Damages Caused by Past

Earthquakes !!!

SOFT STOREY (OPEN PLINTH), VERTICAL

1 2 SPLIT BETWEEN TWO BLOCKS (BHUJ)

3
District administration building at Jamnagar
4 Damage to Heritage Buildings

Failure of a stone masonry house due to lack of This inclined building sank unevenly and leans against a
5 poor connection 6 neighboring building

1
 The solid building tilted as a rigid body and the raft foundation
rises above the ground. The building itself suffered only
7 8 relatively minor damage.

9 Ground shaking 10 Ground shaking effects

Earthquake Earthquake Contd…..

Earthquake is a sudden tremor or movement of The word ‘Natural’ is important as it excludes
the earth’s crust, which originate naturally at or the shock wave caused by
below the surface of the earth. Nuclear tests
Man made explosions etc.

• About 90% of all EQ are natural

• Remaining are related to volcanism,
collapse of sub-terrain cavities or man
made effects.

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Causes of Earthquake
There are many theories exist depicting the
very reasons as to why such natural activity
occurs which causes vibration/ movement of
earth crust.
1. Reid’s Elastic Rebound Theory
2. Plate Tectonic Theory
(includes Continental drift –Lithosphere)
Elastic Rebound Theory
Historical evidences found
- 1906 Great California EQ
- A fault trace was discovered
along the ground in more or less
straight line for 270 miles
- Earth on one side of the ground had
slipped horizontally compared to the
earth on the other side upto 21 ft.
Elastic Rebound Theory
Elastic Rebound Theory
• It presumes that most of the world’s EQ have
been triggered due to movements of the
earth's surface along the pre-existing
geological faults.
• Such Activities are called TECTONIC
ACTIVITIES
• They are based upon the hypothesis of
accumulation and release of stress
Contd.. Elastic Rebound Theory Contd..
• Conclusion
- H.F. Reid at University of
Hopkins concluded that
the EQ must have involved in
‘elastic rebound’ of previously
stored elastic stress
Contd.. Elastic Rebound Theory Contd..
Jagged centre strip where surface rupture offsets a
highway during and EQ
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 Plate Tectonic Theory Plate Tectonic Theory Contd..
History/locations
History/locations
- The location of EQ are localised in
narrow zones - About 1% of the global seismicity is at the
locations other than these localised regions.
- These areas are called seismic zones This is called intra-plate EQ.
- The same area is also have volcanic
activities and mountains Geographical
distribution of
- The location of the 99%EQ are located along epicenters of
narrow bands of inter-plate seismic activity 30,000 EQ
- The remaining earth is aseismic (inactive) Occurred
during 1961-1967
- However, no region of the earth can be
regarded as completely EQ free. -

Plate Tectonic Theory Contd….

Plate Tectonic Theory Contd….

History/locations
- The pioneering work was done by Alfred
Wegene, a German Meteorologist and
Geophysicist
- 1915, He pioneered the ‘Continental
Drift Theory’.
- He proposed that initially all the
continents were joined into one huge
super continent, which he named as
‘PANGAE’
History/locations
- At the later date, the continents split apart
moving slowly to their present locations.
- Wegener died in 1930.
- The Wegner’s theory was not accepted
as he could not answer satisfactorily,
many questions
- Of & on discussed after his death and
was largely dismissed.
- Modified Plate Tectonic Theory was
introduced

Plate Tectonic Theory Contd….

Continental drift -Lithosphere

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 Plate Tectonic Theory Contd…. Plate Tectonic Theory Contd….

• The present PLATE TECTONINC

THEORY is based on the wegener’s
‘Continental Drift Theory.
• The theory states that
- The outermost layer of the earth, known
as ‘lithosphere’ is broken into numerous
segments or plates
- The plates comprising crust and upper
mantle are floating on the
asthenosphere, which is viscous in nature.
- A plate may be purely continental, Oceanic or
The major Plates of the world. both continental and Oceanic.

Plate Tectonic Theory Contd…. BASIC TERMINOLOGY

• The theory states that
- The surface of the earth is consists of about a
dozen giant plats of rock, 100 km thick which Epicenter
float on the earth’s semi molten mantle and Hypocenter
propelled by undetermined force.
EQ Waves
- The plates are in constant motion, and where
they meet, friction temporarily locks them in
place causing stress to build up near their
edges.
- Eventually the rock fractures allowing the
plates to resume their motion.
- The energy released so causes EQ.

