Proceedings of Bridge Engineering Conference 2012

April 2012, University of Bath, Bath, UK

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF ARTHUR RAVENEL JR. BRIDGE NEW

COOPER RIVER BRIDGE

Alireza Esfandiari1
1
Undergraduate Student – University of Bath

Abstract: This detailed study delivers a critical analysis of the Arthur Ravenel Bridge. The article mainly
revolves around structural analysis, loading conditions, foundation and geotechnics, consequential
construction methods and non-serviceability challenges as well as the serviceability designs. The paper
also includes the aesthetics, environmental aspects and future developments and improvements of the
bridge. All the analysis methods are under the British Standards Design models.

Keywords: Arthur Ravenel Bridge, New Cooper River Bridge, Cable-stayed, South Carolina, Parsons Brinckerhoff

Cable stayed bridges ice | manuals

Cable stayed bridges initial ice design| manuals criteria required a 100-year service life, which
1 Introduction was passed
be restrained with temporary straps. In service the wind-
to the design construction team to achieve the
Top rivulet
induced vibration of requirements. stay cables has also occurred In order on a to do so, a combination of low
Completed in 2005, The Arthur Ravenel a number Jr. ofisstays
range an as a beam with elastic supports.
of cable-stayed bridges under a variety of wind and
It should
be noted that the moments in the permeable
deck will decrease and as theenvironmentally friendly concrete and
eight-lane cable stayed bridge with a totallongitudinal lengthtraffic of 4conditions.
stiffness of the deck decreases.
Both standing waves and travelling
waves have been observed uncoated reinforcing
and these oscillations can reachbars with the provision of Stay low cost
kilometers. The bridge links downtown nCharleston To act as part ofto
amplitudes the global of more system than
witha the metre.
staysThis behaviour was
and pylon. Wind
locally withavailable the stayflyBridge ash was demonstrated throughout the
Mount Pleasant spanning over the cooper river The primary
in the force is the
South
reported to have axial forceoccurredcomponent fromHelgeland
the
force and deck must
(Svensson andbeJordet, structure.[5]
sufficiently
1996).stiff to resist buckling
Carolina and was intended to substitute the two from thisoutdated
compression.
A cable’s natural The capacityfrequency of thefor deck must be
the fundamental mode
checked using maya be non-linear,
calculated second-order analysis. In addition
from the following:
previous cantilever truss bridges[8]. By 1979, the deckthe may twobe required
rffiffiffiffi to resist bending moments induced Bottom rivulet
1 T within a harp cable-stay system as
older bridges became mostly problematic by in terms
unbalanced
of
N ¼ loading
described separately
2
2L inmthe section Harp cable system.
Aesthetics ð2Þ Figure 13 Wind–rain oscillation of stays

