Engineering Survey

1. Fundamentals
a) Types of survey
• Plain survey: curvature of earth is not considered. It is suitable for small area.
• Geodetic survey: earth’s curvature is considered. It is suitable for large area. Plumb line is not
parallel, but intersect at the center of earth.
b) Classification of survey
• Based upon nature of field survey
¨ Land survey
o Topographic survey: This consists of horizontal and vertical location of certain
points by linear and angular measurements and is made to determine the natural
features of a country such as rivers, streams, lakes, woods, hills, etc., and such
artificial features as roads, railways, canals, towns and villages.
o Cadastral Surveys: these surveys are made for fixing of property lines, calculation of
land area, or the transfer of land property from one owner to another. They are also
made to fix the boundaries of municipalities and of State and Federal jurisdictions.
o City Surveying: They are made in connection with the construction of streets, water
supply systems, sewers and other works.
¨ Marine or Hydrographic Survey: deals with bodies of water for purpose of navigation, water
supply, harbour works or for the determination of mean sea level. The work consists in
measurement of discharge of streams, making topographic survey of shores and banks, taking
and locating soundings to determine the depth of water and observing the fluctuations of the
ocean tide.
¨ Astronomical survey: offers the surveyor means of determining the absolute location of any
point or the absolute location and direction of any line on the surface of the earth. This
consists in observations to the heavenly bodies such as the sun or any fixed star.
• Based on object of survey
¨ Engineering Survey: This is undertaken for the determination of quantities or to collect
sufficient data for the designing of engineering works such as roads and reservoirs, or those
connected with sewage disposal or water supply.
¨ Military Survey: This is used for determining points of strategic importance.
¨ Mine Survey: This is used for the exploring mineral wealth.
¨ Geological Survey: This is used for determining different strata in the earth's crust.
¨ Archaeological Survey: This is used for unearthing relics of antiquity.
c) Principles of surveying
• Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference. The relative positions of the
points to be surveyed should be located by measurement from at least two points of reference, the
positions of which have already been fixed.
• Working from whole to part. The second ruling principle of surveying, whether plane or
geodetic, is to work from whole to part. It is essential to establish first a system of control points
and to fix them with higher precision. Minor control points can then be established by less precise
methods and the details can then be located using these minor control points. The idea of working
in this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors and to control and localise minor errors
which, otherwise, would expand to greater magnitudes if the reverse process is followed, thus
making the work uncontrollable at the end.
d) Scale
• Scale is the fixed ratio that every distance on the map bears with corresponding distance on the
ground. Scale can be represented by the following methods :
¨ One cm on the plan represents some whole number of metres on the ground, such as 1 cm =
10 m etc. This type of scale is called engineer’s scale.
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 ¨ One unit of length on the plan represents some number of same units of length on the ground,
such as 100 etc. This ratio of map distance to the corresponding ground distance is
independent of units of measurement and is called representative fraction (RF). The above
two types of scales are also known as numerical scales.
¨ An alternative way of representing the scale is to draw on the plan a graphical scale. A
graphical scale is a line sub-divided into plan distance corresponding to convenient units of
length on the ground.
¨ If the plan or map is to be used after a few years, the numerical scales may not give accurate
results if the sheet or paper shrinks. However, if a graphical scale is also drawn, it will shrink
proportionately and the distances can be found accurately. That is why, scales are always
drawn on all survey maps.
e) Vernier
• The principle of vernier is based on the fact that the eye can perceive without strain and with
considerable precision when two graduations coincide to form one continuous straight line.
• If the graduations of the main scale are numbered in one direction only, the vernier used is called
a single vernier, extending in one direction. If the graduations of the main scale are numbered in
both the directions, the vernier used is called double vernier, extending in both the directions,
having its index mark in the middle.
• The divisions of the vernier are either just a little smaller or a little larger than the divisions of the
main scale. The fineness of reading or least count of the vernier is equal to the difference
between the smallest division on the main scale and smallest division on the vernier.
• Direct Vernier
¨ It is so constructed that (n – 1) divisions of the main scale are equal in length of n divisions
of the Vernier.
𝑛𝑣 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑠
𝑛𝑣 = 𝑛𝑠 − 𝑠
𝑛(𝑠 − 𝑣) = 𝑠
𝑠
𝐿𝐶 =
𝑛
o 𝑠 is least count of main scale, 𝑛 is number of divisions of vernier scale
• Retrograde Vernier
¨ It is so constructed that (n + 1) divisions of the main scale are equal in length of n divisions
of the Vernier.
𝑛𝑣 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑠
𝑛𝑣 = 𝑛𝑠 + 𝑠
𝑛(𝑣 − 𝑠) = 𝑠
𝑠
𝐿𝐶 =
𝑛
f) Error due to use of wrong scale
78 9: ;<9=> ?@ABC
• Correct length = 78 9: @9<<C@D ?@ABC × measured length
• Shrunk scale = shrinkage factor × original scale
PQRSTU VWTXYQ
¨ 𝑆𝐹 = Z[YSZV VWTXYQ
g) 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
h) 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2. Accuracy and error
a) Sources of error
• Instrumental error
• Personal error
• Natural error
b) Kinds of error
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 • Mistakes: these are errors which arise from inattention, inexperience, carelessness and poor
judgement or confusion in the mind of the observer.
• Systematic errors (Cumulative Errors):
¨ It is an error that, under the same conditions, will always be of the same size and sign. It
always follows some definite mathematical or physical law, and a correction can be
determined and applied.
¨ Such errors are of constant character and are regarded as positive or negative according as
they make the result too great or too small. Their effect is, therefore, cumulative.
• Accidental errors (compensating):
¨ These are those which remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminated and
are caused by a combination of reasons beyond the ability of the observer to control. They
tend sometimes in one direction and sometimes in the other.
¨ Accidental errors represent the limit of precision in the determination of a value. They obey
the laws of chance and therefore, must be handled according to the mathematical laws of
probability.
c) Significant figures in measurement
• In surveying, an indication of accuracy attained is shown by number of significant figures. Each
such quantity, expressed in n number of digits in which n-1 are the digits of definite value. While
the last digit is the least accurate digit which can be estimated and is subject to error.
• Example
423.65 4 certain, 1 uncertain Error 0.005 Probable error ±0.0025
d) Theory of probability
• Principal of least squares.
¨ The most probable value of an observed quantity available from a given set of observations is
the one for which the sum of the squares of errors (residuals) is a minimum.
• Most probable value
¨ The most probable value of a quantity is the one which has more chances of being correct
than has any other. The most probable error is defined as that quantity which when added to
and subtracted from, the most probable value fixes the limits within which it is an even
chance the true value of the measured quantity must lie.
Without weight

∑𝑣 r
Probable error of a single observation 𝐸P = ±0.6745 p
𝑛−1

∑𝑣 r 𝐸P
Probable error of the mean of number 𝐸s = ±0.6745 p =
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) √𝑛

Probable error of sum 𝑒Y = u𝑒vr + 𝑒rr + 𝑒ww + ⋯ + 𝑒Tr

Probable error of single observation of unit ∑𝑤𝜈 r

weight 𝐸P = ±0.6745p
𝑛−1

Probable error of single observation of ∑𝑤𝜈 r

𝐸P = ±0.6745p
weight w 𝑤 (𝑛 − 1)

∑𝑤𝜈 r
Probable error of weighted athematic mean 𝐸P = ±0.6745p
∑𝑤 × (𝑛 − 1)
e) Weight of a quantity
• It is the trust worthiness of the quantity. It indicates the relative precision of that quantity with in
the set of observations.
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 v
o Weight ∝
|ZR}ZT[W
f) Error in computation result
Addition 𝑠 =𝑥+𝑦 ±𝑒P = u𝑒€r + 𝑒•r

