Essays & Presentations

General Information on Writing English Texts

General Information on Spoken Texts
Summaries
Comments
Reviews (Films and Books)
Presentation

General Information on Writing English Texts

The ideal English text is easy to read and understand. Even scientific texts are usually written in plain
English words. So try to keep your sentences plain, clear and well structured.
When writing in English, keep the following rules in mind:
 use simple language
 keep subordinate clauses short
 prefer verbs to nouns (not: The meaning of this is that …, but: This means that …)
 avoid slang and techy language

Sentence
Make your texts interesting by using various types of clauses, e.g.:
 participle clauses
 relative clauses
 conditional sentences
 infinitive constructions, introductory clauses with infinitive or gerund
 prepositional clauses
 passive voice
Note, however:
 Always use main clauses for important statements – use subordinate clauses only for
additional information
 Use passive voice sparingly – prefer active voice.
 Avoid long introductory clauses – always try to put the subject close to the beginning of a
sentence.
 Avoid long subordinate clauses – a subordinate clause in the middle of a sentence should
have no more than 12 syllables
Check out the use of participles in our grammar section. They are very useful for shortening lengthy
subordinate clauses.

Paragraph
As to paragraphs, keep the following rules in mind:
 Concentrate on one main point per paragraph. Summarize this point in the first sentence.
 All sentences that follow support the main point or limit its scope.
 The last sentence is used as a transition to the next paragraph. Use a criteria that applies for
both paragraphs.

Text
The typical structure of a text is as follows:
 (title)
 introduction
 main part
 conclusion
Make your texts interesting. You can achieve this for example by varying the lengths of your sentences.
An important statement is best emphasised in a short sentence, especially if that sentence is between
two longer sentences. Do also vary the lenghts of your paragraphs and avoid one-sentence
paragraphs.
There are various possibilities on how to structure your texts, e.g.:
 General to Specific
general statement followed by details and examples
 Specific to General
details and examples followed by a generalization
 Known to Unknown
provide new information based on what readers already know
 Least Important to Most Important
catch and keep readers' attention
 Chronology (ordering by time)
e.g. in biographies
General Information on Spoken Texts
Differences between spoken and written texts
In general, the same rules apply for spoken texts as for written ones:
 use simple language
 keep subordinate clauses short
 prefer verbs to nouns (not: The meaning of this is that …, but: This means that …)
 avoid slang and techy language
As listeners cannot take up as many information as readers, do also keep the following rules in mind
when preparing a text that is to be presented orally:
 Keep your sentences short and simple.
 Avoid participal constructions. (In written texts they are often used to increase the density of
information in a sentence. In spoken texts, however, they make it more difficult for the listeners to
follow.)

Listeners' attention
You surely know that it is not always easy to follow a lecture or presentation. On the other hand,
imagine how a speaker must feel if nobody is listening. With just a few tricks, however, you can win
your audience's attention:
 Speak clearly and slowly. Use simple words and short sentences.
 Have little breaks in between the sentences to allow your audience to reflect on what has
been said.
 Communicate freely (don't read the whole text from a piece of paper).
 Outline to the audience how your paper is structured. (e.g. I will first explain … / Then I
will … / After that … / Finally …) and indicate when you come to another sub-topic (I will now talk
about …). This way your audience can follow your presentation more easily.
 Use pictures and graphics as an illustration.
 Use a rhetorical question or hypophora from time to time. Your listeners will think that you've
asked them a question and thus listen more attentively.
 Use enumerations starting first / second / third. This also draws your audience's attention.
Tip: Depending on the topic or your audience, you can also hand out questions that your listeners have
to answer during the presentation, or you announce that there will be a quiz in the end. That will
definitely make your audience listen very attentively.
For an even more sophisticated presentation, use some of the stylistic devices typical for spoken texts,
e.g.:
 alliteration  antithesis  metaphor
 allusion  hyperbole  rhetorical question
 anaphora  hypophora  simile
A joke or a quotation might also help you keep your listeners' attention. Don't overdo it, however.
Using stylistic devices, jokes or quotations where they don't fit in might not have the effect you want.
Very important: Don't try to show off your knowledge of English using complex sentences or difficult
words. Always keep your audience in mind: they need to follow your presentation and will therefore
appreciate simple language and sentence structure.
Summary
Reason
There is so much information today that it is not easy to keep up to date. We therefore trust in others to
summarize the most important facts for us.
Try to recall how often you summarize something, e.g. when you're telling your friends the plot of the latest
movie, when you are asked to give in brief the main points of a text you've read.

