotor and a stator. The stator is the fixed part. The rotor is the rotating part.
The stator usually has a standard three-phase winding, and the rotor is made
with a field winding. The field winding is connected to slip rings to which

power is supplied through brushes.

 Wound-rotor synchronous motor (brushes not shown)

Working principle
The constant speed of a synchronous motor is achieved by the interaction
between a constant and rotating magnetic field. The rotor of the synchronous
motor creates a constant magnetic field, and the stator - a rotating magnetic
field.

The operation of the synchronous motor is based on the interaction of the

rotating magnetic field of the stator and the constant magnetic field of the
rotor

Stator: rotating magnetic field

A three-phase AC supply is applied to the windings of the stator coils. The
result is a rotating magnetic field that rotates at a speed proportional to the
frequency of the supply voltage. Read more about how a rotating magnetic
field is generated by a three-phase supply voltage in the article "Three phase
induction motor".

The interaction between rotating (stator) and constant (rotor) magnetic

fields

Rotor: constant magnetic field

The rotor winding is excited by a direct current source through slip rings. The
magnetic field created around the rotor excited by direct current is shown
below. Obviously, the rotor behaves like a permanent magnet, since it has the
 same magnetic field (as an alternative, you can imagine that the rotor is made
of permanent magnets). Consider the interaction of the rotor and the rotating
magnetic field. Suppose you give the rotor an initial rotation in the same
direction as the rotating magnetic field. The opposite poles of the rotating
magnetic field and the rotor will be attracted to each other and they will get
locked with the help of magnetic forces. This means that the rotor will rotate
at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field, that is, the rotor will rotate at
a synchronous speed.

Magnetic fields of the rotor and stator are locked to each other

Synchronous speed
The speed at which the magnetic field rotates can be calculated by the
following equation:

,
 where Ns – rotation frequency of the magnetic field, rpm,
 f – stator current frequency, Hz,
 p – number of pole pairs.
This means that the speed of the synchronous motor can be accurately
controlled by varying the frequency of the supply current. Thus, these electric
motors are suitable for high precision applications.
Direct-on-line starting of synchronous motor

Why are synchronous motors not self-starting from the electrical grid?
If the rotor does not have an initial rotation, the situation is different from that
described above. The north pole of the magnetic field of the rotor will be
attracted to the south pole of the rotating magnetic field and will begin to
move in the same direction. But since the rotor has a certain moment of
inertia, its starting speed will be very low. During this time, the south pole of
the rotating magnetic field will be replaced by the north pole. In this way,
repulsive forces will appear. As a result, the rotor will begin to rotate in the
opposite direction, and will not be started.

Damper winding - the direct start of a synchronous motor from an electrical grid
In order to realize a self-starting of a synchronous motor without a control
system, a “squirrel cage” is placed between the tips of the rotor, which is also
called a damper winding. When starting the motor, the rotor coils are not
excited. Under the action of a rotating magnetic field, a current is induced in
the turns of the "squirrel cage" and the rotor starts to rotate just like induction
motors are started.

When the rotor reaches its maximum speed, power is supplied to the field
winding of the rotor. As a result, the rotor poles interlock with the poles of
the rotating magnetic field and the rotor begins to rotate at a synchronous
speed. When the rotor rotates at synchronous speed, the relative motion
between the squirrel cage and the rotating magnetic field is zero. This means
that there is no current in short-circuited turns, and therefore the "squirrel
cage" does not affect the synchronous operation of the electric motor.
Out of synchronism
Synchronous electric motors have a constant speed independent of the load
(provided that the load does not exceed the maximum permissible). If the load
torque is greater than the torque created by the electric motor itself, then it
will come out of synchronism and stop. Low supply voltage and low
excitation voltage can also be the cause of going out of sync.
Synchronous condenser
Synchronous motors can also be used to improve the power factor of a system.
When the single purpose of using synchronous motors is to improve the power
factor, they are called synchronous compensators. In this case, the motor shaft
is not connected to the mechanical load and rotates freely.
 Synchronous reluctance motor
By Dmitry Levkin

 Construction
 Working principle
 Features
Synchronous reluctance motor is a synchronous electric motor, the torque
of which is due to the inequality of permeance (magnetic conductivities) by
quadrature and direct axes of the rotor, which has no field windings or
permanent magnets [1].
Construction of synchronous reluctance motor
The stator of reluctance motor may be with distributed and
with concentrated winding and consists of a frame and a core with a winding.

Synchronous reluctance motor

 Stator of synchronous reluctance motor with distributed winding

Three main types of the rotor of reluctance motor are distinguished: a rotor
with salient poles, an axially laminated rotor, and a transversally laminated
rotor.

Rotor with salient poles

Axially laminated rotor

 Transversally laminated rotor

Working principle of synchronous reluctance motor

The alternating current passing through the stator windings creates a rotating
magnetic field in the air gap of the electric motor. Torque is created when the
rotor attempts to establish its most magnetically conductive axis (d-axis) with
an applied field in order to minimize the reluctance (magnetic resistance) in
the magnetic circuit. The amplitude of the torque is directly proportional to
the difference between the direct Ld and quadrature Lq inductances.
Therefore, the greater the difference, the greater the torque created.

Magnetic field lines of a synchronous reluctance motor

The main idea can be explained with the help of the figure below. The object
"a" consisting of anisotropic material has a different conductivity along the d
axis and the q axis, while the isotropic magnetic material of the object "b" has
the same conductivity in all directions. The magnetic field that is applied to
the anisotropic object "a" creates a torque if there is an angle between the d
axis and the lines of the magnetic field. Obviously, if the d axis of the object
"a" does not coincide with the lines of the magnetic field, the object will
introduce distortions into the magnetic field. In this case, the direction of the
distorted magnetic lines will coincide with the q axis of the object.
 An object with anisotropic geometry (a) and isotropic geometry (b) in a magnetic field

Magnetic field lines around an object with anisotropic geometry

In a synchronous reluctance motor, a magnetic field is created by a

sinusoidally distributed stator winding. The field rotates at synchronous speed
and can be considered sinusoidal.
In such a situation, there will always be a torque aimed at reducing the whole
system potential energy by reducing the field distortion along the q axis
(δ→0). If the angle δ is kept constant, for example, by controlling the
magnetic field, then the electromagnetic energy will be continuously
converted into mechanical energy.
The stator current is responsible for magnetization and for creating a torque
that attempts to reduce field distortion. The torque is controlled by controlling
the current angle, that is, the angle between the current vector of the stator
winding and the rotor d-axis in a rotating coordinate system.
Features of the synchronous reluctance motor
Advantages:
 Simple and robust rotor construction::
the rotor has a simple structure consisting of sheet electrical steel, without
magnets and short-circuited winding.
 Low heat:
since there are no currents in the rotor, it does not heat up during operation,
increasing the service life of the electric motor.
 No magnets:
the final price of the electric motor is reduced since rare earth metals are not
used in production. In the absence of magnetic forces, the maintenance of the
electric motor is simplified.
 Low moment of inertia of the rotor::
since there is no winding and magnets on the rotor, the moment of inertia of
the rotor is lower, which allows the electric motor to accelerate faster and
save energy.
 Speed control:
in view of the fact that synchronous reluctance motor for its operation requires
a frequency converter, it is possible to control the speed of rotation of
reluctance motor in a wide range of speeds.
Disadvantages:
 Frequency control:
to work requires a variable frequency drive.
 Low power factor:
due to the fact that the magnetic flux is generated only by the reactive current.
Solved by the use of a variable frequency drive with power correction.
 Hysteresis motor
By Dmitry Levkin