Subtraction 𝑠 =𝑥−𝑦 ±𝑒P = u𝑒€r + 𝑒•r

𝑒P 𝑒€ r 𝑒• r
Multiplication 𝑠 = 𝑥𝑦 ± = p‚ ƒ + „ …
𝑠 𝑥 𝑦

𝑒P 𝑒€ r 𝑒• r
Division 𝑠 = 𝑥/𝑦 ± = p‚ ƒ + „ …
𝑠 𝑥 𝑦
𝛿𝑠 𝑛𝛿𝑥
Powers 𝑠 = 𝑥T =
𝑠 𝑥
3. Linear measurement
a) Direct measurement
• Pacing: Measurements of distances by pacing is chiefly confined to the preliminary surveys and
explorations where a surveyor is called upon to make a rough survey as quickly as possible. It
may also be used to roughly check the distances measured by other means. The method consists in
counting the number of paces between the two points of a line
• Measurement with Passometer: Passometer is an instrument shaped like a watch and is carried in
pocket or attached to one leg. The mechanism of the instrument is operated by motion of the body
and it automatically registers the number of paces, thus avoiding the monotony and strain of
counting the paces, by the surveyor.
• Measurement with Pedometer: Pedometer is a device similar to the passometer except that,
adjusted to the length of the pace of the person carrying it, it registers the total distance covered by
any number of paces.
• Measurement by oedometer or speedometer: The odometer is an instrument for registering the
number of revolutions of a wheel. The well-known speedometer works on this principle. The
odometer is fitted to a wheel which is rolled along the line whose length is required.
• Chaining: Chaining is a term which is used to denote measuring distance either with the help of a
chain or a tape and is the most accurate method of making direct measurements. For work of
ordinary precision, a chain can be used, but for higher precision a tape or special bar can be used.
The distances determined by chaining form the basis of all surveying. No matter how accurately
angles may be measured, the survey can be no more precise than the chaining.
b) Instruments for chaining
• Chain, Tape, Arrow, Pegs, Ranging rod, Offset rod, Plumb bob
c) Error due to incorrect chain
• If the length of the chain used in measuring length of the line is not equal to the true length or the
designated length, the measured length of the line will not be correct and suitable correction will
have to be applied.
• If the chain is too long, the measured distance will be less. The error will, therefore, be negative
and the correction is positive.
• Similarly, if the chain is too short, the measured distance will be more, the error will positive and
the correction will be negative.
¨ L = True or designated length of the chain or tape.
¨ L′ = Incorrect (or actual) length of the chain or tape used.
¨ l′ = measured length of the line
¨ l = actual or true length of the line.
• Corrections to measured length
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 𝐿‰
𝑙 = ˆ Š 𝑙′
𝐿
• Correction for area
r
𝐿‰
𝐴 = ˆ Š 𝐴‰
𝐿
d) Tape corrections
Ø If the temperature in the field is more than the temperature at which the tape was
standardised, the length of the tape increases, measured distance becomes less,
Correction
and the correction is therefore, additive.
for
Ø Similarly, if the temperature is less, the length of the tape decreases, measured
temperature
distance becomes more and the correction is negative.
𝐶Y = 𝛼(𝑇s − 𝑇Ž )𝐿
Ø If the pull applied during measurement is more than the pull at which the tape was
standardized, the length of the tape increases, the measured distance is less, and
Correction
the correction is positive.
for pull
(𝑃 − 𝑃Ž )𝐿
𝐶• =
𝐴𝐸
Ø When the tape is stretched on supports between two points, it takes the form of a
horizontal catenary. The horizontal distance will be less than distance along the
curve. The difference between horizontal distance and the measured length along
the catenary is called sag correction.
𝑊r𝑙
𝐶P =
Correction 24𝑃r
for sag 𝑊- total weight of tape
𝑃- pull applied
It should be noted that the Sag Correction is always negative. If however, the tape was
standardised on catenary, and used on flat, the correction will be equal to =
(𝑠𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙 – 𝑠𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙),
and will be positive if the measured pull in the field is more than the standard pull
Also called hypotonus allowance
Correction
ℎr
for slope
2𝐿

• Normal Tension: Normal tension is the pull which, when applied to the tape, equalises the
correction due to pull and the correction due to sag. Thus, at normal tension, the effects of pull
and sag are neutralised and no correction is necessary.
𝑊 r 𝐿 (𝑃T − 𝑃Ž )𝐿
=
24𝑃Tr 𝐴𝐸
e) Instruments for setting out survey lines
• Cross staff : It consists of either a frame or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is mounted on a
pole shod for fixing in the ground.
• Optical square: Optical square is somewhat more convenient and accurate instrument than the
cross staff for setting out a line at right angles to another line
• Prism square: The prism works on the same principle as that of optical square. it is a more modern
and precise instrument and is used in a similar manner. It has the merit that no adjustment is
required since the angle between the reflecting surfaces (45º) cannot vary.
• Site square: designed for setting out straight lines and offset lines at 90º, consists of a cylindrical
metal case containing two telescope set at 90º to each other.
4. Compass
a) Bearing and angles
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 • True Meridian: True meridian through a point is the line in which a plane, passing that point and
the north and south poles, intersects with surface of the earth. It, thus, passes through the true
north and south. The direction of true meridian through a point can be established by astronomical
observations.
¨ True Bearing. True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the true
meridian through one of the extremities of the line. Since the direction of true meridian
through a point remains fixed, the true bearing of a line is a constant quantity.
• Magnetic Meridian: Magnetic meridian through a point is the direction shown by a freely floating
and balanced magnetic needle free from all other attractive forces. The direction of magnetic
meridian can be established with the help of a magnetic compass.
¨ Magnetic Bearing. The magnetic bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with
the magnetic meridian passing through one of the extremities of the line. A magnetic
compass is used to measure it.
• Arbitrary Meridian: Arbitrary meridian is any convenient direction towards a permanent and
prominent mark or signal, such as a church spire or top of a chimney. Such meridians are used to
determine the relative positions of lines in a small area.
¨ Arbitrary Bearing. Arbitrary bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with any
arbitrary meridian passing through one of the extremities. A theodolite or sextant is used to
measure it.
• Designation of bearings
¨ Whole circle bearing (WCB) or Azimuthal system
o In this system, the bearing of a line is measured with magnetic north in clockwise
direction. The value of bearing thus varies from 0˚ to 360˚.
o Prismatic compass is graduated on this system.
o It is simple to measure, hence it is preferred over QBS
¨ Quadrantal bearing system (QBS) or reduced system
o In this system, the bearing is measured eastward or westward from north or south,
whichever is nearer.
o These bearings are observed by surveyor’s compass.
• Fore bearing and back bearing
¨ The bearing of line AB is measured from A is measured
from A towards B, it is known as forward bearing or fore
bearing (FB). If the bearing of line AB is measured from B
towards A, it is known as backward or back bearing (BB),
since it is measured in back direction.
¨ 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐹𝐵 ± 180˚
o To find the back bearing + when FB is less than 180
o Subtract when FB is greater than 180
b) Theory of magnetic compass
• The lines of force of earth’s magnetic field run generally from South to North. Near the equator,
they are parallel to the earth’s surface. The horizontal projections of the lines of force define the
magnetic meridian. The angle which these lines of force make with the surface of the earth is
called the angle of dip or simply the dip of the needle.
¨ The magnetic needle will not point towards the North magnetic pole, but it will take a
direction and dip in accordance with the lines of force at the point. Since the lines of force are
parallel to the surface of the earth only at equator, the dip of the needle will be zero at
equator and the needle will remain horizontal. At any other place, one end of the needle will
dip downwards. By suitably weighting the high end of the needle may be brought to a
horizontal position.
Prismatic Compass Surveyor’s compass
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 The needle is of broad needle type and
Magnetic needle
does not act as index.
Ø The graduated card ring is attached
with the needle. The ring does not
rotate along with the line of sight.
Ø The graduations are in W.C.B.
Graduated card system, having 0º at South end, 90º
at west, 180º at North and 270º at
East.
Ø The graduations are engraved
inverted.
The object vane consists of metal vane
with a vertical hair.
Sighting vanes
The eye vane consists of a small metal
vane with slit.
Ø The reading is taken with the help
of a prism provided at the eye slit.
Reading Ø Sighting and reading taking can be
done simultaneously from one
position of the observer.
Tripod may or may not be provided.
Tripod The instrument can be used even by
holding suitably in hand.
The needle is of edge bar type. The
needle act as the index also.
Ø The graduated card is attached to
the box and not to the needle. The
card rotates along with the line of
sight.
Ø The graduations are in Q.B. system,
having 0º at N and S and 90º at East
and West. East and West are
interchanged.
Ø The graduations are engraved erect.
Same
Ø The reading is taken by directly
seeing through the top of the glass.
Ø Sighting and reading taking cannot
be done simultaneously from one
position of the observer.
The instrument cannot be used without
a tripod.