Preparation
First of all, you should have read the text / watched the film (of course). Make notes of the most important facts.

Structure and Content

 Introduction - Give a brief overview.
 Content - Tell the main points of the plot / content in your own words.

Important Tenses
The most important tense for a summary is the simple present. Actions happening one after the other are in
simple present. Note, however, that you have to use different tenses for everything happening at the same time or
before.
Some summaries are written in simple past. This is the case for example when summarizing newspaper articles.

Note

Leave out unimportant details. Always check your notes and only use details in your summary that are really
essential for the plot.

Examples
At www.awerty.com you'll find examples for summaries on novels. Just read a few of them and make a list of
useful phrases that you may want to use in your summaries.
A commentary is not usually part of a summary.

Summary Word Lists

 Vocabulary (general)
 Summary Word List - Fiction
 Summary Word List - Non-Fiction
 Summary Word List - Film

Word List on Summaries (vocabulary)

 novel ˈnɒv(ə)l
 film/movie ˈmuːvi
 short story ʃɔːt ˈstɔːrɪ
 thriller ˈθrɪlə
 detective dɪˈtɛktɪv novel/detective story
 love story
Word List on Summaries (fiction)
 Introduction
 (Title) is a novel by (author).
 (Title) was written by (author).
 The story is about (topic).
 The novel tells the story of (hero/topic).
 (Title) tells of (hero), who ...
 science fiction novel/story
 author ˈɔːθə
 director dɪˈrɛktə / dʌɪˈrɛktə
 main character meɪn ˈkarəktə
 topic ˈtɒpɪk
 plot plɒt
 In (title) by (author), the reader is taken
 into (place/time of story).
 (Title) is the story of (hero/action/...)
 (Title) is set in the period of (event).
 Content
 As the story begins, ...  The following day ...
 During ...  Some time later ...
 While ...  Hours/Months/Years later, ....
 As/When ...  By morning/the next day/the time ...
 Since/As ...  Meanwhile ...
 Just then ...  However, ...
 After ...  Again/Once again ...
 Before ...  At this point ...
 Before long ...  To his surprise ...
 Soon ...  This incident is/was followed by ...
 Soon afterwards ...  To make matters even worse ...
 As soon as ...  Eventually, .../Finally, ..
 One day/evening ...

Word List on Summaries (non-fiction)

Introduction
 In (title), author (author) discusses (topic).  (Title) is a detailed account of (topic).
 In (title), (author) explains the principles  (Title) is an essential guide to (topic).
of (topic).  (Title) is a classic handbook on (topic).
 (Title) offers a detailed and practical
introduction to (topic).
Content
 (Author) provides the reader with (details).
 (Title/Author) shows how to (details).
 (Author) begins by explaining how ...
 Then (author) ...
 Chapter (number) focuses on (details).
 The (number) chapters/sections of the book encourage (aim) through a series of steps: (steps/details)
Word List on Summaries (film)
Introduction
 (Title) is a film by (director).  (Title) is the story of (hero/action/...).
 (Title) is based on a novel by (author).  (Title) is set in the period of (event).
 The story is about (topic).  (Title) tells of (hero), who ...
 (Title) tells the story of (hero/topic).
Content
 As the story begins, ...  The following day ...
 During ...  Some time later ...
 While ...  Hours/Months/Years later, ....
 As/When ...  By morning/the next day/the time ...
 Since/As ...  Meanwhile ...
 Just then ...  However, ...
 After ...  Again/Once again ...
 Before ...  At this point ...
 Before long ...  To his surprise ...
 Soon ...  This incident is/was followed by ...
 Soon afterwards ...  To make matters even worse ...
 As soon as ...  Eventually, .../Finally, ...
 One day/evening ...

