MEC241 Chapter 1

Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic Concepts

1.1 Characteristics of fluids and the continuum model

There are basically 3 primary phases of substance that exist in the world today i.e. solids, liquids,
and gases. Liquids and gasses phase substance can be classified as fluids because they lack the
ability to resist deformation even the force applied on them are small.

Because fluids are unable to resist the deformation force, it will flow under the action of the
force. As long as force is applied, its shape will change continuously.

Fluids are composed of molecules which are widely spaced apart especially in gasses, therefore
it is convenient to disregard the atomic nature of the fluid and view it as a continuous, homogenous
matter which we call a continuum model.

By viewing fluid as a continuum model allows us to state that the properties of the fluid at a
certain point is the same for all the molecules at that particular point.

1.2 Fluid properties

i. Density (ρ)

- Mass per unit volume (kg/m3)

m
- 
V

ii. Specific volume (ν)

- Volume per unit mass (m3/kg)

V 1
-  
m 

iii. Specific gravity (SG)

- Ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance (usually
water)

 fluid
- SG 
 water

1
MEC241 Chapter 1

iv. Specific weight (γ)

- Weight of a unit volume of a substance

W mg
-   (N/m3)
V V

-   g (kg/m2s2)

v. Density of ideal gasses

- Density of ideal gasses is determined using the ideal gas equation of state.

- PV  mRT or Pv  RT or P  RT

Where:

P = absolute pressure

v = specific volume

T = temperature (in Kelvin)

Ρ = density

V = volume. M = mass

Ru
R Ru = universal gas constant, 8.314 kJ/kmol K)
M

M = molar mass

2
MEC241 Chapter 1

Example 1:

A 0.917m3 reservoir filled with oil has a mass of 825 kg, determine the density, the specific weight and
the specific gravity of the oil.

Example 2:

3
MEC241 Chapter 1

vi. Viscosity

- Property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion

- Due to internal frictional forces that develops between different layers of fluids as they are
forced to move relative to each other.

a) Dynamic viscosity (μ)


-  (kg/ms)
du / dy

o τ = shear stress (kg/ms2)

o du/dy = change in velocity over an area (velocity gradient) (1/s)

Common problem involving viscosity in fluid mechanics is flow induced between a fixed lower
plate and an upper plate moving steadily at velocity, V (linear velocity distribution/profile). The
thickness/height of the fluid film between the plates is h.

For linear velocity distribution/profile,

du V
 Where:
dy h
V = velocity of the moving plate

h = thickness/height of the fluid film

4
MEC241 Chapter 1

From the figure above, fluid moving along the direction of the moving plate will also result in
shear force (F).

du
- F  A  A (N)
dy

Where: A = surface area in contact with the fluid (m2)

b) Kinematic viscosity (ʋ)

- ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density


- v (m2/s)


Example 1 – linear velocity distribution/profile

A = 72 cm x 72 cm = 0.72 m x 0.72 m

h = 15.5 mm = 0.0155 m

V = 5.5 m/s

F = 105 N

i)
du V
  
dy h
h

V

5
MEC241 Chapter 1

Knowing that,

F  A
F 105
   202 .55 N / m 2
A 0.72  0.72

h (202 .55)( 0.0155 )

   0.5708 kg / ms
V 5.5

ii)


 oil

 oil
SGoil   0.97
 water

oil  SGoil (  water )  0.97(1000)  970 kg/m3

 0.5708
   0.0005885 m2/s
 oil 970

Example 2 – Non-linear velocity distribution/profile

i) Refer to notes

6
MEC241 Chapter 1

ii)

1.3 Eulerian and Lagrangian description of flow

In the study of fluid mechanics, the fluid in consideration can be subjected to two types
of condition, static or kinematic. Fluid kinematics is the study on how fluids flow and how to
describe fluid motion. There are two different points of view in analysing problems in
mechanics:

1. The eulerian method of description – compute the pressure field of the flow pattern which
a particle experiences as it moves through the field.

