Table of Contents

Title Page

Table of Contents

Course Outline

Online Rules and Regulations

Course Description

Week 1 – 3 Nature of Language and Learning

Learning Exercises / Activities

Week 4 – 6 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning

Approaches
Learning Exercises / Activities

Week 7 – 9 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning:

The Functional Approaches

Learning Exercises / Activities

Week 10 – 12 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning:

Philosophies of Education

Learning Exercises / Activities

Week 13 – 15 Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and

Learning:Reading Approach

Learning Exercises / Activities & Rating Guide

Week 16 – 18 Approaches to Language Teaching

Learning Exercises / Activities & Rating Guide

References

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 Course Outline
Course Name Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and
Learning
Course Credit 3 Units
Pre-requisite None
Contact Hours / Week 3 Hours
Nature of Language and Learning

 Definition of Language
 Nature of Language
Week 1 - 3
 What is Learning?
 Nature of Learning
 Language Acquisition vs Language Learning
 First Language Acquisition vs Second Language
Acquisition

Learning Exercise / Activities

Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition

and Learning Approaches

 Behaviorist theory
Week 4 - 6
 Basic Language Learning
 Stages in Child Language Acquisition
 Cognitive Theory
 Social Interaction Theory
 Nature vs Nurture

Learning Exercise / Activities

Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition

2
 and Learning: The Functional Approaches

Week 7 - 9  Instrumental Function

 Regulatory Function
 Interactional Function
 Personal Function
 Representational/Informative Function
 Hueristic Function
 Imaginative function

Learning Exercise / Activities
Rating Guide

Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and

Week 10 - 12 Learning: Philosophies of Education

 How we view learning as teachers?

 Education Philosophies
 Idealism
 Realism
 Pragmatism
 Existentialism
Learning Exercise / Activities

Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition

Week 13 - 15 and Learning:Reading Approach

 Why reading is important in language

acquisition?
 Brief history of reading approach
 Different approaches in teaching reading
 The intensive and extensive reading

3
 Learning Exercise / Activities

Approaches to Language Teaching

Present-day Teaching Methods

Week 16 - 18
Learning Exercise / Activities
Rating Guide

ONLINE RULES AND REGULATIONS

1. Students must provide notebook and ballpen for note taking.

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 2. Students must mute his / her speaker as the discussion started.

3. As the online class started, please observe the following:

a. Find a place that is noise free but with strong signal for internet
connection

a. Unnecessary exercises are not allowed while the online class are going on.

b. Make sure that everybody is ready for the session.

c. Be on your well-mannered position, lying or sleeping position is not

permitted.

d. Eating during online class is not allowed.

e. If you have questions / queries regarding with the discussion, just press the
hands-up emoticon to acknowledge your questions.

Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning

5
Course Description.

Language learning starts at birth. However, we wonder how children could possibly acquire
language as such a complex skill with very little experience of life. Rice, Bruehler, and
Specker(2004) stated that experiments have clearly identified an ability to distinguish
syntactical shades of difference in very young infants, although they are still at the pre-
linguistic stage. For example, children of three are able to handle very complicated
syntactical sentences, although they are unable to tie their own shoelaces. So how do
children learn to speak? This course will examines principles, factors, and contexts of
language acquisition and learning based on theories and research findings.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this course student should be able to:

1. To Identify various theories in first and second language acquisition.

2. To describe the stages of second language acquisition.
3. To differentiate between characteristics of language acquisition and
language/learning
4. To understand the different approaches and functions of language acquisitions
and learning.

Week 1 - 3. Nature of Language and Learning

Learning Objectives.

6
1. To define language and learning
2. To differentiate language learning from language acquisition.
3. To understand the nature of learning.

Discussion.

What is language?

Language is the process of exchanging of messages and creating meaning.

Language Is part of culture.
Language is also intertwined with human biology.

Characteristics of Human Language

1. Language is a social tool.

2. Language must be learned.
3. The relationship between the sound of a language and their meaning
is arbitrary and dual.
4. Language has rules.
5. Language allows human to be creative.

Language acquisition vs Language Learning

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 Language is about communication and identity (Baker, 2000:26). We need
language to transfer and share information and to build relationships with the others.
Bowen (1998) said that language is called the symbolization of thought. It is a learned
code, or system of rules that enables us to communicate ideas and express wants and
needs. Bowen further added that language falls into two main divisions, receptive language
(understanding what is said, written or signed) and expressive language (related to
speaking, writing or signing). Thus, language is simply defined by Richards et. al. (1992, p.
196) as the system of human communication which consists of the structures
arrangements of sounds (or their written presentation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes,
words, sentences, utterances.

The process of perceiving language in an individual is by the processes of learning

and acquisition. Learning is a conscious process, knowing the rules, being aware of them,
and being able to talk about them. Whereas acquisition is a process by which children
unconsciously acquire their native/first language(s). In language acquisition, the focus is on
communication or reception of a message as opposed to syntax and grammar as is the
case in language learning (Rice, Bruehler & Specker, 2004). Ebert & Hawk (2003).

It is believed that the usual outcome of language acquisition is fluency, which is by

no means guaranteed in language learning.

Nature of Learning

1. Learning is a process.
2. Learning involves experiences and training of an individual which helps to
change his behavior.
3. Learning prepare the individual to adjust and adopt in the situations.
4. All learning is purposeful and goal oriented.
5. Learning is universal and continuous.
6. It is a continuous process and never- ending process that goes from womd
to tomb.

8
 7 Principles in Learning
(Dumont et. al. 2010)

1. Learners at the center.

2. The social nature of learning.
3. Emotions are integral to learning.
4. Recognizing individual difference.
5. Stretching all students.
6. Assessment fro learning.
7. Building horizontal connections.

First Language Acquisition vs Second Language Acquisition

The expected cry of a newborn baby is the first sign of human communication. Language
acquisition process can be seen as a running parallel throughout a child‟s life every day.
She/he learns to communicate through natural interactions with his/her environment. The
process begins in the early live of a human and requires a healthy start, sufficient
opportunities, and exposure to a care giving environment that allows the child‟s innate
predisposition to learn to communicate to functions (Rossetti, 2001, p. 45).
More than half of the world‟s population today uses more than one language while being
connected to fundamental human activities. Bilingualism symbolizes the essential humanity
of building bridges between people of different color, creed, culture and language (Baker,
2000, p.5).

Baker (2000) stated children are born ready to become bilinguals and multilingual. They are
like“sponges”, as they sponges-up all languages provided by their environment and
chances to interact with people of different language backgrounds. They would pick-up any
language without endangering their own first language development. Lambert (1962) said
that bilingual activity does not retard intelligence (in Garcia, 1986).

To enhance children‟s bilingualism, a lot of stimulations to language are essential. In some

9
situations, producing bilingual children is easy and natural, in others it can be a struggle. A
lot of factors affect the process, such as encouragements from both of the parents at home
and the community. In bilingual and multilingual community, there is a great need to master
two or more languages for operating daily activities successfully. Therefore, this situation
strongly supports the children‟s bilingualism. Language engineering or shaping is important
in families that judge bilingualism as a challenge. This means that it is important that
children‟s attitudes towards their languages are motivated and encouraged continuously. A
variety of pleasurable environment for language growth is very important.