c) Magnetic Declination
• Magnetic declination at a place is the horizontal angle between
the true meridian and the magnetic meridian shown by the
needle at the time of observation.
• If the magnetic meridian is to the right side (or eastern side) of
the true meridian, declination is said to be eastern or positive, if
it to be the left side (or western side), the declination is said to
be western or negative.
• Mariners call declination by the name variation. The declination
at any particular location can be obtained by establishing a true meridian from astronomical
observations and then reading the compass while sighting along the true meridian.
• Magnetic declinations are of following types:
Diurnal Or daily variation is the systematic departure of the declination from its mean
variation value during a period of 24 hrs.
Annual The variations which has a yearly period is known as annual variation. The
variation declination has a yearly swing of about 1’ or 2’ in amplitude. It varies from
place to place.
Secular Due to its magnitude, secular variation is the most important in the work of
variation surveyor. It appears to be of periodic character and follows a roller-coaster
(sine-curve) pattern. Secular change from year to year is not uniform for any
given locality and is different for different places. Its period is approximately
250 years.
Irregular The irregular variations are due to what are known as ‘magnetic storms’, earth
variation quakes and other solar influences. They may occur at any time and cannot be
predicted. Change of this kind amounting to more than a degree have been
observed.

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 • Isogonic line is the line drawn through the points of same declination. The distribution of earth’s
magnetism is not regular and consequently, the isogonic lines do not form complete great circles,
but radiating from the North and South magnetic regions they follow irregular paths. Agonic line
is the line made up of points having a zero declination.
d) Local attraction
• Local attraction is a term used to denote any influence, which prevents the needle from pointing to
the magnetic North in a given locality
• Some of the sources of local attraction are magnetite in the ground, wire carrying electric current,
steel structures, railroad rails, underground iron pipes, keys, steel-bowed spectacles, metal
buttons, axes, chains, steel tapes etc., which may be lying on the ground nearby.
• The local attraction at a particular place can be detected by observing the fore and back bearings
of each line and finding its difference. If the difference between fore and back bearing is 180º, it
may be taken that both the stations are free from local attraction,
e) Sum of interior angles (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟒)𝟗𝟎º
5. Theodolite
a) Definition and terms
• The horizontal or trunnion axis is the axis about which the telescope and the vertical circle rotate
in vertical plane.
• The line of sight or line of collimation: It is the line passing through the intersection of the
horizontal and vertical cross-hairs and the optical centre of the object glass and its continuation.
• Transiting: It is the process of turning the telescope in vertical plane through 180° about the
trunnion axis. Since the line of sight is reversed in this operation, it is also known as plunging or
reversing.
• Swinging the telescope: It is the process of turning the telescope in horizontal plane. If the
telescope is rotated in clock-wise direction, it is known as right swing. If telescope is rotated in the
anti-clockwise direction, it is known as the left swing.
• Spire test: it is done for the adjustment of horizontal axis which should be perpendicular to
vertical axis.
b) Measurement of horizontal angle
• Method of repetition:
¨ The method of repetition is used to measure a horizontal angle to a finer degree of accuracy
than that obtainable with the least count of the vernier.
¨ By this method, an angle is measured two or more times by allowing the vernier to remain
clamped each time at the end of each measurement instead of setting it back at zero when
sighting at the previous station.
¨ Thus an angle reading is mechanically added several times depending upon the number of
repetitions. The average horizontal angle is then obtained by dividing the final reading by the
number of repetitions.
¨ Errors eliminated
o By reading both the vernier, error due to eccentricity of vernier and centres are
eliminated.
o By taking both face reading, error due to the line of sight and trunnion axis get
eliminated.
o By taking the reading on different parts of circle, Error due to inaccurate graduations
on the main scale are eliminated.
o By taking more number of observations, errors due to inaccurate bisection of the signal
are eliminated.
• Direction method (reiteration method)
¨ The method known as ‘direction method’ or reiteration method or method of series is
suitable for the measurements of the angles of a group having a common vertex point.
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 ¨ Several angles are measured successively and finally the horizon is closed. (Closing the
horizon is the process of measuring the angles around a point to obtain a check on their sum,
which should equal 360°).
c) Face left and face right
• Errors eliminated by both face reading are:
¨ Error dur to line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
¨ Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to vertical axis.
¨ Error due to line of collimation not being parallel to altitude level.
d) Sources of error in theodolite work
• Instrumental
¨ Error due to imperfect adjustment of plate levels.
¨ Error due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to horizontal axis.
¨ Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the vertical axis.
¨ Errors due to eccentricity of vernier and axis.
¨ Error due to imperfect graduations.
• Personal
¨ Inaccurate centring
¨ Inaccurate levelling
¨ Slip
¨ Error in sighting and reading, (parallax, inaccurate bisection)
• Natural
¨ Due to atmospheric refraction, uneven temperature expansion.
¨ Tripod settlement and vibrations due to wind.
6. Traverse computations
a) Chain and compass traversing
• In chain and compass traversing, the magnetic bearings of the survey lines are measured by a
compass and the lengths of the lines are measured either with a chain or with a tape. The direction
of magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station independently. The method is also
known as free or loose needle method.
• Fast needle method: in this method the magnetic bearing of traverse lines is measured by a
theodolite fitted with a compass at the first station only. And rest of the angles are measured for
later sections. This method is more accurate than loose needle method.
b) Consecutive co-ordinates: Latitude and Departure
• The latitude of a survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length measured parallel to an
assumed meridian direction (i.e. true north or magnetic north or any other reference direction).
• The departure of survey line may be defined as its co-ordinate length measured at right angles to
the meridian direction.
• The latitude (L) of the line is positive when measured northward (or upward) and is termed as
northing; the latitude is negative when measured southward (or downward) and is termed as
southing.
• Similarly, the departure (D) of the line is positive when measured eastward and is termed as
easting; the departure is negative when measured westward and is termed as westing.
c) Independent coordinates
• The co-ordinates of traverse stations can be calculated with respect to a common origin. The total
latitude and departure of any point w.r.t. a common origin is known as independent co-ordinates
or total co-ordinates of the point.
• The independent co-ordinates of any point may be obtained by adding algebraically the latitudes
and the departure of the lines between that point and the origin.
d) Steps involved in Gale’s traverse table