2. The lagrangian method of description – studies the motion of individual particle moving
through the flow.

7
MEC241 Chapter 1

From these two methods, the eulerian method of description is more suited in the study of
fluid mechanics. Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, we define field variables which
are functions of space and time, within a control volume (device in which fluid flow in and out).
The field variable at a particular location at a particular time is the value of the variable for
which ever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at that time.

1.4 Flow patterns

Flow patterns in the study of fluid mechanics can be visualized in many different ways.
The four basic types of line patterns that are usually used to visualize flows are:

1. Streamline – a curve that is everywhere tangent to the instantaneous local velocity vector.

8
MEC241 Chapter 1

A streamtube consist of a bundle of streamlines much like a communications cable

consists of a bundle of fiber-optic cables.

2. Pathline – actual path traversed by a given fluid particle over some time period. It is a
lagrangian concept as it follows the path of an individual fluid particle.

3. Streakline – the locus of particles which have earlier passed through a prescribed point in
the flow. The most common flow pattern generated in a physical experiment

9
MEC241 Chapter 1

Streakline visualization

*Streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines are identical in steady flow.

4. Timeline – set of adjacent fluid particles that were marked at the same (earlier) instant in
time. Timelines are particularly useful in situations where the uniformity of a flow is to
be examined.

Timelines are formed by marking a line of fluid particles, and then watching that line move (and
deform) through the flow field; timelines areshown at t =0, t 1, t2, and t3.

1.5 Scope and classification of fluid flow

There is a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered in practice and it is

convenient to classify them on the basis of some common characteristics. Here are some general
classifications of fluid flows.

10
MEC241 Chapter 1

i. Viscous or Inviscid Regions of Flow

- Regions exist as a result of inserting a flat plate parallel into a fluid stream of uniform
velocity. Due to the no-slip condition, the fluid sticks to the plate on both sides.

 Viscous flow region – thin boundary layer in which the viscous effect are
significant near the plate surface.

 Inviscid flow region – the region of flow on both sides away from the plate and
largely unaffected by the presence of the plate.

ii. Internal or External Flow

- A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the fluid
flows in a confined space or over a surface.

 Internal Flow – fluid flow is completely bounded by solid surfaces as in flow in a

pipe or duct.

 External Flow – Flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a

wire, or a pipe.

11
MEC241 Chapter 1

iii. Compressible or Incompressible Flow

- Incompressible flow – density of the flowing fluid remains nearly constant (usually
all types of liquid) during flow.

- Compressible flow – density of the fluid changes during flow (usually all types of
gasses).

iv. Laminar or Turbulent Flow

- Some flows are smooth and orderly while some are rather chaotic.

 Laminar Flow – fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid.

 Turbulent Flow – highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high
velocities and is characterized by velocity fluctuations.

- A flow that alternates between laminar and turbulent is called transitional. To

determine whether flow is laminar or turbulent the Reynolds Number (Re) needs to be
determined.

12
MEC241 Chapter 1

v. Natural/Unforced or Forced Flow

- A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how the fluid motion is
started.

 Natural Flow – fluid motion is due to natural means such as buoyancy effect.

 Forced flow – a fluid is forced to flow (by external means such as a pump or a
fan) over a surface or in a pipe.

vi. Steady or Unsteady Flow

- The term steady means that there is no change in properties, velocity, and temperature
at a point with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady meaning there at changes to
those parameters with respect to time

vii. One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

- A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution. If flow velocity varies in
one, two, or three dimensions, a flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional
respectively.

- Fluid flow in all three dimensions may vary because it depends on the geometry.
Dimensionality of the flow depends on the choice of coordinate system and its
orientation. All three dimensional flows may be is rectangular (x, y, z) or cylindrical
(r, ϴ, z) coordinates.

Problem Solving Techniques:

1. Write down what is required

2. Sketch and label the system in question

3. Gather/List all the given data

4. Find all the fluid properties from the necessary tables or chart.

5. Make sure units are consistent (use SI units)

6. Identify and list down the appropriate equations

7. Solve the problems step by step

8. Give a brief discussion/conclusion/recommendation to justify your answer (if required)

13