Learning Exercises / Activities

I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of the following statements is true about language

acquisition?
a) At birth, children know the elementary aspects of the
language of their parents.
b) By age one, children typically use about three words
consisting of single morphemes.
c) Babies learn a language best when they are forced to repeat
phrases given to them by their parents.
d) none of the above

2. When young children begin to learn standard grammar, they tend

to over regularize it. What does this mean?
a) They consistently use correct grammar in virtually every
sentence.
b) They excessively regulate or control what they say to the
point that they become inhibited.
c) They assume that common syntax rules apply in all
situations.
d) none of the above

3. The best time to learn a second language is in:

a) early childhood
b) junior and senior high school
c) college

4. It is best to learn a second language:

a) in a classroom where you can focus on the grammar and
receive help from a teacher
b) through constant contact with native speakers in their own
society

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 c) both of the above approaches to learning are equally
effective.

5. Which of the following statements is true about the effect of

language?
a) Bilingual people usually perform math and other
complicated mental tasks with their first language.
b) Second languages learned as adults are rarely
forgotten even if they are not used regularly.
b) neither of the above is true

6. Language acquisition

A. is best understood by watching animals communicate.

B. is a theory that is agreed upon by the psychological
community.

C. cannot happen among the deaf community.

D. is the process by which we learn to communicate in
meaningful ways.

7. How can we describe the language acquisition device?

A. A hypothetical tool that helps children quickly learn and
understand language
B. A section of the brain labeled 'language acquisition device'

C. A device you plug into children's heads to teach them a

language
D. A toy that teaches children how to speak

8. Who developed the language acquisition device?

A. Noam Chomsky
B. Choam Nomsky
C. Chuck Norris
D. Chuck Numsky

9. Which is NOT a stage of language acquisition according to

Krashen´s theory?

A. Pre- production.
B. Early production.
C. Language interference
D. Speech emergent.

10. The idea that ‘Language is not learnt by groups’ relates to.
A. Individual differences

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 B. Affective Factors
C. Cognitive Factors

Week 4 – 6. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning

Approaches

Learning Objectives.

1. To determine the theory of behaviorism

2. To understand the behaviorism theory in language acquisition and
Learning.
3. To analyze the theory of behaviorist theory.
Discussion.
The Principle of Behaviorist Theory

Behaviorism is a learning theory that studies observable and measurable behavioral

changes, which result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner.

This theory stems from the work of Pavlov who studied animal behavior, and was able to
condition a dog to associate the ringing of a bell with food. Pavlovian conditioning is known
as classical conditioning.

Pavlov's premise was later developed by Thorndike, Watson and Skinner. Skinner
introduced the theory of operant conditioning (i.e., a behavior followed by a reinforcer
results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future; a behavior
followed by a punishment is weakened or suppressed in the future).

Behaviorism in the classroom

Behaviorist techniques have long been applied in educational practices, especially in

classroom and behavior management.

The learning process, according to Behaviorism, places the teacher in a primary role
wherein he or she adjusts the learner's behavior and directs learning through drill and
practice, through habit-breaking, and punishment/reward.

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Conversely, the learner's activity, be it thinking or doing, is confined to the framework of
"behavior", and is governed by the stimulus-response-reinforcement process.

Examples: In Behaviorism

1. Follow the instructions.

2. Take the test.
3. Get the reward.
4. Learn.

BEHAVIORIST THEORY ON LANGUAGE LEARNING AND ACQUISITION

Introduction

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There are some basic theories advanced to describe how language is acquired, learnt and
taught. The behaviorist theory, Mentalist theory (Innatism), Rationalist theory (otherwise
called Cognitive theory), and Interactionism are some of these theories.Of these,
behaviorist theory and mentalist theory are mainly applicable to the acquisition of native
languages while the rest can account for foreign language acquisition. Yet, these four
fundamental theories of language acquisition cannot be totally divorced from each other, for
"theobjectives of second language learning are not necessarily entirely determined by
native language competence inevitably serves as a foil against which to set second
language learning." (H.H. Stem, .1983; 30).
Mother Tongue and Foreign Language Learning

These five basic theories are, furthermore, very much complementary to each other,
serving different types of learners or representing various cases of language learning. They
must not automatically make us presume that first and second language learning are
identical or alike processes, though second language learning is strongly tied up with first
language acquisition.Obviously, native language growth must pave the way for foreign
language growth. Then these five basic language learning theories are fundamental pillars
of language learning whose relevance to education is undeniable.

The Principle of the Behaviorist Theory

The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral language from other human role
models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in
an infant’s environment provide the stimuli and rewards,” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). When a
child attempt oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually
praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus, praise and affection becomes the
rewards. However, the behaviorist theory is scrutinized for a variety of reasons. If rewards
play such a vital component in language development, what about the parent who is
inattentive or not present when the child attempts speech? If a baby’s language learning is
motivated strictly by rewards would the speech attempts stop merely for lack of rewards
(Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)? Other cases against this theory include “learning the use and
meaning of abstract words, evidence of novel forms of language not modeled by others,
and uniformity of language acquisition in humans”(Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).

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The Background of the Behaviorist Theory

The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral language from other human role
models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in
an infant’s environment provide the stimuli and rewards,” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). When a
child attempts oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually
praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus, praise and affection becomes the
rewards. However, the behaviorist theory is scrutinized for a variety of reasons. If rewards
play such a vital component in language development, what about the parent who is
inattentive or not present when the child attempts speech? If a baby’s language learning is
motivated strictly by rewards would the speech attempts stop merely for lack of rewards
(Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)?

Other cases against this theory include “learning the use and meaning of abstract words,
evidence of novel forms of language not modeled by others, and uniformity of language
acquisition in humans”(Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).Behaviorist theory, which is basically a
psychological theory in its essence, founded by J.B.Watson, is actually a theory of native
language learning, advanced in part as a reaction totraditional grammar. The supporters of
this theory are Leonard Bloomfield, O.N. Mowrer, B.F.Skinner, and A.W. Staats.
Behaviorism was advanced in America as a new approach to psychology in the early
decades of the 20th-century by making a particular emphasis on the importance of verbal
behavior, and received a considerable trust from the educational world of 1950s.The major
principle of the behaviorist theory rests on the analyses of human behavior in observable
stimulus-response interaction and the association between them. E.L.T. Thorndike was the
first behaviorist to explore the area that learning is the establishment of associations on
particular process of behavior and consequences of that behavior. Basically, "the
behaviorist theory of stimulus-response learning, particularly as developed in the operant
conditioning model of Skinner, considers all learning to be the establishment of habits as a
result of reinforcement and reward" (Wilga Rivers, 1968, 73). This is very reminiscent of
Pavlov's experiment which indicates that stimulus and response work together. According
to this category, the babies obtain native language habits via varied babblings which
resemble the appropriate words repeated by a person or object near him. Since for his
babblings and mutterings he is rewarded, this very reward reinforces further articulations of

15
the same sort into grouping of syllables and words in a similar situation. In this way, he
goes on emitting sounds,groups of sounds, and as he grows up he combines the
sentences via generalizations and analogy (as in*goed for went, *doed,for did,so on), which
in some complicated cases,condition him to commit errors by articulating in permissible
structures in speech. By the age offive or six, or babblings and mutterings grow into
socialized speech but little by little they are internalized as implicit speech, and thus many
of their utterances become indistinguishable from the adults. This, then, obviously, means
that behaviorist theory is a theory of stimulus-response psychology."Through a trial-and-
error process, in which acceptable utterances are reinforced by comprehension and
approval, and un acceptable utterances are inhibited by the lack of reward,he gradually
learns to make finer and finer discriminations until his utterances approximate more and
more closely the speech of the community in which he is growing up (Wilga M.
Rivers,1968; 73). To put it in other words, children develop a natural affinity to learn the
language of their social surroundings whose importance both over language learning and
teaching must never be underestimated. In this respect behaviorist theory stresses the fact
that "human and animal learning is a process of habit formation. A highly complex learning
task, according to this theory may be learned by being broken' down into smaIl habits.
These are formed correct or incorrect responses, are rewarded or, punished, respectively'.
(Hubbard Jones and ThorntonWheeler, 1983; 326). Thus it is clear that the acquisition of
learning in infancy is governed the acquisition of other habits.