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 • Write name of traverse station.
• Adjust the interior angles to satisfy the geometrical conditions, i.e. sum of interior angles to be
equal to (2N-4)90º and exterior angles (2N+4)90º. In the case of a compass traverse, the bearings
are adjusted for local attraction, if any.
• Calculate bearing of all the lines with the help of bearing of initial line and corrected angles.
• Calculate the consecutive co-ordinates (i.e. latitude and departures)
• Calculate ∑ L and ∑ D.
• Determine correct latitude and departure after applying correction for closing error, either by
transit rule or by compass rule depending upon the type of traverse.
• Using the corrected consecutive co-ordinates, calculate the independent co-ordinates to the points
so that they are all positive.
e) Closing error
• If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end point of the traverse
will not coincide exactly with the starting point, owing to the errors in the field measurements of
angles and distances. Such error is known as closing error
𝑒= (∑𝐿)r + (∑𝐷)r
Error of closure 𝑒
relative error in closure = =
Perimeter of traverse 𝑝
• Before calculating Latitude and departure adjustment is done to
¨ Angular error (2n-4)90º
¨ Bearing
f) Balancing the traverse
• The term balancing is generally applied to the operation of applying corrections to lattitudes and
departures so that ∑𝐿 = 0 and ∑𝐷 = 0. This applies only when the survey forms a closed
polygon.
• Bowditch rule:
¨ The basis of this method is on the assumptions that the errors in linear measurements are
proportional to √𝑙 and that the errors in angular measurements are inversely proportional to
√𝑙 where l is the length of a line.
¨ The Bowditch’s rule, also termed as the compass rule, is mostly used to balance a traverse
where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude, and
in the departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths of the sides.
𝑙
𝐶¥ = ∑𝐿
∑𝑙
𝑙
𝐶¦ = ∑𝐷
∑𝑙
• Transit rule:
¨ The transit rule may be employed where angular measurements are more precise that the
linear measurements. According to this rule, the total error in latitudes and in departures is
distributed in proportion to the latitudes and departures of the sides.
¨ It is claimed that the angles are less affected by corrections applied by transit method than by
those by Bowditch’s method.
𝐿
𝐶¥ = ∑𝐿
∑𝐿
𝐷
𝐶¦ = ∑𝐷
∑𝐷
g) Terms
• Satellite station: also called eccentric station, is selected close to the main station for avoiding
intervening obstruction.

10
 • Laplace station: at certain station, astronomical observations for azimuth and longitude are also
made. These are called Laplace station.
• Main stations: these are control point of triangulation network, they command the boundary of the
area to be surveyed.
• Subsidiary stations: these are provided to locate interior details of area to be surveyed.
• Pivot stations are points not for observation but for continuation of triangulation network.
7. Levelling
a) Definitions
• Mean Sea Level: Mean sea level is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any
particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19 years.
• Bench mark: it is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to some
assumed datum is known. It is used either as a starting point for levelling or as a point upon which
to close as a check.
¨ Different kinds of benchmarks are established and used based on permanency and precision.
These are:
o GTS bench mark: the Great Trigonometrical Survey benchmarks are established by the
survey of India throughout the country. The levels of GTS benchmarks are determined
very accurately w.r.t. the MSL at Bombay port.
o Permanent bench mark: these are established at closer interval between widely spaced
GTS benchmarks. The benchmarks are either established by PWD or SOI.
o Temporary bench mark: these are benchmarks established temporarily when required.
These are generally the points at which a day’s work is closed and from which next
day’s work is started.
o Arbitrary bench mark: these are the benchmarks whose elevation are arbitrarily
assumed for levelling of a small area.
b) Methods of levelling
• Barometric levelling: it makes use of the phenomenon that difference in elevation between two
points is proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressures at these points.
• Trigonometric levelling (indirect levelling): it is the process of levelling in which the elevations of
points are computed from vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field.
• Spirit levelling (Direct levelling): it is that branch of levelling in which the vertical distances w.r.t.
a horizontal line (perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to determine the relative
difference in elevation.
c) Levelling instruments
• Dumpy level
¨ It consists of a telescope tube firmly secured in two collars fixed by adjusting screws to the
stage carried by the vertical spindle.
¨ The advantage of dumpy level over Wye level are
o Simpler construction with fewer movable parts.
o Fewer adjustments to be made.
o Longer life of the adjustments.
• Wye level
¨ The telescope is carried in two vertical wye supports, which has curved clips. If the clips are
raised, the telescope can be rotated in the wyes, or removed and turned end for end.
¨ The wye level has an advantage that the adjustments can be tested with greater rapidity and
ease. However, the adjustments do not have longer life and are disturbed more frequently due
to large number of movable parts.
• Tilting level
¨ The line of sight can be tilted slightly without tilting the vertical axis.

11
 ¨ The instrument is levelled roughly by the three-foot screws, thus making the vertical axis
approximately vertical. While taking the sight of the staff, the line of sight is made exactly
horizontal by centering the bubble by means of fine pitched tilting screw which tilts the
telescope w.r.t. the vertical axis.
¨ It is mainly designed for precise levelling work and levelling can be done much quicker.
However, this advantage is not so apparent many readings are required form one instrument
setting.
d) Special methods of levelling (Spirit leveling)
• Differential Levelling: It is the method of direct levelling the object of which is solely to
determine the difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the
points with respect of each other.
¨ When the points are apart, it may be necessary to set up the instruments several times. This
type of levelling is also known as fly levelling.
• Profile Levelling: It is the method of direct levelling the object of which is to determine the
elevations of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the
surface along that line.
• Cross-Sectioning: Cross-sectioning or cross-levelling is the process of taking levels on each side
of a main line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the
surface of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both.
• Reciprocal Levelling: It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation between
two points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not possible
to set up the level between the two points.
• Precise Levelling: It is the levelling in which the degree of precision required is too great to be
attained by ordinary methods, and in which, therefore, special, equipment or special precautions
or both are necessary to eliminate, as far as possible, all sources of error.
e) Height of instrument method
• In this method, the height of instrument (HI) is calculated for each setting of the instrument by
adding back sight (BS) to the elevation of the reduce level of BM.
𝐻𝐼 = 𝐵𝑆 + 𝑅𝐿
• All other readings are found out from the height of collimation until the instrument is shifted to
other station, where upon the new height of collimation is determined.
• The elevation of the turning point is then calculated by subtracting from HI the fore sight FS
𝑅𝐿 = 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆
Station BS IS FS HI RL Remark
A a1 a1+a0 = H1 a0 Benchmark
B b1 b2 H1–b2+b1=H2 H1–b2
C c1 H2–c1
• Arthematic check
∑BS − ∑FS = last RL − first RL
f) Rise and fall method
• In rise and fall method, the height of instrument is not at all calculated but the difference of level
between consecutive points is found by comparing the staff readings on the two points for the
same setting of the instrument.
• If the next reading is a larger one then it is a fall (as more reading is on the staff) and similarly if
the next reading is less then there is rise
Station BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remark
A 0.8 500 Benchmark
B 1 2 1.2 500–1.2
C 1.5 0.5 498.3
D 2.2 1.8 0.3 498.0
12
 E 2.3 2.8 0.6 497.4
F 1.7 0.6 498.0
6.3 8.3 0.6 3.1
∑BS − ∑FS = ∑Rise − ∑fall = last RL − first RL
−2 = −2 = −2
• Comparison of two methods
¨ The height of the instrument (or collimation level) method is more rapid, less tedious and
simple. However, since the check on the calculations for intermediate sights is not available,
the mistakes in their levels pass unnoticed. The rise and fall method though more tedious,
provides a full check in calculations for all sights.
g) Balancing back site and foresight
• When the difference in elevation between any two points is determined from a single set-up by
back sighting on one point and fore sighting on the other, the error due to non-parallelism of line
of collimation and axis of the bubble tube (when the bubble is in the centre of the run) and also
the error due to curvature and refraction may be eliminated if the lengths of two sights can be
made equal.
• Thus, if the back sight and fore sight distances are balanced, the elevation between two points is
equal to the difference between the rod readings taken to the two points and no correction for
curvature and refraction is necessary.
h) Curvature and Refraction
• From the definition of a level surface and a horizontal line it is evident that a horizontal line
departs from a level surface because of the curvature of the earth.
• Again, in the long sights, the horizontal line of sight does not remain straight but it slightly bends
downwards having concavity towards earth surface due to refraction.