metal corrosion and deterioration, insufficient n To resistvertical

Alireza Esfandiari
where L wind
transverse is theloading chord length
Cable
of the cable
and transmit
stayed
(see note
the reactions
bridges are amongst the most appealing
tobelow), T
clearance above the river, lack of emergency lanes and
is the
the substructure. cable tension and m is the cable mass per unit length.
(Note: It is normal bridges to provide due an anchor to their innate where
guide system ability U isto thefulfill their Dfunctions
wind velocity, as
is the outer diameter of
median strip between the lanes of opposing Thustraffic
in the which ways
case where
gives an theapparent
stays are widely
fixity to the spaced
cable. the In this case the stay and St is the Strouhal number 0.20 for a circular
Figure 34 Helgeland Bridge, Norway (courtesy of E. Jordet) ! design of thethedeck is dominated well
by as
longitudinal being aesthetically
bending pleasing.
cable. Since the aesthetics of
and mainly load resistance restrictions. and, where there chord length of the cable may be assumed to be the
is abetween
single central guides aat staytheplane, torsion effects
may ! dominate.Cable
length
For the multi-stay
vibrations
bridge
systems
can occur
top and
as atheresult
is
design
a subjective
bottom
of a number
of the cable.)matter it is decided to analyse them
of the of effects Wake-induced vibrations
becomes less economic. In the case of bridge deck widths deck is dominated bybe!"#$%&'"(&$)*+#,#-$.&/$0&123#4$*-56$7,68,$*5$'"#$9#8$:66;#&$)1+#&$
transverse taking
bending into
combined account with some of the 10 major
Wake-induced vibrationscriteria
occur when proposed
the leeward stay lies
which can categorised under the following headings:
0&123#$<#513,#2$'6$&#;-*=#$'86$#>15'1,3$6('2*'#2$'&(55$?&123#5$15$ in the wake of a windward obstacle, such as another stay.
suitable for dual three-lane highways – that is, at least thrust and longitudinal
30 m wide – the weight of the transverse floor beams system.
n vortex shedding by Fritz
bending derived from the global
Leonhardt
*$?&123#$6+#&$'"#$:66;#&$)1+#&$1,$@6('"$:*&6-1,*4$=6,,#='1,3$ by This more
effect has emphasizing
most often occurred on
in moderatethe winds,
268,'68,$:"*&-#5'6,$'6$A6(,'$B-#*5*,'/$!"#$,#8$%&'"(&$)*+#,#-4$
becomes dominant and significant additional stay area The requirements n wake-induced for thevibrations deck functionality
design vary betweenand the the proportionality
which are not turbulent, ofand the structural
the effect is sometimes related
.&/$0&123#$15$6,#$6C$'"#$-*&3#5'$2#513,D?(1-2$?&123#$;&6E#='5$1,$'"#$ to rain or ice accretion. The effect can be mitigated by
must be provided to carry the extra dead load. One main span and
method of mitigating this problem, while still maintaining designed to give
the back
n rain–wind
angalloping
instability
members.
span. The main span must be
F,1'#2$@'*'#5/$!"15$G/HDI1-#D-6,3$?&123#$1,=-(2#5$*,$#13"'D-*,#$I*1,$
acceptable aerodynamic performance
improving the cable system stiffness through tying the
n cable 5;*,$6C$JKL$I#'&#5$81'"$'86$LKJDI#'&#D"13"$21*I6,2D$5"*;#2$
the simplicity of the concrete edge beam with a cast-in and, for economy, the self-weight ofBy far the sectionmost critical modes ofaesthetical criterion is the thecombined
cables together using cross-cables. These couple the
the deck
n parametric =6,=&#'#$'68#&54$"13"D-#+#-$*;;&6*="#54$#13"'$-*,#5$MG/K$IN$-*,#54$LH$
instability the different stays and thus stiffen
stay anchor, is to provide a lighter composite plate girder should be a minimum
as the transverse floor beam. This is the design philosophy Table 1 givesna rattling comparative
consistent
function
with the choice
ofof
the
material.
&*I;54$'86$1,'#&="*,3#5/!"#$;&6E#='$2#513,$=&1'#&1*$=*--#2$C6&$*$LOOD
estimate of deck weight.
structure as
cableitsystem
contributes
so that any to the
excitation technical
causes less oscillation
P#*&$5#&+1=#$-1C#4$*,2$1'$8*5$-#C'$'6$'"#$2#513,$?(1-2$'#*I$'6$I##'$'"15$ and self-excited modes are avoided. This method of mitigat-
adopted for the deck of the Vasco da Gama Bridge (Capra The back span, through
appropriate the stays,
measures efficiency
needmust to bestabilise
planned and
thetopylon
&#Q(1&#I#,'/$0P$86&71,3$=-65#-P$81'"$-6=*-$5(;;-1#&5$*,2$&#=#,'$ subsequently
suppress cable ing to anoscillation
cable improvementwas employed inonaesthetic
both the Normandy
and Leveille, 1998) over the Tagus River, Portugal. The when unbalanced by
vibration due live to these qualities.
loading phenomena. Curve-shaped high-level
within the main span
*2+*,=#5$1,$5#&+1=#$-1C#$;&#21='1+#$'#=",1Q(#54$'"#$(5#$6C$-68$ and and Helgeland Bridges.approaches located at