Stages of Language Acquisition

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Stages of Language Acquisition

There are four main stages of normal language acquisition: The babbling stage, the
Holophrastic or one-word stage, the two-word stage and the Telegraphic stage. These
stages can be broken down even more into these smaller stages: pre-production, early
production, speech emergent, beginning fluency intermediate fluency and advanced
fluency. On this page I will be providing a summary of the four major stage of language
acquisition.

Babbling

Within a few weeks of being born the baby begins to recognize it’s mothers’ voice. There
are two sub-stages within this period. The first occurs between birth – 8 months. Most of
this stage involves the baby relating to its surroundings and only during 5/6 – 8 month
period does the baby begin using it’s vocals. As has been previously discussed babies
learn by imitation and the babbling stage is just that. During these months the baby hears
sounds around them and tries to reproduce them, albeit with limited success. The babies
attempts at creating and experimenting with sounds is what we call babbling. When the
baby has been babbling for a few months it begins to relate the words or sounds it is
making to objects or things. This is the second sub-stage. From 8 months to 12 months the
baby gains more and more control over not only it’s vocal communication but physical
communication as well, for example body language and gesturing. Eventually when the
baby uses both verbal and non-verbal means to communicate, only then does it move on to
the next stage of language acquisition.

Holophrastic / One-word stage

The second stage of language acquisition is the holophrastic or one word stage. This stage
is characterized by one word sentences. In this stage nouns make up around 50% of the
infants vocabulary while verbs and modifiers make up around 30% and questions and
negatives make up the rest. This one-word stage contains single word utterances such as
“play” for “I want to play now”. Infants use these sentence primarily to obtain things they
want or need, but sometimes they aren’t that obvious. For example a baby may cry or say

17
“mama” when it purely wants attention. The infant is ready to advance to the next stage
when it can speak in successive one word sentences.

Two-Word Stage

The two word stage (as you may have guessed) is made of up primarily two word
sentences. These sentences contain 1 word for the predicate and 1 word for the subject.
For example “Doggie walk” for the sentence “The dog is being walked.” During this stage
we see the appearance of single modifiers e.g. “That dog”, two word questions e.g.
“Mummy eat?” and the addition of the suffix –ing onto words to describe something that is
currently happening e.g. “Baby Sleeping.”

Telegraphic Stage

The final stage of language acquisition is the telegraphic stage. This stage is named as it is
because it is similar to what is seen in a telegram; containing just enough information for
the sentence to make sense. This stage contains many three and four word sentences.
Sometime during this stage the child begins to see the links between words and objects
and therefore over generalization comes in. Some examples of sentences in the
telegraphic stage are “Mummy eat carrot”, “What her name?” and “He is playing ball.”
During this stage a child’s vocabulary expands from 50 words to up to 13,000 words. At the
end of this stage the child starts to incorporate plurals, joining words and attempts to get a
grip on tenses.

As a child’s grasp on language grows it may seem to us as though they just learn each part
in a random order, but this is not the case. There is a definite order of speech sounds.
Children first start speaking vowels, starting with the rounded mouthed sounds like “oo” and
“aa”. After the vowels come the consonants, p, b, m, t, d, n, k and g. The consonants are
first because they are easier to pronounce then some of the others, for example ‘s’ and ‘z’
require specific tongue place which children cannot do at that age.

As all human beings do, children will improvise something they cannot yet do. For example
when children come across a sound they cannot produce they replace it with a sound they

18
can e.g. ‘Thoap” for “Soap” and “Wun” for “Run.” These are just a few example of
resourceful children are, even if in our eyes it is just cute.

How do children learn to speak? Behavioural theory assumes that children imitate what
they hear, and thanks to continuous, positive reinforcement, children learn language
through conditioning and habit formation. Behaviourist theorists such as Skinner also claim
that all errors during first language acquisition are due to ‘bad habit formation,’ which, in
due course, children correct as they hear and imitate accurate speech. In contrast to
behaviourists, ‘nativists,’ like Chomsky, believe that human beings are born with an innate
capacity for language development.

Deliberations continue between linguists regarding the importance of ‘nature’ over ‘nurture’
in acquisition of language.
Language Acquisition as a Result of Nurture

Behaviourists propose that a child’s environment is the most important factor in first
language acquisition, and if a child is exposed to ‘rich language,’ then ‘good habit
formation,’ and proper language development will occur. It is possible that first language
acquisition includes speech imitation, but:
·
Children do not imitate everything they hear; they appear to be very selective and only
reproduce unassimilated language chunks. Therefore, their replications seem to be
controlled by an internal language-monitoring process.
·
Children learn the basic rules of language at around the age of five; the behaviourist theory
cannot account for the speed that first language is acquired.
·
Children say things that are not adult imitations; in particular they use inflectional over
generalizations such as ‘goed,’ ‘putted,’ ‘mouses,’ and ‘sheeps.’
· Children produce language structures that do not exist; you often hear, “Where I am?”
instead of “Where am I?”

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· Children that acquire language from habit formation seem to memorize certain structures
prematurely. These phrases become lodged in their minds as unassimilated chunks of
information that they cannot incorporate into their own verbal expressions.

· Children produce many more sound-combinations than they hear, and understand many
more than they can produce.

· Children are exposed to language performance and not to language competence. Often
they are exposed to “debilitated” language, yet, they manage to extract the language rules
from these utterances and speak correctly.

We are Wired to Acquire Language

“When we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the ‘human
essence,’ the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man.”
(Noam Chomsky)

Unlike the behaviourist approach that does not take into consideration the child’s own
cognitive processes, the ‘Innateness Hypothesis’ proposed by linguist Noam Chomsky
supports the idea that language acquisition has a biological foundation. Facts that support
this theory include the following:

· Children acquire language sounds in a certain sequence, and the first sounds that
children learn are those that are common to all world languages: a stop consonant followed
by an open vowel: thus a child’s first utterances are usually those found in words for
‘mother’ and ‘father,’ sounds such as ‘pa,’ ‘ma,’ ‘ba’ or ‘ta,’ as seen in French: maman,
papa; Greek: mama, baba; Hebrew: eema, aba.

· Children tend to learn language in the same sequence, suggesting that universality of
language exists and the environment alone cannot be responsible for language acquisition.
·
Children acquire function words such as ‘or’ and ‘on’ and the less salient sounds connected
to possessives, pluralisation and third person singular in a certain order. Interestingly, the
plural ‘s’ and other forms of ‘s’ are not all developed in unison.

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Language Development: An Innate Neurological Process

For language development to occur, interaction has to take place; language cannot be
acquired passively. Although imitation and habit forming do have a role in language
acquisition, children seem predisposed to acquire speech and competency in language by
being able to map language, possibly onto what Noam Chomsky calls a ‘language
acquisition device.’

Learning Exercises / Activities

I. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is the first language level children learn?

A. Lexis
B. Grammar
C. Phonology
D. Syntax
2. At what age do children typically enter the one word stage?

A. 6 months
B. 12 months
C. 18 months
D. 24 months

3. What is it called when a child makes a mistake that make grammatical

sense but isn't correct due to an irregular rule.

