Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand

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The Taupo obsidian source, central North Island,

New Zealand

PR Moore

To cite this article: PR Moore (2011) The Taupo obsidian source, central North Island,
New Zealand, Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 41:2, 205-215, DOI:
10.1080/03036758.2010.529919

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Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand
Vol. 41, No. 2, June 2011, 205
215

The Taupo obsidian source, central North Island, New Zealand

PR Moore*
Peninsula Research, Waihi, New Zealand
(Received 26 August 2010; final version received 30 September 2010)

The Taupo source contains extensive deposits of high quality obsidian, which were exploited by
pre-European Maori up until the eighteenth century. Although quarry sites have previously been
recorded, inspection of those sites revealed no definite evidence of the physical extraction of
material from outcrops in prehistoric times. Instead, field observations and a re-examination of
artefact assemblages recovered from local cave shelters suggest that obsidian was probably
procured mainly from colluvial deposits, in the form of natural blocks, and as cobbles from the
nearby lake shore. New information on the visual characteristics and chemical composition of
the Taupo obsidian is presented.
Keywords: obsidian; source; Taupo; archaeological sites

Introduction recording a further five sites including one

The extensive obsidian outcrops near Kinloch,
at the northern end of Lake Taupo, constitute
one of at least 20 known archaeological sources
of such material in New Zealand (Sheppard
2004). Variously referred to as the Whangama-
ta Fault, Ben Lomond, or Taupo source, it is
the only place apart from Mayor Island (Bay
of Plenty) and Cooks Beach (Coromandel
Peninsula) where obsidian quarry sites have
been recorded. Despite this, no detailed study
of the source area has previously been under-
taken by archaeologists.
The existence of obsidian outcrops along
the Whangamata Fault, and of boulders at
nearby Whangamata Bay, was first reported by
Green (1962). Sampling of the Whangamata
Fault exposures was subsequently undertaken
by Ward (1973), who also recorded three
quarry sites (T17/2, 3, 4). In the late 1970s
local archaeologist Perry Fletcher carried out
a more thorough field survey of the area,
source site (T17/11), two flaking areas (T17/
10, 14), and a quarry/flaking area (‘T17/70’).
Some observations have also been made by
other archaeologists, including B McFadgen
and the author in 1978, and Jones (2002) as
part of his study on hydration dating.
This paper presents new information on the
nature and extent of the obsidian occurrences
and visual and chemical characteristics of the
material, along with a re-assessment of pre-
viously recorded archaeological sites. Field-
work was undertaken in May 2007 and May
2008.
Location and name
The source area is located about 15 km north-
west of Taupo township, in the central North
Island, near the small lakeside settlement of
Kinloch (Fig. 1).
Several different names have been applied
to the source. Ward (1973) referred to the

*Email: peninres@xtra.co.nz
ISSN 0303-6758 print/ISSN 1175-8899 online
# 2011 The Royal Society of New Zealand
DOI: 10.1080/03036758.2010.529919
http://www.informaworld.com
206 PR Moore

Figure 1 Map of the Kinloch area, Lake Taupo, showing the extent of the obsidian-bearing Ben Lomond
rhyolite flows (wavy pattern) and location of archaeological sites. Geology largely after Stevenson (1990).
Analysed samples are numbered (see Table 1).

obsidian outcrops near Kinloch as the Whan-
gamata Fault deposits, and this has been taken
as the name for the source by some archae-
ologists (e.g. Jones 2002). Ward (1974) also
termed it the Taupo source. As shown in this
paper, obsidian is not confined to the Whanga-
mata Fault scarp, and because of potential
confusion with the Whangamata source on
Coromandel Peninsula the name ‘Ben Lomond’
was proposed by Moore (1988), after the farm
on which many of the obsidian deposits were
located. Some have followed this suggestion
(e.g. Sheppard 2004). However, Ben Lomond
Station no longer exists, and since neither
 The Taupo obsidian source 207

Table 1 Chemical (XRF) analyses of obsidian samples from the Taupo source. Analyses by J. Wilmshurst,
School of Environment, University of Auckland. See Fig. 1 for sample locations.