Comments (Stating your Opinion)

Reason
There are many real-life situations where you have to state your opinion, e.g. a friend asks you for
advice, your boss wants to hear your opinion on a business matter. In English lessons, this is also a
popular way of testing your English writing skills.

Preparation
Think about the topic first. What's your opinion? What arguments can you use to support your ideas?

Structure and Content

 Introduction: defining the problem
Use the introduction to get the reader's attention and interest in the topic. Define the problem you are
going to discuss and provide a short overview on what you think and why.
 Opinion and Reasons
Give reasons for your opinion. Concentrate on one main point per paragraph. What to write exactly,
depends on the task (see below)
 Conclusion
Summarize the most important arguments that best support your opinion.

Important Tenses
Simple Present

Typical Tasks
 Comment (stating your own opinion)
state your opinion and give examples and arguments that support your opinion
statement – reason – example
 Compare
find common and distinct features
draw conclusions
 Criticize
find advantages and disadvantages
comment on somebody's opinion (usually in a negative way)
 Discuss
analyse all aspects of a problem (What is …? / Is it okay to …?)
weighing the pros and cons
 Evaluate
analyse a problem
show advantages and disadvantages
 Justify
support an opinion
show advantages

Word Lists
Opinion and Statements
Agreeing and Disagreeing
Conjunctions, Examples, Additions and Conclusion
Word List on Comments
Stating your Opinion
It seems to me that ... It is claimed that ...
In my opinion, ... I must admit that ...
I am of the opinion that .../ I take the view I cannot deny that ...
that .. I can imagine that ...
My personal view is that ... I think/believe/suppose ...
In my experience ... Personally, I think ...
As far as I understand / can see, ... That is why I think ...
As I see it, ... / From my point of view ... I am sure/certain/convinced that ...
As far as I know ... / From what I know ... I am not sure/certain, but ...
I might be wrong but ... I am not sure, because I don't know the
If I am not mistaken ... situation exactly.
I believe one can (safely) say ... I am not convinced that ...
I have read that ...
I am of mixed opinions (about / on) ...
I am of mixed opinions about / on this.
Outlining Facts
The fact is that
The (main) point is that ...
This proves that ...
What it comes down to is that ...
It is obvious that ...
Agreement
There are many reasons for ...
There is no doubt about it that ...
I simply must agree with that.
I am of the same opinion.
I am of the same opinion as the author.
I completely/absolutely agree with the author.
Qualified Disagreement
It is only partly true that...
I can agree with that only with
reservations.
That seems obvious, but ...
Disagreement
There is more to it than that.
The problem is that ...
I (very much) doubt whether ...
This is in complete contradiction to ...
What is even worse, ...
Linking Arguments
First of all, I think ...
Not only that, but I also think that ...
Not only are they ..., they are also ...
They are not ..., nor are they ...
There are various/several/many
reasons for this.
First, ... / Firstly, ...
Second, ... / Secondly, ...
Moreover, ... / Furthermore, ... / In
addition, ...
Another significant point is that ...
Finally, ...
On the one hand, ... On the other
hand, ...
Providing Examples
Take for example (the case of) ...
Look at ...
Additions and Conclusion
Most probably ...
It appears to be ...
It is important to mention that...
As I already indicated ...
In other words, ...
I am most concerned about ...
I should like to repeat once again
that ...
I have no opinion in this matter.
It is certain that ...
One can say that ...
It is clear that ...
There is no doubt that ...
That is not necessarily so.
It is not as simple as it seems.
Under certain circumstances ...
I am of a different opinion because ...
I cannot share this / that / the view.
I cannot agree with this idea.
What I object to is ...
Unlike the author I think ...
In contrast to this is ...
Because of ...
That is why ...
After all, ...
The reason is that ...
In that respect ...
The result of this is that ...
Another aspect/point is that ...
It is because ...
Although it is true that ... it would be
wrong to claim that ...
That may sometimes be true, but ...
One could argue that ..., but ...
For instance ... / For example ...
Let me give you an example.
I should like to emphasise that ...
I would (just) like to add ...
So all in all I believe that...
(In) summing up it can be said that ...
Weighing the pros and cons, I come
to the conclusion that ...
 Reviews on Books and Films
Reason
It's not only specialists (e.g. journalists, critics) that write reviews on books or films. More
and more reviews are written by laymen, as you can see for example at the online
bookstore Amazon.