 Construction
 Working principle
 Advantages and disadvantages
Hysteresis electric motor - is a non-salient pole synchronous electric motor,
without an excitation winding, the rotor of which is made of magnetic
material with large remanence (residual magnetization), which is started up
due to hysteresis losses in the rotor [1].
The construction of hysteresis motor
A synchronous hysteresis motor, like any rotating electric motor, consists of
a rotor and a stator. The stator is the fixed part. The rotor is the rotating part.

Synchronous hysteresis motor

The stator of a hysteresis motor has a conventional three- or two-phase

winding, which creates a rotating magnetic field, and the rotor is a massive
cylinder without a winding, made of hard magnetic material with a wide
hysteresis loop (for example, an alloy Vicalloy). At the same time, in order to
save expensive magnetically hard material, the rotor is made assembled.
Working principle of hysteresis motor
The principle of operation of the synchronous hysteresis motor is based on
the action of the hysteresis torque. For clarity, the figure below shows only
two elementary magnets ns 1 and 2. The interaction force between these
magnets and the stator field NS is directed along the axis of the latter (left
figure). If the NS field to turn, for example, counterclockwise, then
elementary magnets turn in the same direction. However, due to the magnetic
hysteresis, the magnets ns will not immediately turn to the same angle as the
NS field. Some mismatch angle γ will appear between the NS and ns axes. In
addition to the radial forces, tangential forces appear (right figure), which will
create the hysteresis torque Мh. The angle γ is determined by the shape of the
hysteresis loop of the material from which the rotor is made.

The principle of operation of the hysteresis motor

The hysteresis torque Mh does not depend on the rotor speed. A radical way
to increase the torque of a hysteresis motor is the use of hard magnetic
materials with a rectangular hysteresis loop. The rotational speed of such
motor is synchronous with rotational frequency of the field, the efficiency is
high - up to 80% [2].
The phenomenon of magnetic lag is that particles of the ferromagnetic
material of the rotor, which are elementary magnets, tend to be oriented in
accordance with the direction of the external magnetic field. If the external
magnetic field changes its direction, then the elementary particles also change
orientation. However, molecular friction forces impede the rotation of
elementary particles in magnetically hard material. This explains the
appearance of the shear angle γ, the value of which depends on the magnetic
properties of the rotor material [3].
Due to the massive rotor design, hysteresis motors also develop eddy current
torque at start-up. However, this torque is much less than the hysteresis
torque, as a result of which the start-up, as well as drawing into synchronism
and operation, occurs due to the hysteresis torque. When the motor runs at
synchronous speed torque due to eddy current losses vanish.
The difference between permanent magnet motors and hysteresis motors is
that in the first the rotor is subjected to a special preliminary magnetization,
and in the second it is magnetized by the stator field of the motor. Hysteresis
motors have better performance than reluctance motors and designed with
power up to 300 ... 400 watts.
Advantages and disadvantages
The advantages of hysteresis motors are the simplicity of the device, the
reliability of operation, the absence of starting devices, the smoothness of
synchronization, the almost constant current during start-up and operation.
The disadvantages include the relatively high cost of the rotor material,
although, as a rule, the rotor is made of ordinary steel and only a small hollow
cylinder from a hard magnetic material is placed on it.

Scalar control of motor

By Dmitry Levkin

Scalar control (frequency control) is a control technique of a brushless

AC motor, which is to keep the voltage/frequency ratio (V/Hz) constant
throughout the full operating speed range, with control only the magnitude
and frequency of the supply voltage.
The V/Hz ratio is calculated based on the rated values (voltage and frequency)
of the controlled AC motor. By keeping the value of the V/Hz ratio constant,
we can maintain a relatively constant magnetic flux in the motor gap. If the
V/Hz ratio increases, then the motor becomes overexcited and vice versa if
the ratio decreases the motor is in an unexcited state.

The dependence of the power supply frequency of the electric motor from time for scalar
control
 Voltage variation of the motor power during scalar control

At low speed, it is necessary to compensate the voltage drop across the stator
resistance, therefore, the V/Hz ratio at low speed is set higher than the rated
value. The scalar control technique is most widely used to control induction
electric motors.

As applied to induction motors

At the scalar control method, the induction motor speed is controlled by
setting the voltage and frequency of the stator, so that the magnetic field in
the gap is maintained at the desired value. To maintain a constant magnetic
field in the gap, the V/Hz ratio must be constant at different speeds.

Scalar control without speed sensor

As the speed increases, the stator supply voltage must also increase
proportionally. However, the synchronous speed (frequency) of the induction
motor is not equal to the rotation speed (frequency) of the shaft, and the slip
of the induction motor depends on the load. Thus, the controller with scalar
control without feedback cannot accurately control the speed when there is a
load. To solve this problem, speed feedback and, therefore, slip compensation
can be added to the control system [2].
 Scalar control with speed sensor

When used
Scalar control of AC motors is a good alternative for applications where there
is no variable load and no good dynamics (fans, pumps) are required. The
scalar control does not require a rotor position sensor, and the rotor speed can
be estimated from the frequency of the supply voltage. When scalar control is
used, a high-performance digital signal processor is not required, as is the case
with vector control.
Disadvantages of scalar control
With scalar motor control, the stator currents are not directly controlled.
PMSM with scalar control can easily become uncontrollable (get out of the
synchronous state) especially when the load torque exceeds the value of the
drive torque limit value. The scalar method is not suitable for the control of
PMSM at low speed for applications requiring high dynamics [1].
The scalar control technique is relatively simple to implement, but has
several significant drawbacks:
 if the speed sensor is not installed, the rotation speed of the induction
motor shaft cannot be controlled, since it depends on the load (the presence
of a speed sensor solves this problem), and in the case of a synchronous
motor, when the load is changed, you can completely lose control;
 the torque cannot be controlled. Of course, this task can be solved with the
help of a torque sensor, but the cost of its installation is very high, and will
most likely be higher than the electric drive itself. In this case, the torque
control will be very inertial;
 you can't control torque and speed at the same time.
Scalar control is sufficient for most tasks in which an electric drive is used
with a range of motor speed control up to 1:10.
When maximum performance is required, the ability to control over a wide
speed range and the ability to control the torque of the motor are used vector
control.