Location: SW flow Main scarp South flow

Sample: TP1 TP2 TP3 TP4 TP17 TP5 TP8 TP9 TP12 TP13 TP15
Colour: black grey banded black black dk grey banded red black red grey

wt%
SiO2 77.09 75.30 76.28 75.89 75.77 74.51 75.00 76.09 74.52 73.56 76.09
TiO2 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.18
Al2O3 12.44 12.20 12.40 12.30 12.28 12.11 12.15 12.31 12.09 11.95 12.35
Fe2O3 1.41 1.40 1.39 1.40 1.39 1.40 1.40 1.41 1.39 1.39 1.40
MnO 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
MgO 0.14 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.16
CaO 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.09 1.10 1.09 1.10
Na2O 4.04 3.97 4.01 3.98 3.99 3.93 3.95 3.97 3.98 3.89 4.00
K2O 3.47 3.43 3.43 3.44 3.44 3.43 3.44 3.49 3.36 3.39 3.43
P2O5 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
LOI 0.19 0.24 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.30 0.28 0.30 0.23 0.25 0.29
Total 100.14 98.15 99.49 98.99 98.82 97.30 97.82 99.17 97.20 96.03 99.17
ppm
Ba 527 524 535 508 528 560 542 491 543 554 529
Rb 123 123 123 123 124 123 124 124 124 123 125
Sr 88 87 87 87 86 86 86 86 87 86 87
Pb 12 16 15 17 15 16 16 15 16 14 15
Th 16 19 16 19 13 13 17 19 16 15 15
Zr 153 158 155 155 158 158 158 156 159 159 158
Nb 8 7 8 8 7 7 7 7 8 7 8
Y 23 25 24 24 25 24 24 24 24 25 24
La 23 23 24 22 21 20 19 25 21 26 23
Ce 38 50 37 32 53 36 46 59 46 41 34
Sc 4 4 4 6 5 3 4 4 5 4 4
V 5 6 6 5 5 5 6 6 5 7 4
Cu 5 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 0 0 2
Zn 31 31 30 31 32 33 30 33 31 30 33
Ga 11 13 13 15 15 14 14 13 13 14 12

Rb/Sr 1.40 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.44 1.43 1.44 1.44 1.42 1.43 1.44
Zr/Rb 1.24 1.28 1.26 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.27 1.26 1.28 1.29 1.26

Whangamata nor Kinloch are considered sui-
table alternative names, it seems preferable to
refer to the Whangamata Fault/Ben Lomond
obsidian deposits as the ‘Taupo source’. This
name has been used, formally or informally, in
a number of publications (e.g. Davidson 1987;
Seelenfreund & Bollong 1989), and as there
are no other known sources of flake quality
obsidian in the Lake Taupo area, it is appro-
priate to continue this usage.
The source
The Taupo obsidian source is associated with
the Ben Lomond rhyolite dome, one of several
such domes situated between the Taupo and
208 PR Moore
Maroa volcanic centres or calderas (Wilson
et al. 1986). These rhyolite lava domes have
previously been classified as part of the Hapar-
angi Rhyolite Formation or Group (Grindley
1960), but are now included in the Arawa
Group (Leonard et al. in press).
Ben Lomond dome was formed about
100,000 years ago (Houghton et al. 1991). It
has been mapped and described in some detail
by Stevenson (1990) and Stevenson et al.
(1994), and consists of two separate flow lobes
up to 3.5 km long which extend to the south
and southwest from an inferred eruption centre
in the north near Poihipi Road (Fig. 1). These
have subsequently been cut by the NNE-trend-
ing Whangamata Fault and other subsidiary
faults, providing extensive exposures through
the upper part of the flows. The main scarp
along the Whangamata Fault is approximately
1.6 km in length and up to 65 m in height.
There are also significant exposures of obsidian
along a smaller parallel fault to the north*here
referred to as the Airstrip Fault*which has a
scarp some 400 m long and 10
15 m high.
The source can be effectively divided into
two distinct parts*the main area, within the
limits of the lava flows, and a secondary area at
Whangamata Bay. The main area consists of
significant in situ outcrops and colluvial (or
talus) deposits along the Whangamata and
Airstrip fault scarps, in small gullies cutting
across the flows, and around the steep flow
margins. The secondary area comprises alluvial
material at the mouth of Whangamata Stream,
and pebbles and cobbles along the shoreline and
below normal lake level at Whangamata Bay.
The latter could be described as littoral deposits.
Visual characteristics
The visual characteristics of the Taupo obsi-
dian have not previously been described in
detail, although Ward (1973) reported the
existence of black, grey, grey-black and some
banded material. As part of the present study
more than 50 individual obsidian samples from
14 locations were examined both in hand
specimen and under a binocular microscope.
Colours were determined by reference to the
Munsell Colour Chart. The obsidian is much
more variable than previously thought (e.g.
Moore 1988), and while black material pre-
dominates there is also relatively common grey
and red-brown obsidian. Four main types can
be recognized. Terminology follows that used
in Moore (1988).
Type 1 (black)
This is by far the most common variety, and at
least three sub-types are identifiable.
Type 1A (black)
This is what has previously been considered as
‘typical’ Taupo obsidian. It is very vitreous and
has good to moderate translucency with a
strong smoky tinge. Flow banding ranges
from weak to strong, and some is very slightly
colour banded; the bands vary from wispy to
streaky. It contains common spherulites, typi-
cally 0.5
1 mm in diameter but up to 4 mm or
larger, rare quartz and feldspar phenocrysts (up
to 3 mm), and rare to abundant black needle-
like crystals up to 0.5 mm in length, probably of
pyroxene (Stevenson et al. 1994:346).
Type 1B (black streaky)
This type is black to greyish black with a
distinct streaky or silky texture. It has moderate
translucency (occasionally poor) with a smoky
tinge, and is generally weakly flow banded;
some shows slight colour banding. Spherulites
are absent to common, mostly 0.5
2 mm in
diameter, but in some cases up to 5 mm.
Phenocrysts of quartz and feldspar are rare,
up to 2 mm in size, and some pieces contain
black needles.
Type 1C (black, poor translucency)
This is a rare variety, characterized by very
poor translucency. Flow banding is weak to