Correction for Curvature: The correction for curvature

is, negative as applied to the staff reading.
𝑑r r
𝐶[ (𝑚) = = 0.07849𝑑Us
2𝑅WZRYQ
Refraction correction: The correction, as applied to
staff readings, is positive.
1 𝑑r r
𝐶R (𝑚) = = 0.01121𝑑Us
7 2𝑅WZRYQ
Combined correction (subtractive) 6
𝐶(𝑚) = 0.0673𝑑r (𝑘𝑚) = 𝐶[
7
Distance to visible horizon from height h
ℎ(𝑚)
𝑑(𝑘𝑚) = p
0.06728
= √14.86 × ℎ
= 3.854√ℎ
Distance between light house and ship 𝑑(𝑘𝑚) = 3.854² ℎv + ℎr ³
i) Reciprocal Levelling
• When it is necessary to carry levelling across a river, ravine or any obstacle requiring a long sight
between two points so situated that no place for the level can be found from which the lengths of
foresight and backsight will be even approximately equal, special method i.e., reciprocal levelling
must be used to obtain accuracy and to eliminate the following
¨ Error in instrument adjustment
¨ Combined effect of earth’s curvature and the refraction of the atmosphere, and
¨ Variations in the average refraction.

13
 • True difference in elevation: is equal to the mean of two apparent differences in elevations,
obtained by reciprocal observations.
1
𝐻 = [(ℎZ − ℎµ ) + (ℎZ‰ − ℎµ‰ )]
2
j) Sensitiveness of bubble tube
• The sensitiveness of a level tube is defined as the angular value of one division marked on the
tube.
• It is the amount the horizontal axis has to be tilted to cause the bubble to move from one
graduation to another.
• A tube is said to be more sensitive if the bubble moves by more divisions for a given change in
the angle.
• Sensitiveness can be increased ↑ by
increasing the internal radius of the tube ↑ decreasing the roughness of the walls, and ↓
increasing the diameter of the tube, ↑ decreasing the viscosity of the liquid. ↓
increasing the length of the bubble, ↑
R –Radius of curvature of bubble tube l length of one division on the bubble tube
𝑛𝑙 𝑠 n number of divisions moved
=
𝑅 𝐷 D distance between level and staff
𝑛𝑙𝐷 s intercept on staff
𝑅=
𝑠
• Sensitivity
𝑙 𝑠
𝛼 ‰ = radian = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑅 𝑛𝐷 sin 1"
8. Plane table surveying
a) Introduction
• Plane tabling is a graphical method of survey in which the field observations and plotting proceed
simultaneously.
b) Setting of plane table is done through following process
• Levelling: Making the bubble tube centered, i.e. establishing horizontal plane surface.
• Centering Positioning accurately, the plane table at previous control point.
• Orientation:
¨ It is the process of putting the plane table into some fixed direction so that line representing a
certain direction on the plan is parallel to that direction on the ground.
¨ This is essential condition to be fulfilled when more than one instrument station is to be used.
There are two main methods of orienting the plane table:
o Using trough compass: less accurate but fast
o Back sighting: Orientation can be done precisely by sighting the points already plotted
on the sheet. Two cases may arise:
§ When it is possible to set the plane table on the point already plotted on the
sheet by way of observation from previous station. (Back sighting)
§ When it is not possible to set the plane table on the point. (Resection)
c) Methods (Systems) of plane tabling
• Radiation: In this method, a ray is drawn from the instrument station towards the point, the
distance is measured between the instrument station and that point, and the point is located by
plotting to some scale the distance so measured.
• Intersection: Intersection is resorted to when the distance between the point and the instrument
station is either too large or cannot be measured accurately due to some field conditions. The
location of an object is determined by sighting at the object from two plane table stations
(previously plotted) and drawing the rays. The intersection of these rays will give the position of
the object.

14
 •Traversing: At each successive station the table is set, a foresight is taken to the following station
and its location is plotted by measuring the distance between the two stations as in the radiation
method.
• Resection: It is the process of determining the plotted position of the station occupied by the
plane table, by means of sights taken towards known points, locations of which have been plotted.
d) Three-point problem
• This problem basically consists of orienting the plane table at the station occupied by it after
sighting towards three stations. Methods available for the solution of the problem are:
¨ Mechanical method (tracing paper method)
¨ Graphical method
¨ Lehmann’s method (Trial and error method)
o In this method the orientation is done by trial and error.
o The orientation is achieved by making a number of trials for reduction of triangle of
error to a point.
o The approximate choice of the position is done with the help of Lehmann’s rules
which are extremely useful for making trials.
• It cannot be solved when the point is very close to the extension of one of the edges of the
triangle.
e) Advantages of plane tabling
• The plan is drawn by the out-door surveyor himself while the country is before his eyes, and
therefore, there is no possibility of omitting the necessary measurements.
• The surveyor can compare plotted work with the actual features of the area.
• Since the area is in view, contour and irregular objects may be represented accurately.
• Notes of measurements are seldom required and the possibility of mistakes in booking is
eliminated.
• It is particularly useful in magnetic areas where compass may not be used.
• It is simple and hence cheaper than the theodolite or any other type of survey.
f) Disadvantage
• Since notes of measurements are not recorded, it is a great inconvenience if the map is required to
be reproduced to some different scale.
• The plane tabling is not intended for very accurate work.
• It is most inconvenient in rainy season and in wet climate.
• Due to heaviness, it is inconvenient to transport.
• Since there are so many accessories, there is every likelihood of these being lost.
9. Area and Volume
a) Area calculation methods
• Trapezoidal rule
𝑂» + 𝑂T
Δ=„ + 𝑂v + 𝑂r + ⋯ + 𝑂T¼v … 𝑑
2
¨ Add the average of the end offsets to
the sum of the intermediate offsets.
¨ Multiply the total sum thus obtained
by the common distance between the
ordinates to get the required area.
• Simpson’s one third rule:
¨ It is clear that the rule is applicable
only when the number of divisions of the area is even i.e., the total number of ordinates is
odd.
𝑑
Δ = {𝑂» + 𝑂T + 4(𝑂v + 𝑂w + ⋯ + 𝑂T¼v ) + 2(𝑂r + 𝑂¾ + ⋯ + 𝑂T¼r )}
3
15
 ¨ The area is equal to the sum of the two end ordinates plus four times the sum of the odd
intermediate ordinates + twice the sum of the even intermediate ordinates, the whole
multiplied by one-third the common interval between them.
¨ The results obtained by the use of Simpson’s rule are in all cases the more accurate. The
results obtained by
using ‘Simpson’s rule
are greater or smaller
than those obtained by
using the trapezoidal
rule according as the
curve of the boundary is
concave or convex
towards the base line.
b) Volume Calculation
• Prismoidal method also called Simpson’s rule for volume
𝑑
V = {𝐴» + 𝐴T + 4(𝐴v + 𝐴w + ⋯ + 𝐴T¼v ) + 2(𝐴r + 𝐴¾ + ⋯ + 𝐴T¼r )}
3
• Trapezoidal rule / Average end area method
𝐴» + 𝐴T
V=„ + 𝐴v + 𝐴r + ⋯ … 𝑑
2
10. Tacheometric surveying
a) Tacheometry (or Tachemetry or Telemetry) is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and
vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means as opposed to the ordinary slower process of
measurements by tape or chain. The method is very rapid and convenient.
• Although the accuracy of Tacheometry in general compares unfavourably with that of chaining, it
is best adapted in obstacles such as steep and broken ground, deep ravines, stretches of water or
swamp and so on, which make chaining difficult or impossible.
b) Distance equation
• From △oba ⩬ △OBA
𝑓r 𝑓v
=
𝑖 𝑠
𝑓v 𝑠
=
𝑓r 𝑖
• Lens formula
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓v 𝑓r
𝑓𝑓v 𝑓𝑓v 𝑓𝑓v
⇒ = +
𝑓 𝑓v 𝑓r
𝑓v
⇒ 𝑓v = 𝑓 + 𝑓
𝑓r
𝑠
⇒ 𝑓v = 𝑓 + 𝑓
𝑖
𝑠
⇒ 𝐷 − 𝑑 = 𝑓 + 𝑓
𝑖
𝑓
𝐷 = (𝑓 + 𝑑) + „ … 𝑠
𝑖
𝐷 = 𝑘𝑠 + 𝐶
Ã
• The constant 𝑘 = is known as the multiplying constant or stadia interval factor and the constant
}
(f + d) = C is known as the additive constant of the instrument.
• For anallactic telescope additive constant is zero(C=0) therefore, 𝐷 = 𝑘𝑠
c) Inclined sight
16
 Ø Staff vertical
Oblique distance
𝐿 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑠 cos 𝜃 + 𝐶
Horizontal distance
𝐷 = 𝐿 cos 𝜃
= 𝑘𝑠 cos r 𝜃 + 𝐶 cos 𝜃
Vertical distance
𝑉 = 𝐿 sin 𝜃