Vector control of motor

By Dmitry Levkin

 Linear torque controllers

o Field Oriented Control
o Direct Torque Control with Voltage Space Vector Modulation
 Nonlinear torque controllers
o Direct Torque Control
o Direct Self Control
 Vector control is a control method of brushless AC electric motors, which
allows independently and practically inertialess adjusting the rotation
speed and torque on the motor shaft.
The main idea of vector control is to control not only the magnitude and
frequency of the supply voltage but also the phase. In other words, the
magnitude and angle of the space vector are controlled [1]. Vector control in
comparison with the scalar has a higher performance. Vector control
eliminates almost all the disadvantages of scalar control.
Advantages of vector control:
 high accuracy of speed control;
 soft start and smooth motor rotation in full speed range;
 fast response to a load change: when there is a load change, there is practically
no change in the speed;
 increased control range and regulation accuracy;
 losses for heating and magnetization are reduced, the efficiency of the electric
motor increases.
The disadvantages of vector control include:
 the need to set motor parameters;
 large speed fluctuations at constant load;
 large computational complexity.

General functional diagram of vector control

A general block diagram of a high-performance speed control system for

a brushless AC motor is shown in the figure above. The circuit is based on the
 flux and torque control loops, together with the estimator unit, which can be
implemented in various ways. At the same time, the external speed control
loop is largely unified and generates control signals for torque M * and flux
Ψ* (through the flux program unit) regulators. The motor speed can be
measured by a mechanical sensor (speed/position) or obtained by means of a
program estimator that allows you to implement sensorless control.

Classification of vector control methods

Since the seventies of the twentieth century, many ways to control the torque
have been proposed. Not all of them are widely used in the industry.
Therefore, in this article only the most popular control methods are
considered. The discussed techniques of torque control are presented for
control systems of asynchronous and permanent magnet synchronous
motors with sinusoidal back EMF.
Existing torque control methods can be classified in various ways.
Most often, the methods of torque control are divided into the following
groups:
 linear (PI, PID) regulators;
 nonlinear (hysteresis) regulators.
 Characteristics of the main control methods of AC motors [2]

Control method Speed control range Speed error3, % Torque rise time, ms Starting torque Cost Description

It has a slow response when

load changing and a small

Scalar 1:101 5-10 Not available Low Very low
range of speed control, but

it is easy to implement.

Allows you to smoothly and

quickly control the basic

parameters of the motor

- torque, and speed.

Field oriented control >1:2002 0 <1-2 High High
This method requires

information about the

Linear
position

of the rotor.

A hybrid method designed

DTC with voltage SVM >1:2002 0 <1-2 High High to combine the benefits of
Vector
the FOC and DTC.

It has a high dynamics and

Switching Table based Direct Torque Control >1:2002 0 <1 High High
a simple scheme,but a characteristic feature o

It has an inverter switching

frequency lower than

Nonlinear
other methods and is
Direct Self Control >1:2002 0 <1-2 High High
designed to reduce losses

when controlling high power

motors.

Note:

1. Open loop
2. Closed loop
3. In steady state
Among vector control, the most widely used are field oriented
control and direct torque control.
Linear torque controllers
Linear torque controllers work in conjunction with voltage pulse width
modulator (PWM). The regulators determine the required stator voltage
vector, averaged over the sampling period. The voltage vector is finally
synthesized by the PWM method, in most cases, the space vector modulation
(SVM) is used. Unlike nonlinear torque control schemes, where signals are
processed on instantaneous values, in linear torque control schemes, the linear
controller (PI) works with values averaged over the sampling period.
 Therefore, the sampling rate can be reduced from 40 kHz for nonlinear torque
controllers to 2–5 kHz in linear torque control schemes.
The group of linear regulators include the following methods of torque
control:
 field oriented control (FOC);
 direct torque control with voltage space vector modulation (DTC-SVM);
 direct torque control with flux vector modulation (DTC-FVM).
Field oriented control
Field oriented control (FOC) is a control method that controls an AC
brushless motor (PMSM, SCIM) as a DC machine with independent
excitation, implying that the flux and torque can be controlled separately.
The field oriented control proposed in 1970 by Blaschke [3] and Hasse [4] is
based on an analogy with a mechanically commutated separately excited
brushed DC motor. In this motor, the excitation and armature windings are
separated, the flux is controlled by the inductor excitation current, and the
torque is independently controlled by the armature current regulation. Thus,
the currents of the flux and the torque are electrically and magnetically
separated.

General functional diagram of sensorless field oriented control1

Note:

1. The scheme is shown in a simplified form.

On the other hand, brushless AC motors (SCIM, PMSM) most often have a
three-phase stator winding, and the stator current vector I s is used to control
both the flux and torque. Thus, the excitation current and armature current are
combined into a stator current vector and cannot be controlled separately.
The decoupling can be achieved mathematically by decomposing the
instantaneous value of the stator current vector I s into two components: the
direct component of the stator current Isd (creating the field) and the
quadrature component of the stator current Isq (creating torque) in the rotating
dq coordinate system oriented to the rotor flux (R -FOC - rotor flux-oriented
control) - figure above. Thus, the control of the brushless AC motor becomes
identical to the control of the separately excited DC motor and can be
implemented using a PWM inverter with a linear PI regulator and voltage
space vector modulation.

In the field oriented control, the torque and flux are controlled indirectly by
controlling the components of the stator current vector.

The instantaneous values of the stator currents are converted to dq rotating

coordinate system by using the Park transform αβ/dq, which also requires
information about the position of the rotor. The flux is controlled through the
direct component of the current Isd, while the torque is controlled through the
quadrature component of the current Isq. The inverse Park transform (dq/αβ),
the mathematical module of coordinate transformation, allows you to
calculate the reference components of the voltage vector Vsα* и Vsβ*.

Waveforms at different stages of conversion

To determine the rotor position, either the rotor position sensor (RPS)
installed in the electric motor or the sensorless control algorithm implemented
in the control system is used, which calculates the rotor position information
in real time based on the data available in the control system.
Direct Torque Control with Voltage Space Vector Modulation
The block diagram of direct torque control with space vector modulation
(DTC-SVM) with closed loop torque and flux regulation operating in a
Cartesian coordinate system oriented along the stator flux is shown in the
figure below. The outputs of PI torque and flux controllers are interpreted as
the reference components of the stator voltage Vψ* and VM* in the dq
coordinate system oriented by the stator flux (stator flux-oriented control, S-
FOC). These commands (DC voltages) are then converted into a stationary
coordinate system αβ, after which the control values Vsα* and Vsβ* arrive at a
module of space vector modulation (SVM).