moderate and typically streaky or wispy. Some
pieces contain very thin red-brown streaks or
have a red-brown colour on exterior surfaces.
Spherulites are absent to sparse, and pheno-
crysts are rare. One sample contained very
distinctive spherulites up to 12 mm diameter
which showed slight horizontal banding.
Type 2 (grey)
This is a moderately common variety, usually
dark to very dark grey in colour (some is
medium grey) with a slightly mottled, marbled
or streaky texture. Some is almost silvery in
certain light. It has moderate to poor translu-
cency, and shows weak, wispy flow banding.
Some has black bands. Spherulites are rare to
absent, up to 1 mm in diameter. Some pieces
contain common to abundant black needles
B1 mm in length, and a few black opaque or
other crystals up to 0.5 mm in size.
Type 3 (banded)
Banded obsidian is the second most common
variety. It is characterized by black and dark to
very dark grey bands which range from per-
fectly parallel to wispy or highly irregular.
Translucency varies from good to poor, with
the grey bands being less translucent. Spher-
ulites are sparse to common, often up to 2 mm
in diameter; some larger ones are hollow.
Phenocrysts of quartz and feldspar are rela-
tively rare, up to 3 mm, and black needles up to
1 mm in length are common in some pieces.
This type grades into both grey (Type 2)
and black streaky (Type 1b) varieties.
Type 4 (red-brown)
This type is uncommon, and except at one
locality occurs only in small quantities. At some
places it is completely intermixed with black
obsidian. Most is dark reddish brown in colour
(2.5YR 3/4 to 5YR 3/4), but some is dark red
(2.5YR 3/6), red (2.5YR 4/6), dusky red, and
brown (7.5YR 4/3). It usually contains black
The Taupo obsidian source 209
blotches, flecks, or streaks and a few pieces
have a breccia-like appearance with ‘clasts’ of
black obsidian. Under the microscope it has a
streaky, felted or sugary texture. Translucency
is generally very poor, and thin edges appear
red to reddish brown in transmitted light.
Spherulites are rare to common, and in one
sample were up to 15 mm in diameter. Pheno-
crysts of quartz and feldspar are rare, usually
B1 mm but in a few cases up to 3 mm across.
Geochemistry
Seven obsidian samples were analysed by
Stevenson (1990) by conventional wavelength-
dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
(XRF), and four of the analyses were subse-
quently published in Stevenson et al. (1994).
These samples were collected from a road
cutting on Poihipi Road, the Airstrip Fault
scarp, the main (Whangamata) fault scarp, and
terminus of the southern flow, and included
both black and grey varieties. The analyses are
very consistent, with little variation in most
trace element concentrations, particularly Rb,
Sr, Y and Zr, and the data reveal no obvious
differences in composition between the south-
western and southern flows.
A further eleven XRF analyses were ob-
tained as part of this study, not only to improve
the geographic coverage but also to determine
whether there were any significant differences
in composition between the various obsidian
types. All analyses were carried out on the
Siemens SRS 3000 sequential X-ray spectro-
meter at the Geology Department, University
of Auckland. Four of the samples selected were
black (Type 1), three grey (Type 2), two banded
(Type 3) and two red-brown (Type 4). The
analyses are presented in Table 1, and sample
locations are shown on Fig. 1.
The results are remarkably consistent and
show no significant variation in concentrations,
particularly for the key elements Rb, Sr, Zr and
Y. There are no obvious differences in compo-
sition between the two lava flows, or between
black, grey and banded varieties. However, the
210 PR Moore

