energies

Article
Novel Earth Fault Protection Algorithm Based on
MV Cable Screen Zero Sequence Current Filter
Krzysztof Lowczowski 1, * , Jozef Lorenc 1 , Jerzy Andruszkiewicz 1 , Zbigniew Nadolny 1 and
Jozef Zawodniak 2
1 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
2 Enea Operator, Department of Network Asset Management, 60-479 Poznan, Poland
* Correspondence: krzysztof.lowczowski@put.poznan.pl; Tel.: +48-61-665-2270




Received: 12 July 2019; Accepted: 13 August 2019; Published: 20 August 2019


Abstract: This paper presents novel zero sequence current filter and earth fault protection relay, which
utilize cable screens earthing current in protection algorithm. Different problems connected with state
of the art of zero sequence current filters and protection relays are presented and compared with the
proposed solution. The presented concept is verified in PowerFactory simulation software, experiment
concerning modeling the earth fault current flow in medium voltage (MV) cable supplied from the
low voltage (LV) network and measurements in the MV network in the Polish distribution system.
The proposed solution is characterized by higher sensitivity and reduced number of erroneous trips.
The presented solution is suitable for any MV cable lines. Biggest advantages are observed in power
output lines from renewable energy sources, which are often operated under no-load conditions.

Keywords: cable screen; earthing system; zero sequence filters/transformers; protection relays;
current measurement

1. Introduction
Experience in the operation of distribution system networks indicates that among all electrical
disturbances, approximately 70% are earth faults [1]. Their intensity is relatively high and the average
number of earth faults is 10–20 per 100 km over a year [2,3]. Earth faults are connected with different
phenomena, which have an unfavorable impact on power quality and reliability of supply, as well as on
the risk of overvoltages and electrical shocks. Overvoltages accompanying earth faults have a negative
impact on insulation. Intermittent earth faults, characterized by unstable electric arc are a source of
particularly dangerous phase to ground overvoltages, which can lead to insulation degradation [4]
and further failures, which can transform into two phase to earth faults [5–7]. Phase to earth faults
can lead to dangerous touch voltages. Current flow during the phase to earth fault is connected with
the voltage drop across conductive elements. As a result of voltage drop, dangerous contact voltage
can be generated. The risk is particularly high in the vicinity of phase to earth fault site, however,
in some cases, the dangerous voltage can be transferred to the low voltage network through a common
earthing system [8]. If a fragment of the network affected by phase to earth fault is not disconnected
and dangerous operation conditions remain sustained, power lines and devices may be destroyed [9].
Lack of effective neutral point earthing results in low amplitude of phase to earth fault current.
As a result, effective operation of phase to earth fault protection relays is more difficult [10]. In extreme
cases, amplitudes of measurands are comparable with noise measurement. The noise is a result of
imperfect production of instrument transformers and natural phase to earth asymmetry. The presented
phenomenon acquires a great significance in compensated networks with neutral point earthed via
Petersen coil. High resistance at the fault location, measuring error, zero sequence asymmetry, harmonic
distortion, intermittent faults are common in compensated networks [11–14].

Energies 2019, 12, 3190; doi:10.3390/en12163190 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 3190 2 of 20

Many different protection algorithms against earth faults are developed in countries, in which
neutral point of distribution system network is insulated from earth. A particularly big number of
protection algorithms are developed for compensated networks. Protection algorithms can be divided
into two groups: The first group which is based on steady-state components and second group, which is
based on transient signal analysis [15]. Different directional criteria or harmonic based criteria are
often based on steady-state analysis [16]. In case of transient signal, attention is typically paid to the
moment of phase to earth fault occurrence.
New criteria of earth fault detection were developed in the 80s and 90s last century in Institute
of Electrical Power Engineering of Poznan University of Technology. Criteria are based on analysis
of average zero-sequence admittance, conductance and susceptance or analysis of increments of
zero sequence admittance during operation of active current forcing resistor [17–19]. The protection
algorithm utilizes zero sequence voltage measurement and is blocked when the zero sequence voltage
is below the threshold. Thousands of protection relays equipped with admittance based criteria were
installed in Polish distribution system networks. Operational experience confirms that sensitivity
under bolted and intermittent faults is relatively high [20]. The great advantage of admittance based
criteria is versatility—admittance based criteria can be utilized in networks with different neutral point
earthing methods. Thanks to the versatility admittance based relays are effective also after the failure
of neutral point earthing transformer.
Despite of many new solutions, the effectivity of earth fault protection relays is not always
satisfactory, in particular in case of unstable electric arc or high impedance faults [21]. It is, therefore,
necessary to develop new protection criteria, which would ensure higher sensitivity and increase
the effectivity of nowadays protection relays. Results of scientific research indicate, that the wide
utilization of medium voltage (MV) cables with screens, which are common in distribution system
network, create the possibility of using screens current measurements during the earth faults to increase
the efficiency of protection relays operation. This paper presents simulation results and measurements
result, which confirm the validity of simulation results. Moreover, the protection algorithm, which is
based on current values flowing in the earthing circuits containing cable screens was developed and is
presented. Innovative earth fault protection criteria ensure high sensitivity of earth fault detection
and help to avoid unwanted tripping due to erroneous settings. The idea of utilization cable screen
currents is presented in a few papers, but to the best authors knowledge, no paper presents a detailed
protection algorithm, which utilizes cable screen earthing current in protection algorithm [22–24].
This paper also presents a novel zero sequence current filter, which allows for installation of accurate
current sensors. The biggest advantage is achieved under low load or no-load conditions of protected
feeder, where conventional solutions are characterized by big measuring errors. It is believed that
presented zero sequence current filter could also be used for detection of phase to phase short circuits
and, therefore, has the potential to be an independent protection relay, which utilizes only one current
input that could greatly simplify the protection relay hardware since the number of current inputs
could be reduced. Another innovation presented in the paper is the possibility to distinguish if earth
fault occurred in the cable or overhead line of mixed—cable overhead feeder. Zero sequence earthing
current measurements allows for identification of erroneous connections in two-point bonded cables,
as well as cross-bonded cable lines and, therefore, functionality of proposed protection algorithm
could be increased [25–27]. The earthing screen current can also be used for detection of cable sheath
damages, in differential protection relays and auto-reclosing blocking algorithms [24,28]. Analysis of
cable screen current flow is also used for assessment of safety against electric shock or assessment of
stray current flow [29,30].
In further paragraph state of the art methods of zero sequence current measurement are presented
and analyzed. Various cable screen current sources are presented and analyzed in the context of the
protection algorithm. Simulation and measurement results are presented to validate the proposed
solution and to analyze the impact of different factors on the earth fault screen current. One before
last paragraph presents proposed solutions—zero sequence filter and developed algorithm. General
 Energies 2019,
Energies 2019, 12,
12, 3190
x FOR PEER REVIEW 33 of
of 20
20

96 One before last paragraph presents proposed solutions―zero sequence filter and developed
97 flowchart
algorithm.of the developed
General flowchartalgorithm is presented
of the developed in Figure
algorithm 1. Theinparagraph
is presented is finished
Figure 1. The with
paragraph is
98 afinished
comparison of the developed criterion with conventional solutions. Finally, the main conclusions
with a comparison of the developed criterion with conventional solutions. Finally, the main
99 and outline of
conclusions andfurther work
outline are presented.
of further work are presented.

100
Figure 1. Flowchart of the proposed solutions (CB—circuit breaker).
101 Figure 1. Flowchart of the proposed solutions (CB―circuit breaker).
2. Zero Sequence Current Measurement
102 2. Zero Sequence Current Measurement
Selection of protection relay setting is based on the calculation of a range of applicable settings and
103 selection of activating
Selection settingrelay
of protection form the calculated
setting is based range.
on the Selection of values
calculation from the
of a range of lower rangesettings
applicable results
104 in
and higher sensitivity
selection of protection
of activating relays,
setting form thebut at the same
calculated time,
range. a risk of
Selection ofunwanted
values from tripping
the lowerincrease.
range
105 Selection
results inofhigher
settingsensitivity
from the upper range is relays,
of protection connected but with
at thereduced
same time,sensitivity,
a risk but a risk of unwanted
of unwanted tripping
106 trips is smaller.
increase. Selection Operational
of setting from experiences
the upper show,
rangethat often, higher
is connected withsettings
reducedare chosen to
sensitivity, butminimize
a risk of
107 the risk of unwanted tripping. Additionally, protection relays are
unwanted trips is smaller. Operational experiences show, that often, higher settings are chosen toequipped with U0> overvoltage
108 criterion,
minimizei.e., theearth
risk fault is detected
of unwanted when secondary
tripping. Additionally, U0 voltage exceeds
protection a certain
relays threshold,with
are equipped i.e., 15 V
U0>
109 (on the secondary
overvoltage side of
criterion, zero
i.e., sequence
earth fault isvoltage
detectedfilter).
when secondary U0 voltage exceeds a certain
110 The sensitivity
threshold, i.e., 15 V (onof earth fault detection
the secondary is zero
side of affected by thevoltage
sequence zero sequence
filter). current filter. Measuring
111 errorTheis defined for the
sensitivity secondary
of earth fault side and its
detection is value
affected is in
bythe
therange 10–50 mAcurrent
zero sequence [31]. Earth fault
filter. current
Measuring
112 filter
errorshould not for
is defined saturate under load
the secondary conditions
side because
and its value under
is in saturation
the range 10–50conditions
mA [31]. Earthcurrent is strongly
fault current
113 distorted
filter should [32].not To saturate
avoid saturation
under load transformer
conditionsratio needsunder
because to be saturation
high, i.e., 300:5. One can
conditions easily
current is
114 strongly that
observe distorted [32]. To
the higher theavoid
primarysaturation
currenttransformer
is, the higher ratio
theneeds to be high,
measuring errorsi.e.,
on 300:5. One can
the secondary
115 easily
side are.observe
At thethat samethe time,higher the primary
sensitivity currentrelay
of protection is, the higherAccuracy
is lower. the measuring errors onzero
of conventional the
116 secondaryfilter
sequence sideis are.
furtherAt reduced
the same duetime,
to thesensitivity of protection
incorrect position of cables relay is lower.
inside the filterAccuracy
and size of of
117 conventional
core zero sequence
balance current transformerfilter is further reduced
(CBCT)—i.e., due to the
measuring errorincorrect
is 30 mA position
for 85 of mm cables insideand
diameter the
118 filter
500 mA and forsize
130ofmm core balance[33].
diameter current transformer
Position of cables(CBCT)―i.e., measuring
inside a measuring errorofisCBCT
window 30 mAtransformer
for 85 mm
119 diameter
is and 500
particularly mA Forin130
important themmcasediameter
of parallel [33]. Position
lines made of manycables cables.
inside aCBCTmeasuring windoware
transformers of
120 CBCT transformer
constructed to fulfillis requirements
particularly important
of norms,ini.e., theIEC61869,
case of parallel lines made
it is, however, notedof many
that forcables. CBCT
protection
121 transformersthe
transformer, areerror
constructed to fulfill
is specified only requirements
for nominal loading of norms, i.e., IEC61869,
conditions. it is, however,
Measuring error under noted that
loading
122 for protection transformer, the error is specified only for nominal loading conditions. Measuring error
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 4 of 20