deck section for this bridge is illustrated in Figure 35. transmit any resulting ice | manualsuplift to the approach span piers. For
;#&I#*?1-1'P$=6,=&#'#$=6I?1,#2$81'"$(,=6*'#2$&#1,C6&=1,3$5'##-$8*5$
Vortex shedding
any bridge constructed with an all-steel bothdeck end-spans
section for the
2#I6,5'&*'#2$'6$;&6+12#$'"#$&#Q(1&#2$5#&+1=#$-1C#/ of the bridge allow instability
Rain–wind the incoming users to
Design principles of vortices from Rain–wind instability results from perturbing the smooth
As can be seen above, there is a number of possible deck uplift must opposite
main span and Thisback span
effect
be provided.
is due
sides ofThis
a means
inevitably
to theofalternate
the strand,
transferring shedding
observe
significant
inducing a periodic
has conventionally
the
beenload in the
cross-section
surface of a stayofandthehas bridge
occurred whenand water see rivulets
forms and when they are used in combination with an achieved byThis cable.
the use method
Asof steady a pendel doesis
wind how entailthe
required
linkage that entire
additional
fortransfers
this effectthe slender
stressing
to occur, the of deck
form
the on and the the
stays top and piers
bottomare of aconnected
stay, with wind in the
appropriate stay arrangement they can provide an eco- uplift force but most damaging vibrations generally theoccur at and wind direction
low shrinkage of the span, and for stays that slope downwards
They can bethrough
in128 post-tensioned
eliminating in cables. Pylons were designed in 13.
but still
ensuresallowsthat longitudinal
variations translation to take
creep strains
velocities. mitigated the direction of the wind, as illustrated in Figure
nomic design within their respective span ranges. place in response arising to during
temperature the changes. by
cantilever
reducing
exampleorare
Anerection of discounted.
The deck is required to perform a number of particular this arrangement the underlying
is shown in excitation
Figure a 36 form
along
which theisoflengths diamond
similar of the stayconfiguration
to note the results of
allowing
research which
for there
show
fewer
The French CIP Recommendations for Cable Stays (2002)
is a possibility
functions within the overall structural system: cables thethat drives stayof oscillation
the Queenby introducing II projec- of rain–wind excitation if the steady wind velocity is in the
on stays:atoffootprints pipe. to Thisbe occupied and the high clearance of 57
that used within back spans Elizabeth
!"#$%"$#&'()*)"+,R
Figure 1: Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge[1] Bridge over
Wind
tions,
Wind
the
or loading
loading
River
texturing,
Thames
onstaystays
the
Dartford, UK.
roughens the
n To distribute the applied loading to the stay anchor points. to range 8–15 m/s. Theofwind must be from an oblique direc-
Deck: The bridge
With dead is a uniform
load and compositelive
of steel
loadand
thisconcrete
will takewith
thea form
main span of It is clear The
surface
The
that
the
the
drag
the drag
air,wind
of the
force
back from cable wind
spanthe
force from
deck meters
and per
does
presents
the unitwind
not havecan
an irregular
length
to easily
of stay
per unit
comply
flow.velocity, diameter of the stay and the drag coefficient.tion,
the wind
cansurface
be
lengthaccommodate
calculated knowing
of stay the
is to
asanalyse
between
In order
theand
density
308 modern shipping
the 808 from the perpendicular to the
40m widths, two 17m side spans, and two 5.5m anchor spans for a totalwith the criteria of
follows: minimum
vessels[5].
self-weight. Provided
Another
separate
advantageousrange. Henceof
cable, so that C = such
the configuration
wind will tend to lift the is cable. The
betweenThrough partnerships with is 25S.C Infrastructurethe Iaccess isBank
of the transverse distribution of load to each stay plane and Cable stayed bridges worst case scenario
Vortex shedding it is assumed
expected that
to the Re
occur number
when its is in subcritical
frequency d 1.2
anuals suspended spanstay
length of 84m. Thea concrete slab – 30cm thick and
each anchor. For deck supported by a multi- land available
becomes for the erection
approximately the same of the as theback span,frequency frequency of the cable oscillation is typically 1–3 Hz.
natural
D the
shaped Steel beams are 2.3m deep linked by transverse beams every 4m, the
andsystem,
federal officials, Arthur
2 .sense of besecurity the and
N comfort that
stated itwind
provides thetheuser as does
The high Ravenel
level approachesJr. also managed to1 =ado
0.5 1.23
have. 10^2 .erected
0.5= 30.75
stay
cables support
concentrated
the bridge
live loads will
deck every 5.3m.
be distributed between such that theFof Da ¼
main stay,2 !U
and back
that DC
is spans
to say, not
wind velocity toapproaching reso- Below the ð10Þ speed range, top rivulet

