Module 2

Power System Components

2.1 Overhead Transmission Lines and Cables: Electrical and Magnetic fields around conductors, Corona
2.2 Parameters of lines and cables. Capacitance and Inductance calculations for simple configurations,
Travelling-wave Equations
2.3 Sinusoidal Steady state Representation of Lines: Short, medium, and long lines
2.4 Voltage profile and Reactive Power
2.5 Characteristics of Transmission lines, Surge Impedance Loading, Series and Shunt Compensation of
Transmission Lines
2.6 Transformers: Three phase connections and phase shifts. Three winding transformers, Auto
transformers, Neutral Grounding Transformers, Tap-Changing transformers, Transformer Parameters.
Single phase equivalent of three phase transformers.
2.7 Synchronous machines: Steady-state performance characteristics. Operation when connected to
infinite bus. Real and Reactive power capability curve of generators
2.8 Typical waveform under balanced terminal short circuit conditions – steady state, transient and sub-
transient equivalent circuits
2.9 Loads- Types, Voltage and Frequency Dependence of Loads, Per-unit system and per-unit
calculations.

2.1 Overhead Transmission Lines and Cables:

Overhead power transmission lines are power lines for sending large quantities of electricity
to far remove places and they are used mainly between power stations and substations, or
between substations.

Cables:

 Electrical and Magnetic fields around conductors

Whenever current travels through a conductor, a magnetic field is generated.

Whenever current travels through a conductor, a magnetic field is generated. Depending on

the shape of the conductor, the contour of the magnetic field will vary.

If the conductor is a wire, however, the magnetic field always takes the form of concentric
circles arranged at right angles to the wire. The magnetic field is strongest in the area closest
to the wire, and its direction depends upon the direction of the current that produces the field,
as shown in the figure.

We see that in a straight wire a is current flowing through it. The plus and minus signs
indicate the poles of the battery to which the wire is connected. The conventional direction of
current flow is indicated with a large, black arrow.

The current flow opposes the actual direction of the electrons as illustrated in the figure.
The magnetic field lines generated around the wire due to the presence of the current are
depicted in blue. To observe the direction of the field at any given point around the
circumference of the wire, the compass needle is dragged. The north pole red and the south
pole is blue. The direction of the magnetic field around the wire is also indicated by the small
arrows featured on the individual field lines.

Hence to determine the direction of magnetic field generated around a current-carrying wire
we use right hand rule. According to this rule, if the thumb of the right hand is pointed in the
direction of the conventional current, the direction that the rest of the fingers need to curl in
order to make a fist (or to wrap around the wire in question) is the direction of the magnetic
field.

Corona:

Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy loss which is dissipated in the form of
light, heat, sound and chemical action. When disruptive voltage is exceeded, the power loss
due to corona is given by

P = 242.2(f+25/δ) √ r/d (V – Vc) 2 x 10 -5 kW/km/phase

Where

F=supply frequency in Hz

V= phase-neutral voltage

Vc = disruptive voltage(r.m.s) per phase

Corona has many advantages and disadvantages.

In the correct design of a high voltage overhead line, a balance should be struck between the
advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages

(i) Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting
and hence virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter
reduces the electrostatic stresses between the conductors. (ii) Corona reduces the
effects of transients produced by surges.

Disadvantages
 (i) Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission
efficiency of the line.
(ii) Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to
chemical action.
(iii) The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence no
sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference
with neighbouring communication lines.

Methods of Reducing Corona Effect

It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed at a working voltage of 33 kV or
above. Therefore, careful design should be made to avoid corona on the sub-stations or bus-
bars rated for 33 kV and higher voltages otherwise highly ionized air may cause flash-over in
the insulators or between the phases, causing considerable damage to the equipment.

The corona effects can be reduced by the following methods

(i)By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona
occurs is raised and hence corona effects are considerably reduced. This is one of the reasons
that ACSR conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area are used in transmission lines.

(ii) By increasing conductor spacing By increasing the spacing between conductors, the
voltage at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be eliminated.
However, spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure
(e.g., bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to a considerable extent.