below nominal is not specified. Measuring error in lower loading range can be in the range of tens of
percent, i.e., 20% [34]. Operational experience shows that often additional errors, which result from
incorrect installation, can be observed. Among the installation errors of Ferranti current transformer
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 20
(CT) one can mention following errors: Incorrect pulling of cable screens through measuring window,
123smallunder
to loading
distance below nominal
between the Ferrantiis notCTspecified. Measuring
placement and theerror in lower
cable end,loading rangeconnection
inaccurate can be in theof open
124 range of tens of percent, i.e., 20% [34].
core CT or dirt on the surface of open core type CT [35]. Operational experience shows that often additional errors,
125 It iswhich result from incorrect installation, can be observed. Among the installation errors of Ferranti
possible to buy CBCT transformer, which fulfills the requirement of 0.2s class in the lower
126 current transformer (CT) one can mention following errors: Incorrect pulling of cable screens through
range
127 and 5p protection class in the higher range [36]. Special CBCT transformers are, however,
measuring window, to small distance between the Ferranti CT placement and the cable end,
more
128 expensive
inaccurate and replacement
connection of open coreof these
CT ortransformers is a of
dirt on the surface complex
open core procedure—the
type CT [35]. bay needs to be
de-energized.
129 Another example of a conventional zero sequence current
It is possible to buy CBCT transformer, which fulfills the requirement of 0.2s class in the transformer is lower
residual CT
130
connection
range(Holmgreen),
and 5p protection which
class inisthe
created
higherby connecting
range [36]. Special3 CT
CBCT together.
transformersHolmgreen filter
are, however, measures
more
131 sequence
zero expensive and replacement
accurately of these
if all CTs havetransformers is a complex procedure―the
the same amplitude-phase bay needs
characteristics. to be de-
Deviation from the
132
similar energized. Another example of a conventional zero sequence current transformer is residual CT
characteristics results in zero sequence current flow. The current increases when load increases
133 connection (Holmgreen), which is created by connecting 3 CT together. Holmgreen filter measures
and, therefore, protection relay could be erroneously tripped if the current exceeds the threshold [37].
134 zero sequence accurately if all CTs have the same amplitude-phase characteristics. Deviation from
135 Proposed
the similar alternative—installation
characteristics results in zero of Rogowski coil onflow.
sequence current the The
earthing
current system of awhen
increases cable is simple
load
and
136 canincreases
be performed on energized
and, therefore, protection cable.
relayBecause
could beearthing
erroneouslycurrent
trippedflows
if theonly through
current exceeds one themetallic
137
element, dimensions
threshold [37]. of the sensor can be greatly reduced and errors due to displacement are greatly
138
reduced. Proposed alternative―installation
Measuring range of Rogowskiofcoil Rogowski
can becoil on the earthing
changed system of a of
via modification cable is simple factor
sensitivity
139 and can be performed on energized cable. Because earthing current flows only through one metallic
(mV/A) and, therefore, measuring range can be adaptively adjusted to zero sequence current amplitude,
140 element, dimensions of the sensor can be greatly reduced and errors due to displacement are greatly
i.e., due to the expected fault resistance or modification of neutral point impedance. An additional
141 reduced. Measuring range of Rogowski coil can be changed via modification of sensitivity factor
advantage
142 of Rogowski
(mV/A) coil ismeasuring
and, therefore, practically negligible
range can be measuring angle error
adaptively adjusted andsequence
to zero no burden errors [38].
current
It
143has toamplitude,
be, however, noted
i.e., due thatexpected
to the signal cable is an integral
fault resistance part of Rogowski
or modification of neutral coil andimpedance.
point cannot beAn modified
144replaced
or with advantage
additional different cable [39]. Despite
of Rogowski sensitivity
coil is practically factor and
negligible measuring
measuring angle error, onenoshould
error and burdenanalyze
145
resonanceerrors
band [38].
ofItRogowski
has to be, coil
however, noted
[40]. An that signalfor
alternative cable is an integral
Rogowski coil ispart of Rogowski
an optical currentcoiltransformer
and
146 cannot be modified or replaced
to monitor cable screen current flow [41]. with different cable [39]. Despite sensitivity factor and measuring
147 error, one should analyze resonance band of Rogowski coil [40]. An alternative for Rogowski coil is
148
3. Cable an optical current transformer to monitor cable screen current flow [41].
Screen Earthing Current
149 Figure
3. Cable Screen Earthing
2 present Current
cable screen current sources, which can force the earthing current flow resulting
from
150 cable screen
Figure 2currents summation.
present cable Other
screen current current
sources, sources
which can be
can force theobserved in power
earthing current flowlines composed
resulting
151many
of cable
from sections
cable screen or mixed
currents cable-overhead
summation. lines, however,
Other current sources canthe
be mentioned, complex
observed in power lines go
lines
152 composed of many cable
beyond the scope of the study. sections or mixed cable-overhead lines, however, the mentioned, complex
153 lines go beyond the scope of the study.

154
Figure 2. Current sources in two-point bonded cable lines (one section).
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 5 of 20

Earthing current flow under load conditions is a result of coupling impedance asymmetry or
asymmetry of cable screen resistance, i.e., due to erroneous cable screen connection. Earthing current
under no-load conditions is a result of cable screen resistance asymmetry [25].
Besides load and no-load earthing current one can observe circulating current, which is a result
of the voltage difference between two earthing systems at both cable ends. It is, however, noted
that the earthing system voltage changes drastically under earth fault conditions and in such case,
the circulating current can be neglected.
The earthing current can be a result of stray currents. Stray currents can have high amplitudes if
the cable is laid in the vicinity of traction loads. In order to reduce stray current flow, some cables
are reconfigured and single point bonding is used. Cable screen voltage limiters are installed at the
unearthed side of the cable in order to reduce expected contact voltage to safe values required by
norms and to protect the cable sheath from overvoltages [42].
Earthing current can also be a result of inductive coupling between another power line or
conductive, metallic installation, through which flows zero sequence current [43]. If zero sequence
current flows through the line, which is connected to different substation or section and is coupled
with the analyzed line, then the cable screen earthing current would have higher amplitude than zero
sequence current measured in cable cores. If zero sequence current flows through the line, which is
supplied from the same substation, one can observe phase shift between zero sequence current in
cable screens and cable cores because the capacitive current in cable screens is affected by induced
current. An analogical phenomenon can be observed in high voltage (HV) and extra-high voltage
(EHV) overhead lines, where counterpoise conductor is used to minimize the amplitude of the current
flowing through the earthing system of substation [44].
Another reason for earthing current flow are two or three phase to phase faults in the protected
line or open phase conditions (single phasing) of the supplied transformer [45]. The amplitude of the
earthing current during the disturbances strongly depends on cable line parameters, mainly on cable
formation and on phases involved in short circuit. The earthing current under phase to phase fault
is high in the case of cable line phase circuits laid in the flat formation and is very low in the case of
cables laid in trefoil configuration. It is, however, noted that under phase to phase fault zero sequence
voltage does not increase. Zero sequence voltage is present under two phase to earth fault conditions,
however, the ratio of zero sequence current and zero sequence voltage is significantly higher than
under phase to earth fault conditions. Presented relations allows for distinguishing different types of
faults in cable line.
The earthing screen current is also a result of earth fault in other lines supplied from the same
substation. In that case, earth current is a capacitive current, so zero sequence current leads the zero
sequence voltage. Capacitive current flow both in cable cores and cables screens because of capacitances
between cable core and screen as well as cable screen and earth.
Finally, the current in cable screens can be a result of the connection between cable screen and
cable core. Earth fault can be easily distinguished from other disturbances because of zero sequence
voltage or neutral point current, which increase at the moment of an earth fault. Earth fault in cable line
can be categorized as earth faults in cable line itself, in cable joints or in cable terminations. In some
cases, it is possible to distinguish the faulted element, which could reduce downtime significantly [46].
In order to detect intermittent earth faults, waveform analysis tools are used, i.e., CNN convolutional
neural network [47]. An alternative for the detection of damages in cables is the utilization of partial
discharge sensors. In the case of medium voltage (MV) cables with cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)
insulation, the time between detection of first partial discharge (PD) to permanent failure with 50%
confidence level is approximately 12 days [48].
Earth faults inside a substation can be treated as earth faults in cable lines because all metallic
constructions are connected to the same earthing system as cable screens in order to avoid voltage
difference between different elements [49]. Probability of earth faults inside a substation is typically
low, however, the probability can increase due to dirt and moisture [50].
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 6 of 20

The presented cable screens current sources have a different impact on the earthing current flow,
depending on cable parameters, cable formation, and bonding method [51]. Table 1 presents an overall
assessment of the cable screen bonding method on cable screen earthing current.