A. Honest mistake
B. Virtuous mistake
C. Virtuous error
D. A boo boo

4. Which theory do virtuous errors support?

A. Naturvist
B. Behaviourist
C. Cognitive
D. Vygotsky

5. Who suggests children learn by imitating adults?

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 A. Chomsky
B. Skinner
C. Piaget
D. Nelson

6. Which of this is an example of positive reinforcement?

A. No, that's wrong.

B. Say please.
C. Ok, you can have some juice.
D. When?

7. Which is more effective?

A. Positive reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement

8. When do children enter the two word stage?

A. 6 months

B. 12 months

C. 18 months

D. 24 month

9. What does Vygotsky suggest is essential to language acquisition?

A. Interaction
B. Play
C. Older siblings
D. TV

10. In his review of Skinner’s (1957) book on behaviourism and language

learning, Chomsky (1959) argued that ______.

A. operant conditioning is inefficient because it relies on imitation

B. children acquire a good deal of their verbal behaviour by imitating
adults
C. children do not rely on imitation in the acquisition of verbal
behaviour
d. the acquisition of verbal behaviour depends on operant

22
 Conditioning

Week 7 – 9. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning:

The Functional Approaches

Learning Objectives.

1. To identify the different language approaches under functional approach

2. To understand the theory of Hallidays.
3. To discuss the theory of Hallidays and its importance in language
acquisition and learning

Discussion.

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 Several attempts have been made to catalogue the different functions of language,
and to chart child language development in terms of the increasing range of these functions
to be found in the growing child’s repertoire. Michael Halliday’s taxonomy is documented
below:- Instrumental: Language used to fulfil a need on the part of the speaker. Directly
concerned with obtaining food, drink and comfort.

– Regulatory: Language used to influence the behaviour of others. Concerned with

persuading / commanding / requesting other people to do things you want.

– Interactional: Language used to develop social relationships and ease the process
of interaction. Concerned with the phatic dimension of talk.

– Personal: Language used to express the personal preferences and identity of the
speaker. Sometimes referred to as the ‘Here I am!’ function – announcing oneself to the
world.

– Representational: Language used to exchange information. Concerned with

relaying or requesting information.

– Heuristic: Language used to learn and explore the environment. Child uses
language to learn; this may be questions and answers, or the kind of running commentary
that frequently accompanies children’s play.

– Imaginative: Language used to explore the imagination. May also accompany play
as children create imaginary worlds, or may arise from storytelling.

Halliday’s Functions of Language

Function Examples Classroom

Experiences
Instrumental "I want to ..." Problem solving,
language is used to gathering materials,

24
communicate role playing,
preferences, choices, persuading
wants, or needs
Personal "Here I am ...." Making feelings
language is used to public and
express individuality interacting with
others
Interactional "You and me ...." Structured play,
language is used to "I'll be the dialogues and
interact and plan, cashier, ...." discussions,
develop, or maintain a talking in groups
play or group activity or
social relationship
Regulatory "Do as I tell you ...." making rules in
language is used to "You need ...." games, giving
control instructions,
teaching
Representational "I'll tell you." Conveying
Use language to explain "I know." messages,
telling about the real
world, expressing a
proposition
Heuristic "Tell me why ...." Question and
language is used to find "Why did you do answer, routines,
things out, wonder, or that?" inquiry and research
hypothesize "What for?"
Imaginative "Let's pretend ...." Stories and
language is used to "I went to my dramatizations,
create, explore, and grandma's last rhymes, poems, and

25
 entertain night." riddles, nonsense
and word play

How did you learn to speak your native language? Notice that this shouldn't be such a
puzzling question. We often ask questions such as, do you remember when you learned to
tie your shoes, ride a bike, and eat with a fork? Sometimes we can remember because a
parent helped us learn how to do these things.

Now, since we always speak the language of our parents, they must have helped us learn
to speak our first language. But do you remember when your mother taught you the past
tense? When your father laid down the rules for passive sentences? We don't remember
these important moments of our childhood because they never occurred.
Our parents didn't teach us how to walk and they didn't teach us how to talk. Yet we
learned from them. How can this be? Certainly there must have been a subtle, perhaps
intuitive teaching process that neither our parents nor we were aware of. We begin by
imitating what we hear our parents say as best we can, repeating random phrases. Our
parents in subtle ways punish us for the childish speech errors we make (by not
responding, correcting the error, etc.) and reward correct phrases (by responding
positively). As our speech improves, our parents respond more positively and less
negatively. No?

First, let's examine the assumption that children begin speaking by trying to repeat what
they have heard their parents say. Have you ever heard a child say things like this:

Daddy go

He hitted me!

No eat cake

26
So, can I finish his eggs?Who did they hear utter such phrases? "Daddy go" is an attempt
to express 'Daddy is going'. But if the child were merely trying to repeat this common
phrase, choosing random two-word combinations, he or she would also occasionally say
"Daddy is" or simply "is going"? Yet these two phrases do not occur as normal speech
errors of children while "Daddy go" is a common one.
Second, research shows that while mothers often respond to the semantic content of what
their children say ("No, that's not a doggie; it's a cow"), they very rarely respond to the
grammatical status of their children's phrases. Indeed, when parents do respond to speech
errors, they most often respond positively. Here are a few advanced errors from the history
of my family. What do you think our response was—correction or laughter (which I take to
be a positive response)?
Mama, mama, there's a tree-knocker in the back yard!

It's raining, where is the underbrella?

Give me the beach-lookers! (binoculars)

In fact, parents themselves make grammatical errors when they speak. Despite the fact
that children don't know when their parents are speaking grammatically and when they are
making errors, all children grow up knowing (if not always speaking) the language perfectly.

So how do we learn to speak? Recall the example above, "He hitted me." Although hitted is
not a word children hear adults utter, it is wrong for an interesting reason: the verb, in a
sense, has the "right" ending on it for the past tense. In other words, the only way a child
learning language could make such an error is that he or she is learning a rule that derives
past tense verbs from verb stems. What the child hasn't mastered at this stage is the
exceptions to the rule. Still, it shows that children look for and learn grammatical rules from
nothing more than the utterances they hear.
Notice also that the words in the erroneous phrases are all in the correct order. No child
would say "go Daddy" for "Daddy is going" or "cookie mommy" for "Mommy's cookie". By
the time a child begins putting two words together, he or she has already mastered the
basic rules of syntax and applies them correctly even in their erroneous speech. It takes the
child a little longer to master the rules of morphology, i.e. affixes and suffixes.

27
The evidence then indicates that children do, in fact, absorb a massive number of
sentences and phrases but rather than parrot them back, they abstract rules from them and
create their own grammar which they then apply to create new utterances they have never
heard before. Over the years from 2-6, when language is mastered, children constantly
adjust their grammar until it matches that of the adult speaker population.

This critical period between the ages of 2-6 suggests that first language learning, like
walking, is an innate capacity of human beings triggered by a level of development more
than feedback from the environment. Can I have it?That is, so long as a child hears a
language–any language–when they reach this critical period they will learn it perfectly. If
this is true, any child not hearing language during this period not only should not learn to
speak but also should not be able to learn to speak. The ethical implications of research on
this question are obvious. However, there have been a few tragic non-scientific bits of
evidence that supports the innateness + critical period hypothesis.

The first bit of evidence comes from the so-called Wild Boy of Aveyron, Victor. Victor is the
name given to a boy found roaming the woods of Averyon in southern France toward the
end of September 1799. He behaved like a wild animal and gave all indications that he had
been raised by wild animals, eating off the floor, making canine noises, disliking baths and
clothes. He also could not speak. He was taken in by Doctor Jean Marc Itard who had
developed a reputation for teaching the deaf to speak. However, after years of work, Itard
failed to teach Victor to more than a few basic words without correct endings, the indicators
of grammar.