finalise the funding strengthof the construction.

use composite steel construction with steel girders spaced 30cm
of either 1570
in balanced
on centre.
N/mm2 or 1770 should N/mm The2
.not
cantilever,
bridge
nance-inducing
TheVortex
where
largest
be
shedding:
! is
therevelocity.
the it
is no reason Inenfolds
adensity
order
different of
whytothe the
avoid
air
back deck
thisspan
(1.23 from
phenomenon
kg/m 3 top
for from and
standard bottom. In order to check
not form because the wind is insufficient to prevent it
running down the side of the stay. Above the range,
Both high level approaches are jointless over their full length. theconstructed
French CIP fromRecommendations material
for ofCable
to that from (2002)
Stays
inthe structure isstiffness notand ultimate is efficiency, ratio of pylon
spiral strand stays manufactured to date are This 164 mmeffect is due to the alternate shedding vortices opposite sides of the strand,
includes a main span diameter,ofas471 meters
supplied and two
for the Queen Elizabeth174-meter temperature
require that the and
IIinducing
Bridge a periodic load
natural pressure),
thefrequency
cable. of
In orderUstaysto the
should
avoid wind
this be
phenomenon
thethe
velocity,
Wind
wind
D forces
natural
turbulence
tend to blow
frequency
the rivulets off the stay.
also prevents the rivulets from forming.
high diamond shaped reinforced concrete
2.3m over the River Thames at
eight
Dartford.
lanes (3.7m)+a
pylons. The
the
ofthe
stayssameshould
diameteras the beof thethe
height to main
not vortex-shedding
samestay as the frequency
D span is checked.
described
vortex-shedding
and C is below:
frequency
the drag described below
coefficient.
2.55

bicycle and pedestrian In order to avoid the onset of rain–wind oscillation it has
Bar bundles path(3.7)+ two anchor
Deck type For
N ¼ any circular
USt Weight:
= 10.kN/m
2 section the drag factor is sensitive
0.2 / 0.5 = 40 Hz ð3Þ been to the that the Scruton number (Sc ) for the stay
suggested
spans (3 m)
D should
on betheat least 10 according to the following formula
3m
1.7 18m
13.75
Bar bundles 18m
contain up to ten
13.75 3m
1.7
threaded steel bars Reynolds
with a number (Re ), which in turn depends
2
tensile strength of 1230 N/mm2 coupledSteel deck Pylon:
together inwind
12 m To 2.5–3.5 kN/m
velocity
enhance and
the the
bridge pipe and
aesthetics roughness. Forfootprint
reduce the pylon low values of
( high navigation
40m 2
lengths. The bars have been conventionally
30.9 placed
Composite deckwithin
clearance to the
ICE Manual deck),
6.5–8.5
of BridgekN/mthe pylon legs
Engineering were
# 2008 broken just
Institution below the deck to produce inward-leaning
a steel tube and protected with a cementConcrete
R
legs
grout. deck
The
in
the the
etoof
use
sub-critical
foundation to form
2 range,
a diamond CD ofisCivil
configuration.
Engineers
relatively high
However, this up intoa significant
can result
www.icemanuals.com 365
Loading design: 14.0–15.0 kN/m Figure 41 Typical space frame model
Figure 35 Combined concrete andcouplers
steel connecting
deck section – the
Vasco bars
da Gamawill give
Dead and superimposed loading: Dead load is the weight of the deck structure a much about
increase
reduced in1.2,
the while
deflection in
of the
the super-critical
pylon.This deflection range
was the
mitigated C
only
D falls
with a to
considerable
increase in theweight
stiffness
Bridge, Portugal (all dimensions in fatigue
metres) resistance when compared with the
i.e. the steel beams and the concrete slab,
Table 1 Estimates
the super-imposed load is that ofequivalent
extra wire
0.6. of deck
However, forof the
for various lower section of the pylon leg below the deck.
materials
practical purposes, most bridges operate
 ice | manuals
H/L = 174/471= 0.3 > 0.2 3.1 Permanent Dead Loading
the ratio is within the optimum ratio
Although the economic solution for the cable-stayed