Table 1. Impact of cable formation and bonding on the screen earthing current.

2 Points Bonded 2 Points Bonded

Single Point 2 out of 3 Phases
Laid in Flat Laid in Trefoil
Bonded Unearthed
Formation Formation
Load current dependency Average No No Average
Dependency on erroneous
High High No Present
connection
Reduction factor of
High High High Reduced
110/15 station
Vulnerability on stray
High High No Reduced
current flow
Inductive coupling with
Possible Possible No Reduced
other lines
Vulnerability on circulating
High High No Reduced
current flow

Reduction factor describes a ratio of current value flowing through the earthing system and the total
value of earth fault current. In the paper, attention is paid to the earthing system of 110/15 substation
and reduction factor of 110/15 substation is given by Formula (1)

3I0cs
RF110/15 = (1)
3I0 cc

where 3I0cs —part of earth fault current, which return through cable screens to 110/15 substation,
3I0 cc—earth fault current flowing through cable core (total earth fault current).
The screen earthing current is a result of inductive coupling and conductive connection of cable
screen and core [52]. Bibliography often presents a reduction factor in the context of high voltage and
extra high voltage lines, where earthing resistance is negligible. In the case of MV lines, however,
the impact of earthing resistance on reduction factor is strong and cannot be neglected. This paper
presents research results, which present a strong impact of earthing resistance on the cable screens
current flow.

4. Cable Screen Earthing Current Analysis

4.1. Simulation
In order to analyze the earthing screen current under earth fault conditions, a model of the network
and cable line was developed in PowerFactory software. Attention was paid to steady-state analysis.
In order to analyze transient phenomena, one should use advanced cable line model, with cable line
represented by distributed parameters [53]. The developed model is presented in Figure 3 and consist
of ZNyn11 earthing transformer, power transformer, neutral point impedance, cable lines with total
earth fault current equals 100 A and loads [54].
 Energies 2019,12,
Energies2019, 12,3190
x FOR PEER REVIEW 77of
of20
20

229
Figure 3. Model of analyzed distribution network.
230 Figure 3. Model of analyzed distribution network.
All cable screens at the supply side are bonded and connected with the earthing system of
231 110/15All cable screens
substation. at the the
Because supplyearthside are current
fault bonded flows
and connected
through with the earthing
a metallic system
connection ofofneutral
110/15
232 point impedance to the earthing installation, to which cable screens are bonded, the resistance ofpoint
substation. Because the earth fault current flows through a metallic connection of neutral this
233 impedanceistonegligible.
connection the earthing
It is, installation,
however, worth to which
notingcable screens are
that erroneous bonded,or
connection the resistance
aging of this
of connection
234 connection
can result in isa significant
negligible. rise
It is, however, worth
of connection noting
resistance. In that erroneous
the case of anotherconnection or aging
cable screen currentof
235 connection can result in a significant rise of connection resistance. In the
sources, the current is flowing through an earthing system of the substation, which in Poland is case of another cable screen
236 current sources,
typically the current
in the range of 0,1 Ωisdueflowing throughlattice
to extensive an earthing
earthingsystem of the substation,
electrodes. which in Poland
All results presented in the
237 is typically in the range of 0,1 Ω due to extensive lattice earthing electrodes.
paragraph are based on following assumptions: Resulting earthing resistance of MV station is 4 Ω, All results presented in
238 the paragraph
cable type is 3x are based on
YHAKXS following
150/25 laid in assumptions: Resulting
trefoil configuration andearthing resistance is
the soil resistivity of200
MVΩ·m.
station is 4
239 Ω, cable type is 3x YHAKXS 150/25 laid in trefoil configuration and the soil resistivity
Figure 4 presents a current flow forced by different current sources. The decision about earthing is 200 Ω∙m.
240 Figure 4 presents a current flow forced by different current sources. The
of 110/15 YNd11 transformer is based on earth fault factor defined in IEV 604-03-06, however, one has decision about earthing
241 ofunderline
to 110/15 YNd11 transformer
that regardless of is based on
earthing of earth fault factor
Y winding, defined in
zero sequence IEV 604-03-06,
current however,
does not flow throughone
242 has to underline that regardless of earthing of Y winding, zero sequence
Yd transformer. Different sources are marked with colors as in Figure 2: Orange—load conditions, current does not flow
243 through Yd transformer.
gray—no-load Different sources
conditions, yellow—stray are marked
and circulating with colors
currents, as in Figurecurrent
green—capacitive 2: Orange―load
and —part
244 conditions,
of zero sequencegray―no-load conditions,
earth fault current. yellow―stray
Attention is paid toand circulating
the earth currents, green―capacitive
fault current.
245 current and ―part of zero sequence earth fault current. Attention is paid to the earth fault current.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20

Energies 2019, 12, 3190 8 of 20

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20

246
247 Figure 4. Cable screen currents flow.

248
246 Attention is paid to a reduction factor of 110/15 substation RF110/15, which is defined as the ratio
249 of zero sequence screen current, Figure which 4.is Cable
a partscreen currents
of cable flow.
screen earthing current and zero sequence
247
250 core current (total earth fault current). AsCable
Figure 4. can screen
be observed
currentsin Figure 5, in the case of single point
flow.
As can be observed in Figure 5, in the case of single point bonding, a reduction factor of 110/15
251 bonding, a reduction factor of 110/15 (RF110/15) station equals one since all currents flow in one
248 (RF110/15 ) station
Attention is equals
paid toone since all currents
a reduction factor flow in one direction and, is practically independent of
252 direction and is practically independent ofof 110/15
cable linesubstation
parameters.RFRF
110/15 which
110/15 also is defined
equals oneasinthe
theratio
case
249 cable
of line parameters. RF110/15 also equals
is one in thecable
case screen
of bonding type two outand of three, however,
253 of zero sequence
bonding screen
type two outcurrent,
of three, which
however, a part
onlyofwhen earthing
earth fault occurscurrent
in phases with zerounearthed
sequence
250 only
core when
currentearth fault
(total occurs
earth in phases with unearthed screens. When earth fault occurs in the phase
254 screens. When earth faultfault
occurscurrent). As can
in the phase be the
with observed
earthedinscreen,
FigureRF 5,110/15
in the case of
is lower single
than in the point
case
251 with the
bonding, earthed screen,
a reduction RF 110/15 is lower than in the case of two-point bonding. Decrease of RF 110/15 is
255 of two-point bonding. factor
Decreaseof 110/15 (RFis110/15
of RF110/15 the) bigger,
station the
equals
biggerone since
cable all currents
length flow in
is. Simulation one
results
252 the bigger,
direction the
andRF bigger
is 110/15 cable
practically length is. Simulation results indicate that RF 110/15 in cross bonded lines is
256 indicate that in crossindependent
bonded linesofiscable
similar linetoparameters. RF110/15 cable
two-point bonded also equals
lines. one in the case
253 similar to two-point
of bonding type twobonded cable lines.
out of three, however, only when earth fault occurs in phases with unearthed
254 screens. When earth fault occurs in the phase with the earthed screen, RF110/15 is lower than in the case
255 1.1
of two-point bonding. Decrease of RF110/15 is the bigger, the bigger cable length is. Simulation results
of 110 kV station

256 indicate that RF110/15 in cross bonded lines is similar to two-point bonded cable lines.
1
0.9
1.1
kV station

0.8
1 2 point bonding
factor

0.7
0.9 single point bonding
of 110

0.6
reduction

0.8 2 out of 3 unerthed; fault in earthed phase

0.5 2 point bonding
reduction factor

0.7 2 out of 3 unerthed; fault in unearthed phase

0.4 single point bonding
0.6
0 2 4 6 8 10
2 out of 3 unerthed; fault in earthed phase
0.5 fault location[km]
257 2 out of 3 unerthed; fault in unearthed phase
0.4 Figure 5. Impact of cable screen bonding method on RF110/15.
258 Figure 5. Impact of cable screen bonding method on RF110/15.
0 2 4 6 8 10
As is presented in Figures 6 and 7, RF110/15 clearly changes with the location of the fault along the
259 fault location[km]
257 cable As
lineisandpresented
the longerin Figure
the cable 6 and Figure
line is, 7, RF
the bigger 110/15 clearly changes with the location of the fault
is the change of RF110/15 . Lower values of RF110/15
260 along the cable line and the longer the cable
can be observed for two out of three bondings, whereas line is, the bigger is values
higher the change of RF110/15. Lower
for conventional values
two-point
258
261 of RF 110/15 can be observed
Figurefor
5.two out
Impact of
of three
cable bondings,
screen bondingwhereas
method higher
on values
RF110/15. for
bonding. The relationship can be used to pre-locate the fault along the cable line. In case of earth faultconventional two-
262 point substation
inside bonding. The relationship
at the receiving end can ofbethe
used to pre-locate
cable, the RF110/15the fault
will along
be the the cable line. In case of
smallest.
259
263 earthAs is presented
fault in Figure
inside substation at 6the
and Figure 7,
receiving end RFof110/15
theclearly changes
cable, the with
RF110/15 willthe location
be the of the fault
smallest.
260 along the cable line and the longer the cable line is, the bigger is the change of RF110/15. Lower values
261 of RF110/15 can be observed for two out of three bondings, whereas higher values for conventional two-
262 point bonding. The relationship can be used to pre-locate the fault along the cable line. In case of
263 earth fault inside substation at the receiving end of the cable, the RF110/15 will be the smallest.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

264 1 2019, 12, 3190

Energies 9 of 20
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20
statioin [-]
0.9
264 1
0.8
110 kV [-]

0.9
110 kVofstatioin

0.7
0.8
0.6
factor offactor

0.7
0.5
reduction

0.6
0.4
0.5 1 km 5 km 10 km
reduction

0.3
0.40% 20% 40%
1 km 5 km60% 80%
10 km 100%
fault location [%]
0.3
265 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
266 Figure 6. Impact of fault location on RFfault
110/15 in two out[%]
location of three bonding configurations.