2.2 Parameters of lines and cables:

Capacitance and Inductance calculation for simple configuration:

In power system, transmission lines transfer electrical energy between power generation unit
and distribution system. There are various configurations of transmission lines with different
phase conductors, shield wires and kV ratings. Every transmission line exhibits many
electrical properties, where the most common properties are inductance and capacitance.

The capacitance and inductance in a transmission line depend on the line configuration itself.
These two electrical properties are important in the development of transmission line models
used in power system analysis.
Calculation of inductance and capacitance using analytical method General assumptions
made for calculating inductance of transmission lines are:

a) The cross section of transmission line is uniform

b) The current and charge densities are uniform over the entire length of conductors

c) The conductivity, permittivity and permeability over the entire length of conductors are
constant

For a single cylindrical conductor carrying a current I or charge q across the cross sectional
area, as shown in Figure (a) the inductance, L and capacitance, C between two points, p1 and
p2 in the magnetic and electric field regions around the conductor are obtained by

Where

L = λ12/ I = 2 x 10 -7 ln(p2/p1)

C= q/V12 = 2 πεo / ln(p2/p1)

where λ12 and V12 are the magnetic flux-linkage and electric potential between the two
points respectively.

A single-phase two-wire conductor of radius r carrying a current, I1 or charge q1 and the

return current –I1 or charge –q1, separated by a distance, D is shown in Fig. (b). The
inductance, L and capacitance, C per phase per unit length are calculated using

L = 2 x 10 -7 [ 0.5 + ln (D/r)]

C = π εo / ln (D/r)
A three-phase transmission lines is shown in Fig. (c). The arrangement consists of three
conductors of phases a, b and c, each having a radius r and separated by a distance Dab, Dac
and Dbc between each of them. The inductance, L and capacitance, C per phase per unit
length are defined as

L = 2 x 10 -7 ln [ 3 √Dab Dac Dbc / (re -1/4 )]

C = π εo/ [ ln 3√ Dab Dac Dbc/r )]

Travelling-wave Equations

Assume a transmission line with distributed parameters as shown in figure.

Let

R = Resistance of line per unit length

L = Inductance of line per unit length

G= Shunt conductance of line per unit length

For a small section of the line Δx, the resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance
are RΔx, LΔx, CΔx and GΔx, respectively.

The voltage at distance (x+ Δx) from the sending-end is V (x + Δx).

By Taylor’s theorem
v(x+∆x) = v(x) + ∂v/∂ x. ∆x
……………………………………………………………………………………(1)

The difference in voltages between the distances x and (x + Δx) due to the resistance and
inductance from Eq. (1) is

v(x) – v(x + ∆x) = v(x) – [ v(x) + ∂ v / ∂ x . ∆ x

= (R ∆x) i + (L ∆ x ) ∂ i / ∂ t

Therefore - ∂ v/∂ x = Ri + L ∂ i/∂ t

…………………………………………………………………………….(2)

Similarly the difference in current can be written as:

i(x) –[ i(x) + ∂ i / ∂ x ∆ x] = (G ∆x) v + (C∆x) ∂ v / ∂ t

or - ∂ i / ∂ x = Gv + C ∂ v/ ∂ t ---------------------------------------------------------------(3)

When we consider lossless transmission line that is R=0, G=0, then eq(2) and (3) become

∂ v/ ∂ x = -L ∂ i/ ∂ t
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4)

And ∂ i / ∂ x=¿ -C ∂ v / ∂ t ---------------------------------------------------------------(5)

Differentiating eq(4) partially with reference to distance x and eq(5) with reference to time t

∂ 2 v / ∂ x 2 = - L ∂ 2 i / ∂ x ∂ t-------------------------------------------------------------(6)

And

∂ 2 i / ∂ x ∂ t = -C ∂ 2 v / ∂ t 2 -------------------------------------------------------------( 7)

Also ∂ 2 i / ∂ x ∂ t = ∂ 2 i / ∂ x ∂ t

From equation (6) and (7)

∂ 2 v / ∂ x 2 = LC ∂ 2 v / ∂ t 2 -----------------------------------------------------------(8)

Similarly differentiating eq(4) with reference to t and eq(5) with reference to x we get

∂ 2 v / ∂ x ∂ t = -L ∂ 2 i / ∂ t 2 and -------------------------------------------------------(9)

∂ 2 i / ∂ x 2 = -C ∂ 2 v / ∂ x ∂ t ------------------------------------------------------------(10)
From eq(9) and (10) we get

∂ 2 i / ∂ x 2 = LC ∂ 2 i / ∂ t 2
-------------------------------------------------------------(11)

The Eqs. (8) and (11) are identical in form and give similar solutions. They are called the
travelling wave equations in a lossless transmission line.