red obsidian does show some variation, espe-
cially TP13, which has slightly lower values for
Si, Al, Na and K, but ‘normal’ Rb, Sr, Zr and
Y values. Notably, the two red obsidian
samples have the same Fe2O3 concentration as
black and grey varieties, indicating that the red
colour is not due to higher iron content but to
the oxidation state of the iron.
There are no significant differences between
the new analyses and those previously reported
by Stevenson et al. (1994), at least in Rb, Sr, Zr
and Y concentrations, although their Mg and
Ba values are slightly higher.
Exploitation
Site numbers (e.g. T17/2) are those of the
NZ Archaeological Association national site
recording scheme ‘Archsite’ (www.archsite.org.
nz), and are based on the former NZMS 260
topographic map series. Equivalent imperial
numbers (e.g. N93/1) are also given where these
were used in original publications.
Existing site records (Table 2) and descrip-
tions by Ward (1973) give the impression that
blocks of obsidian were physically removed
from outcrops or talus deposits, and that loose
blocks or boulders were also worked in situ.
But, of the three sites (T17/2, 3, 4, Fig. 1)
recorded as quarries by Ward (1973), at only
two did he apparently observe any evidence of
quarrying. Site T17/2 (N93/1) is actually a road
cutting on Poihipi Road, where significant
quantities of obsidian have been extracted by
rock hounds and others. There is no obvious

Table 2 List of archaeological sites.

Site no.1 Location NZTM grid ref.2 Site type3 Working?

T17/2 Poihipi Rd E185725 N572500 Quarry No

(N93/1)
T17/3 Main scarp (E185680 N572600) Quarry ?
(N93/2)
T17/4 Main scarp E185698 N57229 Quarry Yes?
(N93/3)
T17/8 South flow E185632 N572094 Stone source/shelter/ ?
(N93/61) flaking area/trenches
T17/10 Poihipi Road E185724 N572498 Flaking area Yes?
(N93/78)
T17/11 Airstrip scarp (E185729 N572440) Stone source ?
(N93/79)
T17/14 Airstrip scarp E185686 N572444 Flaking area/platform ?
(N93/80)
(T18/70) Airstrip scarp E185677 N572425 Quarry/flaking area ?
(N93/81)
T18/30 Whangamata Bay E185410 N571559 Working area Yes
(N93/18)

4 Whangamata E185350 N571559 Occupation? Yes
Stream mouth

4 Okaia Stream mouth E185330 N571709 Occupation? Yes?
1
Metric site numbers of the N.Z. Archaeological Association national site recording scheme ‘Archsite’; equivalent imperial
numbers in brackets.
2
NZ Transverse Mercator Projection, obtained by online conversion of NZ Map Grid NZGD 1949 co-ordinates (from
GPS). Figures in brackets are original grid references (converted).
3
Original designation.
4
No site number allocated.

