Proceedings of the Physical Society.

Section B

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106

An Experimental Investigation of Non-Metallic Wear

BY G. HUGHES AND R. T. SPURR

Ferodo Ltd , Chapel-en-le-Frith, Stockport

Comti~triiicatedby R . C Parker; M S receized 18th October 1954

Abstract. T h e rate of wear of a non-metallic substance is shown to be given by

t h e equation W = KL/p (where W is the wear per unit sliding distance, L the
load and p the hardness) over a wide range of sliding conditions provided the
variation of the hardness of the specimen with temperature is taken into account.

9 1. INTRODUCTION

E
QUATIONS of the form W = K L / p relating W , the wear per unit sliding
distance of a material, with its indentation hardness p , and the load L ,
have been proposed on theoretical and experimental grounds by Holnl
(1946), Burwell and Strang (1952), Archard (1953) and Rabinowicz (1953).
T h e wear equation involves the hardness p because it is generally assumed that,
though true contact occurs between two surfaces at small isolated areas, the total
true area of contact for plastic materials is related to L p , and that the \$-ear
process involves the formation of wear particles at the isolated contact areas
Archard considers K to be related to the probability of a wear particle being
formed at a particular contact area. Experimental verification of the equation
has previously been limited to showing that the rate of wear is proportional to
the load and there has been no direct experimental verification of the inverse
relationship between wear and hardness. T h e work described below was under-
taken to investigate the relationship between wear and hardness directly, by
sliding a low melting point material (a wax) against a cast iron disc and measuring
the rate of wear and the temperature reached at the rubbing surface over a range
of loads and speeds. The variation with temperature of the hardness of the wax
was then measured and the appropriate values of W , L and p substituted in
the equation.
6 2. EXPERIMENTAL
DETAILS
2.1. Measurement of Wear
Figure 1 shows the apparatus used for measuring wear and friction. The
cast iron plate A, 35 cm in diameter, was connected to a 3 h.p. electric motor
providing running speeds ranging from 60 to 300 r.p.m. (i.e. linear sliding
speeds from 100 to 500 cm sec-I). A torque arm B was freely suspended above
the plate, and restrained at one end by a friction-measuring pendulum device,
the guide C ensuring that the restraining cord acted at a constant radius. At
the other end of the torque arm, the specimen holder D was freely hinged at E,
s o that dead weight loading could be applied.
 An Experimental Incestagataon of Non-Metallic Wear 107

The surface of the plate was prepared by abrading it with a carborundum

stone lubricated with paraffin oil while the plate was running at high speed,
and then cleaning the surface with cotton wool soaked in carbon tetrachloride.
This procedure was repeated before each wear measurement, for the wax tended
to smear over the disc of the wear machine and at higher loads and speeds to
build u p a thick film of wax which affected the rate of wear, and also reduced
the coefficient of friction. Montan wax was chosen as the test material because
of its low melting point and its consequent marked softening at the relatively
low temperatures which could be reached on the wear machine. T h e specimens,
which were prepared by casting the wax in small moulds, had rubbing areas
+
of 3 in. by in.

Figure 1. Wear machine.

T h e rate of wear per unit sliding distance was measured over a range of loads
from 845 to 3000 grammes and measurements were made at four different
speeds for each load. The wear was determined by measuring the loss in
weight after 5-minute runs, for it was found that wear increased linearly with
sliding distance, and the average of six such runs taken. The wear results
were quite reproducible, except perhaps at very low rates of wear when slight
contamination of the wear machine disc could affect results.
2.2 Measurement of Surface Temperature
X wax specimen was cast with a thermocouple incorporated in the mould
in such a way that the junction was close to the surface to be used for sliding.
When the wax specimen was run on the wear machine the thermocouple registered
room temperature until the junction reached the surface when the temperature
increased sharply to a value characteristic of the sliding speed and load. Thermo-
couple readings were recorded at various loads and speeds. It was observed
that no matter how severe the sliding conditions the thermocouple reading would
not rise above a certain value. T h e thermocouple was therefore calibrated by
assuming that this limiting value corresponded to the melting point of the wax.
2.3 Measurement of Variation of Hardness with Temperature
T h e hardness tester used consisted of a metal bar 24 in. long pivoted at the
centre. Halfway along one arm the diamond indenter from a Vickers hardness
tester was affixed and counter-balance weights hung on the other arm until the
bar just balanced in the horizontal position. T h e load required for making the
Indentations was attached to the end of the part holding the diamond indenter.
108 G. Hughes and R. T . Spaiw

gm
70 3069 70

g
20 50-
F
L)
h

t
c
:@8 f
5*
aJ
50- 60

40 - 0 I= 4 - A

30 I I I I I

S3. RESULTS
Thermocouple readings obtained at various speeds and loads and calibrated
as described above are plotted in figures 2 and 3, and smooth parallel curves
drawn through the points. These curves were drawn so that the variation of
temperature with speed and variation of temperature with load gave sets of
curves which were mutually consistent and lay as close as possible to the experi-
mental points. T h e variation of the hardness of wax with temperature is shown
in figure 4.
T h e wear was measured at fourteen different sets of sliding conditions.
T h e hardness of the wax was obtained for each set of sliding conditions from
figures 2, 3 and 4 and the wear figures and hardnesses used to plot figure 5
where W , L is shown plotted against lip. I t can be seen that the points fall
about a straight line showing that the rate of wear is indeed given by the equation
W=KL/p. T h e value of K can be obtained from the slope of the line and
using this value of K the wear-load curves for the four sliding speeds were
calculated and are shown in figure 6. T h e actual experimental wear figures
are shown by circles.
 An Experimental Investigation of JVon-Metallic Wear 109

S 4. FRICTION
EFFECTS
T h e softening of the wax with increasing temperature suggests that the
true area of contact between specimen and plate, and therefore the coefficient
of friction p, might increase with temperature. This however was not the case for
p decreased from 0.4 at room temperature to about 0.30 at 65"c. King and Tabor
(1953) measured the variation of the coefficient of friction p, shear strength s, and
hardness p , with temperature of a number of plastics and found that the equation
sor

Figure 4. Variation of hardness Figure 5. Wear plotted against l / p .

of the wax with temperature.

16

14

12
aT IO
h

E
U
" 8
5
$ 6
2
4

0 IO00 2000 3000

Figure 6. Variation of wear with load at different speeds. Experimental wear values
shown by circles.

f i = Cs,p,heldover a wide range of temperatures; C for polythene was 1.1, and for
Perspex 2.4. T h e shear strength of wax cylinders was therefore measured at
temperatures from 20 to 70"c. There was considerable scatter in the measured
shear strength, but the value of s / p was found to be more or less constant (0.05 to
0.08) over the whole temperature range, though considerably less than p. The
difference between p and sip was probably due to the wax failing in a brittle
manner in the shear strength measurements whereas a ductile type of shear
occurred at the contact areas during sliding.
110 G . Hughes and R. T.S p u n

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h e authors wish to express their thanks to members of Ferodo Technical
Division for criticisms and suggestions, and to Dr. R. C. Parker, Technical
Director of Messrs. Ferodo Ltd. for permlssion to publlsh thls paper.

REFERENCES
ARCHARD, J F , 1953, J. Appl Phys , 24, 981
BURWELL, J T I and STRANG,C D , 1952, J Appl. Phys , 23, 1 s
HOLM,R , 1946, Electvzc Contacts (Uppsala : -4lmquist and Wiksells)
KING, R. F , and TABOR,D , 1953, Proc Ph3.s SOCB, 66, 528.
RABIXOWCZ,E , 1953, Proc. Ph3's S o r B, 66, 929