2.3 Sinusoidal Steady state Representation of lines

Short, medium, and long lines

The transmission lines are categorized as three types

1) Short transmission line– the line length is up to 80 km and the operating voltage is < 20
kV.

2) Medium transmission line– the line length is between 80 km to 160 km and the operating
voltage is > 20 kV and < 100kV

3) Long transmission line – the line length is more than 160 km and the operating voltage is
> 100 kV

Whatever may be the category of transmission line, the main aim is to transmit power from
one end to another. Like other electrical system, the transmission network also will have
some power loss and voltage drop during transmitting power from sending end to receiving
end. Hence, performance of transmission line can be determined by its efficiency and voltage
regulation.

Efficiency of transmission line= Power delivered at receiving end/ Power sent from sending
end ×100%

Power sent from sending end – line losses = Power delivered at receiving end.

Voltage regulation of transmission line is measure of change of receiving end voltage from
noload to full load condition.

% regulation= no load receiving end voltage-full load receiving end voltage full load voltage
×100%

Every transmission line will have three basic electrical parameters. The conductors of the line
will have electrical resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
As the transmission line is a set of conductors being run from one place to another supported
by transmission towers, the parameters are distributed uniformly along the line.

The electrical power is transmitted over a transmission line with a speed of light that is
3X108 m ⁄ sec. Frequency of the power is 50 Hz.

The wave length of the voltage and current of the power can be determined by the equation
given below,

f.λ = v where f is power frequency, & λ is wave length and v is the speed of light.

Therefore λ = v/f = 3 × 10 8 /50 = 6 × 10 6 meter = 6000 km

Hence the wave- length of the transmitting power is quite long compared to the generally
used line length of transmission line.

For this reason, the transmission line, with length less than 160 km, the parameters are
assumed to be lumped and not distributed. Such lines are known as electrically short
transmission line. This electrically short transmission lines are again categorized as short
transmission line (length up to 80 km) and medium transmission line(length between 80 and
160 km). The capacitive parameter of short transmission line is ignored whereas in case of
medium length line the , capacitance is assumed to be lumped at the middle of the line or half
of the capacitance may be considered to be lumped at each ends of the transmission line.

Lines with length more than 160 km, the parameters is considered to be distributed over the
line. This is called long transmission line.

2.4 Voltage profile and Reactive Power

Reactive power can flow between two buses only if there a difference in voltage magnitude
between the buses. If the reactive power, mostly lagging / rarely leading is transmitted
voltage profile will  sag or dip / surge in the direction of reactive power flow.

Reactive Power:

The voltage control in an electrical power system is important for proper operation for
electrical power equipment to prevent damage such as overheating of generators and motors ,
to reduce transmission losses to maintain the ability of the system to withstand and prevent
voltage collapse.

Decreasing reactive power causes voltage to fall while increasing it which causes the voltage
to rise. A voltage collapse may occur when the system serve much more load than the voltage
can support.

When reactive power supply is lower then voltage drops and current must increase to
maintain the power supplied causing the system to consume more reactive power and the
voltage drops further.

2.5 Characteristics of Transmission lines:

A transmission line is considered to be electrically short when its physical length is

short compared to a quarter-wavelength of the energy it is to carry.
A transmission line is electrically long when its physical length is long compared to a
quarter wavelength of the energy it is to carry.
When power is applied to short transmission line, practically all of it reaches the load
at the output end of the line.
In a balanced transmission line, the two conductors have similar properties and are
electrically indistinguishable.

Surge Impedance Loading

The transmission line generates capacitive reactive volt-amperes in its shunt capacitance and
absorbing reactive volt-amperes in its series inductance. The load at which the inductive and
capacitive reactive volt-amperes are equal and opposite, such load is called surge impedance
load.