Epicenter
Earth’s Surface
Focus/ Hypocenter
The point inside the earth mass
Focal depth
where slipping or fracture begins
Epicenter
Source
Focus or Hypocenter The point just above the focus
on the earth’s surface

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 Focus/ Hypocenter Seismic Waves

The position of the hypocenter is The event of EQ is associated with triggering

of the energy waves. These waves are of
determined with the help of a instrument
three type.
called “SEISMOGRAPH” which records the
1. Compressional Waves or Longitudinal
arrival time of different type of energy Waves or Primary Waves (P-Waves). This
waves. wave is FASTEST
2. Shear Wave or Transverse Waves or
Secondary Waves (S-Waves). This Wave is
slower than P-wave
3. Surface waves or Rayleigh Waves (R) or
Love Wave (L). This is slowest.

A Typical EQ Record
Seismic Waves
• On a seismograph station, these waves arrive
at different time.
• Using this time difference and the average
velocities of different waves, the distance of
the focus from the point of observation is
obtained.

A Typical EQ Record
Seismic Waves
a
Seismic Waves
Body Waves- P-Waves
(compressional) v   a dt
- S-Waves (shear)

Surface Waves- Raleigh Waves

s   v dt
- Love Waves

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 Measurement of Ground Motion
•Two type of instruments are used to record EQ
motion.
1. SEISMOGRAPH
2. ACCELEROGRAPHS
SEISMOGRAPHS are very sensitive and records even
weakest motion of the earth. These records called
‘seismograms’ and are useful in interpreting EQ
occurrences and help in determining the epicenter, focal
depth and other parameter.
ACCELEROGRAPHS are used by design engineers as
they records the peak value of acceleration from which
the peak velocities and peak displacements can be
calculated by using. These are called Strong motion
records
Earthquake Size
Intensity
• Seismic intensity scale is a way of measuring
or rating the effects of an EQ at different
sites.
• The assignment of intensity to an EQ does
not require any instrumental records
• It depends upon the acuity of the observer
and is in principle subjective
• Intensity to different places can be assigned
based on visual observations and interviews
of the residents or based on the
questionnaires completed by residents
Use of Intensity
• Used for the development of seismic risk map
of the region or country
• Seismic risk maps are useful in planning safe
cities for important structures like nuclear
power plants or dams.
• Risk maps are also very useful for insurance
companies in making their assessment.
• Intensity data is also important in determining
the historic seismicity of a region.
A typical strong motion record from an
accelerograph is a plot between acceleration ‘a’
and time ‘ t ’ recorded along the three directions
of the coordinate axis.
X
Y
Z
A typical EQ record
Intensity Contd…..
• The severity of shaking of an EQ as felt or
observed through damage is described as
‘Intensity’ at a certain place.
• Intensity is a measure of qualitative
description of shaking experienced at a place.
• It naturally decreases with distance from
epicenter.
• This damage intensity is measured on an
arbitrary scale.
Intensity of an Earthquake
• This scale was first devised by Rossi-Forrel
(1885). It was a 10 division scale in
increasing order.
• Later Mercalli (1904) proposed an intensity
scale in which EQ severity was classified in
12 stages.
• The Mercalli scale was modified in 1931 to
suit the building conditions in US.
• This modified version is widely known as
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale.
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Intensity of an Earthquake Contd…..
MSK intensity scale
In assigning the MSK intensity at a site, due attention is
• The Medvedev-Spoonheur-Karnik (MSK) paid to the type of structures, grade of damage, and
details of intensity scale
intensity scale introduced in 1964 has also 12 Type of Definitions
stages and differs from MMI scale mainly in Structures
details. A Buildings in fieldstone, rural
structures, un-burnt brick houses,
• Intensity ratings are expressed as Roman clay houses.
numerals. B Ordinary brick buildings, buildings
of the large-block and prefabricated
type, half-timbered structures,
buildings in natural hewn stone.
C Reinforced buildings, well-built
wooden structures.