Ø Staff normal to line of sight

Oblique distance
𝐿 =𝑘∙𝑠+𝐶
Horizontal distance
𝐷 = 𝐿 cos 𝜃 ± 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Vertical distance
𝑉 = 𝐿 sin 𝜃 ∓ 𝑟 sin 𝜃
± depends upon elevation or depression

11. Curves and setting out

a) Circular curves are divided into three parts
• Simple curve: it consists of simple arc of circle tangential to both straight lines.
• Compound curve: consists of two or more simple arcs that turn in the same direction and joined at
common points.
• Reverse curve: is the one which consists of two circular arcs of same or different radii, having
their centers to the different sides of common tangents.
b) Horizontal curve (simple)
• Setting out:
¨ Offset from chords produced: also called deflection distances.
o It is very much useful for long curves and is generally used when theodolite is not
available. Formula used in derivation is 𝑙 = 𝑟 ∙ 𝜃
Calculate Tangent length Δ
𝑇 = 𝑅 tan
Where ∆ is deflection angle 2
∆˚
Length of curve 𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑅
360˚
Chainage of point of curvature chainage of PI – Tangent length
Chainage of Point of Tangency chainage of PC + Length of curve
𝐶v = length which is integral multiple of chain
Length of first sub cord
length just larger than PC – chainage of PC
𝐶T = chainage of PT – length which is integral
Length of last sub cord
multiple of chain length just smaller than PT
Calculate number of full chords and
𝑛
total number of chords
𝐶vr
𝑂v =
2𝑅
𝐶r (𝐶v + 𝐶r )
𝑂r =
Offset length 2𝑅
𝐶r
𝑂w = 𝑂¾ = ⋯ = 𝑂T¼v =
𝑅
𝐶T (𝐶T¼v + 𝐶T )
𝑂T =
2𝑅
17
 ¨ Deflection angle method
o A deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle at PC between the back
tangent and the chord from PC to that point.
o Rankine’s method is based on the principle that the deflection angle (𝛿v ) to any point
on a circular curve is measured by one-half the angle subtended by the arc from PC to
that point (2𝛿v ).
§ 𝛿v , 𝛿r , 𝛿w = tangential angles or the angles which each of successive chords
makes with respective tangents.
§ ∆v , ∆r , ∆w = total tangential angles or the deflection angles to the points
§ 𝐶v , 𝐶r , 𝐶w = length of chords
180
2𝛿T = 𝐶
𝜋𝑅 T
§ Deflection angle from tangent Δv = 𝛿v
ΔT = ΔT¼v + 𝛿T

c) Vertical curve
• A vertical curve contributes to the safety comfort and appearance. Either a circular arc or a
parabola may be used for this purpose, but for simplicity of calculation work, parabola is preferred
and is invariably used. The parabolic curve also produces the best riding qualities, since the rate of
change in grade is uniform.
• Length of vertical curve:
ËŽYZV [QZTXW ŽÃ XRZÌW
¨ 𝐿 = RZYW ŽÃ [QZTXW ŽÃ XRZÌW
• Setting out:
¨ In vertical curves, all distances along the curve are measured horizontally and all offsets from
the tangents to the curve measured vertically. Thus, the length of the curve is its horizontal
projection.
o The equation of the parabola can be written as
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 r + 𝑏𝑥
Ì•
o ̀
= 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = +𝑔v at x=0

18
 o 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 r + 𝑔v 𝑥
𝑃𝑄 = ℎ = 𝑃𝑅 − 𝑄𝑅
ℎ = 𝑔v 𝑥 − 𝑦
ℎ = 𝑔v 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 r − 𝑔v 𝑥
ℎ = −𝑎𝑥 r
ℎ = 𝐶𝑥 r
ℎ = 𝑘𝑁 r
o Tangent correction: the difference in elevation between a vertical curve and a tangent
to it varies as the square of its horizontal distance from the point of tangency. This
difference in elevation is also known as tangent correction.
o The value of k can be found as
§ Let 2n = total number of equal chords, each of length l, on each side of the
apex.
§ 𝑒v and 𝑒r are corresponding rises or fall per chord length 𝑙
𝑘(2𝑛)r = 𝑛(𝑒v − 𝑒r )
𝑒v − 𝑒r
𝑘=
4𝑛
¨ Steps:
o Let the elevation and chainage of apex A be known. (VPI)
§ Let the length of the curve on either side of the station be n chords of equal
length l.
§ Then the chainage of point of tangency (O) = chainage of A – nl
§ Chainage of point of tangency (B) = chainage of A + nl
o Knowing the grades g1 and g2 and the elevation of apex A, the elevation of O and B
can be calculated
§ Elevation of O = Elevation of A ∓ ne1
§ Elevation of B = Elevation of A ∓ ne2
o Compute tangent corrections from expression
§ ℎ = 𝑘𝑁 r
o Compute the elevation of the corresponding stations on the tangent.
§ Elevation on tangent = elevation of O + ne1
o Find the elevations of corresponding stations on the curve by adding algebraically the
tangent corrections to the elevations of the corresponding stations.
Point Chainage n Elevation of Tangent RL of point on
tangent correction curve
𝐸Ð + 𝑛𝑒v 𝑘𝑛r

12. Field Astronomy

a) Definitions of astronomical terms
• The celestial sphere: the imaginary sphere on which the stars appears to lie or to be studded is
known as the celestial sphere.
• The zenith (Z) and Nadir (N): the zenith is the point on the upper portion of the celestial sphere
marked by plumb line above the observer. The Nadir is the point on
the celestial sphere vertically below the observer’s station.
• The Celestial Horizon: it is the great circle traced upon the celestial
sphere by that plane which is perpendicular to the zenith nadir line
and passes through centre of the earth.
• The Sensible Horizon: it is a circle in which a plane passing
through the point of observation and tangential to the earth’s