evidence of pre-European quarrying in the
vicinity.
Site T17/3 (N93/2) is classified as a quarry,
and Ward (1973:100 and Site Record Form)
described it as consisting of ‘scattered large
rocks at foot of [Whangamata] fault’ where
there was ‘evidence of quarrying’. He also states
(Ward 1973:96) that there was ‘extensive work-
ing of implements besides obvious quarrying’ at
this site. However, there are numerous large
rocks in the general vicinity of his recorded grid
reference, and despite a fairly thorough inspec-
tion of the area Ward’s quarry site could not be
re-located. There is clear evidence of removal of
material by rock hounds in this area.
Site T17/4 (N93/3) was described by Ward
(1973:100) as being ‘in an outcrop of flow’
showing ‘evidence of quarrying’. It is situated
on top of the main fault scarp on the south side
of a small gully, under bush, and consists of a
relatively small area (approximately 20 by 20
m) of scattered boulders, blocks and pieces of
obsidian, some of which appear to have been
worked. Some boulders in the upper part of the
gully may also have been worked. However,
there is no evidence of actual quarrying, and
the site would be better described as either a
source site or working area.
Site T17/10 (N93/78) is situated very close
to T17/2 (Fig. 1). It is classified as a working
area, and as observed by P Fletcher in 1979
consisted of a small area of obsidian flakes,
with some worked pieces nearby. No flakes
could be located in 2007.
Site T17/11 (N93/79), about 400 m to the
southwest, is classified as a stone source.
Although there is some obsidian at this loca-
tion, there is no indication that material was
obtained from here.
Site T17/14 (N93/80) was recorded by P
Fletcher in 1979 as a flaking area/platform. The
flaking area was described as consisting of
‘quarried material’ along and at the base of the
fault scarp (Airstrip Fault), and apparently
included cores and ‘adze blade roughouts’ (Site
Record Form). There is an approximately 2 m
thick seam of obsidian and a large quantity of
The Taupo obsidian source 211
loose blocks at this location, some of which
appear to have been worked, but no evidence of
extensive flaking. The platform (45 by 15 m)
recorded on top of the scarp is now considered
to be a modern feature, associated with
European farming activities.
Site T18/70 (N93/81) is incorrectly num-
bered, as it is situated within map sheet T17. It
is classified as a quarry/flaking area, and was
described in 1979 as consisting of worked
material extending for 70 m along the base
and lower part of the Airstrip Fault scarp. A
number of apparently worked blocks were
seen in 2007, but no evidence of actual
quarrying.
Site T17/8 (N93/61) is situated away from
the fault scarps, at the terminus of the southern
flow (Fig. 1). It is classified as a stone source/
shelter/flaking area with associated trenches.
The rock shelter is located at the base of a
prominent bluff, and is about 6.5 m long by 2.5
m wide and 3 m high. At its south eastern end is
a small cavity approximately 1.5 m deep by 50