Functional diagram of direct torque control with voltage space vector modulation

Note that this scheme can be considered as a simplified stator flux oriented
control (S-FOC) without a current control loop or as a classical switching
table direct torque control scheme (ST DTC) in which the switching table is
replaced by a modulator (SVM), and the hysteresis torque and flux controllers
are replaced by linear PI regulators.
In the scheme of direct torque control with space vector modulation (DTC-
SVM), the torque and the flux are directly controlled in a closed loop, so an
accurate estimate of the flux and torque is needed. In the scheme of direct
torque control with space vector modulation (DTC-SVM), the torque and flux
are directly controlled in a closed loop, so an accurate estimation of the flux
and torque is needed. Unlike the classical hysteresis direct torque
control algorithm, DTC-SVM operates at a constant switching frequency.
This greatly improves the characteristics of the control system (drive):
reduces the torque and flux ripples, allows you to confidently start the motor
and operate at low speed. But this reduces the dynamic characteristics of the
drive.
Nonlinear torque controllers
The presented group of torque regulators departs from the idea of coordinate
transformation and control, by analogy with a brushed DC motor, which is
the basis for field oriented control. Nonlinear regulators propose to replace
the decoupling control with the bang-bang (hysteresis) control, which
corresponds to the on/off work ideology of the semiconductor devices of the
inverter.
 In comparison with field oriented control, direct torque control schemes have
the following characteristics:
Advantages:
 simple control scheme;
 there is no current loops and direct current regulation;
 coordinate transformation is not required;
 there is no separate voltage modulation;
 position sensor is not required;
 good dynamics.
Disadvantages:
 an accurate estimation of the stator magnetic flux vector and torque is
required;
 the strong torque and current ripples due to non-linear (hysteresis) controller
and variable frequency switching;
 noise with a wide range due to a variable switching frequency.
The group of nonlinear torque regulators includes:
 switching table based direct torque control (DTC);
 direct self control (DSC);
 model predictive direct torque control;
 neural networks ;
 fuzzy logic controllers.
Direct torque control
For the first time, a switching table based direct torque control (ST-DTC)
method was described by Takahashi and Noguchi in an IEEJ article submitted
in September 1984 and later in an IEEE article published in September
1986 [5]. The scheme of the classical method of direct torque control (DTC)
is much simpler than that of the field oriented control method (FOC), since it
does not require the transformation of coordinate systems and measurement
of the rotor position. The diagram of the direct torque control method (figure
below) contains the torque and stator flux linkage estimator, torque and flux
hysteresis comparators, switching table and inverter.
The principle of the method of direct torque control is the choice of the
voltage vector for simultaneous control of both the torque and the stator flux
linkage. The measured stator currents and inverter voltage are used to estimate
the flux linkage and torque. Estimated stator flux linkage and
torque values are compared with the control signals for stator flux linkage
ψs* and motor torque M*, respectively, by means of a hysteresis comparator.
The required motor control voltage vector is selected from the switching table
based on the digitized flux dΨ and torque dM errors generated by hysteresis
comparators, as well as from the position sector of the stator flux vector
 derived from the angular position . Thus, the pulses SA, SB,
and SC to control the inverter power switches are generated by selecting a
vector from the table.

Classic direct torque control scheme with a speed sensor

Characteristic features of the ST-DTC scheme:

 sinusoidal waveforms of stator flux and currents with a harmonic content
determined by the hysteresis tolerance bands of the flux and torque regulators;
 excellent torque dynamics;
 the hysteresis bands of the flux and torque determine the switching frequency
of the inverter, which varies with changing synchronous speed and load [2].
There are many modifications of the classic ST-DTC scheme aimed at
improving start-up, overload conditions, working at very low speeds,
reducing torque ripple, working at the variable switching frequency and
reducing the noise level.
The disadvantage of the classical method of direct torque control is the
presence of high ripples of currents and torque in the steady state. The
problem is eliminated by increasing the operating frequency of the inverter
above 40 kHz, which increases the total cost of the control system [1].
Direct self control
 An application for a patent of the method of direct self control was filed by
Depenbrock in October 1984 [6]. The block diagram of the direct self control
is shown below.

Based on the stator flux linkage commands ψs* and the actual phase
components ψsA, ψsB and ψsC, the flux linkage comparators generate digital
signals dA, dB and dC, which correspond to active voltage states (V1 – V6). The
hysteresis torque controller has the output signal dM, which determines the
zero states. Thus, the stator flux linkage regulator sets the time interval of
active voltage states, which move the stator flux vector along a
given trajectory, and the torque controller determines the time interval of zero
voltage states that maintain the motor torque in the defined-by-hysteresis
tolerance band.
Direct self control scheme

Characteristic features of the direct self control scheme are:

 non-sinusoidal waveforms of stator flux and current;;
 the stator flux vector moves along a hexagon path;
 there is no supply voltage reserve, and the inverter capabilities are fully
utilized;
 the inverter switching frequency is lower than that of switching table based
direct torque control;
 excellent dynamics in constant and weakening field regions.
Note, that the operation of the direct self control method can be reproduced
using the ST-DTC scheme with flux hysteresis of 14% wide.
 Three phase induction motor
By Dmitry Levkin

 Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor

o Induction motor construction
o Working principle of a three-phase motor
o AC motor slip
 Induction motor connection
o Three phase alternating current
o Star and delta
o Terminals marking
o Using single phase power supply
 Induction motor control
o Direct-on-line starting
o Soft start
o Speed control
 Three-Phase Wound Rotor Motor
o Construction features
o Marking of rotor terminals
o Starting of WRIM
Three-phase induction motor - is an asynchronous electric motor, that has
a three-phase stator winding.
Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motor
A squirrel-cage induction motor (SCIM) - is an asynchronous electric
motor, in which the rotor is made with a short-circuited winding in the form
of a squirrel cage [1].
Induction motor construction
The three-phase induction electric motor, as well as any electric motor,
consists of two main parts - the stator and the rotor. The stator is a stationary
part, the rotor is a rotating part. Usually, the rotor is located inside the stator.
There is a small distance between the rotor and the stator, called an air gap,
typically 0.5–2 mm.
 Induction motor stator

Induction motor rotor

The stator consists of an outer frame and a core with windings. The stator
core is assembled from thin-sheet technical steel, usually 0.5 mm thick,
covered with insulating varnish. Stator core laminations significantly limit the
losses (eddy currents losses) arising in the process of magnetic reversal of the
core by a rotating magnetic field. The stator windings are located in the slots
of the core.

Frame and stator core of an induction motor

 The construction of the laminated core of the induction motor

The rotor consists of a core with a short-circuited winding and a shaft. The
rotor core also has a laminated construction. In this case, the rotor core sheets
are not varnished, since the current has a small frequency and the oxide film
is sufficient to limit the eddy currents.
Working principle of a three-phase induction motor. Rotating magnetic field
The principle of operation of a three-phase induction motor is based on the
ability of a three-phase winding to create a rotating magnetic field when it is
connected to a three-phase electric power system.