19
 surface intersects with celestial sphere. The line of sight of an accurately levelled telescope lies in
this plane.
• Vertical circle of celestial sphere is a great circle passing through the Zenith and Nadir. They all
cut the celestial horizon at right angle.
• Observers meridian: is that vertical circle which passes through the Zenith and Nadir of a point as
well as through the poles.
¨ The prime vertical is that particular circle which is at right angle to observer’s meridian and
passes through east and west points of the horizon.
• Altitude (𝜶)- the altitude of a heavenly body is the angular distance between horizon measured
on vertical circle passing through the body.
¨ Co-altitude or Zenith distance: it is angular distance of heavenly body from the zenith. It is
the complement of altitude. 𝑧 = 90 − 𝛼
• Azimuth (𝑨): of a heavenly body is angle between the observer’s meridian and the vertical circle
passing through the body.
Azimuth and altitude system is used for field observations, as they can be obtained with the help of
theodolite but RA, hour angle, declination have to be computed from the solution of astronomical
triangles. They are used for the preparation of star catalogues.
• Hour circle: these are great circles passing through north and
south celestial poles. Declination circle of a heavenly body is
thus an hour circle.
• Hour angle: of a heavenly body is the angle between the
observer’s meridian and declination circle passing through the
body. The hour angle is always measured westward.
• Declination (𝜹): is angular distance from the plane of equator,
measured along the star’s meridian generally called declination
circle. It is positive in North and negative in south.
• Right Ascension (RA): it is equatorial angle distance measured
eastward from the first point of Aries to the hour circle through
the heavenly body.
• Equinoctial point: the points of intersection of the ecliptic with
the equator are called the equinoctial points.
¨ The vernal equinox or the first point of Aries ♈ is the
point in which the sun’s declination changes from South to
North, and makes the commencement of spring. It is a fixed
point on the celestial sphere.
¨ The Autumnal equinox or first point of libra ♎ is the
point in which the sun’s declination changes from North to
South and marks the commencement of autumn. Both
equinoxes are six months apart.
• The Ecliptic is the great circle of the heavens which the sun appears to describe on the celestial
sphere with the earth as a centre in the course of a year. The plane of ecliptic is inclined to the
plane of equator at an angle called the obliquity, of about 23o27”
• Solstices: these are the points at which the north and south declination of the sun is a maximum.
The point at which the northern declination of the sun is maximum is known as the summer
solstice. While the point at which south declination of the sun is maximum is known as winter
solstice.
• Circumpolar star: their upper and lower culmination both are above horizon.
b) Spherical triangle
• Properties of spherical triangle
¨ Any angle is less than 180º
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 ¨ Sum of three angle is greater than
180º but less than 540º
¨ Sum of any two side is greater than
third.
¨ If sum of any two side is equal to
180º, then the angle opposite to them
is equal to 180º
¨ Smaller angle is opposite to smaller
side.
¨ Sum of three side is less than
circumference of great circle.

• Formula for spherical trigonometry

sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
cos 𝑎 − cos 𝑏 cos 𝑐
cos 𝐴 =
sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐
c) Units of time
• Sidereal time: for astronomical purpose, the sidereal day is one of the principal units of time. It is
the interval of time between two successive upper transits of first point of Aries.
• Solar apparent time:
¨ Since a man regulates his time with the recurrence of light and darkness due to rising and
setting of the sun, the sidereal division of time is not suited to the needs of everyday life, for
the purposes of which the sun is the most convenient time measurer.
¨ A solar day is the interval of time that elapse between two successive lower transits of sun’s
centers over the meridian of the place. Lower transit is chosen such that date may change at
midnight.
¨ Unfortunately, the apparent solar day is not of constant length throughout the year but
changes, because the orbit of the earth round the sun is nor circular but elliptical and because
of obliquity of axis.
¨ The earth has to turn nearly about 361º about its axis to complete one solar day, which will
be about 4 minutes longer than a sidereal day.
• Mean solar time:
¨ Since our modern clocks cannot record the variable apparent solar time, a fictitious sun called
mean sun is imagined to move at a uniform rate along the equator. The motion of the mean
sun is the average of that of true sun.
¨ Equation of time: the difference between the mean and the apparent solar time at any instant
is known as the equation of time.
Equation of time = apparent solar time − Mean solar time
13. Photogrammetry
a) Scale of a photograph
𝑚𝑎𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 =
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
camera focal length
=
flying height above terrrain
𝑓
=
𝐻−ℎ
• Often it is convenient to compute average scale for an entire photograph. This scale is calculated
using the average terrain elevation for the area imagined.

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 𝑓
𝑆ZÚX =
𝐻 − ℎZÚX
b) Length of line between point of different height
𝑦Z 𝑥Z 𝑓 𝑦µ 𝑥µ 𝑓
= = = =
𝑌Z 𝑋Z 𝐻 − ℎZ 𝑌µ 𝑋µ 𝐻 − ℎµ
𝐻 − ℎZ 𝐻 − ℎµ
𝑋Z = 𝑥Z 𝑋µ = 𝑥µ
𝑓 𝑓
𝐻 − ℎZ 𝐻 − ℎµ
𝑌Z = 𝑦Z 𝑌µ = 𝑦µ
𝑓 𝑓
In general
𝐻−ℎ 𝐻−ℎ
𝑋= 𝑥 𝑌= 𝑦
𝑓 𝑓
• Length between two points A and B
𝐿 = (𝑋Z − 𝑋µ )r + (𝑌Z − 𝑌µ )r
¨ The value should be put with proper algebraic sign
c) Relief displacement:
• When a vertical feature is photographed, relief displacement causes the top of the feature to lie
farther from the photo center than its base. As a result, vertical features appear to lean away from
the center of the photograph.
𝑟Y ℎ
𝑑=
𝐻
¨ 𝑑 – difference in coordinates of top and bottom in photograph
¨ 𝑟Y - radial distance on the photo from the principal point to the displaced image point (top).
¨ ℎ- height of object above datum or surface
¨ 𝐻- flying height above datum or surface
d) Image parallax:
• The term parallax refers to the apparent change in relative positions of stationary objects caused
by a change in viewing position.
• Parallax in aerial stereoscopic views
¨ Parallax of a point is the displacement of the image of the point on two successive exposures.
𝑝Z = 𝑥Z − 𝑥Z‰
o 𝑥Z coordinate of object in image 1
o 𝑥Z ′ coordinate of object in image 2
¨ Parallax is difference in x coordinate from two photos with appropriate sign, if on the
opposite side of axis, then they will be added.
• Object height from parallax
𝐵𝑓
(𝐻 − ℎZ ) =
𝑝Z
¨ B- is air base
𝐵𝑓
𝑝Z =
𝐻 − ℎZ
• Ground coordinate
𝐵
𝑋Ð = 𝑥Z
𝑝Z
𝐵
𝑌Ð = 𝑦Z
𝑝Z
• Difference in height if parallax of top and bottom is given
1 1
Δℎ = 𝐵𝑓 Ý − Þ
𝑝Y 𝑝µ

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 𝑝µ − 𝑝Y
= 𝐵𝑓 Ý Þ
𝑝Y 𝑝µ
e) Number of photographs required
• In the preliminary estimate the number of photographs required is calculated by dividing the total
area to be photographed by the net area covered by a single photograph.
𝐴 𝐴
𝑁= =
𝑎 (1 − 𝑝V )(1 − 𝑝P )𝑠 r 𝑙𝑏
• If, however, instead of the total area A, the rectangular dimensions of the ground are given the
number of the photographs required are computed by calculating the number of strips and the
number of photographs required in each strip and multiplying the two.
¨ Calculate number of flight lines
𝐵
𝑁v = +1
(1 − 𝑝P )𝑠 𝑏
• Number of photos in one line
𝐿
𝑁r = +1
(1 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑝) × 𝑙
• Total number of photographs
𝑁 = 𝑁v × 𝑁r
f) Interval between exposures
• The time interval between the exposures can be calculated if the ground speed of the airplane and
the ground distance (along the direction of flight between exposures are known)
¨ 𝑉 ground speed of airplane (km/hour)
¨ 𝐿 ground distance covered by each photograph in the direction of flight = (1 − 𝑝V )𝑠𝑙 km
¨ 𝑇 time interval between exposure
3600𝐿
𝑇=
𝑉
14. Minor instruments
a) The sextant: the distinguishing feature of the sextant is the arrangement of mirrors which enables the
observer to sight at two different objects simultaneously, and thus to measure an angle in a single
observation. It can be used to measure horizontal and vertical angles.
b) Pantagraph: it is an instrument used for reproducing, enlarging or reducing the maps. It is based on
the principle of similar triangles.
c) Hand level: it is a simple, compact instrument used for reconnaissance and preliminary survey, for
locating contours on the ground and for making short cross-sections.
d) Clinometer: it is an instrument used for measuring angle or elevation of slope. Some of the types of
clinometer are
• Abney clinometer: it is light compact and hand instrument, low precision to engineering level.
• Indian Pattern (tangent clinometer): it is used for determining difference in elevation between
points and is specially adopted for plane tabling.
• Fennel’s clinometer: it is a precise clinometer.
e) Ceylon ghat tracer: it is a very useful instrument for setting out gradients and measuring slope.
f) Tellurometer: it was first instrument which used microwave for surveying purpose.
15. Miscellaneous
a) Previous Year
• Isocentre is the point on an aerial photograph in which the bisector of the angle of tilt meets the
photograph.
• Rectification is a process by which the geometry of an image area is made planimetric by
referencing to some standard map projection.
• Method of repetition is used to measure horizontal angles only, vertical angles cannot be
measured by method of repetition because only one rotation is possible in vertical plane.