Preparation
Recall the plot of the story. Do you want to recommend the book/film?

Structure and Content

 Introduction, Background
Give title and author of the book. If you're reviewing a film you may want to mention the
director or actors.
 Plot
Summarize the plot in a few sentences. Say something about place and time of the plot,
about the main characters and about the main content.
 Comment
Let others know whether or not you liked the book/film and give reasons for your liking / not
liking it. Is the author's style good or bad, is the book / film interesting or boring etc.

Important Tenses
→ Simple Present

Note
A review is not a summary. Don't tell the end as this will spoil the book/film to people who
want to read/watch it.

Word Lists
→ Useful Words on Books, Literature and Novels
→ Useful Phrases

BOOKS

first chapter / opening chapter excerpt from a novel

final chapter title ˈtʌɪt(ə)l

passage ˈpasɪʤ author ˈɔːθə

excerpt ˈɛksəːpt

Literature
modern literature ˈmɒd(ə)n ˈlɪt(ə)rəʧə

contemporary cənˈtɛmp(ə)r(ər)i literature
fairy tale ˈfɛːri teɪl / fairy story
prose prəʊz
fable ˈfeɪb(ə)l
fiction ˈfɪkʃ(ə)n
thriller ˈθrɪlə
non-fiction
classic ˈklasɪk
best-seller
love story
novel ˈnɒv(ə)l
detective dɪˈtɛktɪv story
short story ʃɔːt ˈstɔːrɪ

NOVEL

setting ˈsɛtɪŋ scene siːn of a novel

action ˈaɛkʃ(ə)n main character meɪn ˈkarəktə

climax ˈklʌɪmaks

 Author / Director, Actors

. is a novel / film by ..
... was written by ...
Background / Setting
The action takes place in ... (place, time)
The novel covers a period of ...
Main Characters and Plot
The main characters are ...
The story is about ....
The novel tells the story of ...
In the course of the novel the action develops dramatically.
The novel has an unexpected ending.
Comment
My point of view is that ...
My first impression was ...
I liked/didn't like the novel because ...
I must admit that ...
It is a beautifully / awfully written novel.
I can thoroughly recommend the novel.
I found the story rather weak / unconvincing / boring.
It's extremely readable.
The ending of the story surprised / didn't surprise me.

Presentation
Reason
 A presentation proves that you are able to communicate on a topic of your choice with just
a few key words as reminders. In some countries, a presentation is part of the English
exam at school (e.g. Eurokom in Germany).

Preparation
Choose a topic that interests you. First, read about the topic in your native language for
necessary background information. At that point you should already plan how you want to
organise your presentation. When writing the presentation, you should work with English
texts only (that's easier than translating the document in the end). Take short notes only
from the English texts, then make your own sentences (short ones if possible).