60 cm high where it appears some material may
have been extracted from two thin seams of
red-brown obsidian. There are also abundant
pieces of obsidian on the slope directly below
the shelter, and for 50 m to the east and 20 m
to the west of it, but no definite evidence that
any of these were worked. The ‘trenches’
originally recorded in 1979 east of the rock
shelter were thought to have been man-made,
and associated with the extraction and working
of obsidian. They were re-examined in 2007,
and are considered to have been formed by
natural erosion.
In summary, of the eight sites previously
recorded within the main source area, there are
doubts over the validity or classification of at
least four of them. Certainly no definite evi-
dence of the physical extraction of blocks or
boulders from outcrops and colluvial deposits
has been found, and therefore no sites can
properly be described as quarries. The only
place where there may have been extraction
of some material from an outcrop is at the
rock shelter T17/8, although the fact that
212 PR Moore
better-quality red obsidian could have been
more easily obtained only a short distance up
the valley raises doubts about this. There is also
some suggestion of the working of loose blocks
at sites T17/4, 14 and 70. Significantly, how-
ever, not a single hammer stone has been found
at any of the sites.
Other sites
Worked obsidian has been recorded at three
sites at Whangamata Bay. Two are located at
the rear of the main beach, one at the mouth of
Whangamata Stream and the other adjacent to
Okaia Stream (Fig. 1), though neither has been
formally recorded. Both have been damaged by
the construction of walking tracks. The third
site, T18/30, is situated on the eastern side of
the bay, and classified as a working area. It was
not visited by the author but apparently con-
sists of an extensive area of worked obsidian,
now partly submerged and covered by sand.
The site is particularly notable for the presence
of some Mayor Island obsidian.
Whakamoenga Cave
Arguably the most important information on
the exploitation of the Taupo obsidian has
come from the excavations at Whakamoenga
Cave (U18/4, N94/7) between 1961 and 1963
(Hosking 1962, Leahy 1976). This cave shelter,
which is situated on the northern shore of Lake
Taupo about 11
12 km southeast of Whanga-
mata Bay (Fig. 1), was occupied at various
times over a period of 500
600 years, and
obsidian artefacts were found in all three of
the main cultural sequences. All of the obsidian
is considered to have come from the Taupo
source, probably Whangamata Bay (Leahy
1976:65), and radiocarbon dates for the three
sequences indicate that the source was being
exploited from as early as AD 1300
1400 up
until European contact c. AD 1800.
Altogether about 980 pieces of obsidian
(flakes, pieces and cores) were recovered from
the site and of these Leahy (1976:64) recorded
that 179 (18%) had ‘some weathered cortex
surface’. Considered in terms of occupation
sequences the proportion of pieces with outer
cortex appeared to show an increase from 13%
in Occupation 1 (early) to 18% in Occupation 2
and 25% in Occupation 3, in the nineteenth
century. Leahy (1976) did not explain what she
meant by ‘weathered cortex’ but implied (p. 65)
that a significant proportion of the obsidian
was derived from water-rolled pebbles and
boulders. In order to establish exactly what
type of cortex Leahy was referring to, the entire
assemblage, which is held by Auckland Mu-
seum, was re-examined. This revealed that
about 10% (95) of the flakes, pieces and cores
had remnants of undoubted water-worn cortex.
Stratigraphically, the proportion of pieces with
this type of cortex ranged from about 10% in
Occupation 1 to 6% in Occupation 2 and 16%
in Occupation 3.
From the degree of curvature of the cortex
surface it is evident that the majority of flakes,
pieces and cores were derived from rounded
cobbles, although some probably came from
large pebbles. There are several partially
worked pebbles and cobbles in the collection,
and measurement of these, along with two
large flakes, shows that the size of some of the
stones being worked on site ranged from a
minimum of 40 mm to120 mm in diameter,
with most probably 70 mm (i.e. cobble
sized). All of the partially worked pebbles/
cobbles from the site are water-worn and
rounded to well-rounded.
The physical features of the obsidian, in-
cluding cortex, are consistent with Leahy’s
(1976) view that most if not all of it originated
from Whangamata Bay. A Taupo source is
certainly indicated by a small core of black/red-
brown material from Layer 10, and two flakes
of very similar obsidian from Layer 5 (pers.
obs.). There are also some flakes and cores of
dark grey and banded obsidian, flakes with
poor translucency, and two pieces with large
spherulites in the collection. There is no definite
indication from the nature of outer surfaces
that significant quantities were obtained from