In surge impedance loading, the voltage and current are in the same phase at all the point of
the line. When the surge impedance of the line has terminated the power delivered by it is
called surge impedance loading.

Under natural load, the reactive power becomes terminated, and the load becomes purely
resistive.

And it is calculated by the formula

V2 wC = I 2 wL

V/I = √ L / √C = Zo

Surge impedance loading is also defined as the power load in which the total reactive power
of the lines becomes zero. The reactive power generated by the shunt capacitance is
consumed by the series inductance of the line.

If Po is its natural load of the lines, (SIL)1∅ of the line per phase

(SIL) 1ɸ = Po = Vp Ip cos ɸ

Since the load is purely resistive,

cos ɸ =1

Po = Vp Ip = Vp . Vp/Zo

Po = Vp 2 / Zo W/phase

Thus, per phase power transmitted under surge impedance loading is (VP2)/ZO watts, Where
Vp is the phase voltage.

Line voltage VL = √3 Vp

(SIL) 3ɸ = 3Po = 3 Vp 2 / Zo = VL 2 / Zo . W

If kVL is the receiving end voltage in kV, then

(SIL) 3ɸ = (k VL) 2 / Zo MW

Surge impedance loading depends on the voltage of the transmission line. Practically surge
impedance loading always less than the maximum loading capacity of the line.

If the load is less than the SIL, reactive volt-amperes are generated, and the voltage at the
receiving end is greater than the sending end voltage. On the other hand, if the SIL is greater
than the load, the voltage at receiving end is smaller because the line absorbs reactive power.

Series and Shunt Compensation of Transmission Lines

Series compensation is a method of improving the system voltage by connecting capacitor in

series with the transmission line.

In series compensation, reactive power is inserted in series with the transmission line for
improving the impedance of the system. It improves the power transfer capability of the line.
It is mostly used in extra and ultrahigh voltage line.
The power transfer over a line is given by

P1 = Vs VR /XL sin δ

where  P1 – power transferred per phase (W)

Vs – sending-end phase voltage (V)
Vr – receiving-end phase voltage
XL – series inductive reactance of the line
δ – phase angle between Vs and Vr

If a capacitor having capacitance reactance Xc is connected in series with the line, the
reactance of the line is reduced from XL to ( XL– Xc). The power transfer is given by

P2 = Vs VR / XL – Xc sin δ

P1/P2 = XL / XL – XC = 1/ 1 – Xc/XL = 1/1-k

Where k = Xc/XL .

The factor k is known as degree of compensation or compensation factor. Thus, per unit
compensation is given by the equation percentage k = Xc/ XL pu unit compensation is given
by the equation percentage compensation by the equation k =Xc/XL pu x 100 %

Where

XL = total series inductive reactance of the line per phase

XC = capacitive reactance of the capacitor bank per phase

In practice, k lies between 0.4 and 0.7.

For k = 0.5,
P2/P1 = 1/1-k = 1/1-0.5 =2

Thus, the power transfer is doubled by 50 % compensation.

2.6 Transformers

Three- phase connections and phase shifts:

Three Phase Transformer Connections

 
The primary and secondary windings of a transformer can be connected in different
configuration as shown . In the case of three phase transformer windings, three forms of
connection are possible: “star” (wye), “delta” (mesh) and “interconnected-star” (zig-zag).

Delta–delta transformers, as shown in Figure , are used to supply loads that are primarily
three phase but may have a small single-phase component
Wye–wye transformers, as shown in Figure can serve both three-phase and single-phase
loads. The single-phase load should be distributed as evenly as possible between each of the
three phases and neutral.

The delta–wye connection is the most commonly used three-phase transformer connection.
The wye-connected secondary allows single-phase load to be distributed among the three
phases to neutral instead of being placed all on one winding as with a four-wire delta
secondary.
The wye–delta transformer shown in Figure is sometimes used to provide a neutral on a
three-wire system but also can serve load from its secondary.

Three winding transformers

In high rating transformer sometimes the third winding is constructed in addition to the
primary and the secondary windings. The third winding is called the tertiary winding,
because of the three windings, the transformer is called the three- winding transformer.