A similar event unfolded in Los Angeles in November 1970 when a 13-year-old girl was
discovered who had been isolated in a baby crib most of her life and never spoken to. She
was physically immature, but had difficulty walking and could not speak. Psychologists at
UCLA spent years trying to teach "Genie" (as they called her to protect her identity) to
speak. While Genie did get to the point where she could communicate, her speech never
advanced beyond the kind of constructions we saw in the first set of examples above, the
point where the language explosion in normal children begins. In other words, she could
use words to the same extent as chimpanzees but could not manipulate grammar, as
indicated in the prefixes, suffixes and 'function' words missing in the first set of examples

28
above. At middle age she stopped talking altogether and was soon committed to a mental
institution.
The evidence is not conclusive but, such as it is, it suggests that language is an innate
capacity of human beings which is acquired during a critical period between 2-6. After that
period, it becomes increasingly more difficult for humans to learn languages.

Learning Exercises / Activities.

I. Multiple Choice: Answer the following questions:

1. Which of these is one of Halliday's functions of speech?

A. Instrumental
B. Social
C. Action
D. Personal
2. What do Halliday's functions help us to understand about child language?

A. Lexis
B. Semantics
C. Pragmatics
D. Grammar
3. Which of the following is NOT an example of language acquisition from a
behaviorist perspective?
A. Babies learn language by repeatedly associating the object 'dog' with the word
'dog.'
B. Babies learn language by imitating adult patterns of speech.
C. Babies are born with an innate ability to learn language.

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D. Babies are rewarded for attempts at speech when their caregivers smile and
applaud their efforts.

4. Noam Chomsky argues that babies acquire language

A. because humans are born with the ability to learn language.
B. when caregivers speak softly to infants.
C. by watching adults interact.
D. by repeated exposure to sounds that have meaning.

5. Which theorist places the most importance on social interaction in the

development of language?
A) Chomsky
B) Piaget
C) Skinner
D) Vygotsky

6. In the nature-nurture debate as it applies to language acquisition, Chomsky

emphasizes ______.

A. the ‘harmony and mutual dependence’ of nature and nurture

B. the fundamental antagonism of nature and nurture
C. the importance of nature over nurture
D. the importance of nurture over nature

7. Every time young Haley says the word 'teddy,' she is given her favorite stuffed
bear, which reinforces her understanding and continued use of the word for getting
the toy. According to behaviorist theory, this is an example of:

A. Operant conditioning
B. Information processing
C. Conditioned stimulus
D. Repetitive-style language learning

8. Regardless of culture, children begin to learn language around the same time all
over the world. At about what age is this?
A) between 6 and 8 months
B) between 8 and 28 months
C) between 2 and 4 years
D) between 5 and 7 years
9. Susie and Jen, identical twins, appear to speak and understand their own "secret
language"; however, upon listening to them, their mother is unable to discern any
consistency in the words and grammar they use. When she asks the girls, they
reply that they change it whenever they feel like it. What characteristic of language
does their "language" violate?.

A. The language code is conventional.

B. Language is a representational tool.
C. Language is socially shared.
D. Language is a code that uses a system of arbitrary symbols.

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 10.While studying for your upcoming Language Development test, you ask your
friend to define the term speech. He tells you that it is the process of sharing
information among individuals. Your friend gave you the definition for:

A. Communication.
B. Hearing.
C. Language.
D. Speech.

Week 10 – 12. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and

Learning: Philosophies of Education

Learning Objectives.

1. To recognize the common philosophies of education

2. To explain the involvement of philosophies of education in developing child’s
language acquisition and learning
3. To analyze the theories of language learning presented by experts.

Discussion.

Language. It’s all around us. It’s vital for our everyday existence.

And yet many of us find it challenging to pick up a new one.

The problem, we tell ourselves, is that we’re thinking too hard.

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The solution, we say, is to be more like those kids that we once were when we learned our
first language. Simply absorbing things the way kids do without really thinking about the
language must surely be our best bet, we convince ourselves.

But here’s the thing. We’re not kids anymore and we never will be again.

We’re not going to have the same opportunities as we did in our native language where we
were in constant contact with mothers, fathers and siblings who corrected our every
mistake (though a girlfriend or boyfriend might compensate). Nor do most of us want to
spend 18 years of our lives studying a language just to achieve high school level fluency.

We don’t need to abandon the lessons we’ve taken from childhood language learning, but
we must surely temper them with something else. And that thing is theory.

Theory, that most highly condensed form of thought based on principles and evidence, can
help us as adults to excel in language learning in ways that would otherwise not be
possible.

Of course, learning about language learning theory in no way needs to occupy the bulk of
your time. By devoting just a fraction of your time to theory right now, you’ll reap benefits far
beyond getting in an extra 10 minutes of studying. So without further ado, let’s start at the
beginning.

7 Great Theories About Language Learning

Theories of language learning have been bandied about since about as far back as one
would care to look. It may be surprising to know that the problems that philosophers in
Ancient Greece and 16th century France were concerned about are largely still relevant
today.

To get a quick rundown of early language learning theory, let’s take a quick look at the
ideas of three brilliant philosophers who you’ve probably already heard of.

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1. Plato’s Problem
The writings of Plato stretch all the way back to the beginnings of Western philosophical
thought, but Plato was already posing problems critical to modern linguistic discourse.

In the nature versus nurture debate, Plato tended to side with nature, believing that
knowledge was innate.

This was his answer to what has become known as Plato’s Problem, or as Bertrand Russell
summarizes it: “How comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the world are brief
and personal and limited, are nevertheless able to know as much as they do know?” Being
born with this knowledge from the get-go would naturally solve this little quandary and
consequently he viewed language as innate.

2. Cartesian Linguistics, by Descartes

Centuries later, the French philosopher Descartes took a crack at linguistic philosophy. In
his opinion, language acquisition was a simple and easy process, barely worthy of his
attention. Like Plato he believed in the innateness of language because he thought it
reflected the general rationality of human beings.

But rather than Descartes himself, it was the rationalist movement that he symbolized and
that was thriving in the time period when he lived that was most important for linguistics.
This “Cartesian” movement, according to Chomsky (who we’ll get to later), noted the
creativity involved in everyday language and presented the idea that there were universal
principles behind every language.

3. Locke’s Tabula Rasa

Most people familiar with Locke’s philosophy have heard of his concept of tabula rasa, or
the blank slate.

To state it briefly and in a simplified manner, this is the idea that all knowledge comes from
outside ourselves through sensory experience rather than through innate knowledge that

33
we have at birth. This naturally carried over to language theory with Locke rejecting the
idea that there was an innate logic behind language.

Obviously these theories don’t touch too much on the practical, everyday level of language
learning. They’re far less detailed and more philosophical than the modern scientific
theories we’re used to. But they have important implications. If Plato and the Cartesians are
right, then the emphasis in language learning must lie on what we already know, using our
innate abilities to come to an understanding of the particularities of a specific language. If
Locke is right, then we must focus our attention on sensory input, gaining as much external
input as possible.

In the practical, everyday world, all of this can easily be done with FluentU. FluentU takes
real-world videos with familiar formats—like movie trailers, music videos, news and
inspiring talks—and turns them into personalized language lessons.

4. Skinner’s Theory of Behaviorism

In the middle of the 20th century, B.F. Skinner took Locke’s ideas of sensory input and ran
with them.

According to behaviorism, a radical variant of which was put forward by Skinner, all
behavior is no more than a response to external stimuli and there’s no innate programming
within a human being to learn a language at birth.