Definition of quantity of damage Classification of damage to the building

Grade Definition Description
G1 Moderate Fine cracks in the plaster,
Quantity Percentage damage fall of small pieces of plaster.
Single, few About 5 G2 Slight Damage Small cracks in walls; fall of fairly
Many About 50 damaged large pieces of plaster,
pantiles slip off; cracks in chimneys;
Most About 75
parts of chimney brakes
G3 Heavy damage Large and deep cracks in walls;
fall of chimneys.
G4 Destruction Gaps in walls; parts of buildings
may collapse; separate
parts of the building lose their
G5 Total damage Total collapse of buildings

Details of MSK Intensity Scale Details of MSK Intensity Scale Contd..

Intensity Description
I Not Noticeable The intensity of the vibration is below the limit of
sensibility; the tremor is detected and recorded by
seismographs only
II Scarcely Noticeable Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest III
(Very Slight) houses, especially on upper floors of the buildings.
III Weak, Partially The earthquake is felt indoors by a few people,
observed only outdoors only in favourable circumstances. The
vibration is like that due to the passing of a light truck.
Attentive observers notice a slight swinging of hanging
objects, somewhat more heavily on upper floors.
IV Largely The earthquake is felt indoors by many people,
observed outdoors by few. Here and there people awake, but no
one is frightened. The vibration is like that due to the
passing of a heavily loaded truck. Windows, doors and
dishes rattle. Floors and walls crack. Furniture begins
to shake. Hanging objects swing slightly. Liquids in
open vessels are slightly disturbed. In standing
motorcars the shock is noticeable.
Intensity Description
V (a) The earthquake is felt indoors by all, outdoors by
Awakening many. Many sleeping people awake. A few run
outdoors. Animals become uneasy. Buildings tremble
throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably.
Pictures knock against walls or swing out of place.
Occasionally pendulum clocks stop, Unstable objects
may be overturned or shifted. Open doors and
windows are thrust open and slam-back again.
Liquids spill in small amounts from well-filled open
containers. The sensation of vibration is like that due to
heavy object falling inside the buildings.
(b) Slight damages in buildings of Type A are possible.
(c) Sometimes changes in flow of springs.