The voltage ratings of all the three windings of the transformer are usually unequal. The
primary winding has the highest voltage rating; the tertiary has the lowest voltage rating, and
the secondary has the intermediate voltage rating.

The advantage of the three winding transformers is an economy of construction and their
great efficiency.

The schematic diagram of a three-phase transformer is shown in the figure below.

For an ideal transformer,

V2 /V1 = T2/T1

V3/ V1 = T3/T1

I1 T1 = I2 T2 = I3 T3

The most significant advantage of the third winding is that the harmonic generated by the
primary and secondary winding extinguish by the third winding. The third winding is
connected in delta.

Auto transformers

An autotransformer is a transformer with a single winding split into primary and secondary
sections. It operates on the same principle as any other transformer where the magnetic flux
resulting from time varying primary current induces time varying current in the secondary
winding. The integrated primary/secondary winding of an autotransformer is typically tapped
at different points along the winding to allow the output/secondary voltage to be varied in
discrete steps at various percentages of the input or primary voltage.
A schematic representation of a typical auto transformer with six discrete taps is shown
below.
In two-winding transformer the primary and the secondary portions of the single winding
autotransformer are wound on the same core.

If the adjustable secondary tap is positioned above the primary/input winding maximum
output/secondary voltage is greater than 100% of input/primary voltage. Tap positions below
te primary/input winding will result in an output/secondary voltage less than 100% of the
primary/input voltage.

Applications

The applications of auto transformers are :

 Reduced voltage starter for induction motor
 Starting gear for certain types of fluorescent light fitures
 Booster at the end of long transmission line to compensate for line losses.
 Multi-tap type feeding the primary of plating rectifier transformer to enable rectifier
output control.

Neutral Grounding Transformers

The Earthing or neutral grounding transformer may be two winding with a zig- zag connected
primary and a star connected secondary or a single winding three phase auto-transformer with
windings interconnected star or zig-zag.
Earthing transformer is a three limbed core type transformer having two equally balanced
windings on each core. One set of windings is connected in star to provide the neutral point.
The other end of this set of windings are connected to the second set of windings as shown in
figure.

The distribution of currents in the various windings of the earthing transformer, under the
single line to a ground fault condition on phase B, is shown in fig. The Earth fault current
flowing in the earth returns to the power system by way of the earth star point of the earthing
transformer.

It gets divided equally into all the three phases. It would be apparent from the figure that the
currents in the two windings of the same limb flow in opposite directions. Consequently, the
magnetic flux set up by the currents in the two windings will neutralize each other.

Tap-Changing transformers

The change of voltage is affected by changing the numbers of turns of the transformer
provided with taps. For sufficiently close control of voltage, taps are usually provided on high
voltage windings of the transformer. There are two types of tap-changing transformers

1. Off-load tap changing transformer

2. On-load tap changing transformer

Off-load tap-changing transformer

In this method, the transformer is disconnected from the main supply when the tap setting is
to be changed. The tap setting is done manually. The off -load tap changing transformer is
shown in the figure below.

On-load tap-changing transformer

In order that the supply may not be interrupted, on-load tap changing transformer are used.
Such a transformer is known as a tap-changing under load transformer. While tapping, two
essential conditions are to be fulfilled.

 The load circuit should not be broken to avoid arcing and prevent the damage of
contacts.
 No parts of the windings should be short–circuited while adjusting the tap.

The tap changing employs a centre- tapped reactor R show in the figure above. Here S is the
diverter switch, and 1, 2, 3 are selector switch. The transformer is in operation with switches
1 and S closed. To change to tap 2, switch S is opened, and 2 is closed. Switch 1 is then
opened, and S closed to complete the tap change. Note: The diverter switch operates on load,
and no current flows in the selector switches during tap changing.

Transformer Parameters.

The copper losses are approximated by the short-circuit ('on-load') losses, whereas the iron
(core) losses are approximated by the open-circuit ('no-load') losses.

Consider the following transformer equivalent circuit:

The rated power of the transformer, Pn=V1n I1n=V2n I2n

Pn=V1nI1n=V2nI2n, where V1nV1n, I1nI1n are the nominal primary voltage and current,

respectively. V2nV2n, I2nI2n are the nominal secondary voltage and current, respectively.