outcrops or colluvial deposits along the fault
scarps inland from Whangamata Bay.
Waihora
A small rock shelter (site T18/22, N93/5) at
Waihora Bay, on the north western shore
of Lake Taupo about 10 km west of Kinloch
(Fig. 1), has also provided important informa-
tion on the exploitation of the Taupo source.
The site, which was excavated in 1956, has not
been dated but is thought to have been
occupied between the seventeenth and late
eighteenth centuries (Hosking & Leahy 1982).
A total of 321 obsidian ‘flakes’ (flakes,
pieces and cores), weighing about 3.1 kg, was
recovered from this site, but although obsidian
was found in all four cultural layers almost all
of it is unprovenanced. Hosking & Leahy
(1982:89) considered that at least some of the
obsidian had been collected from the beach or
streams at Whangamata Bay. They record that
over 40% of the assemblage had some cortex
evident, and while they do not describe the
nature of the cortex it is implied that most of
the pieces were derived from natural pebbles. In
order to establish whether this was the case the
entire assemblage (held by Auckland Museum)
was re-examined. About 28% of the total
collection, and approximately 25% of the
flakes and pieces, have remnants of undoubted
water-worn cortex. From the degree of curva-
ture of the cortex surface the majority of pieces
were derived from well-rounded water-worn
cobbles, although two of the cores appear to
have come from sub-rounded cobbles or small
boulders. Measurement of three large flakes
indicate that these originated from cores
 65 mm to 104 mm in diameter (i.e.
cobble size). One almost complete rounded
pebble in the collection (AM642) has a max-
imum diameter of 53 mm.
The range of physical characteristics of
the obsidian suggests that all of it, with the
possible exception of the pebble referred to
above, originated from the Taupo source. This
is supported by the presence of one piece of
The Taupo obsidian source 213
red-brown obsidian with black streaks (AP147),
and also some pieces of banded, dark grey and
highly spherulitic material. Most of the obsidian
appears to have been in the form of well-
rounded water-worn cobbles, and it is highly
likely these were collected from Whangamata
Bay. There is no obvious indication that any of
the material was obtained from outcrops or
colluvial deposits inland.
There is also no evidence at either Whaka-
moenga or Waihora for the preferential use of
red-brown obsidian. At both sites red-brown
(or black/red-brown) material constitutes only
about 0.3% of the total assemblage (by number
of pieces), a figure which would be expected to
be much higher if this variety had been
intentionally selected at inland deposits.
The obsidian assemblages from Whaka-
moenga Cave and Waihora were analysed by
Seelenfreund and Bollong (1989) using energy-
dispersive XRF spectroscopy. Only 200 of the
981 flakes, pieces and cores collected from
Whakamoenga Cave were sourced, and of these
Seelenfreund and Bollong’s data suggest that
40% came from Huruiki (Northland), Fanal
Island, or Great Barrier Island and up to 60%
could (my italics) be from an ‘Inland’ North
Island source (i.e. the Taupo Volcanic Zone).
None was specifically attributed to Taupo.
A higher proportion (56%) of the Waihora
assemblage was analysed, which indicated that
of the 180 pieces 47% were from Huruiki,
Fanal or Great Barrier and up to 44% might
(my italics) be from an ‘Inland’ source. How-
ever, despite these results Seelenfreund and
Bollong (1989:184) surprisingly stated that
‘the Waihora and Whakamaoenga Cave sites
contain exclusively obsidian from the nearby
Taupo sources’. Clearly, therefore, their results
must be regarded as suspect.
Discussion
Given the lack of clear evidence for quarrying
and well-defined working floors within the
main source area, it seems likely that suitable-
sized blocks and pieces were simply gathered up
214 PR Moore
and carried away as is, rather than being
worked on site. There are abundant loose
blocks and pieces along the fault scarps
and flow margins, and many of these have no
waste cortex. Breaking up blocks would be
completely unnecessary, and in the absence of
suitable hammer stones the only way that could
have been achieved would be by dropping one
obsidian boulder on top of another. Working
the obsidian on site would have been necessary
only if flakes were immediately required for
some purpose, such as stripping of bark or flax,
or it was intended to transport the obsidian in
the form of cores rather than natural blocks
and pieces. At present there is no case for either
of these options.
The best indication of where the obsidian
was procured from may lie beyond the im-
mediate area. Logically one would expect initial
exploitation of the Taupo source to be re-
stricted to the most accessible and easily
transportable material, namely the pebbles
and cobbles on the foreshore at Whangamata
Bay, and that over time there would be
increasing use of the large in situ and colluvial
deposits only a short distance inland. If this was
the case the earliest sites, or lowest occupation
layers within sites, should contain a high
proportion of flakes, pieces and cores with
water-worn cortex.
The evidence from Whakamoenga Cave
does not support such a scenario, and if any-
thing the proportion of water-worn cobbles
being worked at that site may have increased
slightly over time. Unfortunately it is not
possible to establish whether there were any
temporal changes in the nature of the obsidian
being utilized at the Waihora site, but if
Hosking and Leahy’s (1982) view that the
artefact assemblage most closely resembles
that of Occupation 2 at Whakamoenga Cave
is correct, then a very high proportion of water-
worn cobbles were still being obtained from
Whangamata Bay at a relatively late date. This
is supported by evidence from the Kohika site
in the Bay of Plenty which is securely dated to
the late seventeenth century, and where at least
four of the 42 flakes (i.e. 10%) assigned to
the Taupo source had remnants of water-worn
cortex (Moore 2004). Thus pebbles or cobbles
continued to be obtained from Whangamata
Bay in the latter part of the prehistoric period.
Acknowledgements
My thanks to the various landowners for permission
to examine and sample the obsidian outcrops
on their properties; Perry Fletcher for information
and assistance with fieldwork; John Wilmshurst,
University of Auckland for providing the XRF
analyses; Kath Prickett (Auckland Museum) and
Louise Cotterall for their help; and an unknown
referee for constructive comments on the paper. This
study was partly financed by a grant from the Royal
Society of New Zealand Skinner Fund.
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