265 Figure 6. Impact of fault location on RF110/15 in two out of three bonding configurations.
267
266 Figure 6. Impact of fault location on RF110/15 in two out of three bonding configurations.
1
267
statioin [-]

0.95
1
110 kV [-]

0.9
0.95
110 kVofstatioin

0.85
0.9
factor offactor

0.8
0.85
reduction

0.75
0.8 1 km 5 km 10 km
reduction

0.7
0.75
0% 20% 1 km 40% 5 km 60% 80%
10 km 100%
268 fault location [%]
0.7
269 0% 20% ofoffault
Impact
Figure7.7.Impact
Figure 40%
faultlocation
locationon RF110/15
onRF in in
110/15 60% bonded
two-point
two-point bonded 80%
cable
cable line.
line. 100%
268 fault location [%]
In old type XLPE cables in Poland 50 mm2 cross-section cable screens were used. Nowadays, cables
270 In old type XLPE cables in Poland 50 mm2 cross-section cable screens were used. Nowadays,
269 are optimized in Figure
order to
7. reduce
Impact losses
of faultand investment
location on RF cost. Cross-section
in two-point bondedof cable
the cable
line. screen is selected
271 cables are optimized in order to reduce losses and investment
110/15 cost. Cross-section
2
of the cable screen
based on short circuit power [55]. The smallest cross-section is 16 mm when2 short circuit power
272 is selected based on short circuit power [55]. The smallest cross-section is 16 mm 2when short circuit
2 when short-circuit power
270
273 is below 70 type
powerInis old
MVA, 25 mm
below 70XLPEMVA,cables
25 mm in2 when
Polandshort-circuit is below 110
50 mm2 cross-section
power is below
MVA,
cable screens
110
35 mm
MVA, were
35 mm
when
used. short-circuit
Nowadays,
2 when short-
2 when short circuit power is below 220 MVA. Cross-sections
271
274 power
cables is
are below 150
optimized MVA
in and
order 50
to mm
reduce losses and investment cost. Cross-section
circuit power is below 150 MVA and 50 mm when short circuit power is below 220 MVA. Cross-
2 of the cable screen
272
275 were
is calculated
selected based based
on oncircuit
short the assumption
power that
[55]. The two phasecross-section
smallest short circuitisis16
switched
sections were calculated based on the assumption that two phase short circuit is switched off duringmm 2 whenoff during
short 1,5 s.
circuit
273
276 Cable screen
power is belowresistance
70 MVA, has
25 ammbig2 impact
when on RF110/15 , power
short-circuit which is below
presented
110 in Figure
MVA,
1,5 s. Cable screen resistance has a big impact on RF110/15, which is presented in Figure 8. The higher 35 8. The
mm higher
2 when the
short-
274
277 resistance
circuit
the resistance
of the
powerofisthecable
below screen
cable150 MVA
screen
is, the lower
is,and
the RF
50 mmthewhen
the lower
2
110/15
RF
is.
short circuit power is below 220 MVA. Cross-
110/15 is.
275 sections were calculated based on the assumption that two phase short circuit is switched off during
276 1,5 s. Cable screen resistance has a big impact on RF110/15, which is presented in Figure 8. The higher
277 the resistance of the cable screen is, the lower the RF110/15 is.
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 10 of 20
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
1
[-] [-]
0.95
kV station
1
0.9
0.95
station

0.85
0.9
0.8
110

0.85
ofkV

0.75
0.8
of 110

0.7
factorfactor

0.75
0.65
0.7
reduction

0.6
0.65
0.55
reduction

0.6
0.5
0.55
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
0.5
resistance of one cable screen [Ω]
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
278
resistance of one cable screen [Ω]
279
278 Figure 8. Impact of cable screen resistance on RF110/15 in two-point bonded cable line.
Figure 8. Impact of cable screen resistance on RF110/15 in two-point bonded cable line.
279
280 Figure
According to 8. Impact of cable
simulation screen
results, soilresistance on has
resistivity RF110/15 in two-point
a negligible bondedon
impact cable line., at the same
RF110/15
According to simulation results, soil resistivity has a negligible impact on RF , at the same
281 time, however, soil resistivity has a big impact on earthing resistance, which in turn110/15 has a big impact
280 time,According
however, soil
to simulation results, soil resistivity has a negligible impact on RF110/15, at impact
resistivity has a big impact on earthing resistance, which in turn has a big the same on
282 on cable screen current flow. Seasonal variation of earthing system resistance has to be analyzed in
281 cable
time, screen current flow. Seasonal variation of earthing system resistance has to be analyzed in order
283 orderhowever, soil resistivity
to select proper settingshas a big
of the impact on
proposed earthingrelay,
protection resistance, which in
particularly in turn has of
the case a big
longimpact
cable
282 to select
on cable proper
screen settingsflow.
current of theSeasonal
proposed protection
variation of relay, particularly
earthing system in the case
resistance has of
tolong
be cable lines.
analyzed in
284 lines. As is presented in Figure 9 RF110/15 for 10 km 150/25 line can be changed in wideband: 0,38 up
283 As is presented in Figure 9 RF
order to select proper settings110/15 for 10 km 150/25 line can be changed in wideband: 0,38 up
of the proposed protection relay, particularly in the case of long cable to 0,88.
285 to 0,88.
284 lines. As is presented in Figure 9 RF110/15 for 10 km 150/25 line can be changed in wideband: 0,38 up
285 1
to 0,88.
[-] [-]

1
kV statioin

0.9
statioin

0.9
0.8

0.8
110

0.7
of 110ofkV

0.7
0.6
factorfactor

0.6
0.5
reduction

0.5
0.4
reduction

1 km 10 km
0.4
0.3 1 km 10 km
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.3 earthing system resistance [Ω]
286 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
287
286
Figure Impactofofearthing
9. Impact
Figure 9. earthingresistance
resistance
atat
earthing load
system
load side
side (medium
resistance
(medium [Ω]voltage
voltage (MV)
(MV) station)
station) on RF RF110/15
on110/15 in
in two-
288 two-point bonded
point bonded cablecable
line. line.
287 Figure 9. Impact of earthing resistance at load side (medium voltage (MV) station) on RF110/15 in two-
288 4.2. Network Experiment
point bonded cable line.
289 4.2. Network Experiment
In order to validate the simulation results, an experiment in a power system network was
290
289 In order
4.2. Network to validate the simulation results, an experiment in a power system network was
Experiment
performed. The experiment was performed on NA2XS(F)2Y 150/25 12/20 kV cable line (1,5 km)
291 performed. The experiment was performed on NA2XS(F)2Y 150/25 12/20 kV cable line (1,5 km)
290
292
supplied withto
In order low voltagethe
validate winding of theresults,
simulation earthingantransformer.
experimentCurrents in cable
in a power cores
system and screens
network
supplied with low voltage winding of the earthing transformer. Currents in cable cores and screens
was
291
293
were measured
performed. The via A class waveform
experiment recorders
was performed on and RF110/15 was
NA2XS(F)2Y calculated
150/25 [56,57].
12/20 kV cableThe
were measured via A class waveform recorders and RF110/15 was calculated [56,57]. The same cable
same
line (1,5cable
km)
292
294
line was modeled
supplied with low in PowerFactory
voltage software
winding of and comparison
the earthing transformer.ofCurrents
simulation
line was modeled in PowerFactory software and comparison of simulation RF110/15
RF cores
in cable factor
andwith the
screens
110/15 factor with the
293
295 measured
were RF viawas
measured
measured RF110/15
made.
A class
110/15 was made.
waveform recorders and RF110/15 was calculated [56,57]. The same cable
294 line was modeled in PowerFactory software and comparison of simulation RF110/15 factor with the
295 measured RF110/15 was made.
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 11 of 20

As can be seen in Table 2, simulation error is satisfying, bellow 10%, which confirms relations
presented in the chapter above. Measured RF110/15 is always higher than simulated RF110/15 . Results are
repeatable and independent from the unearthed phase. The difference is a result of simulation
simplification of the model and lack of precise information about some parameters of cable.
i.e., earth resistivity.

Table 2. Comparison of measurement and simulation results.

Zero Sequence Core Current Zero Sequence Screen Current

Number of Earthed RF110/15
(I0_cc ) (I0_cs )
Cable Screens
Measured Measured Simulated Measured Simulated
3 9,1 8,7 7,7 0,96 0,85
1 8,8 6,6 6,1 0,75 0,69
2 8,9 7,9 7,1 0,88 0,80
Accuracy of measuring equipment [14].