Rotating magnetic field - is the basic concept of electric motors and

generators.
Stop

Rotating magnetic field of an induction motor

 The frequency of rotation of this field or synchronous frequency of rotation
is directly proportional to the frequency of the alternating current f 1 and
inversely proportional to the number of pairs of poles p of the three-phase
winding.

,
 where n1 – the frequency of the stator rotating magnetic field, rpm,
 f1 – frequency of alternating current, Hz,
 p – the number of pole pairs.
The concept of a rotating magnetic field
To understand the phenomenon of a rotating magnetic field better, consider a
simplified three-phase winding with three turns. The current flowing through
the conductor creates a magnetic field around it. The figure below shows the
field created by a three-phase alternating current at a particular point in time.
Stop

Magnetic field of the conductor with direct current

Magnetic field produced by a windings current

The components of the alternating current will change with time, as a result
of which the magnetic field created by them will change. In this case, the
resulting magnetic field of the three-phase winding will assume a different
orientation, while maintaining the same amplitude.

The magnetic field produced by the three-phase current at different points in time
 The current flowing in the coils of the electric motor (shift 60°)
Stop

Rotating magnetic field

Action of a rotating magnetic field on a closed conductor

Now we place the closed conductor inside the rotating magnetic field.
According to the Faraday's law of induction, a changing of the magnetic field
will lead to the appearance of an electromotive force (EMF) in the conductor.
In turn, the EMF will produce a current in the conductor. Thus, in a magnetic
field there will be a closed conductor with a current on which force will act,
according to Ampere's law. As a result of which the loop will begin to rotate.
 The influence of a rotating magnetic field on a closed conductor with current

Squirrel cage rotor of the induction motor

An induction electric motor works according to this principle also. Instead of
a frame with a current inside an asynchronous motor is used a short-circuited
rotor resembling a squirrel-cage in construction. A squirrel-cage rotor consists
of rods shorted by the end rings.

Short-circuited "squirrel-cage" rotor most widely used in asynchronous electric motors

(shown without shaft and core)

Three-phase alternating current, passing through the stator windings, creates

a rotating magnetic field. Thus, just as described earlier, a current will be
induced in the rotor bars, causing the rotor start to rotate. In the figure below
you can notice the difference between the induced currents in the rods. This
is due to the fact that the magnitude of the change in the magnetic field differs
in different pairs of rods, due to their different location relative to the field.
The change in current in the rods will change with time.
Stop
 Rotating magnetic field penetrating squirrel-cage rotor

Magnetic torque acting on the rotor

You may also notice that the rotor rods are inclined relative to the axis of
rotation. This is done in order to reduce the higher harmonics of the EMF and
prevent torque fluctuation. If the rods were directed along the axis of rotation,
then a pulsating magnetic field would arise in them due to the fact that the
 magnetic resistance of the winding is much higher than the magnetic
resistance of the stator teeth.
Induction motor slip. Rotor speed
A distinctive feature of an induction motor is that the rotor speed n 2 is less
than the synchronous speed of rotation of the stator magnetic field n1.
This is explained by the fact that the EMF in the rotor winding rods is induced
only when the rotation speed is unequal n2<n1. The frequency of rotation of
the stator field relative to the rotor is determined by the slip frequency n s=n1-
n2. The lag of the rotor from the rotating field of the stator is characterized by
a relative value s, called the slip:

,
 where s is the slip of an induction motor,
 n1 – speed of the stator magnetic field, rpm,
 n2 – rotor speed, rpm,
Consider the case where the rotor speed will coincide with the frequency of
rotation of the stator magnetic field. In this case, the relative magnetic field
of the rotor will be constant, so EMF will not be generated in the rotor bars,
and hence the current will not be generated. This means that the force acting
on the rotor will be zero. Thus the rotor will slow down. After that, an
alternating magnetic field will again act on the rotor bars, thus the induced
current and force will increase. In reality, the rotor of an asynchronous electric
motor will never reach the speed of rotation of the stator magnetic field. The
rotor will rotate at a certain speed which is slightly less than the synchronous
speed.
Slip induction motor can vary in the range from 0 to 1, ie, 0-100%. If s ~ 0,
then this corresponds to idling mode, when the rotor of the motor practically
does not experience the load torque; if s = 1 - short circuit mode in which the
motor rotor is stationary (n2 = 0). Slip depends on the mechanical load on the
motor shaft and increases with its growth.
The slip corresponding to the rated load of the motor is called the rated
(nominal) slip. For low and medium power asynchronous motors, the rated
slip varies from 8% to 2%.

Energy conversion
An induction motor converts the electrical energy supplied to the stator
windings into mechanical energy (rotation of the rotor shaft). But the input
and output power are not equal to each other as during the conversion energy
loss occurs: friction, heating, eddy currents and hysteresis losses. This energy
is dissipated as heat. Therefore, the asynchronous motor has a fan for cooling.
Induction motor connection
Three phase alternating current
The three-phase alternating current (AC) power grid is the most widely
distributed among electrical power transmission systems. The
main advantage of a three-phase system compared to single-phase and two-
phase systems is its efficiency. In a three-phase circuit, the energy is
transmitted through three wires, and the currents flowing in different wires
are shifted relative to each other in phase by 120°, while the sinusoidal EMF
at different phases have the same frequency and amplitude.

Three-phase current (phase difference 120°)

Star and delta
The three-phase winding of the electric motor stator is connected according
to the "star" or "delta" wiring diagram, depending on the supply voltage of
the grid. The leads of the three-phase winding can be: connected inside the
electric motor (three wires go out of the motor), brought out (six wires go
out), brought into the junction box (six wires go out to the box, three out of
the box).
Phase voltage - the potential difference between the beginning and end of
one phase. Another definition for star connection: phase voltage is the
potential difference between a line wire and a neutral (note that neutral not
available in delta connection).
Line voltage (line-to-line voltage) - in a polyphase system is the potential
difference between two linear wires (between phases).

Star Delta Designation

Ul, Up - line and phase voltage, V,

 Il, Ip - line and phase current, A,

S - total power, W,

P - active power, W

Attention: Although the power for the star and delta connections is calculated using the same formula, connecting
the same motor with different connection scheme to the same electrical grid will result in different power
consumption. If this is not the correct connection of the electric motor, it can lead to the melting of the stator
windings.

Example: Suppose an electric motor was connected according to the "star" diagram to a three-phase AC grid Ul=380
V (respectively Up=220 V) and consumed a current Il=1 A. Total power consumption:

S = 1,73∙380∙1 = 658 W.
Now we change the wiring diagram to "delta", the line voltage will remain the same U l=380 V, and the phase voltage
will increase by the square root of 3 times Up=Ul= 380 V. An increase in the phase voltage will increase the phase
current by the square root of 3. Thus, the line current of the delta connection will be three times the linear current of
the star circuit. Consequently, the power consumption will be 3 times more:

S = 1,73∙380∙3 = 1975 W.