Assuming the high voltage is the primary side and low voltage the secondary side (ie: EP>ES
).

The turns ratio (NP/NS) is simply the high voltage to low voltage ratio under no
load (EP/ES).

The RP and XP terms represent the resistance and reactance of the primary coil respectively.

The R′S=RS(NP/NS)2

RS′=RS(NPNS)2 and X′S=XS(NP/NS)2  terms represent the resistance and reactance of the

secondary coil respectively, referred to the primary (ie: they are shown on the primary side of
an 'ideal' transformer with turns ratio NP:NS by multiplying by a factor of (NP/NS)2 .
The RC and XM terms represent the total core losses combined eddy current & hysteresis and
magnetisation respectively.

The parameters of the equivalent circuit are determined from an open circuit  and short circuit
test.

During the open-circuit test, the rated voltage is applied to the primary side with no load
connected to the secondary side. The primary current, voltage and real power into the primary
are measured.

The current, IOC drawn into the primary during the open-circuit test is a fraction (typically 1-
6%) of the rated primary current I1n, so the voltage drop across the primary impedance is
negligible.

The rated voltage is applied almost entirely across the excitation branch. The real
power POC measured during the open-circuit test is therefore near the core losses (I2CRC) of
the transformer, where:

RC=V21nPOC

So, from the open-circuit admittance:

YOC=IOCV1n

We get an estimate for the magnetizing reactance:

XM=√1/∣YOC∣2−(1/ROC)2

During the short-circuit test, a short-circuit link is connected to the secondary winding and a
reduced voltage applied to the primary side. A reduced voltage, VSC is applied to the
primary and adjusted until the rated primary current is drawn. The primary voltage, current
and real power PSC into the primary are all measured. The real power measured during the
short-circuit test therefore represents the copper losses (I2R) in the transformer.

Req=PSCI21n

The transformer impedance is given by:

Zeq=VSCI1n

and the total reactance is:

Xeq=∣Zeq∣2−R2eq

These can be divided equally between primary and referred secondary

ZP=Z′S to give:

RP=RS(NP/NS)2=Req2

XP=RS(NP/NS)2=Xeq2

Single phase equivalent of three phase transformers

The primary and secondary windings of three single-phase transformers are connected in
different configurations to meet specific 3 phase system requirements.

For single phase transformers with equal transformer ratio of line voltage and phase relations
depends on the winding connection. Based on the phase relation between primary and
secondary voltage the vector group of transformer is determined. Identification of transformer
vector group is important for connecting three phase transformers are in parallel.

Star/delta connection: Consider the system shown in figure. The primary windings are
connected in star and the neutral point of the supply is available.

The secondary windings are connected in delta. Let us consider that the secondary delta is
not closed (say, one arm is open). From the three phase current expressions, the fundamental
currents in the windings are phase shifted by 120 from each other, while the third harmonic
currents are all in phase (co-phasal).

If the neutral of the primary star is connected to the supply neutral, since the source voltage to
neutral is sinusoidal, the flux in the core will be sinusoidal but the exciting current will be
non-sinusoidal.

Next, consider the case when the neutral of the primary is kept isolated and the secondary
continues to be open delta. The phase voltages are non-sinusoidal, containing the
fundamental and third harmonic voltages.
Now, if the delta is closed, then the net third harmonic voltage will give rise to a third
harmonic current which will circulate in the delta connected windings. This will partly
provide the missing third harmonic component of the primary exciting current and
consequently the flux and induced voltage will be closer to being sinusoidal.

Star/delta (Yd11) connection and its phasor diagram

Star/delta (Yd1) connection and its phasor diagram

Star/star connection : With no neutral connection, the triple frequency components of the
excitation currents are suppressed, thereby causing large triple frequency components in the
flux. Triple frequency component will be present in the phase voltages of both the windings,
but these will not appear in the line voltages.