During the test, cable was under no-load conditions. It is, however, observed that due to stray
currents and voltage difference, earthing current was constantly flowing through the analyzed cable.
It is, however, noted that under fault conditions the circulating and stray currents are practically invisible,
which is a result of rapid change of earthing system voltages under phase to earth fault conditions.
When the screens of cable line are single-point bonded, the measured earthing current is only
the earth fault current. Earthing current resulting from load conditions is practically eliminated in
two-point bonded cable lines laid in trefoil configuration. Unfortunately, in the case of other bonding
methods, the earthing current measured under fault conditions could be affected by other current
sources. To avoid erroneous measurement filtering method was developed. The filtering is particularly
important in networks with a neutral point connected to the ground through Petersen coil because of
the low amplitude of the earthing current. On the other hand, filtering is theoretically not necessary in
case of low impedance earthing.
In this study attention is focused on cable lines, one can, however, imagine that line is extended
with an overhead section at the end of the cable line. Measurements of zero sequence cable core
and cable screen currents allow for the identification of line type affected by phase to earth fault.
This statement is valid only for the cable overhead line. In the case of complex lines, i.e., cable 1,
overhead and cable 2 one can only conclude if a fault occurred in cable 1 or in the remaining part
composed of overhead line and cable 2. Detection of line type affected by phase to earth fault is
based on the relation of I0cs and I0cc as well as on phase shift between I0cs and I0cc . According to
laboratory experiments on the MV network model, experiment on MV cable supplied with low voltage
(LV)—230/400 V one can observe the following relations. In case of phase to earth faults in cable line,
the phase shift between I0cs and I0cc in ideal conditions is 180◦ assuming polarization presented in
Figure 11 and negligible impact of induced current. In case of phase to earth fault in overhead line phase
shift between I0cs and I0cc is 90◦ . 180◦ phase shift is a result of galvanic connection and the opposite
direction of current flow through current sensors. 90◦ phase shift is a result of inductive coupling
between cable core and screens. Majority of earth fault current returns through earth since the earthing
resistance of cable termination is in the range of ohms, in PL approximately 10 Ω [58], whereas the
resistance of earth is negligible [59]. Presented relations are also confirmed by MV recording taken
by authors presented in Figure 10. Figure 10 presents raw waveform of 3I0cc and Ics (earthing screen
current) recorded under phase to ground fault in one of the Polish distribution networks in cable
overhead lines. Cable length is a few hundred meters and cable type is YHAKXS 3x120/50. As can be
seen, in case of earth fault outside of the cable line one can observe the phase shift between measured
currents. After digital filtering of waveforms and obtaining fundamental components (50 Hz) of
currents, the 45◦ phase shift between the currents is measured. It is, however, noted that accurate
measurement of phase shift in real networks is difficult since high angle errors can occur if conventional
zero sequence filter is used. It is believed that because of conventional current transformers the angle
 Energies 2019, 12, 3190 12 of 20

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

error is so big. RMS currents are: Ics = 1,7 A and 3I0cc = 24 A, therefore, RF110/15 is 0,07. Similar RF110/15
341 RF0,07
= 110/15 is 0,07. Similar RF110/15 = 0,07 was measured during the experiment in Austria [60]. The results
was measured during the experiment in Austria [60]. The results are clearly out of scope
342 presented inout
are clearly of scope
Section presented
4.1 and, in Section
therefore, one can 4.1 and, therefore,
conclude that earth one
faultcan conclude
occurred thatof
outside earth fault
the cable
343 occurred outside of the cable line and, therefore, the concept is proved. Despite the problems
line and, therefore, the concept is proved. Despite the problems authors believe that detection of line authors
344 believe
type that detection
affected by fault isofpossible
line type affected
and is veryby fault is possible
interesting and research
and further is very interesting andplanned.
activities are further
345 research activities
Identification are
of line planned.
affected Identification
by fault allows to of line affected
shorten by fault
repair time allows line
of affected to shorten repair
and allows to time of
restore
346 affected line and allows to restore power to consumers
power to consumers not affected by fault as fast as possible. not affected by fault as fast as possible.

100 20
80 15
60
10
40

Iearthing screen [A]

20 5
3Iocc [A]

0 0
0 50 100 150 200
-20 -5
-40
-10
-60 3Iocc
-80 Iearthing_screen -15

-100 -20
time [ms]
347
Figure 10. Waveforms recorded under phase to earth fault conditions in overhead section of cable
348 Figure 10. Waveforms recorded under phase to earth fault conditions in overhead section of cable
overhead line.
349 overhead line.
5. Results
350 5. Results
5.1. Filtering Method
351 5.1. Filtering Method
There are two possibilities of measurement of the earthing screen current. It is possible to install
352 There
a current are two
sensor possibilities
in place A and B ofpresented
measurement of the11.
in Figure earthing screen current.
The recommended It is possible
solution is placetoBinstall
since
353 a current
errors sensorfrom
resulting in place A and B presented
the incorrect position ofincables
Figure 11. The
screens inrecommended
the measuringsolution
windowisare place B since
practically
354 errors resulting
eliminated. from current
All earth the incorrect
sources position of cables
can force the flowscreens in the measuring
of fundamental window are
component—50 Hz practically
of current,
355 eliminated. All earth current sources can force the flow of fundamental component―50
which is the same as the frequency of earth fault current. It is, therefore, difficult to filter earth Hz of current,
fault
356 which isusing
current the same as the frequency
conventional band-pass offilters.
earth fault current.
To avoid It is, therefore,
the impact of earth difficult to filter earth
current resulting from fault
load
357 current using
conditions it isconventional band-pass
possible to subtract filters. current
earthing To avoidbefore
the impact
earth of earth
fault current
occurs fromresulting
earthingfrom load
current
358 conditions it is possible to subtract earthing current before earth fault occurs from
after the occurrence of the fault. In order to detect an earth fault, the increase of zero-sequence voltage earthing current
359 after
is theZero
used. occurrence
sequence of the fault.isIn
voltage order
also usedtoto
detect an earth
calculate phasefault, theofincrease
shifts earthingofcurrent
zero-sequence
before andvoltage
after
360 is used. Zero sequence voltage is also used to calculate phase shifts of earthing
the fault. In order to calculate the phase shift between U0 and the earthing current before the fault, current before and
361 after
the the fault. In voltage
zero-sequence order toiscalculate
artificiallythe phase shift
extended between
before U0 and theInearthing
fault occurrence. order to current
properlybefore the
calculate
362 fault, fault
earth the zero-sequence voltage is artificially
current, fixed (steady-state) extended
earth fault currentbefore fault
has to be occurrence.
utilized. In orderperformed
Experiments to properly in
363 calculate earth fault current, fixed (steady-state) earth fault current has
PF software indicate that the presented method can fully eliminate the impact of load conditions.to be utilized. Experiments
364 performed in PF of
Subtraction software
currentindicate
before and thatafter
the presented method can
the fault occurrence is fully eliminate
justified because thethe
impact of load
dynamics of
365 conditions.
load variation is a few orders of magnitude lower than earth current. It is also true in the case of power
cable deriving power from renewable energy sources—high variable photovoltaic (PV) panels change
power in the range of 0,6 pu/min [61].
An alternative way of removing the impact of other current sources is the utilization of the
analogous zero-sequence screen current filter. The filter is built via bonding cable screens at both ends.
In order to build the filter, cable sheath has to be notched at a short distance and then cable screens at
both ends are bonded. In order to ensure safety of personnel, the filter is single point bonded. The filter
 Energies 2019, 12, 3190 13 of 20

is presented in Figure 3 and marked with red color. Stray and circulating currents cannot flow in the
filter, whereas zero-sequence current resulting from load dependencies can be removed. Alternatively,
the filter can be laid in trefoil configuration, which naturally eliminates load dependencies. It has to
be underlined that load asymmetry does not affect the filter. On the other hand, flat configuration
offers additional benefits like detection of single-phasing and phase to phase fault. If filter consists of
two transposed cable sections, it is believed that it is possible to detect phase to phase fault and single
phasing independently of affected phases. Created zero-sequence current filter ensures even more
effective fault detection than state of the art solutions, however, have limited auxiliary capabilities—it is
not able to detect erroneous connection in cable screen or indicate fault location. Another problem with
the proposed zero-sequence filter is the difficulty of creation since in case of existing cable lines the
filter would have to be manufactured and calibrated locally. Moreover, the filter could be susceptible
to electromagnetic fields inside of substation and appropriate screening would have to be developed.
Despite difficulties, it is believed that concept is interesting and further research activities are planned.
It is planned to connect the filter to the physical MV network model in order to further investigate the
presented concept. Zero sequence current in the filter depends mostly on cable screen cross-section.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20

366
367 Figure 11.Installation
Figure11. Installationof
ofthe
thecurrent
currentsensor
sensoron
onaacable
cablescreen
screenearthing
earthingsystem.
system.
5.2. Protection Algorithm
368 Subtraction of current before and after the fault occurrence is justified because the dynamics of
369 The developed
load variation I0cs /Iorders
is a few 0cc criterion is valid for
of magnitude MVthan
lower networks
earth with
current.single-point
It is also grounded
true in theneutral
case of
370 point and isolated network. Among neutral grounding (neutral
power cable deriving power from renewable energy sources―high variable photovoltaic (PV) point treatment methods) one can
panels
371 mention
change powerresistor,
in coil, a coilofwith
the range an active
0,6 pu/min current forcing resistor, parallel connection of coil and
[61].
372 resistor or isolated neutral point
An alternative way of removing 0cs [31]. I /I criterion
the0ccimpact utilizes
of other measurement
current sources of cable
is the screen current,
utilization of the
373 therefore,
analogousiszero-sequence
valid for cablesscreen equippedcurrentwithfilter.
cableThescreen,
filterwhich
is builtis required
via bonding for any cables
cable developed
screens at both
374 for a grid
ends. aboveto1 kV
In order build[62].theAttention
filter, cable is focused
sheath has on single-core
to be notched cables,
at a however,
short distance the criterion
and then can be
cable
375 adopted to different cable types, i.e., three-phase cable or cables equipped
screens at both ends are bonded. In order to ensure safety of personnel, the filter is single point with additional armor [63].
376 Neutral
bonded. Thepoint
filter of LV networks
is presented is typically
in Figure 3 anddirectly
markedgrounded through
with red color. Stray theandlocal earthing currents
circulating system,
377 however, LV cables are not equipped with cable
cannot flow in the filter, whereas zero-sequence current resulting from screens, therefore, I /I criterion cannot
0cs 0ccload dependencies can be used.
be
378 An exception is LV cable line equipped with cable armor, which main task
removed. Alternatively, the filter can be laid in trefoil configuration, which naturally eliminates load is to ensure high mechanical
379 strength [64]. It It
dependencies. is, has
however, noted that current
to be underlined that load flow is observeddoes
asymmetry in the not armor
affectand thethat current
filter. On the sources
other
380 are the same as in cable screens.
hand, flat configuration offers additional benefits like detection of single-phasing and phase to phase
381 Neutral
fault. If filterpoint impedance
consists is commonly
of two transposed cableused in distribution
sections, system
it is believed networks,
that industrial
it is possible networks
to detect phase
382 and in microgrids
to phase fault and[65].singleThe criterion
phasing is valid in conventional
independently radial networks
of affected phases. as well as newcurrent
Created zero-sequence active
383 networks,
filter ensureswhich
even consist
more of renewable
effective fault energy
detection sources, energy
than state storage
of the or energy
art solutions, hub and,
however, therefore,
have limited
384 the potential
auxiliary range of application
capabilities―it is not ableis wide [66,67].
to detect The developed
erroneous connectionfilter,inwhich
cableensures
screen high measuring
or indicate fault
385 accuracy, can be applied
location. Another probleminwith anythe power
proposednetwork. It is believed
zero-sequence filterthat
is thethe proposed
difficulty filter could
of creation sincebe
in
386 manufactured as short cable lines with short-circuited cable screens
case of existing cable lines the filter would have to be manufactured and calibrated locally. Moreover, and that the filter could be
387 connected to any
the filter could bepower line, i.e.,
susceptible overhead or LV fields
to electromagnetic cablesinside
without cable screens.
of substation and appropriate screening
388 would have to be developed. Despite difficulties, it is believed that concept is interesting and further
389 research activities are planned. It is planned to connect the filter to the physical MV network model
390 in order to further investigate the presented concept. Zero sequence current in the filter depends
391 mostly on cable screen cross-section.
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 14 of 20