Thus, if the motor is designed to be connected to a three-phase AC grid using a star diagram, connecting this motor
using a delta diagram can break it.

If in normal mode the electric motor is connected according to the "delta"

scheme, then in order to reduce the starting currents during the start-up period,
it can be connected according to the "star" scheme. In this case, together with
the starting current, the starting torque will also decrease.
 Connection of the electric motor according to the star and delta diagram
Marking of three-phase motor stator terminals
Terminal markings of the stator windings of the three-phase machines according to GOST
26772-85 [2] and IEC 60034-8-2014 [4]

Terminal (lead) name

Winding connection scheme, winding and terminal name
Start End

Open circuit (six terminals)

 first winding U1 U2

second winding V1 V2

third winding W1 W2

Star connection (3 or 4 terminals)

first winding U

second winding V

third winding W

star point (neutral point) N

Delta connection (3 terminals)

first winding U

second winding V

third winding W

Connection of a three-phase induction motor to a single-phase power using a

phase-shifting passive element
Three-phase asynchronous motors can be connected to a single-phase
network using phase-shifting elements. In this case, the electric motor will
operate either in mode of the single-phase motor with auxiliary winding (fig.
a, b, d) or in mode of the two-phase motor with a permanently working
running capacitor (fig. c, e, f).
 Wiring diagrams of a three-phase induction motor to a single-phase power

The diagrams, shown in figure "a", "b", "e", are applied when all six ends of
the winding are brought out. Electric motors with a winding connection
according to the schemes "a", "b", "d" are almost equivalent to motors that
are designed as single-phase induction electric motors with starting winding.
 With such wiring diagram the rated power is 40-50% of the power in three-
phase mode, and when working with a running capacitor 75-80%.
The capacity of the running capacitor at a frequency of 50 Hz for the wiring
diagrams "c", "e", "f" is approximately calculated, respectively, by the
formulas:

 ,where Crun - is the capacity of the running capacitor, uF,

 Irated – rated (phase) stator current of a three-phase motor, A
 U1 – voltage of the single-phase power grid, V.
Induction motor control
Techniques for connecting an AC induction motor to the mains:
 direct power connection
 connection from the soft starter
 connection from the variable frequency drive (vfd)
 Variants for connecting an AC induction motor using a magnetic starter (left), soft starter
(center) and variable frequency drive (right). Wiring diagrams are presented in a simplified
form.
FU1-FU9 - fuses, KK1 - thermal relay, KM1 - magnetic starter, L1-L3 - terminals for
connection to three-phase AC power, M1-M3 - AC induction electric motors, QF1-QF3 -
circuit breakers, UZ1 - soft starter, UZ2 - frequency converter (vfd)
Direct-on-line starting
The use of magnetic starters allows you to control asynchronous motors by
directly connecting the motor to the AC power grid.
With the help of magnetic starters, you can implement the scheme:
 non-reversing start: start and stop;
 reversing start: start, stop and reverse.
The use of a thermal relay allows protect of the motor against current values
much higher than the nominal value.
Non-reversing starter

Wiring diagram of the non-reversing starter. Non-reversing connection a three-phase

induction motor to a three-phase power grid of alternating electric current through a magnetic
contactor
L1, L2, L3 - terminals for connection to three-phase AC power, QF1 - circuit breaker, SB1 -
stop button, SB2 - start button, KM1 - magnetic contactor, KK1 - thermal relay, HL1 -
warning lamp, M - three-phase AC induction motor

Reversing starter

Wiring diagram of the reversing starter. Reversing connection a three-phase induction motor
to a three-phase AC power grid through a magnetic contactor
 L1, L2, L3 - terminals for connection to three-phase AC power, QF1 - circuit breaker, KM1,
KM2 - magnetic contactors, KK1 - thermal relay, M - three-phase AC induction motor, SB1 -
stop button, SB2 - "forward" start button, SB3 - "back" (reverse) start button, HL1, HL2 -
warning lamps

The disadvantage of direct commutation of the windings of the asynchronous

electric motor with the power grid is the presence of large starting currents
during start electric motor.
Soft start of an induction motor
In tasks where adjustment of the motor speed is not required during operation,
a soft starter is used to reduce the starting currents at start.
The soft starter protects the induction motor from damage caused by a huge
increase in energy consumption during start-up by limiting inrush currents.
The soft starter device allows for smooth acceleration and deceleration of the
induction motor.
A soft starter is cheaper and more compact than a variable frequency drive. It
is used where the adjustment of the motor speed and torque is required only
at start-up.
Speed and torque control of an induction motor
Variable frequency drive is using to control the rotational speed and torque of
an induction motor. The principle of operation of the variable frequency drive
is based on the change of frequency and voltage of alternating current.
Using a variable frequency drive allows you to:
 reduce power consumption of the electric motor;
 control the electric motor speed (soft start and stop, speed adjustment during
operation);
 avoid overloading the motor and thereby increase its service life.
 Functional diagram of the variable frequency drive

Depending on the functional the variable frequency drives implement the

following techniques of control an asynchronous motor:
 scalar control;
 vector control.
Scalar control is simple and cheap to implement, but has the following
disadvantages — a slow response to load changes and a small control range.
Therefore, scalar control is usually used in tasks where the load is either
constant or varies according to a known law (for example, fan control).
 Scalar control of an induction motor with speed sensor

Vector control is used in tasks where it is required to independently control

the speed and torque of an electric motor (for example, an elevator), which,
in particular, makes it possible to maintain a constant rotation speed with
varying load torque. At the same time, vector control is the most efficient
control from the point of view of energy conversion efficiency and increasing
the operating time of the electric motor.
Among the vector control techniques of an induction electric motors, the most
widely used are: field oriented control and direct torque control.
 Induction motor field oriented control with rotor position sensor

Field-oriented control allows you to smoothly and accurately control the

motion parameters (speed and torque), but its implementation requires
information about the direction of the motor's rotor flux vector.
According to the method of obtaining information about the position of the
rotor flux linkage of the electric motor, there are:
 sensored field oriented control;
 sensorless field oriented control: the rotor flux linkage position is calculated
mathematically based on the information available in the variable frequency
drive (supply voltage, stator voltages and currents, resistance and inductance
of the stator and rotor windings, number of pole pairs in motor).