With the neutral connection (4 wire system), the triple frequency components will disappear
from the induced voltages in all the windings while the magnetizing currents of the primary
will contain all the harmonics. If a load is connected to the secondary side as shown in
Figure, and if unbalance is created for the load, we can observe the zero sequence currents
depending on whether or not the neutrals are connected to the source neutral.

Star/Star (Yy6) connection and its phasor diagram connected to the source neutral. For a
star-star transformer with both neutrals connected to the source ground, as in Figure(a), the
phasor sum of three unbalanced phase currents is equal to three times the zero sequence
current and it can flow in both the primary and secondary of the transformer.

When the neutral of only one winding is grounded as shown in figure , the phase currents of
the ungrounded winding must add up to zero. This implies that the zero sequence currents
cannot exist in the winding that is not connected to the source neutral and hence the zero
sequence currents cannot exist even in the transformer side with neutral connected to the
source neutral.

2.7 Synchronous Machines

Steady-state performance characteristics.

Characteristic form of synchronous-generator compounding curves.

The Operating Characteristics of Synchronous Machine are examined here under conditions
of variable load and variable excitation.
One of these quantities will be assumed to be held constant at a time while the other will be
allowed to vary over a wide range.

The armature resistance is assumed negligible. This does not significantly change the
operating characteristic of the machine but leads to easier understanding of the machine
operation.

Operation when connected to infinite bus.

The performance of the synchronous machine varies on the infinite bus. When the
synchronous machine operates independently, variation in their excitation causes the changes
in their terminal voltage. The power factor of the synchronous machine depends only on their
load. But when the synchronous machines are operating in parallel, the change in their
excitation changes the power factor of the load.

Consider generators G1, G2, G3……Gn connected to an infinite bus as shown in the figure
below.

Let,

 V be the terminal voltage of the bus

 E be the induced emf of each generator
 ZS is the synchronous impedance of each generator
 n is the number of generators in parallel
V = E – IZ seq

Zseq = Zs/n

When n is large ZSeq → 0 and, therefore, I ZSeq → 0

Therefore, V = E (constant)

If the number of alternators operating in parallel is infinite then ZS = 0

Real and Reactive power capability curve of generators

The capability curve is based upon the phasor diagram of the synchronous machine.
The phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor alternator at lagging power factor is shown below.

For simplicity, the armature resistance and saturation are assumed to be negligible. The
machine is assumed to be connected to constant voltage Busbars so that the voltage Vp is
constant. The length O’O (= Vp) is fixed. The axes Ox and Oy are drawn with its origin O at
the tip of Vp.

From the phasor diagram,

OB = Ia Xs
OA = Ia Xs sin ɸ and AB = Ia Xs cos ɸ

The real power output of the generator is given as

P = 3 Vp Ia cos ɸ

The reactive power output of the generator is given as

P = 3Vp Ia sin ɸ

2.8 Typical waveform under balanced terminal short circuit conditions – steady state,
transient and sub-transient equivalent circuits.

The Figure shows the complete waveform of the symmetrical short-circuit current in a
synchronous machine. The three periods—substransient, transient and steady-state—are
indicated on the current envelope. The decaying envelope is clearly indicative of the fact that

The equivalent d-axis reactance offered by the machine continuously increases as time
progresses and finally settles to the steady value X d when the armature reaction
demagnetizing effect becomes fully effective.
Extrapolation of the subtransient, transient and steady-state current envelopes identifies the
ordinates Oa, Ob, and Oc on the current coordinate.
The machine presents three different reactances, during the short circuit, as defined below:
Subtransient reactance , Xd” = Ef/ Oc/ √2 = Ef / I”------------------------(1)

Transient reactance Xd = Ef/ Ob/ √2 = Ef / I------------------------(2)

Steady state reactance Xd = Ef/ Oa/ √2 = Ef/I ------------------------------(3)

Where

Ef = excitation emf (open circuit voltage)(rms phase value )

I” = subtransient SC current (rms)

I’ = transient SC current (rms)

I = steady SC current (rms)

Obviously
Xd” < Xd’ < Xd

Xd” almost equals leakage reactance of the machine.