What differentiates Skinner from those who came before him is the level of detail he went
into when connecting behaviorism and language learning. In his concept of what he called
“operant conditioning,” language learning grew out of a process of reinforcement and
punishment whereby individuals are conditioned into saying the right thing. For instance, if
you’re hungry and you’re able to say “Mommy, I’m hungry,” you may be rewarded with food
and your behavior will thereby be reinforced since you got what you wanted.

To put it another way, Skinner described a mechanism for language learning that hadn’t
existed before on the tabula rasa side of the language acquisition debate. What this means
for us as language learners, should his theory be even partially true, is that a process of
conditioning must be achieved for us to succeed. When we say the right thing, we must be

34
rewarded. When we say something incorrectly, that too must be made clear. In other
words, we need feedback to succeed as language learners.

5. Chomsky’s Universal Grammar

Around the same time as Skinner there came another linguistic powerhouse who would
leave a lasting impression on the field of linguistics. Namely, Noam Chomsky.

The theory that Chomsky proposed would be called Universal Grammar and it would assert
nearly the exact opposite of what Skinner had offered in his theory. Where Skinner saw all
learning coming from external stimuli, Chomsky saw an innate device for language
acquisition. What Skinner understood to be conditioning according to particular events
Chomsky, understood to be the result of the universal elements that structure all
languages.

In fact, one of Chomsky’s major bones to pick with Skinner’s theory had to do with Plato’s
problem, as described above. After all, if Skinner is right, how is it that children can learn a
language so quickly, creating and understanding sentences they have never heard before?

Universal Grammar has been around for roughly a half a century by now, so it’s hardly the
last word on the subject. It has also received plenty of criticism. One critique that
particularly concerns us is that it may have little to do with learning a second language,
even if it’s how we learn a first language. There are certainly theories about applying this
concept to organize syllabi for language learning, but this seems unnecessarily complex for
the average, independent learner.

In short, while Chomsky’s theory may be still be important in the linguistics field as part of
an ongoing discussion, it offers little help for learning a second language other than to
provide you with the confidence that the grammar for all languages is already inside your
head. You just need to fill in the particulars.

Over the past half century or so, a slew of other language learning theories have cropped
up to try to deal with the perceived flaws in Chomsky’s theory and to fill in the cracks for
more specific areas of language learning (i.e. areas of particular interest to us).

35
Next up are two theories that, while not the philosophical bombshells like the ones listed
above, arguably have more of a practical edge.

6. Schumann’s Acculturation Model

John Schumann’s Acculturation Model describes the process by which immigrants pick up
a new language while being completely immersed in that language.

This theory doesn’t deal with the process of language learning as we normally think of it
(such as how we acquire grammar or listening skills), but rather focuses on social and
psychological aspects that influence our success.

For instance, an immigrant is more likely to acquire their new target language if their
language and the target language are socially equal, if the group of immigrants is small and
not cohesive and if there is a higher degree of similarity between the immigrant’s culture
and that of their new area of residence.

The obvious takeaway is that language learning is not an abstract subject like physics that
can be learned out of a book regardless of the world around you. There are sociological
factors at play, and the more we do to connect with the culture on the other end of our
second language, the faster and easier it will be for us to learn that language.

7. Krashen’s Monitor Model

Stephen Krashen’s Monitor Model in fact consists of several distinct hypotheses which
make up what is probably the most cited theory in second language acquisition. There’s so
much to take away from Krashen’s theory that I’ll just let you peruse the link given for
details and give a rundown of the highlights here.

Language acquisition is subconscious and results from informal, natural communication.

Language learning is conscious and driven by error correction (more formal).

Grammar structures are acquired in a predictable order.

Language acquisition occurs with comprehensible input (i.e. hearing or reading things that
are just slightly above our current language level).

36
A monitor is anything that corrects your language performance and pressures one to
“communicate correctly and not just convey meaning” (such as a language teacher who
corrects you when you make a grammatical mistake).
It should be noted that this is just Krashen’s theory. While this theory is quite popular, there
has been criticism and direct contradiction of certain parts of it (particularly his idea about
the predictable order of grammar structures). Still, it’s useful to get ideas for language
learning.

This theory suggests that we should both strive to increase our second language inputs
(like by watching video clips on FluentU and going through books for reading) and make
sure we receive proper error correction in one form or another.

As this selection of important theories should make clear, the subset of linguistics which
deals with language learning is both wide and deep.

Some of it is highly theoretical and complex and is most relevant to scholars of the field.
Other parts are extremely zoomed in and tell us highly specific details about how to learn a
language.

Regardless, it’s all connected.

By understanding more bits and pieces of it all, you’ll gradually begin to understand
yourself and your own language learning process better than ever before.

The philosophy of education examines the goals, forms, methods, and meaning of
education. The term is used to describe both fundamental philosophical analysis of these
themes and the description or analysis of particular pedagogical approaches.
Considerations of how the profession relates to broader philosophical or sociocultural

37
contexts may be included. The philosophy of education thus overlaps with the field of
education and applied philosophy.

For example, philosophers of education study what constitutes upbringing and education,
the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and
legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between educational
theory and practice.

Idealism
Idealism is the oldest system of philosophy known to man. Its origins go back to
ancient India in the East, and to Plato in the West. Its basic viewpoint stresses the
human spirit as the most important element in life. The universe is viewed as
essentially non material in its ultimate nature. Although Idealist philosophers vary
enormously on many specifics, they agree on the following two points; the human
spirit is the most important element in life; and secondly the universe is essentially
non material in its ultimate nature. Idealism should not be confused with the notion
of high aspirations that is not what philosophers mean when they speak of Idealism.
In the philosophic sense, Idealism is a system that emphasizes the pre-eminent
importance of mind, soul, or spirit. It is possible to separate Idealism into different
schools, but for our purposes we shall be content to identify only the most general
assumptions of the Idealists in metaphysics, epistemology, and value theory,
without regard to the idiosyncrasies of the various schools.

If we study the basic principles, Idealism puts forth the argument that reality, as we
perceive it, is a mental construct. It means that experiences are result of sensory
abilities of the human mind and not because reality exists in itself, as an
independent entity. In the philosophical term this means that one cannot know the

38
existence of things beyond the realm of the intellect. Plato describes “reality” in his
Theory of Forms. For him the “Form” is actual substance of 'Things' which 'Formed'
matter and perceptible reality. Plato wants convey the message that matter is real
and can be experienced as a rational living entity; it is not a mere projection of
consciousness. According to Knight (1998) Augustine (354-430), Rene Descartes
(1596-1650), George Berkeley and the German philosopher Immanuel Kant and
George William Hegel are the prominent names who represent idealism.

Berkeley and Kant have interpreted idealism in very different ways. Kant described
idealism as transcendent, whereas Berkeley called it 'immaterialism' which is
commonly termed as subjective materialism. George Berkeley says that the
material world exists because there is a mind to perceive it and that things which
are not within the conceptual framework of the human mind cannot be deemed real.
Berkeley admits that objects exist, but their presence in the physical realm is as
long as there is a mind to perceive them. For this Berkeley has used a Latin phrase
'Esse est percipi' (to be perceived).On the other hand Kant is of the opinion that
reality exists independently of human minds but its knowledge is inherently
unknowable to man because of sensory filters in our consciousness. These filters
slow down our ability to see the 'thing in itself'. Thus our ultimate perception of
things is always through the mind's fixed frame of reference (Shahid, 2008).