Sensorless field oriented control of induction motor

Direct torque control has a simple scheme and high dynamics of work, but
at the same time high ripple of torque and current.
Three phase wound rotor motor
Wound rotor induction motor (WRIM) - an induction motor, in which the
rotor winding is attached to slip rings [1].
Prior to widespread variable frequency drives, induction motors of medium
and high power were made with a wound rotor. Three-phase induction motors
with a wound rotor were usually used in devices with severe starting
conditions, for example, as crane AC motors, or to drive devices that require
smooth control of the rotational speed.
WRIM construction
Wound rotor
Structurally, the wound rotor is a three-phase winding (similar to the stator
winding) laid in the slots of the rotor core. The ends of the phases of such a
rotor winding are usually connected in a "star", and the beginning is connected
to slip rings, isolated from each other and from the shaft. A three-phase
starting or adjusting rheostat is usually connected to the slip rings via brushes.
Wound rotor induction motors have a more complex structure than squirrel-
cage motors, however, they have better starting and adjusting properties.

Wound rotor

WRIM stator
The stator of induction motor with a wound rotor (WRIM) does not differ in
design from the stator of an induction motor with a squirrel-cage rotor
(SCIM).
Terminal markings of the secondary windings of the three-phase WRIM
Terminal markings of the rotor windings of the three-phase machines according to GOST
26772-85 [2] and IEC 60034-8-2014 [4]

Terminal (lead) name

Winding connection scheme, winding and terminal name
Start End

Open circuit (six terminals)

first winding K1 K2

second winding L1 L2

third winding M1 M2

Star connection (3 or 4 terminals)

first winding K

second winding L

third winding M

star point (neutral point) Q

Delta connection (3 terminals)

first terminal K

second terminal L
 third terminal M

WRIM start-up

Wound rotor motors are started using a starting resistor in the rotor circuit.
Wirewound and liquid rheostats are used.
Wirewound rheostats are stepped, and switching from one stage to another
is carried out either manually using the controller's handle, an essential
element of which is a shaft with contacts fixed on it, or automatically using
contactors or controller with electric drive.
Liquid rheostat is a vessel with electrolyte, in which the electrodes are
lowered. The resistance of the rheostat is regulated by changing the
immersion depth of the electrodes [3].
To increase efficiency and reduce brush wear, some WRIM contain a special
device (short-circuited mechanism), which, after starting, raises the brushes
and closes the rings.
With a resistive start, favorable starting characteristics are achieved, since
high values of the torques are achieved at low values of starting currents.
Currently, WRIM are replaced by a combination of an squirrel-cage induction
motor and a variable frequency drive.
 Single-phase induction motor
By Dmitry Levkin

 Single-phase induction motor with starting (auxillary) winding

o Construction of Single-phase Induction Motor
o Working Principle of Single-phase Induction Motor
o Starting of Single-phase Induction Motor
o Single-phase motor connection
 Shaded pole induction motor
 Single-phase induction motor with asymmetrical stator
A single-phase induction electric motor is an induction electric motor that
operates from a single-phase AC power grid without using a frequency
converter and which, in the basic mode of operation (after starting), uses only
one winding (phase) of the stator.
Single-phase induction motor with starting winding
Split-phase motor is a single-phase induction motor having an auxiliary
(starting) winding on the stator, offset from the main one, and a squirrel-cage
rotor [2].
Construction of Single-phase Induction Motor with auxillary or starting winding
The main components of any electric motor are the rotor and the stator. The
rotor is the rotating part of the electric motor, the stator is the fixed part of
the electric motor, with the help of which a magnetic field is created for the
rotation of the rotor.

The main parts of a single-phase induction motor: rotor and stator

The stator has two windings located at an angle of 90° relative to each other.
The main (working) winding usually occupies 2/3 of the slots of the stator
core, the other winding is called auxiliary (starting) and usually takes 1/3 of
the slots of the stator.
 The motor is actually two-phase, but since only one winding is working
after starting, the electric motor is called single-phase.
The rotor usually represents itself a short-circuited winding, also called
"squirrel cage" due to the similarity. Whose copper or aluminum rods are
closed with rings at the ends, and the space between the rods is often filled
with an aluminum alloy. The rotor of a single-phase motor can also be made
in the form of a hollow nonmagnetic or hollow ferromagnetic cylinder.

Single-phase induction motor with auxiliary winding has two windings located
perpendicularly relative to each other
Working principle of single-phase induction motor
To better understand the working of a single-phase induction motor, let's
consider it with only one turn in the main and auxiliary windings.

Analysis of the case with two windings having one turn

 Consider the case when no current flows in the auxiliary winding. When the
main stator winding is turned on, the alternating current, passing through the
winding, creates a pulsating magnetic field, stationary in space, but varying
from +Фmax to -Фmax.
Stop

Fluctuating magnetic field

If you place a squirrel-cage rotor having an initial rotation in a fluctuating

magnetic field, it will continue to rotate in the same direction.
To understand the working principle of a single-phase induction motor, we
separate the fluctuating magnetic field into two identical rotating fields having
an amplitude equal to Фmax/2 and rotating in opposite directions with the same
frequency:

,
 where nf is the rotational speed of the magnetic field in the forward
direction, rpm,
 nr is the rotational speed of the magnetic field in the opposite direction, rpm,
 f1 is stator current frequency, Hz,
 p is a number of poles pairs,
 n1 is the rotational speed of magnetic flux, rpm
Stop
 The decomposition of the fluctuating magnetic flux into two rotating

The action of the fluctuating field on a rotating rotor

Consider the case when the rotor in a fluctuating magnetic flux has an initial
rotation. For example, we manually spun the shaft of a single-phase motor,
one winding of which is connected to an AC power grid. In this case, under
certain conditions, the motor will continue to develop torque, since the
rotor slip relative to the forward and reverse magnetic flux will be unequal.
Assume that the forward magnetic flux Фf, rotates in the direction of rotor
rotation, and the reverse magnetic flux Фr in the opposite direction. Since, the
rotational speed of the rotor n2 is less than the rotational speed of the magnetic
flux n1, the slip of the rotor relative to the flux Фf will be:

,
 where sf is rotor slip relative to the forward magnetic flux,
 n2 is rotor speed, rpm,
 s is induction motor slip
 Forward and reverse rotating magnetic flux instead of fluctuating magnetic flux

The magnetic flux Фr rotates counter to the rotor rotation, the rotor rotation
speed n2 relative to this flux is negative, and the slip of the rotor relative to Ф r

,
 where sr is rotor slip relative to reverse magnetic flux
Start

Rotating magnetic field penetrating the rotor

 Current induced in the rotor by an alternating magnetic field

According to the law of electromagnetic induction, the forward Фf and

reverse Фr magnetic fluxes generated by the stator winding induce EMF in
the rotor winding, which, respectively, in the short-circuited rotor generate
currents I2f and I2r. The frequency of the current in the rotor is proportional to
the slip, therefore:

,
 where f2f is frequency of the current I2f induced by the forward magnetic
flux, Hz