Earthing current can be used as independent earth fault protection of cable lines, however, can also
be used in cooperation with conventional earth fault relays and it is recommended solution since the
utilization of zero sequence current measured in cable cores I0cc and screens I0cs will allow for the
reduction of a number of unwanted trips and higher sensitivity. In order to reduce the risk of erroneous
trips, the consideration of RF110/15 values should be added to conventional relays algorithm. Earth fault
is detected only when RF110/15 is in the appropriate range, which mostly depends on cable length,
cable screen resistance, and bonding method. The value of RF110/15 alone is, however, not sufficient
because similar RF110/15 values could be observed in the cable if earth fault occurs in other lines in the
substation. In order to distinguish such fault types, it is possible to measure the direction of earth fault
current. An alternative way is to compare measured I0 and U0 with I0 = f(U0 ) characteristic. If the
measured point is out of the band of the capacitive current, earth fault is detected in the protected line.
The values of RF110/15 can, however, give erroneous results when loading of the line is below
minimum, i.e., 4 A [68]. Protection relay should recognize that zero sequence current is measured with
big error and block operation of conventional zero-sequence current algorithms when loading of zero
sequences current sensor is below the minimum. In this case, the zero-sequence currents measured in
cable screens should be used to detect earth faults.
It is believed that presented algorithms could be applied in lines, which are often operated under
no-load conditions and capacitive current of the line is below the minimum current range of the current
sensor. As a result, high measuring accuracy would be ensured. An example could be a power line,
which derives the power from renewable energy sources.
Protection algorithm is presented in Figure 12. The earthing screen current, zero sequence current
measured in cable core I0cc , zero-sequence voltage U0 and loading of current sensor—Iload are input
quantities measured in a substation where protected cable line is installed. The earthing screen current
is filtered in order to get zero-sequence current measured in cable screen I0cs . Admittances Y0cc (I0cc /U0 )
and Y0cs (I0cs /U0 ) are calculated based on the measured values. Y0cc is calculated and analyzed in
conventional admittance earth fault protection relay. Y0cs and Y0cc are used to calculate the ratio of Y0cs
and Y0cc (RF110/15 ), which is further compared with the setting value. If measured RF110/15 is within
setting range, conventional admittance earth fault algorithm detects an earth fault and loading of
the current sensor is above minimum high signal is sent to gate OR. The logical gate OR can be also
stimulated by Yocs within a defined range and under low loading of the current sensor in cable core.
Further verification of cable screen earthing current is made. If the earthing screen current is not within
a band of the capacitive current measured in cable screens an earth fault is detected and the timer is
started. In order to avoid unnecessary complexity of the algorithm, the description of the timer is not
included in the paper. Comparison of different timers may be found in [69]. Earth fault protection
algorithm should be blocked when post-earth fault oscillation is detected [70].
Developed protection algorithm is compared with other earth fault algorithms in Table 3.
Comparison is based on the methodology presented in [71]. Developed solutions are compared with
conventional earth fault protection methods—residual voltage and ground fault directional current.
All presented algorithms can be operated online, however, it is also possible to use offline analysis in
order to detect the erroneous connection of cable screens or indicate line affected by the fault.
427 of zero sequences current sensor is below the minimum. In this case, the zero-sequence currents
428 measured in cable screens should be used to detect earth faults.
429 It is believed that presented algorithms could be applied in lines, which are often operated under
430 no-load conditions and capacitive current of the line is below the minimum current range of the
431 current sensor.
Energies 2019, As a result, high measuring accuracy would be ensured. An example could be a power
12, 3190 15 of 20
432 line, which derives the power from renewable energy sources.

433
Figure 12. Developed protection algorithm.
434 Figure 12. Developed protection algorithm.
Table 3. Table 3. Comparison of protection algorithms.
435 Protection algorithm is presented in Figure 12. The earthing screen current, zero sequence
Protection Algorithm
436 current measured in cable core I0cc, zero-sequence voltage U0 and loading of current sensor―Iload are
Criterion I /I0cc
437 input quantities measured in a substationANSIwhere
59Nprotected
1) 67N 2)line is0cs
ANSIcable installed. The
Criterion
I0csearthing
I0cs screen
Filter
438 current is filtered in order to get zero-sequence current measured in cable screen I0cs. Admittances Y0cc
Check wiring polarity of voltage
no yes yes yes yes
transformer (VT) to protection system
check wiring polarity of CT’s to
no yes yes yes yes
protection system
check tripping angle between I0 and U0 no yes no yes yes
Selective tripping no yes yes yes yes
Easy to set in operation yes no yes 3) yes 3) yes 3)
Cost of the protection system low high high low low 4)
Time to put the protection system into
short long long long long
operation
Primary injection needed to test its
no yes yes yes yes
functionality
Detection of erroneous connection of
no no yes yes no
cable screen
Sensitive for reconfiguration of network no yes no yes yes
Impact of neutral point treatment high high reduced reduced reduced
impact of line loading on accuracy high high reduced reduced reduced
Reduced
operation in case of CT failure CT not required no no no
performance
Identification of line affected by fault no no yes no no
Risk of erroneous tripping yes yes reduced reduced reduced
1) 2)
Residual voltage, ground fault directional overcurrent, 3) on energized cable if safety rules are followed,
4) potential for optimization and further cost reduction.

Erroneous connections are monitored via comparing measured values with a defined characteristic.
Measured earthing current and positive sequence load current is saved as x and y coordinates and
compared with load defined load characteristic. If the threshold is exceeded an alarm is activated.
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 16 of 20

Conventional earth fault protection relays are set based on the capacitive current of power lines.
The capacitive current can change when feeder or part of the feeder is reconfigured and, therefore,
the sensitivity of the relays is affected.
Developed I0cs /I0cc criterion remains operational, after the failure of neutral point impedance since
the relation I0cs /I0cc remain the same, whereas conventional protection algorithm is not able to detect
faults in case of neutral impedance failure. In order to mitigate risks, new grounding impedances are
monitored, and failure can be recognized quickly, which significantly reduces the risk of erroneous
operation of earth fault protection relays. It has to be, however, noted that earth fault could occur before
the neutral impedance is repaired, which could lead to erroneous operation and dangerous situations.
The I0cs /I0cc criterion utilizes two zero-sequence current measurements, which is a potential
problem since typical protective relays are equipped with four current inputs. However, one has
to notice that some new generation protection relays are equipped with five current inputs [72].
The current generation of protection relays is able to obtain zero-sequence current in two ways—via
measurement of Io or via digital summing of phase currents it is therefore possible to replace analog zero
sequence current measurement with the digital summing and to measure I0cs . Presented configuration
allows for performing additional functions presented in Table 3. Moreover, protection relay remains
operational after the failure of one current source—I0cs or I0cc filter and is able to fulfill the basic function
– earth fault protection. Proposed solutions can be used to improve earth fault protection in the case of
conventional zero-sequence current sensor failure or wrong sizing of CT since it is possible to install
the filter on energized cables assuming that safety rules are fulfilled.
Occurrence of erroneous tripping is reduced thanks to additional criteria of distinguishing between
line affected by the fault and heathy line. It is proposed to compare measured I0cc current with fault
characteristic I0cc = f(U0 ).
Both proposed solutions – I0cs /I0cc criterion and novel zero-sequence current filter ensure higher
sensitivity of earth fault detection, which in turn. reduces a risk that undetected earth fault will
evolve into two phase to ground fault. Two phase to ground faults are dangerous because of high
current amplitude which could damage components of the distribution system network and create
an electrocution hazard. Another advantage of the proposed solution is the possibility of analyzing
earthing current in the context of abnormal loading resulting from, i.e., abnormally high potential
difference between substations. Finally, it is believed that settings of developed criteria would be much
simpler since information about cable type and grounding is sufficient to predict the reduction factor.
Developed criteria are universal and can be used in all power networks, however, the biggest
increase of effectiveness is observed in power lines operated under low load and no-load conditions.
As an example, one can mention lines connected with renewable energy sources, i.e., photovoltaic
power plants or industrial load operated only part of a day. I0cs /I0cc provide additional mechanisms
against unwanted tripping, therefore, is particularly interesting for important loads, which require
high reliability of supply. I0cs criterion and I0cs filter can be used as a replacement of conventional
zero-sequence current sensors. It is believed that presented solutions could be used as stand-alone
protection relay (1 current input for I0cs criterion or I0cs filter or two current inputs for I0cs /I0cc criterion),
however, further research work is needed. Thanks to high accuracy in low loading conditions, proposed
solutions could be also used in microgrids.