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Details of MSK Intensity Scale Contd..
Intensity Description
VI (a) Felt by most indoor and outdoor people. Many people in
Frightening buildings are frightened and run outdoors. A few persons
lose their balance. Domestic animals run out of their
stalls. In few instances dishes and glassware may break,
books fall down. Heavy furniture may possibly move and
small steeple bells may ring.
(b) Damage of Grade I is sustained in single buildings of
Type B and in many of Type A. Damage in a few
buildings of Type A is of Grade 2.
(c) In few cases cracks up to widths of I cm is possible in
wet ground; in mountains occasional landslips; change in
flow of springs and in level of well water are observed.
Details of MSK Intensity Scale Contd..
Intensity Description
VIII (a) Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Many find it
Destruction of difficult to stand. The vibration is noticed by persons driving
Building motorcars. Large bells ring.
(b) In many buildings of Type C damage of Grade I is caused;
in many buildings of Type B damage is of Grade 2. Most
buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade 3, a few of
Grade 4.
(c) In single instances landslips of roadway on steep slopes;
cracks in roads; seams of pipelines damaged; cracks in
stone walls.
IX (a) General panic; considerable damage to furniture. Animals
General Damage run to and fro in confusion and cry.
To Building Contd…..
Details of MSK Intensity Scale Contd..
Intensity Description
X (a) Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 4, and
General destruction a few of Grade 5. Many buildings of Type B show damage
of Building of Grade 5; most of Type A have destruction of Grade 5;
critical damage to dams and dykes and severe damage to
bridges. Railway lines are bent slightly. Underground pipes
are broken or bent. Road paving and asphalt show waves.
(b) In ground, cracks up to widths of several cm, sometimes up
to I m. Parallel to water course occur broad fissures. Loose
ground slides from steep slopes. From river-bank and
steep coasts, considerable landslides are possible. In
coastal areas, displacement of sand and mud; change of
water level in wells; water from canals, lakes, rivers, etc.,
thrown on land. New lakes occur.
Details of MSK Intensity Scale Contd..
Intensity Description
VII (a) Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Many find it
Damage of difficult to stand. The vibration is noticed by persons driving
Building motorcars. Large bells ring.
(b) In many buildings of Type C damage of Grade I is caused;
in many buildings of Type B damage is of Grade 2. Most
buildings of Type A suffer damage of Grade 3, a few of
Grade 4.
(c) In single instances landslips of roadway on steep slopes;
cracks in roads; seams of pipelines damaged; cracks in
stone walls.
VIII (a) Fright and panic; also persons driving motorcars ar
Destruction of disturbed. Here and there branches of trees break off.
Building Even heavy furniture moves ar-:1 partly overturns. Hanging
lamps are damaged in part
Contd….
Details of MSK Intensity Scale Contd..
Intensity Description
IX (b) Many buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 3, and a
General Damage few of Grade 4. Many buildings of Type B show damage of
To Building Grade 4, and a few of Grade 5. Many buildings of Type A
suffer damage of Grade 5. Monuments and columns fall.
Considerable damage to reservoirs; underground pipes
partly broken. In individual cases railway lines are bent and
roadway damaged.
(c) On flat land overflow of water, sand and mud is often
observed. Ground cracks to widths of up to 10 cm, on
slopes and river banks more than 10 cm; furthermore a
large number of slight cracks in ground; falls of rock, many
landslides and earth flows; large waves in water. Dry wells
renew their flow and existing wells dry up.
Intensity Description
XI (a) Severe damage even to well built buildings, bridges, water
Destruction dams and railway lines; highways become useless;
underground pipes destroyed.
(b) Ground considerably distorted by broad cracks and
fissures, as well as by movement in horizontal and vertical
directions; numerous landslips and falls of rock. The
intensity of the earthquake requires to investigated specially
XII (a) Practically all structures above and below the ground are
Landscape greatly damaged or destroyed.
Change (b) The surface of the ground is radically changed.
Considerable ground cracks with extensive vertical and
horizontal movements are observed. Falls of rock and
slumping of river-banks over wide areas, lakes are
dammed; waterfalls appear, and rivers are deflected. The
intensity of the earthquake requires to be investigated
specially
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Details of MMI Intensity Scale Details of MMI Intensity Scale Contd…
Intensity Description
Intensity Description
V Doors swing; liquid spills from glasses; sleepers awake. Almost
I Vibrations are recorded by instruments. People do not feel any everyone feels movement. Sleeping people are awakened. Doors
earth movement General destruction swing open or close. Dishes are broken. Pictures on the wall
move. Small objects move or are turned over. Trees might shake.
II People at rest upstairs notice shaking. A few people might notice
Liquids might spill out of open containers.

VI People walk unsteadily; windows break; pictures fall off walls.

III Shaking felt indoors; hanging objects swing. Many people indoors
feel movement. Hanging objects swing back and forth. People
outdoors might not realize that an earthquake is occurring
IV Dishes rattle; standing cars rock; trees shake. Most people
VII
indoors feel movement. Hanging objects swing. Dishes, windows,
and doors rattle. The earthquake feels like a heavy truck hitting
the walls. A few people outdoors may feel movement. Parked cars
rock.
Everyone feels movement. People have trouble walking. Objects
fall from shelves. Pictures fall off walls. Furniture moves. Plaster in
walls might crack. Trees and bushes shake. Damage is slight in
poorly built buildings. No structural damage.
Difficult to stand; plaster, bricks, and tiles fall; large bells ring.
People have difficulties in standing. Drivers feel their cars shaking.
Some furniture break. Loose bricks fall from buildings. Damage is
slight-to-moderate in well-built buildings; considerable in poorly
built buildings.

Details of MMI Intensity Scale Contd…

Intensity Description Details of MMI Intensity Scale Contd…

VIII Car steering affected; chimneys fall; branches break; cracks in wet Intensity Description
ground. Drivers have trouble steering. Houses that are not bolted
down might shift on their foundations. Tall structures such as towers
and chimneys might twist and fall. Well-built buildings suffer slight
damage. Poorly built structures suffer severe damage. Tree branches XI Railway tracks bend; roads break up; large cracks appear in ground;
break. Hillsides might crack if the ground is wet. Water levels in wells rocks fall. Most buildings collapse. Some bridges are destroyed. Large
might change. cracks appear in the ground. Underground pipelines are destroyed.
XI General panic; damage to foundations; sand and mud bubble from
Railroad tracks are badly bent.
ground. Well built buildings suffer considerable damage. Houses that
are not bolted down move off their foundations. Some underground
pipes are broken. The ground cracks. Reservoirs suffer serious
XII Total destruction; "waves" seen on ground surface; river courses
altered; Vision distorted. Almost everything is destroyed. Objects are
damage.
thrown into the air. The ground moves in waves or ripples. Large
X Most buildings destroyed; large landslides; water thrown out of rivers. amounts of rock may move.
Most buildings and their foundations are destroyed. Some bridges are
destroyed. Dams are seriously damaged. Large landslides occur.
Water is thrown on the ban