H
Fan layout bridge is a low-weight deck section, the main span of the
Arthur Ravenel’s bridge is made of composite of steel and
reinforced concrete, which would be more economical in
Figure 2: Fan layout configuration [2] terms of materials used, but it requires a higher area of

H
Harp layout cable stays to support the heavier loads. As illustrated in
A crucial factor in the aesthetic shaping of a bridge is its figure 3, the composite deck with a main span of 40 meters,
proportionality L within its elements. Arthur Ravenel two anchor spans of 3 meters and a total suspended length
Bridge has achieved a great harmony between scale and of 900 meters is divided into 8 lanes including a bicycle
style and the landscape in which it is constructed. Two and pedestrian path.[5]
n
vertical pylons of cablesFaarranged in a semi-fan support
the thin composite deck of 2.7 meters. This
configuration yields a back Harp span to main span ratio of
0.53, a ratio of pylon height to main span of 0.3 and
minimum cableOptimum
spacingzone
of 2.7 meters, which is within
the desirable range leading to a well-proportioned
bridge.[5]
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Simplicity
H/L and clarity is another major factor, which is
easily perceived by looking at the elements of the
Optimum pylon height
bridge. The bridge only consists of components that are Figure 3: Deck cross-section[2](modified)
indispensable which itself enhances the aesthetic quality
and efficiency. At nights, the high-tech illuminated The concrete reinforced slab is 25 cm thick and the I
eight diamond-shaped pylons accentuate the slenderness and shaped steel beams are 2 m deep linked by transverse girders
t of the pylondelicacy of the overshadowed
will determine the overall deck.
stiffness with the same shape. Both high level approaches are jointless
Furthermore the design is refined
cture. As the stay angle (!) increases, the required to match regional along the length and similarly use composite steel
will decrease and the height of the pylon willand grey colours
historic buildings by selecting white construction with girders spaced 25 cm on centre.[5]
However, the throughout
deflection the
of structure.
the deck will increase It is assumed that the weight of the I beam is roughly
equivalent to twice the size of a 1016x305 universal beam
ay becomes longer. Both the weight of the stay
hence 487x 2 = 974 Kg/m. consequently, the weight of the
eflection of the2.1 deck
Summarybecome a minimum when
steel and concrete components along the width per unit
sion 1=ðsin ! ! cos !Þ is also a minimum. There- length are calculated as follows:
Aesthetic
ost efficient stay is thatqualities of a inclination
with a stay bridge is anofopinionate matter
but taking into account some of Fritz Leonhardt’s rules Reinforced Concrete Slab
ctice the efficiency of the stay is not significantly Density of reinforced concrete slab: 2400 Kg/m3
as criteria it can be concluded
when the stay inclination is varied within reason- that, A successful bridge
can be accomplished through the development of its Concrete slab: 0.25 m x 2400 Kg/m3 x 40.1 m = 24060 Kg/m
which may be taken as 25–658. The stay inclined = 235.8 KN/m
functional properties, safety and economic qualities as
be the outer stay connecting the anchor pier and Steel Girders
well as an enhancement in its aesthetic characteristic. In
anel adjacent order
to thetocentre of the main
this effectively, onespan to to
needs theachieve a balance Two longitudinal I beam with weight of 974 Kg/m each=>
pylon. The stay inclined at 658 will be that located
in proportion, symmetry and harmony. Once done, the 974 x 2= 1948 kg/m
e pylon. This ultimate
implies an optimum
design would ratio of pylon
not only achieve a functional Transverse girders with an overall span of 40.1 m:
ve the deck (H) to main
structure but span
also (L) is between 0.2
an aesthetically pleasing structure. Number of transverse beams/ length of each beam: 40.1/ 4=
s illustrated in Figure
Taking all37.
into account, the bridge today has become a 10 => 10 x 974 Kg/m = 9740 Kg/m
9740 + 1948 = 11688 Kg/m = 114.5 KN/m
nary stay striking
forces regional landmark due its distinctive elongated
diamond-shaped towers and elegant design. Hence, dead load of the deck excluding superimposed loads
span stay forces resist the dead loads such that is equivalent to: 235.8 + 114.5 = 351 KN/m or 8.7 KN/m2
deflection of the deck or pylon and the vertical which is almost equal to the estimate deck weight design of
ts due to these3 Loading
loads are therefore known. By composite deck stated in table 1 ICE Manual of Bridge
that the live loads Design
act inloading
a similarof manner,
the bridgean is checked in Engineering. [2]
roximation ofaccordance with can
the stay force BS 5400 taking into consideration
be determined
application
ring the structure of permanent
as a simple truss and super the
ignoring imposed dead loads, 3.2 Superimposed Dead loads
iffness of bothtransient
the pylonlive traffic
and the loads,
deck.wind, temperature
Thus the and finally
in mithis
stay forces (P ) atcase seismic(!loads.
an angle ), as In addition,
shown in the secondary Super imposed loads are due to the furniture of the
i
loads associated
can be determined to HA loading such as skidding,
from the expression: bridge such as paving materials and parapets. In this case,
collision and centrifugal loads are to be thoroughly surface of the bridge consist of 100 mm of sand fill and
DL þ WLL Þ=sin !i
analysed. ð6Þ for both ULS
Next, the relevant partial factors aggregate, 50 mm of latex modified concrete in addition to
150 mm of asphalt. Therefore the induced superimposed
orizontal stay and SLS are applied
component (Fh ) is to check
given by:design under both failing
and serviceability conditions load can be calculated knowing the density of materials:
L þ WLL Þ=tan !i ð7Þ Sand fill and aggregate: 0.1 m x 40.1 m x 1600 Kg/m3 =
6416 Kg/m