6. Conclusions
The presented analysis results show that utilization of cable screen earthing current is possible
and allows for the improvement of the effectiveness of protection relay algorithms. Among the biggest
advantages, one can mention higher sensitivity, independence of measuring error on line loading and
reduced risk of unwanted tripping.
The cable screen earthing current can be utilized to detect different types of disturbances in
power network, i.e., for detection of phase to phase fault or open phase conditions (single phasing).
It has to be, however, underlined that detection of some disturbances is possible only for some cable
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 17 of 20

configuration and screen bonding types. The protection function can, therefore, be used as support
to existing conventional protection algorithms. Measurement of the screens earthing current and
calculation of RF110/15 value allows for pre-localization of phase to earth fault, which. in consequence,
allows to reduce the time of energy supply interruption.
This paper presents a new concept of zero sequence filter. The current filter is built via
short-circuiting cable screens at both ends. In order to build the filter, cable sheath has to be notched,
and then cable screens at both ends are bonded. Theoretically the filter could be produced as
prefabricated element.
The presented criteria were developed for one section cable lines—with only two earthing systems
at the beginning and the end of the cable line. Further work will be focused on the adaptation of
criteria to complex distribution feeders, which consist of many cable and overhead segments.

Author Contributions: Software K.L.; validation K.L.; formal analysis J.A., Z.N.; investigation K.L.; resources
Z.N., J.L., J.A., J.Z.; data curation, K.L.; writing—original draft preparation, K.L., J.L.; writing—review and editing
J.A., K.L., J.Z.; visualization, K.L.; supervision, J.A., J.L., Z.N., J.Z.; funding acquisition Z.N., J.L.
Funding: The research was financed from resources of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education for Statutory
Activities No. 0441/SBAD/4410, name of the task: Improvement of Reliability of Supply in Distribution Network.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Linkciks, J.; Baranovskis, D. Single Phase Earth Fault Location in the Medium Voltage Distribution Networks.
In Proceedings of the 50th International Scientific Conference “Power and Electrical Engineering”, Riga,
Latvia, 20–21 December 2018. [CrossRef]
2. Makar, K. Rejestracja Zaklocen w Sieci Sredniego Napi˛ecia; Registration of Disturbances in Medium Voltage
Network. Pozn. Univ. Technol. Acad. J. 2016, 86, 189–200.
3. CIRED WG03. Fault Management in Electrical Distribution Systems; CIRED: Liege, Belgium, 1998.
4. Skomudek, W. Pomiary i Analiza Przepiec Oraz Ocena Ich Skutkow w Sieciach Sredniego i Wysokiego Napiecia;
Measurement and Analysis of Overvoltages and Assessment of Impact on Medium Voltage Networks; Centralny
Osrodek Szkolenia i Wydawnictw: Warszawa, Poland, 2011.
5. Druml, G.; Kugi, A.; Seifert, O. A New Directional Transient Relay for High Ohmic Earth Faults. In Proceedings
of the 17th International Conference on Electricity Distribution, Barcelona, Spain, 12–15 May 2003.
6. Hoppel, W.; Lorenc, J. Dobor Nastaw Zabezpieczen w Polach Linii Sredniego Napiecia; Selection of Protection
Relay Settings in Medium Voltage Bay. Autom. Elektroenerg. 2003, 2, 35–39.
7. Hoppel, W.; Lorenc, J. Jak Dobierac Nastawy Zabezpieczen w Polach Funkcyjnych Rozdzielni Sredniego
Napiecia; Selection of Protection Relay Settings in Bays of Medium Voltage Switchgear. Autom. Elektroenerg.
2003, 3, 43–48.
8. Charlton, T.E.; Davies, M.; Baudin, D. Transfer Potentials from MV to LV Installations during an Earth
Fault. In Proceedings of the 19th International Conference in Electricity Distribution, Vienna, Austria,
21–24 May 2007.
9. Gustavsen, B. Study of Transformer Resonant Overvoltages Caused by Cable-Transformer High-Frequency
Interaction. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2010, 25. [CrossRef]
10. Lorenc, J. Admitancyjne Zabezpieczenia Ziemnozwarciowe, Admittance Earth Fault Protection Realys; Wydawnictwo
Politechnika Poznańskiej: Poznan, Poland, 2007.
11. Yan, X.; He, Z.; Chen, W. An Investigation into Arc Selfextinguishing Characteristics on Peterson Coil
Compensated System. In Proceedings of the International Conference on High Voltage Engineering and
Application, Chongqing, China, 9–13 November 2008. [CrossRef]
12. Zeng, K.; Zhang, Y.; Xing, L.; Wang, L. Characteristics Analysis of AC Arc Fault in Time and Frequency
Domain. In Proceedings of the Prognostics and System Health Management Conference (PHM-Harbin),
Harbin, China, 9–12 July 2017.
13. Shirkovets, A.I. Modeling of Transient Processes at Ground Faults in the Electrical Network with a High
Content of Harmonics. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Electric Power Equipment,
Matsue, Japan, 20–23 October 2013. [CrossRef]
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 18 of 20

14. Lowczowski, K. Wplyw Odksztalcenia Napiecia Na Przepiecia Ziemnozwarciowe; Impact of voltage

distortions on overvoltage during phase to ground fault. Prz. Elektrotechniczny 2018, 10. [CrossRef]
15. Hoppel, W.; Lorenc, J. Kryteria Decyzji i Funkcje EAZ w Cyfrowych Systemach CZIP.; Decision Criteria and
IED functions in Digital Protection Relay CZIP. Mech. Autom. Górnictwa 1999, 10, 21–25.
16. Wahlroos, A.; Altonen, J.; Uggla, U.; Wall, D. Application of Novel Cumulative Phasor Sum Measurement for
Earth-Fault Protection in Compensated MV-Networks. In Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference
on Electricity Distribution, Stockholm, Sweden, 10–13 June 2013. [CrossRef]
17. Chroboczek, P. Kryteria Detekcji Zwarc Doziemnych o Charakterze Przerywanym w Kompensowanych Sieciach
Srednich Napiec; Criteria for Detection of Intermittent Earth Faults in Compensated MV Networks. Poznan.
2004. Available online: http://www.sep.krakow.pl/nbiuletyn/nr58ar1.pdf (accessed on 20 August 2019).
18. Lorenc, J.; Marszalkiewicz, K.; Andruszkiewicz, J. Admittance Criteria for Earth Fault Detection in Substation
Automation Systems in Polish Distribution Power Networks. In Proceedings of the 14th International
Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution, Birmingham, UK, 2–5 June 1997. [CrossRef]
19. Lorenc, J.; Łowczowski, K.; Staszak, B. Earth Fault Protection Supported with Adaptive Admittance Criteria.
Prz. Elektrotechniczny 2018, 8. [CrossRef]
20. Druml, G. Detecting High-Ohmic Earth Faults in Compensated Networks. In Proceedings of the International
Symposium, Whistler, BC, Canada, 17–22 September 1995.
21. CIGRE WG B5.94. High Impedance Faults; CIGRE: Paris, France, 2009.
22. Wang, K.; Li, Z.; Zhang, B. A Novel Method of Power Cable Fault Monitoring. In Proceedings of the IEEE
PES Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Conference, Xi’an, China, 25–28 October 2016.
23. Guo, F.; Zhu, G.; Dong, X. A Method of 20 KV Cable Line Fault Location Based on Sheath Grounding
Current. In Proceedings of the IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Dallas, TX, USA,
17–22 October 2015.
24. Wang, X.W.; Song, Y.H.; Jung, C.K.; Lee, B.J. Tackling Sheath Problems: Latest Research Developments in
Solving Operational Sheath Problems in Underground Power Transmission Cables. Electr. Power Syst. Res.
2007, 77. [CrossRef]
25. Lowczowski, K.; Nadolny, Z.; Olejnik, B. Analysis of Cable Screen Currents for Diagnostics Purposes. Energies
2019, 12, 1348. [CrossRef]
26. Dong, X.; Yang, Y.; Chengke, Z.; Hepburn, D.M. Online Monitoring and Diagnosis of HV Cable Faults by
Sheath System Currents. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2017, 32. [CrossRef]
27. Zhou, C.; Yang, Y.; Li, M.; Zhou, W. An Integrated Cable Condition Diagnosis and Fault Localization System
via Sheath Current Monitoring. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Condition Monitoring
and Diagnosis, Xi’an, China, 25–28 September 2016. [CrossRef]
28. Arrabe, R.G.; Gaona, C.A.P.; Gomez, F.A.; Lopez, E.R. Novel Auto-Reclosing Blocking Method for Combined
Overhead-Cable Lines in Power Networks. Energies 2016, 9, 964. [CrossRef]
29. Benato, R.; Dambone Sessa, S.; Guglielmi, F.; Partal, E.; Tleis, N. Ground Return Current Behaviour in High
Voltage Alternating Current Insulated Cables. Energies 2014, 7, 8116–8131. [CrossRef]
30. IEEE Substations Committee. IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding; IEEE Substations Committee:
Scottsdale, AZ, USA, 2000.
31. Hoppel, W. Sieci Średnich Napi˛eć-Automatyka Zabezpieczeniowa i Ochrona Od Porażeń; Medium Voltage
Networks—Protection Relays and Protection Against Electrical Shock; WNT: Warszawa, Poland, 2017.
32. Sawko, P. Impact of Secondary Burden and X/R Ratio on CT Saturation. Wroc. Univ. Technol. Fac. Electr. Eng.
2008, 1–3. Available online: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.533.8795&rep=rep1&
type=pdf (accessed on 20 August 2019).
33. ST sifam tinsley. Earth Leakage Relay Core Balance Current Transformer [CBCT]. Braintree, Essex. 2019.
Available online: http://www.sifamtinsley.co.uk/wp/downloads/datasheets/ELR/CBCT-sifamtinsley_UK_da
tasheet.pdf (accessed on 20 August 2019).
34. Energotest. Rodzina Przekladnikow Ziemnozwarciowych Typu IO. 2015. Available online: http://www.ener
gotest.com.pl/media/IU_IO-15_11.pdf (accessed on 20 August 2019).
35. Talaga, M.; Adrian, H.; Michał, S. Selektywne Wylaczanie Zwarc Doziemnych w Sieciach Srednich Napiec
Zakladow Przemyslowych—Cz˛eść I.; Selective detection of earthfaults in medium voltage networks of the
industrial plants-part I. Prz. Elektrotechniczny 2014, 9. [CrossRef]
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 19 of 20