Seismic Regions World Seismicity

• Based upon the past EQ occurrence, the
country/continent/globe is divided into various
regions.
• These regions are called ‘seismic zones’
• Seismic zones tells us about which area is
more seismically active and which is less.
• Some 100 to 200 shocks occur annually in
these seismically active regions which can
cause damage to the engineering structures.
• Many more occur in the sea which do not
cause direct damage but can cause World seismicity map (showing major EQ)
TSUNAMI (sea waves).

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 Earthquake Magnitude Earthquake Magnitude Contd….
Dr. Charles E. Richter recognized that the seismic wave radiated
by EQ could provide good estimates of their magnitudes
• Earthquake magnitude is a measure of
Richter Magnitude – magnitude
the amount of energy released during an
of an earthquake is “Logarithm
EQ.
(to the base 10) of the maximum
• Magnitude is the representative of the EQ amplitude of the ground motion
itself, there is only one magnitude per EQ as recorded in millimeter at a
• Magnitude values given by different distance 100 km from the
seismological observatories for an event epicenter on a Wood – Anderson
may vary due to uncertainty involve in Type Torsion Seismograph having
estimation of the magnitude which is damping equal to 80% of critical,
about  0.3 unit natural frequency of 0.8 seconds
and magnification 2800

Earthquake Magnitude Contd…. Because of the logarithmic base, the number indicating magnitude ‘M’
increases slowly as Amplitude ‘A’
Magnitude of an EQ ‘M’ is defined as

M=log10 A EXAMPLE
For log 10 A  3
Where ‘A’ is the trace amplitude at any station (as shown in Fig.
of an event as recorded by seismograph). A 1 100 500 1,000 10,000 1,00,000 10,00,000
In general the instruments are not located exactly at 100 km (Micron ) 1mm  1000
from the epicenter, hence, few corrections are applied to the log10 A
0 2 2.69 3 4 5 6
above equation which will take care of the location of the
instrument from the epicenter. M  log10 A  log10 A
M=log10 A – log10A0 3 5 5.69 6 7 8 9

Where log10 A is the distance correction as shown in figure for

not placing the instrument at 100 km. A correction for the type of Hence we can say, an EQ M=6 is not two times as violent as an EQ M=3, but
instrument or reliability of observation is further applied to get instead it is several hundred times more violent
the magnitude M.

Energy Released in EQ Some Interesting Facts about EQ

Relation between energy released by an EQ and • On an average, 10,000 people die each year from EQs
its magnitude is given by Richter
log10 E = 11.4+1.5 M

magnitudes of EQ & Energy released

M (Richter) 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.4 8.6
E ( 1020 ergs) 0.08 2.5 14.1 80 44.6 2500 10000 20000
(Energy released by an EQ of magnitude of 7.0 would be of order
of 80 10 20 ergs