www.icemanuals.com 377
Latex modified concrete overlay: 0.05 m x 40.1 m x Figure 4: HA (KEL) and HB load distribution illustration on a
2500 Kg/m3 = 5012.5 Kg/m single carriageway

5 notional lanes across one carriageway

Asphalt: 0.15 m x 40.1 m x 1800 Kg/m3 = 10827 Kg/m
Therefore the superimposed load is: 218 KN/m or 5.4

3.5 m
KN/m2
Taking into account bridge furniture loading such as
parapets, traffic barriers (connected by rebars) and the
weight of shark fin anchors there is an additional load of
1.5 KN/ m2 to be added to the superimposed load.
Hence the final superimposed applied on the bridge is
6.9 KN/ m2

3.3 Transient Live Loading Loaded length for traffic loading

These calculations are based on British Standard Table 1: Design HA loads on a single carriageway
codes BS 5400 and will not be identical to the American
Standard Specification for Highway Bridges
(AASHTO). In order to calculate the live loading on the
bridge, initially we need two determine the number of
notional lanes on the carriageway. As illustrated in
figure 3, width of each carriageway is 18 meters
The remaining lanes carry the same design HA of 4.80
excluding a 3.5 meters bicycle and footway. Hence:
KN/m2
20 m (from central raised kerb to footway edge) –
3.5 m = 17.5, 15.2 m <17.5 m < 19 m
3.5 Pedestrian load
Number of notional lanes = 5 (excluding footway)
each with a width of approximately 3.5 m
According to BS5400 for bridges spanning above 36m,
application of the loading due to pedestrian should be taken
3.4 Normal Loading HA+KEL
into account.[3] Note load is considered on the main
suspended span: K x 5.0
HA loading consists of an UDL load and is applied
K= HA loading on 3.65 m x 10 / L+ 270 = 0.15 kN/m2
to every notional way across the carriageway. Based on
K x 5.0= 0.73 kN/m2
the total loaded length, and the British Standard normal
loading curve, equation (1) is used to calculate the UDL
3.6 Longitudinal forces
which is applied on notional lanes taking into account
their corresponding HA lane factors to deliver the most
As the bridge consists of a shallow composite deck it is
adverse torsional effect. In addition to HA loading, a
important to consider the loads over the entire width. These
knife-edge loading(KEL) of 120 KN is applied on every
type of forces are as a result of HA and other vehicular
notional lane in the same manner to obtain the most
loading along the span of the bridge. In order to calculate
unfavorable effect.[3]
the most adverse effect, it is assumed that the both opposite
carriageways are both fully occupied where the load due to
L>50 m => W=UDL=36 ( 1/L)0.1 (1)
braking is applied to one carriageway and the load due to
UDL= 36x(1/470)0.1= 19.5 KN/m
traction is applied to the other. This will induce a high
UDL intensity= 5.6 KN/m2,
rotational effect by concentration of the loads in one
L > 112, N(notional lanes of whole deck)=10>6
direction along the deck.
=> β1= 1.0, β2=1.0, β3= 0.6, βn= 0.6
RL loading type: 500 KN for traction+ 800 KN for braking
= 1300 KN
3.4 Abnormal Loading HB
3.7 Centrifugal force
HB loading can be applied to any part of the bridge
and it is measured in units per axle (every unit is
It is important to determine the centrifugal forces on
equivalent to 10 KN of concentrated load). HB loading
elevated structures with a
considers a total vehicle weight of 1800 KN consisting
radius of less than 1000m.
of four axles of 4 wheels applied on a notional lane of
At the northern approach,
the bridge.[3] In order to provide the most adverse effect
there is a sharp curve exit
the maximum number 45 units per axle corresponding to
with a narrow depth of 10
450 KN/per axle, with a inner axle distance of 6 m, is
meters and radius of 200
considered to be acting on the edge of a carriageway
meters (calculated with
combined with full HA. (combination of HA an HB
Google Earth ruler tool).
loads are shown in the following figure 4)
Forces are due to the
centrifugal acceleration,