Structure and Content

 Introduction: General information on the topic
Give your listeners an introduction to the topic (some general information) and explain what
exactly you are going to talk about in your presentation.
 Actual Presentation
Subdivide your presentation into several sub-topics, e.g.:
o Presentation on an event: history, present, special customs
o Presentation on a sport: history, rules, important events
o Presentation on a stay in an English speaking country: chronologically
 Conclusion
Find a good conclusion (otherwise it would look as if you simply stopped in the middle of your
presentation). A good conclusion could be for example:
o How does the event influence our daily lives?
o How important is the event for you personally? / What's your opinion about it?
o What might the future bring?
o a quotation that summarises your presentation

Important Tenses
Which tenses to use depends on your topic. Above all you'll probably need the following
tenses:
 Simple Present
 Simple Past
 Present Perfect

Note
If you cannot think of a topic for your presentation, check out the
sections countries, literature and animals/sports on www.ego4u.de. Maybe you'll find
something that catches your interest.
The online encyclopaedia www.wikipedia.org provides lots of information on a variety of
topics in several languages. Do also use the search engine www.google.com to find
information on your topic.
Collect pictures and graphics if possible. They'll help you getting through your presentation
without losing the thread. Furthermore, pictures always make a presentation more
interesting for the listeners.
Usually you are expected to talk about the topic without reading every sentence from a
piece of paper. So practise at home until you can hold the presentation with just a few key
words (or pictures) as reminders.

Word List
 Introduction
  Word List on Presentations
Introduction
 I want to give you a short presentation about ...
 My presentation is about ...
 One of my hobbies is ...
 The country that fascinates me most is ...
 I'd like to tell you something about ...
 I have always been interested in ... so today I want to tell you something about it.
 I think everybody has heard about ..., but hardly anyone knows a lot about it.
 That's why I'd like to tell you something about it.
 That's why I chose the topic for my presentation.
 Did you know that ...?
 Did you know why ...? Well, in my presentation about ... you will find out about that.
If working with a quiz or questions on the topic
 I've prepared a little quiz on the topic.
 I'll now give you some questions that you can answer during my presentation.
 Pay attention.
 You can take notes.
 In the end, there will be a quiz on the topic.
 After the presentation there will be a quiz.
 In the end, I will test your knowledge on the topic.

 Actual Presentation
Introducing sub-topics
 Let me begin by explaining why /
how ...
 First / Now I want to talk about ...
 First / Now I want to give you an
insight into ...
 Let's (now) find out why / how ...
 Let's now move to ...
 As I already indicated ...
 Another aspect / point is that ...
 The roots of ... go back to ...
 ... began when ...
 Legend has it that ...
Pictures and graphics
 Let me use a graphic to explain this.
 The graphic shows that ...
 As you can see (in the picture) ...
 In the next / following picture, you can
see ...
 Here is another picture.
Final thoughts on a sub-topic
 It was a great success for ...
 It is a very important day in the history
of ...
 It was / is a very important / special
event.
 This proves that ...
 As you probably know, ...
 You probably know that ...
 Maybe you've already heard about ...
 You might have seen that already.
 At the beginning there was / were ...
 Many people knew / know ...
 Hardly anyone knew / knows ...
 ... hit the idea to ...
 ... was the first to ...
 It is claimed that ...
 One can say that ...
 I have read that ...
 The next picture shows how ...
 Let the pictures speak for themselves.
 I think the picture perfectly shows
how / that ...
 Now, here you can see ...
 The reason is that ...
 The result of this is that ...
 It's because ...
 In other words, ...
 I want to repeat that ...
 I'd (just) like to add ...

 Conclusion

Conclusion
... has a great influence on today's life. Unfortunately, ... is hardly known
today.
... should not be forgotten. Let me close by quoting ... who said,
... has really impressed me. »...«
I hope that one day ... That was my presentation on ...
We should not forget ... I am now prepared to answer your
All in all I believe that... questions.
Summing up / Finally it can be said Do you have any questions?
that ...
If working with a quiz or questions on the topic
Well, let's find out now how much Next question.
you've learned. Who can tell me ...?
Let's check how much you can Exactly.
remember from my presentation. That's correct. / That's right.
Are you ready for the quiz? That's not correct.
Let's do the quiz. Try again.
Okay, let's answer the questions now. I'll give you a hint.
Question number one / two / three ...