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Some Interesting Facts about EQ Contd…
• On an average, 10,000 people die each year from
EQs
• Damage losses estimated to $10,000,000,000 from
1926 to 1950 EQs
• On an average 12 EQ having magnitude 7.0 or
greater occur every year somewhere in the world
• The energy released by Hiroshima type atom bomb
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is 810 ergs which is equal to the energy released
by an EQ of magnitude 6.33
• The energy released by an EQ of size of Assam EQ
of August 15, 1950 (M=8.6) is equivalent to 2500
such bombs exploded together.
Seismic Risk
EQ seismic waves radiate
• Seismic waves travel through Earth’s crust
• On reaching ground surface, causes shaking
• Ground Shaking (Strength & Duration) depends
upon
– Size & location of EQ
– Site characterstics
Problem: A standard torsion seismograph records
a trace amplitude 8.5mm along N-S direction and
6.1mm in E-W direction. The distance to the
epicenter is estimated as 112 km. The station
correction is +0.2. Determine the magnitude of
the EQ.
The distance correction for 112km is 3.1 from the
figure
N S direction
M  log 10 8.5  3.1  0.2  4.23
E W direction
M  log 10 6.1  3.1  0.2  4.01
Seismic Risk
The probability that some humans will incur loss
or that their built environment will be damaged.
The loss or damage must be quantified; in the
form of number of causalities in a region, or the
cost to repair a facility as a percentage of
replacement cost
Seismic Risk Contd….
• Seismic Risk also depends upon
– Knowledge of occurrence of Geological Faults
– Frequency of occurrence and M of EQ
• Extent of Risk depends upon
– Existing condition of the building site
– Level of EQ-resistance of the building
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 Liquefaction
Seismic Risk Contd….
“Loss of soil strength due to repeated EQ forces.”
Existing condition of the building site is basically
governed by SUB-SOIL condition. The various • Due to liquefaction, the soil looses all its shear strength and
soil characteristics can considerably affect/trigger starts flowing like liquids.
the damages in the structures. These induced • The structure resting on soil falls down either by tilting or
phenomenon are discussed below; sinking.
– Soil Liquefaction
• Liquefaction commonly occurs in SATURATED SOILS near
– Extent of Consolidation rivers, bays and other water bodies.
• Loosely Packed
• Tightly Packed
– Slopy Soil

Liquefaction: Giving Ground It was an undignified thing to happen to a block of flats.

Japan is an earthquake-aware country, and when apartment complexes were built in the
Kawagishi-cho area in the city of Niigata, they were sturdy reinforced concrete. But after
a magnitude 7.5 shock on June 16, 1964, it was not the structures that gave way but the
Liquefaction Induced Failures ground beneath them. Hundreds of buildings tilted like ships listing in heavy seas, victims
of soil liquefaction. When the time came for repairs, some of the buildings were simply
winched back upright without appreciable damage.
– Flow Failures
– Lateral Spread
– Ground Oscillation
– settlements

Collapsed highway bridge, State Highway 1, Struve Slough, Watsonville. Violent ground
shaking combined with liquefaction of unconsolidated slough muds led to the spectacular
failure of this bridge on the famous Pacific Coast Highway 1 near Watsonville. The
portions of the highway that collapsed are directly over saturated slough sediments.
Soil Failures
Upward acceleration of the bridge during the shaking caused the structure to separate
from its support columns. As the bridge then fell back downward, the columns punctured
through the concrete road surface.

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 Soil Failures Soil Failures

•Consolidation implies compaction

– Under EQ loads, the unconsolidated fills may lead General Effects of Earthquakes
to failure of soil below foundation
•Slopy Soil may lead to slope failures Ground Shaking
Slope failure Cliff hanger Back and forth motion of ground caused by
passing waves of vibration through the
ground
The failure of slope or falling of big masses of
rocks are likely to trigger landslides which is also
one of the most vulnerable phenomenon
associated with the EQ in the hilly areas

Ground shaking
General Effects of Earthquakes
Surface fault rupture
Cracks, vertical shifts, general settlement of
an area and land slides etc.

14
 Surface fault rupture Surface fault rupture

Surface fault rupture

General Effects of Earthquakes
Tidal waves (Tsunamis)
Large waves on the surface of bodies of water
that can cause major damage to shoreline
areas

Tsunami Initiation
Tsunami Initiation
Tsunamis are initiated by a sudden displacement of
ocean, commonly caused by vertical deformation of
the ocean floor during earthquakes

15
 Representation

The Phenomenon

Effect on the coastal area Contd.

Large amplitude water waves

on the shoreline
Contd.

16
Large amplitude water waves
Contd.
on the shoreline

Contd. Contd.

Contd. Contd.

17
 Banda Aceh Island Banda Aceh Island
(before tsunami) (after tsunami struck)

Classification of EQ
• Felt EQ have magnitude from 3-9
• Shock < 5 cause no appreciable damage
• Classification based upon magnitude
–Minor ≤ 2
–Moderate
–Severe
≤
≥
4
6 or Higher THANK YOU
• Further, EQ are also classifieds based upon
their Focal Depths
• Shallow EQ (Depth about 5-30km ) small
magnitude EQ can cause damage locally
• Deep EQ (Depth below 30-300 km)

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