Figure 5: northern approach

which acts at the centre of the vehicle, and are
determined by the second newton law.
F=mv2/r (2)
|=> F= W v2/gr (2,3)
W=mg (3)
The code suggest a 400 KN vehicle driving at a speed of
100 km/h.[3] This approximates to: Fc= 40000/ (r +150)
=> Fc= 114 KN (4)
This radially load is exerted 50 m centers in both
nominal lanes and is combined with an additional
vertical load of 400 KN.
3.8 Accidental Skidding
Nominal load of 300 KN is taken to act on a single point
on notional lane acting parallel to the surface of the
road. This loading will be considered in combination 4
and will be taken into account with other secondary
loads. [3]
4 Creep and Shrinkage
Long term effect of creep contributes to shrinkage
resulting in reduction of the modular ratio of concrete
and affecting the stresses in the section.[2]
Total long-term strain ε= (1 + Φ).ƒcc/ Ecc (5)
Φ=long term creep/ initial elastic strain = 0.7
Ec = short term modulus of concrete ( fcc= 40 MPa) =
4700 = 30 Gpa (6)
1 FD =
Hence ε = 0.0017
Long-term modulus of concrete E’c= Φc Ec (7)
Φc is taken as 0.5 for a very humid environment and
directly over water => E’c = 15 Gpa
5 Wind
The environmental conditions in south Carolina is
amongst the most challenging in the US due to the
continuous occurrence of hurricanes. According to EN
1991-1-4 the wind loading exerted on the can be
evaluated by following equations:[4]
Since time to reach peak pressure wind > natural
frequency => wind can be analysed as static force:
Nominal transverse wind load = P = q ACD (8)
CD calculated from figure 5 British Standard by
knowing b/d ratio of 40.1 / 5.2 = 7.7 => CD= 1.21
Lateral main span deck area= 470 x 2.5 = 1175 m2
Dynamic pressure head =q= 0.613 Vd2 (9)
Wind gust speed= Vd= Sg . Vs (10)
Sg= gust factor = Sb Tg S’h= (1.75) (0.99)(1)=1.75 (table
3 BS 5400-2:2006) (11)
Vs= hourly mean wind speed = Vb Sp Sa Sd= (53
m/s)(1.05)(1+0.03)(1)=57.3 m/s (12)
q= 0.613 ( 100.275)2 = 2316 N/m2
back to equation (8) => P = 2316 N/m2 x (1175 m2) x
1.21= 3.3 MN
Longitudinal wind load is considered with both occupied
and unoccupied deck resulting in different dL values.
Area of main span = 40.1 x dL1( 5.6 )= 224 m2
Area of main span with live traffic load= 40.1 x dL2 (7.5) =
300 m2
Unoccupied superstructure =PLS= 0.25 q A1 CD (13)
PLS= 0.25 (2316 N/m2) x ( 224 m2) x 1.3 = 0.17 MN
Live load on superstructure =PLL= 0.5 q A1CD (14)
PLL= 0.5 (2316 N/m2) x ( 300 m2) x 1.45 = 0.5 MN
Normal Vertical Wind Load
This is only applied on the main span as it is more
susceptible to uplift.
Pv=q A3 CL (15), CL= 0.75[ 1-b/20d(1-0.2α)] (16)
Pv Q A3 CL
6.53MN= 2316 Main 0.15
14 KN/m N/m2 span=18800m2
Table 2: values for eqs (15, 16)
Wind loading on stays
The lateral load exerted on the cables due to the drag
pressure of the wind can be calculated having the density of
the air, diameter of the stay and the drag coefficient[2]. In
order to analyse the worst case later loading on individual
stays, it is assumed that the Reynolds’s number is within
the subcritical range. Thus, Cd=1.21
1
ρU 2 DCd = 0.5 ×1.23( Kg m3 ) × 57(m s ) × 0.2(m) ×1.21
2
= 8.5 kg m = 85 N m (17)
6 Temperature
strain induced as a result diurnal temperature variations as
well as temperature changes between top black surface and
bottom surfaces can have a major effect on the bending
moments in the deck and consequently tensile stresses in
the cables. Therefore, both effective temperature changes
and temperature difference effects are calculated.
Surface depth > 200 mm => adjustment values of +3 and -4
are added to minimum and maximum effective bridge
temperature respectively. Table 12, BS5400 [3]
As 1 in 120 year minimum and maximum temperature was
not available, maximum and minimum heat index of the
area was selected from the local isothermal map.
6.1 Design values for effective temperature changes:
minimum shade air temperature + 3 = -2 oC
maximum shade air temperature – 4 = 26 oC
ΔT=28 oC , α= thermal expansion and concrete= 12x10-6/oC
=>strain= ε = α ΔT = 12x10-6 x 28 = 336 µε
(18)
=>longitudinal expansion= δL = εc LL= 336 x 10-6 x 471000
= 158 mm (19)
In order to evaluate the worst case effect and considering
the 120 years design lifetime, it is assumed that the deck is
completely fixed and joints are corroded. Thus, the
generated stress leads to the highest compression and
buckling case.
=> Stress= σc= E ε = 210000 x 336 x 10 -6 = 47.5
N/mm2 (20)
6.2 Temperature difference in deck:
Positive temperature difference occurs when solar
radiation is absorbed in top black surface (asphalt) while
the bottom of the deck is cold. This effect can induce a
compressive force as the cold bottom surface restrains
the movement of the top surface leading to a hogging
moment. Conversely, the same effect can be caused
throughout the nights as the heat store is re-radiated in
the bottom surface as a result of thermal mass, while the
top surface is in the cooling process.
Figure 6: temperature difference for composite deck
According to Annex C table C.2 [3], group 3 for
h=200mm T1=8.5 oC and 1.6 oC for positive and reverse
temperature difference respectively.
7 Natural Frequency
The entire 900 m, three-span continuous suspended deck
of the bridge is assumed to be perfectly symmetrical and
hence is analysed for natural frequency to check the
vibration serviceability requirements.
2
Natural frequency f : C EIg (3.92 / 2 π x 4702)
= My 5.4 ×1012 (N.mm) ×1016(mm)
o
2π l 2
M σ max =
x( 200 x 10 x 16.58 x 9.81 / (14.1) 0.5 = 16.7 Hz (21)
9
Note M is dead-load+ superimposed load( excluding
3 3
live loads), II-section beam = bh − 2 ×[(b − tw ) / 2]× h1 = 16.58
12
m4
Since 5 Hz < 16.7 Hz < 75 Hz , hence there is no need
to calculate the vertical acceleration of the bridge.
8 Seismic design
The effect of the earthquake is assumed to act as static
lateral forces at the centre of mass of the bridge. Seismic
lateral force exerted at the bridge can be evaluated using
modern codes provided in Eurocode 8.
9 Cables
The twin-plane modified fan layout of the bridge not
only allows a more uniform distribution of forces
through the deck but also results in a great reduction of
concentrated loads at the anchor points. Also the
provision of inclined stay arrangement attached to the
diamond-shaped pylons can increase the rotational
strength of the deck section under eccentric loading
compared with the vertical twin-plane arrangement.
Each of the 128 cables
supporting the 900 meters deck
of the bridge can withstand
500 tons of loading. This is
equivalent to a tensile strength
of about 1750 N/mm2 on Figure 7: cable cross-section[2]
individual cables. Therefore, to
allow such high stresses to be
tolerated within the cables, the new parallel wire
strands(PWS) cables were used throughout the structure.
every cable containing of 85 seven-wire strands covered by
a high density polyethylene pipe, 400mm in diameter.[5]
10 Strength
10.1 Bending
In order to assess the bending moment of the bridge it is
initially assumed that the main 470 m span of the bridge
acts as a continuous beam and its supported by a pinned
and a roller at the pylons. As the stays cables are post
tensioned, the dead load of the structure will not generate a
critical moment. Therefore, the worst bending effect is
induced due to the presence of live loading. Taking both
HA and knife-edge loading acting simultaneously at the
mid-span, the maximum bending is calculated using
equation ()
wl 2 Pl (22)
M= +
8 4
M= 5026 MN+ 289 MN = 5.4 GN.m
= = 331 N
I 16.58 ×1012 (mm 4 ) mm 2
However the actual induced moment is far less than the
above calculated moment, as the cables support the slab at
multiple points preventing the deck to excessively deflect.
Considering the cables at the connection points act
elastically, this corresponds to a symmetrical half-cloud like
shape as illustrated in figure. Due to impracticalities in
prediction of moment in such shaped moment diagram, it is
assumed that the actual induced stress in deck is the third of
the calculated above.(110 N/mm2)
Figure 8: BM diagram of main span as a continuous beam
 considering rigid and elastic supports between cables and
the deck respectively.
Case 1:. For this case the buckling strength can be
calculated as shown in equation.