Idealism and curriculum

According to idealism the teacher is the symbol or model of good character, he is

the masters of all sort of knowledge, so the teacher has the central role in the
teaching-learning (Singh, 2007). The teacher has right to choose suitable content
from the available literature and to teach. The student is a passive receptor, who
has to gain the knowledge transferred by the knowledge. The teacher certifies the
disciple at the successful completion of education as per the above given age levels
(Singh).

39
Idealism and aim of education
Plato says that to become a philosopher or king, a person has to go through all the
processes of education. He describes the aim of education as to drag every man
out of the cave as far as possible. Education should not aim at putting knowledge
into the soul, but at turning the soul toward right desires continuing the analogy
(similarity) between mind and sight. The overarching goal of the city is to educate
those with the right natures; so that they can turn their minds sharply towards the
Form of the Good. The philosophers must return periodically into the cave (society)
and rule there. Aristotle says that education is essential for complete self realization
as he says, “The supreme good to which we all aspire is the happiness. A happy
man is the one who is educated. A happy man is virtuous, virtue is gained through
education.” Plato says that Education is for the individual’s personal betterment and
that of the society.

Idealism and stages of education

Plato has also divided the process of education into five major steps;
1. Age 7 to 18; study general mathematic, music, astronomy and so on,
2. Age 18 to 20; considers best for physical training,
3. Age 20 to 30; study of logic, knighthood, and mathematics
4. Age 30 to 35; study of dialectics
5. Age 35 to 50; practice of dialectics in various official affairs in the state
6. 50 years +; a person can become a philosopher or king as his tern comes.

Plato says that in each step the person is given with different sort of education. He
suggests screening those in each step who cannot perform well. The ones who can
successfully pursue all the six stages can be called philosophers who have the
understanding of the form of good.

Idealism and method of teaching

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idealism is traditional philosophy of education in which teacher has centeral role
who has to be role model so that the students will adopt his model to become good
citizen. In idealism the lacture method is considered the most important one in
which a delivers lecture and students listen to the teacher. Teacher selects any
topic or issue for teaching first he teaches the topic then asks the questions about
that topic. Students answer the asked questions, Teacher provides the feedback
and students improve themselves according to the teacher’s feedback. This is
teacher centered approach therefore students do not participate in a well manner
and do not understand the taught content. This method of teaching is not suitable
for young or elementary level of students because they are not habitual for listening
long time. This method is only used for adults. Because their mind is mature and
they can understand easily. The second method that suits idealism the most is
the Socratic Method in which the teacher involves the students in learning activities.
The teacher raises an issue and the students are encouraged to discuss it in a
dialogue form and reach to a conclusion.

Realism

If a tree falls in the woods and no one hears it, does it make a sound? You've
probably heard that question asked before and may have thought about it for a few
minutes before coming to an answer. Or you may have taken it as a silly question
and laughed at it.

But the fundamental question behind that question is simple: is there a true reality,
which exists outside of human perception or is reality only what we perceive?
Realism is a philosophy started by the ancient Greek writer, Aristotle. It states that
there is a true reality, and things exist whether humans perceive them or not.

Educational realism is the belief that we should study logic, critical thinking, and the
scientific method to teach students to perceive and understand reality. As you might

41
imagine, there is a heavy emphasis on math and science, though the humanities
can also be influenced by educational realism.

What does educational realism look like in a classroom? To figure that out, let's
imagine a teacher, Henry, who is trying to plan his curriculum for the upcoming
school year. Henry is a realist and believes that Aristotle was on the right path all
those years ago. So how can Henry plan a year of learning to help students
perceive and understand reality?

The first thing that Henry, as a realist, is likely to do is to include lots of

opportunities to study the natural world. Realists believe that the job of schools is to
teach students about the world around them. This means that Henry wants to teach
his students how to use logical processes to find truth in the natural world.

For example, instead of teaching his students about gravity from a textbook, Henry
might take them outside and recreate Sir Isaac Newton's moment of clarity when he
saw the apple fall. Henry can climb a tree and drop objects of different masses to
allow students to figure out how gravity and mass work together.

Meaning of Pragmatism:

The word Pragmatism is of Greek origin (pragma, matos = deed, from prassein = to
do).

But it is a typical American school of philosophy. It is intimately related with the

American life and mind. It is the product of practical experiences of life.

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Pragmatism means action, from which the words practical and practice have come.
The idealist constructs a transcendental ideal, which cannot be realised by man.
The pragmatist lays down standards which are attainable. Pragmatists are practical
people.

They face problems and try to solve them from practical point of view. Unlike
idealists they live in the world of realities, not in the world of ideals. Pragmatists
view life as it is, while idealists view life as it should be. The central theme of
pragmatism is activity.

According to existentialism:

Existence is always particular and individual—always my existence, your existence,

his existence, her existence. Existence is primarily the problem of existence (i.e., of
its mode of being); it is, therefore, also the investigation of the meaning of Being.
That investigation is continually faced with diverse possibilities, from among which
the existent (i.e., the human individual) must make a selection, to which he must
then commit himself. Because those possibilities are constituted by the individual’s
relationships with things and with other humans, existence is always a being-in-the-
world—i.e., in a concrete and historically determinate situation that limits or
conditions choice. Humans are therefore called, in Martin Heidegger’s phrase,
Dasein (“there being”) because they are defined by the fact that they exist, or are in
the world and inhabit it.

Learning Exercises / Activities

I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

43
 1. This philosophy places the highest priority on students directing their own
learning. Learning is self-paced and includes a lot of individual contact with the
teacher.
A. Essentialism
B. Existentialism
C. Progressivism
D. Social Reconstructionism

2. True or False: Teachers must reflect on societal values in order to

target student learning and behavior effectively.
A. True
B. False

3. Which of the following philosophies emphasizes personal choice

and individual freedom?
A. Realism
B. Idealism
C. Existentialism
D. Pragmatism

4. According to Realism, human beings are rational beings and are

expected to behave accordingly.
A. True
B. False
5. Teacher A always starts her lessons with a real-life problem which
the students have to solve collaboratively by the end of the class period.
What is the philosophy Teacher A is possibly adhering to?
A. Existentialism
B. Pragmatism
C. Idealism
D. Realism

6. Which of the following is important to an Existentialism?

A. Purpose
B. Reason
C. Ideas
D. Individuality

7. According to Pragmatist, education is ___________ life.

A. Preparation for
B. To support
C. Analysis of
D. Part of

8. Which of these is emphasized by Pragmatic education?

A. Abstract thinking
B. Practicality
C. Values formation
D. Discipline

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 9. What should be the characteristics of teachers according to
Confucianism?
A. Gentle and caring
B. Firm and autocratic
C. Intellectual and scholarly
D. Loving and committed

10. Which of the following virtues does Confucianism give a high

regard?
A. Uprightness
B. Tolerance
C. Courage
D. Curiosity

Week 13 – 15. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and

Learning:Reading Approach

Learning Objectives.

1. To define approach.
2. To understand why reading is important in language acquisition.
3. To determine the different reading approaches in language.
Discussion.

Approach describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught.

Approach is a set of correlative assumption based on nature of language teaching
and language learning.
Approach is axiomatic.
Approach is not practical.

Why Reading is Important in Language Acquisition?

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 1. Reading offers a wide range of vocabulary and grammar, it essentially
supports and feeds the brain with the correct language structure.
2. As learning is facilitated with learning cues, reading helps the brain to
remember these language structures as the learner will connect an image to the
world it represents.
3. Reading improves and develops your communication skills, it helps you
learn how to use the language creatively.
4. Reading is important because it is an active skill which involves
referencing, guessing, predicting, and etc.