36. Wahlroos, A.; Altonen, J.; Vano, P. Effect of Core Balance Current Transformer Errors on Sensitive Earth-Fault
Protection in Compensated MV-Networks. In Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on Electricity
Distribution, Glasgow, UK, 12–15 June 2017. [CrossRef]
37. Schinerl, T. A New Sensitive Detection Algorithm for Low and High Impedance Earth Faults in Compensated
MV Networks Based on the Admittance Method. In Proceedings of the 18th International Conference and
Exhibition on Electricity Distribution, Turin, Italy, 6–9 June 2005; p. 122. [CrossRef]
38. Marcin, H.; Grzegorz, W.; Bogdan, M.; Aleksander, L.; Zbigniew, F. HDI PCB Rogowski Coils for Automated
Electrical Power System Applications. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2018. [CrossRef]
39. ABB. Sensor Technology-Applications for Medium Voltage; ABB: Zurich, Switzerland, 2002.
40. Lisowiec, A. Wplyw Konstrukcji Cewki Rogowskiego w Technologii PCB Na Dokladnosc Pomiaru Pradu;
The use of Rogowski coil manufactured in multilayer PCB technology for the measurement of emissions of
harmonic currents. Prz. Elektrotechniczny 2014, 7. [CrossRef]
41. Lumiker. Optical Sheath System; Underground Cable Sheath Currents Monitoring System; Lumike: Bizkaia, Spain.
42. Józef, D.; Zygmunt, K. Ograniczenie Pradów ˛ Bładz
˛ acych
˛ Przez Rozdzielnie Uziomów Systemu Energetyki
Zawodowej Od Energetyki Kolejowej, Tramwajowej i Metra; Reduction of Stray Currents via Separation
of Earth Electrodes of Power System Utilities and Earth Electrodes of Railway Power System. Wiadomości
Elektrotechniczne 2017, 4. [CrossRef]
43. Van Weas, J.; van Riet, M.; Provoost, F.; Cobben, S. Measurement of the Current Distribution Near a Substation
during a Single Phase to Ground Fault. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Electricity
Distribution, Barcelona, Spain, 12–15 May 2003.
44. Popovic, L.M. Efficient Reduction of Fault Current through the Grounding Grid of a Substation Supplied by
an Overhead Line. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2000. [CrossRef]
45. Norouzi, A. Open Phase Conditions in Transformers Analysis and Protection Algorithm. In Proceedings
of the 66th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, College Station, TX, USA, 8–11 April 2013.
[CrossRef]
46. Kulkarni, S.; Allen, A.; Lee, D.; Chopra, S. Waveform Characterization of Animal Contact, Tree Contact, and
Lightning Induced Faults; Waveform Characteristic of Underground Cable Failures. In Proceedings of the
IEEE PES General Meeting, Apollis, MN, USA, 25–29 July 2010.
47. Deng, J.; Zhang, W.; Yang, X. Recognition and Classification of Incipient Cable Failures Based on Variational
Mode Decomposition and a Convolutional Neural Network. Energies 2019, 12, 2005. [CrossRef]
48. Steennis, F.; Wagenaars, P.; van der Wielen, P.; Wouters, P.; Li, Y.; Broersma, T.; Harmsen, D.; Bleeker, P.
Guarding MV Cables On-Line: With Travelling Wave Based Temperature Monitoring, Fault Location, PD
Location and PD Related Remaining Life Aspects. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2016, 23, 1562–1569.
[CrossRef]
49. Tauron Dystrybucja. Standard Techniczny Nr 11/2015 Budowy Układów Uziomowych w Sieci Dystrybucyjnej;
Technical standard nr 11/2015 Construction of Earthing System in Distribution Network: Poland. 2017.
Available online: http://weny.pwr.edu.pl/fcp/BGBUKOQtTKlQhbx08SlkTUAxQX2o8DAoHNiwFE1xVSHl
aFVZpCFghUHcKVigEQUw/38/public/rozwoj_kadry_naukowej/postepowania_awansowe/hablitacje_wn
ioski/habrych/zalacznik_3_-_autoreferat_.pdf (accessed on 20 August 2019).
50. Byrne, T. Humidity Effects in Substations. In Proceedings of the Petroleum and Chemical Industry Conference
Europe, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 3–5 June 2014. [CrossRef]
51. IEEE. IEEE Guide for Bonding Shields and Sheaths of Single-Conductor Power Cables Rated 5 KV through 500 KV;
IEEE Std 575; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2014.
52. Popovic, L.M. Improved Analytical Expressions for the Reduction Factor of Feeding Lines Consisting of
Three Single-Core Cables. Eur. Trans. Electr. Power 2007, 18. [CrossRef]
53. Hoshmeh, A.; Schmidt, U.A. Full Frequency-Dependent Cable Model for the Calculation of Fast Transient.
Energies 2017, 10, 1158. [CrossRef]
54. Fabryka Transforrmatorow w Zychlinie. Oil-Immersed Earthing Transformers; Fabryka Transforrmatorow w
Zychlinie: Zychlin, Poland, 2008.
55. Olesz, M.S.R. Dobor Przekroju Zyl Powrotnych w Kablach Sredniego Napiecia; Sizing of Cable Screen
Cross-Section in Medium Voltage Networks. In Proceedings of the Gdanskie Dni Elektryki, Coastal, Poland,
26–28 October 2017.
56. Elspec. G4K Fixed Power Quality Analyzer Blackbox User & Installation Guide; Elspec: Caesarea, Israel, 2013.
Energies 2019, 12, 3190 20 of 20

57. Elspec. Pure BB Three Phase User Manual; Elspec: Caesarea, Israel, 2017.
58. Rada Techniczna Enea Operator. Elektroenergetyczne Linie Napowietrzne Sredniego Napiecia; Medium
Voltage Overhead Lines: Poland. 2017. Available online: https://bezel.com.pl/2018/08/01/linie-napowietrzne/
(accessed on 20 August 2019).
59. Rudenberg, R. Grounding Principles and Practice-Fundamental Considerations on Ground Currents.
Electr. Eng. 1945, 64, 1–3. [CrossRef]
60. Fickert, L.; Malltis, T.; Ernst, S. High Current Faults in Resonant Grounded Networks under Aspects of
a Global Earthing System. In Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Electricity Distribution,
Lyon, France, 15–18 June 2015.
61. Mitchel, M.; Campbell, M.; Klement, K.; Mohammad, S. Power Variability Analysis of Megawatt-Scale Solar
Photovoltaic Installations. In Proceedings of the IEEE Electrical Power and Energy Conference, Ottawa, ON,
Canada, 12–14 October 2016. [CrossRef]
62. International Standard IEC 60502-1. Power Cables with Extruded Insulation and Their Accessories
for Rated Voltages from 1 KV [Um = 1,2 KV] up to 30 KV [Um = 36 KV]. 2004. Available online:
https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/2271 (accessed on 20 August 2019).
63. Scottish Power. ScottishPower Distribution Cables & Equipment-Metal Theft; Scottish Power: Glasgow, UK, 2012.
64. ELAND Cables. BS 5467 Copper Conductor Single Core AWA PVC BASEC 0.6/1kV Cable; ELAND Cables:
London, UK, 2014.
65. Chowdhury, S.; Chowdhury, S.P.; Crossley, P. Microgrids and Active Distribution Networkds; The Institution of
Engineering and Technology: London, UK, 2009.
66. Geid, M.; Koeppel, G.; Favre-Perrod, P.; Klock, B.; Andersson, G.; Frohlich, K. Energy Hub for the Future.
IEEE Power Energy Mag. 2007. [CrossRef]
67. Sperstad, I.B.; Korpas, M. Energy Storage Scheduling in Distribution Systems Considering Wind and
Photovoltaic Generation Uncertainties. Energies 2019, 12, 1231. [CrossRef]
68. ABB. KECA 80 C104; KECA 80 C165; ABB: Zurich, Switzerland, 2017.
69. Lowczowski, K. Digital Protection Relays; Poznan, Poland. 2014. Available online: http://pe.org.pl/articles/2
018/8/31.pdf (accessed on 20 August 2019).
70. Wahlroos, A.; Altonen, J.; Pekkala, H.-M. Post-Fault Oscillation Phenomenon in Compensated MV-Networks
Challanges Earth-Fault Protection. In Proceedings of the CIRED-Conference, Lyon, France, 15–18 June 2015.
71. Granizo, R.; Blánquez, F.R.; Rebollo, E.; Platero, C.A. A Novel Ground Fault Non-Directional Selective
Protection Method for Ungrounded Distribution Networks. Energies 2015, 8, 1291–1316. [CrossRef]
72. ARCTEQ. AQ-F205 Feeder Protection Relay. Available online: https://arcteq.fi/products/aq-f205-feeder-prot
ection-relay/?fwp_search=Poland (accessed on 10 August 2019).

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).