π 2 EI π 2 × 200 ×10 6 ×16.58

PErigid = = = 363GN
L2 32 (25)
Figure 9: BM diagram of main span with elastic 3636 GN>>288 MN
supports
Case 2: when supports are assumed to be elastic.
Although, a minimum case moment can be evaluated,
π 2 EI π 2 × 200 ×10 6 ×16.58
assuming that the cable connections to the deck are PErigid = = = 592MN
L2 2352
rigid. This would result in a bending moment diagram
592>>288 MN
shown in figure. Hence calculating the stress for such
11 Construction
case, it is concluded that the real be stress value would
lie in the region of : 110Mpa < σ A < 0.2Mpa
wl 2 Pl
M= +
10 4 (23)
198 × 32 2574 × 3
M= + = 2109KNm
10 4
My 2109 ×10 6 (N.mm) ×1016(mm)
σ min = = = 0.13Mpa
I 16.58 ×1012 (mm 4 )

Figure 10: BM diagram of main span with rigid supports

10.2 Cable Forces

In order to analyse the worst case scenario, an

unsymmetrical live loading is assumed to be applied on
one single carriageway. This must be then supported by
16 cables spanning half of the main span of 470m.
Assuming that the loads are uniformly distributed in the
cables and the final cable is inclined at an angle of 30o,
stress in the corresponding cable can be checked. figure 11: River cable anchorage is provided during
Vertical force in every cable as a result of full HA the construction of the deck to prevent excessive fluttering
loading is: and lateral wind loading [6]
20(m) × 235(m) × (2 × 8.01+ 3× 4.80)(KN / m 2 )
Fv = = 8930KN Construction of pylons play a crucial part in the design
16
stage of the Arthur Ravenel Bridge due to environmental
8930
FC,max = = 10311KN conditions of the region. They have to be constructed in
cos30 such a way to ensure adequate stiffness of main span
10311000 against both seismic and hurricane effects. In order to allow
σ C,max = = 82MPa << 1750Mpa
π (200 2 ) (24) sufficient ductility, hollow rectangular towers were used
throughout the construction of the pylons. Transverse and
10.3 Buckling longitudinal post tensioning is provided throughout the
Taking into account both full HA and dead loading different portions of the pylon to allow a high resistance
this time, horizontal component force exerted to the against the local stresses. The legs of the pylon, at the
deck at the mid-length of the main span is: foundation, was leant inward to create the diamond
configuration of the pylons. This itself caused a a great
"  
Liveload
 Deadload
 factored % increase in the deflection of the members which was then
40.1× 235 × $( 2 × 8.01+ 8 × 4.80 ) + (18.3) ' mitigated by using large-diameter drilled shafts placed
$ '
FH =
# &
= 288MN directly into pier columns. This also led to the elimination
o
Cot30 of all pile caps of the main span and high level approach
spans. The provision of 3 meters diameter drilled shafts
Similar to the moment behaviour, minimum and throughout the foundation contributed to both the seismic
maximum buckling cases can be evaluated by demands and flexibility of the construction. It is worth
mentioning that the further stabilization of the structure
against seismic effects was done through exploiting 112
internal and 16 external hydraulic dampers.[7]
The successive cantilever method was used to assemble
the prefabricated deck sections of the bridge. It was
crucial to determine the stresses in the structure at each
stage to ensure that they were not exceeding the design
limits. Thus network of sensors were built in the
structure to detect theses stresses. Subsequently, each 40
m long section was lifted to the place by crane vessels
and was bolted to the last one to hold it in place. The
polyethylene shield (shark fins) are placed and the
cables are connected in pairs across the section. Initially
50 % tension was allowed in the anchored cables. After
all 32 cables were connected to the deck, the cables
relieved the hogging moment and were increased to the
full tension.[8]
Throughout the construction of the main span was , a
fairly large lateral bending moment was noticed due to
the slope of the pylon legs. Consequently, despite the
initial design of the location of the stays at the centre of
each tower leg, it was decided to place the stay anchors
at the inside face of the legs. Using such approach led to
the following advantages:
• creation of a complimentary lateral bending moment
which would offset the excessive lateral bending
moment as a result of dead load.
• Significant saving in the reinforcing materials
• Simplification of the anchorage and provision of
more space for elevator access and maintenance
12 Geotechnics
Previous surveying on
former Cooper bridge
showed that the bearing
stratum of the bridge is
positioned at a favorably
stiff clay, whilst the river
and the land regions of the
structure contains soft
alluvial deposits and
surficial soils respectively.
It must be ensured that the
liquefiable sand in depth of
the foundations has
sufficient lateral resistance
to withstand the local
seismic effects. Therefore,
blast liquefaction testing
were fully conducted at Figure 12: Main tower foundation,
the site to measure the 11 shafts to support each main
lateral strength of the tower[7]
large-diameter drilled
shaft in the pier columns. In addition, Osterberg load
cell testing was conducted to ascertain sufficient axial
strength of the shaft foundation.
13 Environmental features
Application of locally available fly ash in production of
concrete material not only contributed to the final cost
and the strength of the concrete, but also prevent the use of
conventional polyepoxide coated bars, microsilica and
other corrosion inhibitors.
Furthermore, Arthur Ravenel bridge features dimmable
aesthetic lighting which, can be turned off at specific times
to conserve energy. In addition, the system incorporates the
latest technological advancement to prevent the light
pollution, which not only can be threatening to local sea
turtles during nesting season but could also inhibit the
observation of stars during nighttime. [9]
14 Future Possible Improvements
• Provision of a hurricane evacuation route apart from the
existing emergency lane to allow a higher traffic flow in
case of occurrence of hurricane
• Replacement of the existing stay cables with aramid
fibre cables to increase their tensile strength to high as
4100 N/mm2 to meet the future live and superimposed
loadings. Additionally, these new composite cables have
a lower density as well as a higher corrosion resistance.
• Roughening the surface of the existing cables by
projections or texturing to prevent any vortex shedding
References
[1] Flickr 2010, Arthur Ravenel bridge in night,
www.flickr.com/photos/ArthurRavenelBridge, Available
online at:, http://www.flickr.com/photos >
[2] Institution of Civil Engineers 2008, ICE manual of
bridge engineering, 2nd edn, Thomas Telford Ltd, London.
[3] British Standard 2006, Steel, concrete and composite
bridges (BS 5400-2).
[4] BSEN1991-1-4:2005, Action on structures-Wind
actions, BSI.
[5] J.Abrahams, M 2005, 'Bridge over Cooper River',
Modern Steel Structure, vol 1, no. 1, pp. 9-12.
[6] Schlaich, M, 'ERECTION OF CABLE-STAYED
BRIDGES HAVING COMPOSITE DECKS WITH
PRECAST CONCRETE SLABS ', Journal of bridge
engineering.
[7] Kyle Rollins, SBLH 2008, 'Static and dynami lateral
load tests in liquefied sands', The Sixth National Seismic
Conference on Bridges & Highways, Available online
at:http://mceer.buffalo.edu/meetings/6nsc/review/1B2-
1Rollins.pdf.
[8] Wright, KJ 2006, 'Addressing the challenges of long
span bridges', HDR, South Carolina.
[9] Renz, S 2006, 'Protecting wetlands and wildlife on the
americas longest cable-stayed bridge', WETLANDS,
Charleston.