Reading Approach Brief History

1. Reading approach or reading method was first devise for English

Learners in India and French or German learners in the United States of
America.
2. It has been advocated in England for pupils of inferior language-learning
ability.
3. Reading approach is like GMT (Grammar, Translation, Melody), only
grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught.

Reading Approach Theory of Language

 Reading approach is a way to start teaching beginning readers.

The Three Main Theories

1. Traditional Theory
2. Cognitive view

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 3. Metacognitive View

Different Approaches to Teaching Reading

Phonics Approach- Tries to create an association in the child minds between the
‘graphemes’ (written symbols) and phonemes (sound) of language.

Described as bottom- up approach which build towards comprehension through a journey

from the smallest elements of the text.

Whole Language Approach

Focuses on comprehension from the outset, with children being given continuous texts to
read in order to build an understanding of vocabulary and meaning.

Identified as the top-down approach which places less emphasis on the rules and minuute
of language.

Reading Approach Types of Teaching Learning Activities

Skimming

It is an activity to read shorter texts to extract accurate detailed information.

Used to quickly identify the main idea of a text .
Done at the speed three to four times faster than normal reading.
This technique is useful when the students are seeking specific information rather that
reading for comprehension.
Works well to find dates, names, and places.

Scanning

A technique that often used when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary.

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Involves moving eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases.
Also used when the reader first find a resource to determine whether it will answer the
questions.
The students look for the author’s used of organizers such as numbers,letters, steps, or the
words, first, second or next.

Extensive Reading/ Vocabulary Reading

A reading longer text , usually for pleasure.

Extensive reading is an approach to language learning, including foreign language
learning, by the means of a large amount of reading.
Extensive reading is the free reading of books and other written materials that is not too
difficult nor too easy.
Extensive reading will help the students to motivate them and enjoy reading and learning
independently.

The Role of Extensive Reading in Language Learning

1, It can provide comprehensible input.

1. It can enhance learner’s general language competence.
2. It increases the student’s exposure to the language.
3. It can increase knowledge of vocabulary.
4. It can lead to improvement in writing.
5. It can motivates learner to read.
6. It can consolidate previously learned language.
7. It helps to build confidence.
8. It encourage the exploitation of textual redundancy.
9. It facilitates the development of prediction skills.

Learning Exercises / Activities

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I. Essay: Answer the following briefly:

1. How does a person learn to communicate their thoughts?

2. How does reading helps learners to acquire language?

Enumeration
1. List down at east 5 role of Extensive Reading in Language and
Learning.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

2. Give the 2 types of reading teaching strategies.

1.
2.
NEEDS
CRITERIA EXCELLENT SATISFACTORY
IMPROVEMENT
CONTEXT / IDEAS The ideas are full, There are ideas but There is no idea and
Include verifiable detailed and well not detailed and collaboration at all.
ideas and elaborated. slightly elaborated.
elaboration of
answers. (10 Points) (8 Points) (6 Points)
ORGANIZATION The ideas are well The ideas are The ideas have not
Include organized and slightly organized organized and
chronological presented. and have good presented.
presentation of presentation.

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 ideas. (5 Points) (4 points) (2 Points)
There are no There are slight There are lots of
GRAMMAR AND
grammar errors, an grammar errors, has grammar errors and
PUNCTUATION
excellent choice of good choice of poor choice of
Include correctness
words and words and some words. Punctuation
of grammar, choice
punctuation marks misuse of marks are
of words and use
are appropriately punctuation marks. inappropriately used.
of appropriate
used.
punctuation marks.
(5 Points) (3 points) (2 Points)
TOTAL SCORE

Week 15 - 18. Approaches to Language Teaching

Learning Objectives.

1. To define language and language learning.

2. To analyze different views on language teaching and learning.
3. To detect the influence of the views on the language teaching methodology.

Discussion.

Language is a means of communication among human beings.

We communicate with each other using some meaningful sounds or symbolism a
systematic way.

According to Aristotle, language is speech which is produced by human beings in order

Exchange their experiences, ideas, and emotions

Language Learning is a process by which we can develop our ability to use language for
communication to others.

Purposes of Language Learning

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1. To develop the ability to understand and produced language.
2. To express functional activities.
3. To create and maintain social relations between / among people.

Views on Language Teaching-Learning

1. Structural View
2. Functional View
3. Interactional View

Structural View of Language

Structural view considers that language is a system of all systems.

It means that language is a linguistic system that has some subsystems such as;
Phonological units (e.g. phonemes)
Grammatical unit (e.g. sentences, phrases, clauses)
Grammatical operations (e.g. adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements)
Lexical items (e.g. function words and content/structure words)
Each language has a finite number of such structural elements.

The structural view of language generates the language teaching-learning

methods such as:

1. Audio-lingual method
2. Total physical response
3. Silent way

Functional view of Language

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As per the functional view, language is not only a linguistic system but also a means f doing
things
Language is used to express our emotions, feelings, attitudes, etc.
Language involves our day to day functional activities or notions such as:

Inviting
Advising
Suggesting
Making an appointment
Apologizing
Asking for directions
Agreeing, disagreeing and etc.

This view language is also called communicative view.

Therefore learning language is learning how to combine grammatical rules and vocabulary
to express our notions.

Methods in Teaching-Learning Functional Language Views

1. Functional- Notional Syllabuses

2. Communicative approaches
3. Natural approach
4. English for specific purposes

Interactional View of Language

According to interactional view, language is a means of creating and maintaining social

relations or social transactions between people.

Learning Exercises / Activities.

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 I. Essay: Answer the following briefly.

1. Explain what is functional view.

2. What are the purposes of language learning?
3. What do you mean when we say structural view of language? Cite an
example.

RATING GUIDE
(This Rating Guide will be utilized in scoring individual output and performance. Take time
to read and understand the content of the rating guide.)

NEEDS
CRITERIA EXCELLENT SATISFACTORY
IMPROVEMENT
CONTEXT / IDEAS The ideas are full, There are ideas but There is no idea and
Include verifiable detailed and well not detailed and collaboration at all.
ideas and elaborated. slightly elaborated.
elaboration of
answers. (10 Points) (8 Points) (6 Points)
ORGANIZATION The ideas are well The ideas are The ideas have not
Include organized and slightly organized organized and
chronological presented. and have good presented.
presentation of presentation.
ideas. (5 Points) (4 points) (2 Points)
There are no There are slight There are lots of
GRAMMAR AND
grammar errors, an grammar errors, has grammar errors and
PUNCTUATION
excellent choice of good choice of poor choice of
Include correctness
words and words and some words. Punctuation
of grammar, choice
punctuation marks misuse of marks are
of words and use
are appropriately punctuation marks. inappropriately used.
of appropriate
used.
punctuation marks.
(5 Points) (3 points) (2 Points)

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 TOTAL SCORE

Rated by: _______________________ Date Rated: ___________ Score: _______

REFERENCES

A. Books

Principles of Language and Learning Douglas Brown

Principles and Practice in second Language Acquisition
by Krashen Stephen

Cruz, Neal. “As I See It: Philippine mythological monsters”. Philippine Daily
Inquirer. 2008.

B. Electronic Research

https://edtechbooks.org/pdfs/print/language_acquisition/_language_acquisiti
on.pdf

http://angol.uni-miskolc.hu/wp-
content/media/2016/10/Principles_of_language_learning.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299657306_language_acquisi
tion_theories

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 https://www.ling.upenn.edu/~ycharles/klnl.pdfs

https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/CMO-24-s-2017.pdf

Learning Insights

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Reflection

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