,
 where f2r is frequency of the current I2r induced by the reverse magnetic
flux, Hz
Thus, when the rotor rotates, the electric current I 2r induced by the reverse
magnetic field in the rotor winding has a frequency f2r much higher than the
frequency f2f of the rotor current I2f induced by the forward field.
Example: for a single-phase induction motor working from the mains with a frequency f1 = 50 Hz at n1 = 1500 and
n2 = 1440 rpm,

slip of the rotor relative to the forward magnetic flux sf = 0.04;

the frequency of the current induced by the forward magnetic flux f 2f = 2 Hz;
slip of the rotor relative to the reverse magnetic flux а sr = 1,96;
the frequency of the current induced by the reverse magnetic flux f2r = 98 Hz
 According to Ampere's law, a torque occurs as a result of the interaction of
the electric current I2f with the magnetic field Ff

,
 where Mf is the magnetic torque created by the forward magnetic flux, N∙m,
 сM is constant coefficient determined by the motor construction
The electric current I2r, interacting with the magnetic field Фr, creates a
braking torque Mr directed against the rotation of the rotor, that is, opposite
to the torque Mf:

,
 where Mr is magnetic torque created by reverse magnetic flux, N∙m
The resulting torque acting on the rotor of a single-phase induction motor,

,
Note: Due to the fact that in a rotating rotor forward and reverse magnetic field will induce a current of different
frequency, the torques acting on the rotor in different directions will not be equal. Therefore, the rotor will continue
to rotate in a fluctuating magnetic field in the direction in which it had an initial rotation.

The braking effect of the reverse field

When a single-phase motor is operating within the rated load, that is, at small
slip values s = sf, the torque is generated mainly due to the torque Mf. The
braking effect of the torque of the reverse field Mr slightly. This is due to the
fact that the frequency f2r is much higher than the frequency f2f, therefore, the
inductive reactance of the rotor winding а х2r = x2sr to the current I2r is much
more than its active resistance. Therefore, the current I 2r having a large
inductive component has a strong demagnetizing effect on the reverse
magnetic flux Фr, significantly weakening it.
 ,
 where r2 is rotor rods resistance, Ohm,
 x2r is reactive impedance of rotor rods, Ohm.
If we consider that the power factor is small, then it will become clear why
the Mr under the load of the motor does not have a significant braking effect
on the rotor of a single-phase motor.

With one phase, the rotor cannot be started.

 The rotor having the initial rotation will continue to rotate in the field created by the single-
phase stator

The action of a fluctuating field on a fixed rotor

With a stationary rotor (n2 = 0) slip sf = sr = 1 and Mf = Mr, therefore the initial
starting torque of a single-phase induction motor Mf = 0. To create the starting
torque, it is necessary to bring the rotor in rotation in one direction or another.
Then s ≠ 1, the equality of the torques Мf and Мr is violated and the resulting
electromagnetic torque acquires some value M = Mf - Mr ≠ 0.
Starting of a single-phase induction motor. How to create an initial rotation?
One way to create a starting torque in a single-phase induction motor is to
position the auxiliary (start) winding B, which is offset in space relative to the
main (run) winding A at an angle of 90 electrical degrees. In order that the
stator windings to create a rotating magnetic field, the currents I A and IB in
the windings must be out of phase relative to each other. To obtain a phase
shift between the currents IA and IB, the auxiliary (start) winding B is
connected to a phase-shifting element, which is resistance (resistor),
inductance (choke) or capacitance (capacitor) [1].
After the motor rotor accelerates to a rotational speed close to steady, the
starting winding B is disconnected. The auxiliary winding is disconnected
either automatically using a centrifugal switch, a time delay relay, a current
or a differential relay, or manually using a button.
 Thus, during start-up, the single-phase induction motor operates as two-
phase, and after the start-up, as single-phase.
Single-phase induction motor connection
Resistance start induction motor
Resistance start induction motor is a split-phase motor, in which the
auxiliary winding circuit is distinguished by increased resistance.

Ohmic phase shift, bifilar starting winding

Different resistance and inductance of the windings

To start a single-phase induction motor, you can use a starting resistor, which
is connected in series to the starting winding. In this case, it is possible to
achieve a phase shift of 30° between the currents of the main and auxiliary
windings, which is quite enough to start the motor. In a motor with starting
resistance, the phase difference is explained by the different complex
impedance of the circuits.
Also, a phase shift can be created by using a start winding with a lower
inductance and higher resistance. For this, the starting winding is done with a
smaller number of turns and using a thinner wire than in the main winding.
Capacitor start induction motor
Capacitor start induction motor is a split-phase motor, in which the auxiliary
winding circuit with a capacitor is switched on only for the duration of the
start.
 Capacitive phase shift with a starting capacitor

To achieve the maximum starting torque, it is required to create a circular

rotating magnetic field, this requires that the currents in the main and auxiliary
windings are shifted relative to each other by 90°. The use of a resistor or
choke as a phase-shifting element does not allow for the required phase shift.
Only the inclusion of a capacitor of a certain capacity allows for a phase shift
of 90°.

Among phase shifting elements, only a capacitor allows achieving the best
starting properties of a single-phase induction electric motor.

Motors in the circuit of which a permanently switched on capacitor use two

phases for operation and are called capacitor ones. The working principle of
these motors is based on the use of a rotating magnetic field.
Shaded pole single-phase induction motor
Shaded pole induction motor is a split-phase motor in which the auxiliary
winding is short-circuited.
The stator of a shaded pole single-phase induction motor usually has salient
poles. Each stator pole is divided into two unequal sections by an axial
groove. A smaller section of the pole has a short-circuited turn. The rotor of
a shaded pole single-phase motor is short-circuited in the form of a squirrel
cage.
When the single-phase stator winding is turned on to the power grid, a
fluctuating magnetic flux is created in the motor magnetic circuit. One part of
which passes through unshaded Ф', and the other Ф" along the shaded section
of the pole. Flow Ф" induces EMF Ek in a short-circuited turn, resulting in a
current Ik lagging from Ek in phase due to the inductance of the coil. The
current Ik creates a magnetic flux Фk, directed oppositely to Ф", creating the
resulting flux in the shaded section of the pole Фs=Ф"+Фk. Thus, in a motor,
the flows of the shaded and unshaded sections of the pole are shifted in time
by a certain angle.
The spatial and temporal shear angles between the flows Ф s and Ф' create
conditions for a rotating elliptical magnetic field to appear in the motor, since
Фs ≠ Ф'.
Starting and working properties of the considered motor are low. Efficiency
is much lower than that of capacitor start induction motors of the same power,
which is associated with significant electrical losses in a short-circuited coil.
Single-phase induction motor with asymmetrical stator

The stator of such a single-phase motor is made with salient poles on a non-
symmetrical laminated core. The rotor has squirrel-cage winding.
This motor for an operation does not require the use of phase-shifting
elements. The disadvantage of this motor is low efficiency.

References
1. M.M.Katsman. Electrical machines and electric drive of automatic
devices: A textbook for electrical engineering technical schools. - Moscow:
1987.
2. GOST 27471-87 Rotating electrical machines. Terms and definitions