The variation of the rms SC current with time can be expressed as

Isc = (I” – I’) e -t/τ dw + (I’ – I) e -t/ τ f + I ----------------------------------(3)

τ dw = damper winding time -constant

τ f = field winding time-constant

The circuit models of the machine to be used in computing sub-transient and transient
currents are given in Figs (a) and (b) wherein in place of excitation emf, voltages behind sub-
transient and transient reactance are used.
These are given as:

Voltage behind subtransient reactane Ef” = Vo + jXd” Io ------------------------(1)

Voltage behind subtransient reactance Ef’ = Vo + jXd’ Io -------------------------(2)

where Vo is the machine terminal voltage and /0 is the machine current prior to occurrence of
the fault.

The subtransient and transient currents during short circuit are given by

I” = E”f / X”d ------------------------------------------------(3)

I’ = E’f/X’d ---------------------------------------------------------(4)

Of course the steady-state short circuit current is given by

I = Ef/ Xd ------------------------------------------------------------(5)

where Ef is the excitation emf and Xd, the steady-state d-axis reactance.

2.9 Loads

Types:
Suppose a unity-power-factor load is connected to the machine. The flow of load current
produces a voltage drop IaZs in the synchronous impedance, and terminal voltage V t is
reduced.

The figure shows the phasor diagram for three types of load.

We see the angle s between Eg and Vt increases with load, indicating a shift of the flux
across the pole faces due to cross- magnetization. The terminal voltage is obtained from the
complex summation

Vt + Ia Zs = Es

Vt = Eg – Ia Zs

Algebraically it is written as

Vt + Ia Zs = Eg

Vt = Eg – Ia Zs

Vt = √ (Eg2 – Ia2 X2 s) – I ras

For non-inductive load ra is negligible compared to Xs

Vt 2 + Ia 2 X s 2 ≈ E s 2 = tant cons

so V/I curve as shown in Figure is nearly an ellipse with semi-axes Eg and I sc. The current
Isc is that which flows when the load resistance is reduced to zero. The voltage V t falls to zero
also and the machine is on short-circuit with Vt = 0 and

 Ia =Isc =Eg /Zs    

  ~  Eg /Xs

 For a lagging load of zero power-factor, diagram is given in Figure. The voltage is given as
before and since the resistance in normal machines is small compared with the synchronous
reactance, the voltage is given approximately by

Vt ≈ Et −Ia Xs
Phasor diagrams for different loads
Variation of load with constant excitation

which is the straight line marked for cosϕ = 0 lagging in Figure. A leading load of zero
power factor Figure will have the voltage
Vt ≈ Et + Ia Xs
another straight line for which, by reason of the direct magnetizing effect of leading currents,
the voltage increases with load.
 
Voltage and Frequency Dependence of Loads

The synchronous generators produce electricity whose frequency is synchronized with the
mechanical rotational speed.
fe = p/120 nm
Where fe is the electrical frequency, Hz;
nm is the rotor speed of the machine,
p is the number of poles.
In three coils, each of NC turns, placed around the rotor magnetic field, the induced in each
coil will have the same magnitude and phases differing by 1200 :
eaa’(t) = Nc ɸ wm cos ωm t
ebb’(t) = Nc ɸ wm cos (wmt – 120 o)
ecc’(t) = Nc ɸ wm cos (wmt -240 o )
Peak voltage:

Emax = Nc ɸ wm
Emax = 2 π Nc ɸ f =

RMS voltage = EA = 2π/ √2 Nc ɸ f = √2 π Nc ɸ f

Since flux in the machine depends on the field current through it, the internal generated
voltage is a function of the rotor field current.

Per unit system and per unit calculations

The Per Unit System makes the calculation easier as all the values are taken in the same unit.
The per-unit system is mainly used in the circuit where variation in voltage occurs.

The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value in any unit to the
base or reference value in the same unit. Any quantity is converted into per unit quantity by
dividing the numeral value by the chosen base value of the same dimension.

The per-unit value is dimensionless.

Per unit value = Actual value in any unit / Base or reference value in same unit.
References

 Power System Analysis by P.S.R Murthy

 Modern Power Systems Analysis (Power Electronics and Power Systems)

 Electrical Power Systems Quality Book by Roger C. Dugan

 Power System Analysis and Design Book by J. Duncan Glover and Mulukutla S
Sarma