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 • In loose needle method, direction of each transverse line is determined w.r.t. the magnetic
meridian established at the traverse station.
• In fast needle method, direction of a traverse line is established w.r.t. magnetic meridian and
direction of all the other lines are determined w.r.t. the first line and included angles.
b) Test series
• In countries like the United States, Great Britain, India and other parts of the world, sexagesimal
system is widely used
¨ Sexagesimal system
o 1 circumference = 360° (degree of arc)
o 1 degree = 60′ (minutes of arc)
o 1 minute = 60′′ (seconds of arc)
• Direct method of ranging is also known as method of stepping. In the direct method or the method
of stepping, the distance is measured in small horizontal stretches or steps. Error due to bad
ranging is cumulative positive.
• The Colby apparatus is a compensating and optical type rigid bar apparatus designed by Maj. Gen.
Colby to eliminate the effects of changes of temperature upon measuring appliance.
• The essential difference between the dumpy level and the wye level is that in the former case, the
telescope is fixed to the spindle while in the wye level, the telescope is carried in two vertical wye
supports. Why level has an advantage over the dumpy level in the fact that the adjustment can be
tested with great ease and rapidity.
• Levelling staffs may be divided into two classes viz:
¨ Self-reading staff : Which can be read directly by the instrument man through the telescope.
¨ A target staff : Which contains a moving target against which the reading is taken by staff
man.
• A tubular compass is an improved version of a trough compass. A trough compass does not lend
itself to very precise setting owing to parallax arising from the difficulty of ensuring that the eye is
in the vertical plane of the needle. This difficulty is overcome by using a tubular compass.
• When trough compass is used in conjugation with a plane table, the sides of the box are used as a
ruler to plot the north direction. When fitted on a theodolite, it is used to align the telescope in the
meridian.
c) Mains (PYQ)
• The following methods are based on the use of carrier phase measurement for Relative
Positioning using two receivers.
¨ Static positioning: This method is used to give high precision over long baselines such as
are used in geodetic control surveys. One receiver is set up over a station of known X, Y, Z
coordinates, preferably in the WGS 84 reference system, whilst a second receiver occupies
the station whose coordinates are required. Observation times may vary from 45 min to
several hours.
¨ Rapid static: Rapid static surveying is ideal for many engineering surveys and is halfway
between static and kinematic procedures. The ‘master’ receiver is set up on a reference point
and continuously tracks all visible satellites throughout the duration of the survey. The
‘roving’ receiver visits each of the remaining points to be surveyed, but stays for just a few
minutes, typically 2–15 min.
¨ Reoccupation: This technique is regarded as a third form of static surveying or as a pseudo-
kinematic procedure. It is based on repeating the survey after a time gap of one or two hours
in order to make use of the change in receiver/satellite geometry to resolve the integer
ambiguities.
¨ Kinematic positioning: The major problem with static GPS is the time required for an
appreciable change in the satellite/ receiver geometry so that the initial integer ambiguities
can be resolved. However, if the integer ambiguities could be resolved (and constrained in a
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 least squares solution) prior to the survey, then a single epoch of data would be sufficient to
obtain relative positioning to sub-centimetre accuracy. This concept is the basis of kinematic
surveying.
o Traditional kinematic surveying: Assuming the ambiguities have been resolved, a
master receiver is positioned over a reference point of known coordinates and the
roving receiver commences its movement along the route required. As the movement
is continuous, the observations take place at pre-set time intervals (less than 1 s). Lock
must be maintained to at least four satellites, or re-established when lost.
o Stop and go surveying: As the name implies, this kinematic technique is practically
identical to the previous one, only in this case the rover stops at the point of detail or
position required.
o Real time kinetic: The previous methods described all require post-processing of the
results. However, RTK provides the relative position to be determined instantaneously
as the roving receiver occupies a position. The essential difference is the use of mobile
data communication to transmit information from the reference point to the rover.
• Error in GPS
¨ Receiver clock error: This error is a result of the receiver clock not being compatible and in
the same time system as the satellite clock. Range measurement is thus contaminated
(pseudo-range). As the speed of light is approximately 300 000 km/s, then an error of 0.01 s
results in a range error of about 3000 km.
¨ Satellite clock error: Excessive temperature variations in space may result in the variation of
the satellite clock from GPS time. Careful monitoring allows the amount of drift to be
assessed and included in the broadcast message and therefore eliminated if the user is using
the same data. Differential procedures eliminate this error.
¨ Satellite ephemeris error: even though the satellites positions are constantly monitored, they
can't be watched every second. So slight position or "ephemeris" errors can sneak in between
monitoring times.
¨ Atmospheric refraction: The ionosphere is the region of the atmosphere from 50 to 1000 km
in altitude in which ultraviolet radiation has ionized a fraction of the gas molecules, thereby
releasing free electrons. GPS signals are slowed down and refracted from their true path
when passing through this medium. The effect on range measurement can vary from 5 to 150
m.
¨ Multipath error: This is caused by the satellite signals being reflected off local surfaces,
resulting in a time delay and consequently a greater range. At the frequencies used in GPS
they can be of considerable amplitude, due to the fact that the antenna must be designed to
track several satellites and cannot therefore be more directional. Antenna design cannot
preclude this effect. The only solution at this stage of GPS is the careful siting of the survey
station, clear of any reflecting surfaces. In built-up areas, multipaths may present
insurmountable problems unless the position of the satellites, with reference to the ground
stations, is very carefully planned. It cannot be eliminated by DGPS.
¨ Geometric dilution of precision (GDOP): the position of the satellites will affect the three-
dimensional angles of intersection. When the satellites are close together or in a straight line,
a low-accuracy fix is obtained. When they are wide apart, almost forming a square, high
accuracy is obtainable. The satellite configuration geometry with respect to the ground
station is called the GDOP. The GDOP number is small for good configuration and large for
poor configuration.
• Resolutions in Remote sensing
¨ Spatial resolution: A digital image consists of an array of pixels. Each pixel contains
information about a small area on the land surface, which is considered as a single object.
Spatial resolution is a measure of the area or size of the smallest dimension on the Earth’s

25
 surface over which an independent measurement can be made by the sensor. It is expressed
by the size of the pixel on the ground in meters.
¨ Spectral resolution represents the spectral band width of the filter and the sensitiveness of
the detector. The spectral resolution may be defined as the ability of a sensor to define fine
wavelength intervals or the ability of a sensor to resolve the energy received in a spectral
bandwidth to characterize different constituents of earth surface. The finer the spectral
resolution, the narrower the wavelength range for a particular channel or band.
¨ Radiometric resolution of a sensor is a measure of how many grey levels are measured
between pure black (no reflectance) to pure white. In other words, radiometric resolution
represents the sensitivity of the sensor to the magnitude of the electromagnetic energy. The
finer the radiometric resolution of a sensor the more sensitive it is to detecting small
differences in reflected or emitted energy or in other words the system can measure more
number of grey levels. Radiometric resolution is measured in bits.
¨ Temporal resolution describes the number of times an object is sampled or how often data
are obtained for the same area. The absolute temporal resolution of a remote sensing system
to image the same area at the same viewing angle a second time is equal to the repeat cycle of
a satellite.

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