chapter 5: chemical for consumers

(a) soap and detergent

✰ soap
definition
- sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids
- general formula of a soap : RCOO Na / RCOO K
o R is an alkyl group which contain 12 to 18 carbon atoms.

 preparation by saponification
- process whereby the soaps are prepared by hydrolyzing fats or oils
under alkaline conditions.
- E.g : Sodium palmitate/laurate/oleate/stearate
- Can be made from:
(i) Animal fats – Cows and goats
(ii) Vegetable oils – Palm oil, olive oil, coconut oil
- (1) hydrolysis of fats/oils  glycerol + fatty acids
(2) neutralization of fatty acid  soap + water
- Boiling of fats /oils (hydrolysed fatty acids+glycerol) + concentrated
alkali (sodium/potassium hydroxide solution)  glycerol + soap
(sodium RCOO-Na+ /potassium salts RCOO-K+ of fatty acids)

- Soap formed can be precipitated by sodium chloride – lower solubility of

soap in water
- Glycerol & excess sodium hydroxide are removed by rinsing
 structure of soap molecule
- When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium ions
and carboxylate ions.
- The active substances in soap is carboxylate ions which consists 2 parts:
(a) the ‘ Head ’
1. negatively charged
2. contains the – C – O – ion
3. is hydrophilic ( like to dissolves water)

(b) the ‘Tail’

1. positively charged
2. is a long hydrocarbon chain
3 hydrophobic ( do not like to dissolves water)

✰ detergent
definition
- synthetic cleasing agents which is made from hydrocarbons obtained
from petroleum fraction
 preparation of detergent
long chain hydrocarbon (from petroleum fractions)  organic acid + NaOh
sol. [Neutralisation]  detergent (neutral salt)

(i) sodium alkyl sulphate

- can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms.

- Step 1: Formation of organic acid

- Step 2 : Neutralisation

(ii) sodium alkylbenzene sulphonates

- Step 1: Formation of organic acid - Alkylation ( introduction of the

alkyl group to an organic molecule)
- Step 2 : Sulphonation (introduction of the sulphonic acid group to an
organic molrcule to form sulphonic acid)

- Step 3 :Neutralisation

 cleansing action of soap and detergent

- results from
  the ability to lower the surface tension of water,
 to emulsify oil/ grease and
 to hold them in suspension in water
- This can be occurred due to their chemical bonding and the structure.
- Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water only as it is a
covalent molecule which is insoluble in water.

- In water sodium soap dissolves  soap anion (-) & sodium cation (+)
- In water, detergent dissolves  detergent anion (-) & sodium cation (+)
*Soap / detergent anion (-) : Long hydrocarbon chain + carboxylate group
(@ end)
(i) Hydrocarbon chain (Hydrophobic) – soluble in oil/grease
(ii) Carboxylate group, ionic pt. (Hydrophilic) – soluble in water

Process of cleansing action of soap and detergent on cloth

with greasy stain

(1) A piece of cloth is stained with grease and then dipped into soap/ detergent
water.
- reduce surface tension of water
- wetting ability of water increases.

(2)Thus, the surface of cloth is wetted thouroughly.

(3) The hydrophobic part of the soap/ detergent anion is soluble in grease while
the hydrophilic part is soluble in water.

(4) Because of the forces of attraction between water molecules and negatively-
charged heads, the grease begins to be lifted off the surface when the water is
agitated slightly.

(5)Mechanical agitation during scrubbing

- pull grease free & break grease  small droplets

(6) The droplets do not coagulate and redeposit on the surface of the cloth
- repulsion between the negative charges on surface.

(7) These droplets are suspended in water  emulsion. The droplets is rinsed
and washed away and leave the surface clean.

 effectiveness of soap and detergent as cleansing agent

Cleansin Advantages
g agents
Soap 1. Effective in soft water.
- Little / no Mg & Ca ions
- Do not form scum
2. Do not cause pollution as soaps are made
from fats and oils and can be decomposed
by the action of bacteria.
Detergent 1. effective in soft water and hard water.
- Hard water + detergents 
magnesium salt & calcium salts
(soluble)
e.g : Mg / Ca dodecyl sulphate
- scum is not formed
2. Effective in acidic water
- Precipitate not formed.
e.g : Soluble dodecyl sulphonic acid
3. Synthetic cleansing agents
- structure of hydrocarbon chain can be
modified to produce detergent.
IV) Additives in detergents
Additives in detergent is used to increase their cleaning power and make the
detergent more attractive and saleable.
Disadvantages
1. Ineffective in hard water.
- contains a great amount of Ca & Mg ions
- Hard water + soap  Soap scum
(insoluble
precipitate)
e.g : Mg / Ca stearate
- wastage of soap – reduces amount of soap
for
cleaning
2. Not effective in acid water.( exist as
molecules & do not have hydrophilic ends)
- H+ ion + soap  Long chain fatty acids
(carboxylic acid molecules)
- Insoluble - High molecular mass
(Reduce
soap & effectivness)
1. non-biodegradable
2. water pollution occurs.
3. Decrease in oxygen content in water and
the aquatic lives are given the harm.
( phosphates in detergents)
4. a lot of foam will be produced in water
that prevent oxygen from dissolving in
water.As a result, fish and other aquatic
lives face the death.
5. Additives (sodium hypochlorite ) releases
chlorine gas that is highly toxic and kills
aquatic life.
Additives Function Example

Builders To enhance the cleaning efficiency of detergent Sodium tripolyphosphate

by softening the water.
To increase the pH value of water.
Drying agents To ensure that the detergent in powdered form Sodium sulphate
is always in dry condition. Sodium silicate
To add to the bulk of the detergent and enable
to pour it at ease.
Fragrances To add fragrance to both detergent anf fabrics.
Foam control agents To control foaming in detergent.
Optical whitener To add brightness and whiteness to white Fluorescent dyes
fabrics.
Suspension agents To prevent dirt particles removed from Carboxymethylcellulose
redepositing onto cleaned fabrics. (CMC)
Biological enzymes To remove protein stains such as blood. Amylases ,proteases,
To break down fat and protein molecules in cellulases and lipases
food stains.
Whitening agents To convert stains into colourless substances. Sodium perborate
To make the fabrics whiter and more beautiful. Sodium hypochlorite
(NaClO)

Additives Function Example

 (b) food additives

 definition : Natural or synthetic substance which are added to food to:

i) prevent spoilage
ii) improve its appaerance, taste or texture
iii) prevent growth of microorganisms
iv) prevent oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in air
v) restore food colour destroyed when food processing.

✰ preservatives
 functions : substance added to food to slow down and prevent the
growth of microorganisms in order for it to last longer.
- Side effects of preservatives on health
(i) Sodium nitrite – added to meats to preserve and stabilize red
colour of meats but excessive could cause stomach cancer
(nitrites produce nitrosamines – carcinogenic)
(ii) Salted fish - Increase risk of high blood pressure, heart attack
and stroke.
(iii) Sugary preservatives – obesity, tooth decay, diabetes.
(iv) Sulphur dioxide – Asthma and allergies.

Preservatives Example Uses

Salt Salted fish Draws water out of the cells of microorganisms
Retards the growth of microorganisms.
Sugar Jam
Vinegar Pickled Provides acidic condition that inhibits the growth of
mango microorganisms.
Sodium Burger, To preserve the meat, sausage, cheese and dried fish.
nitrite /nitrate sausage, To prevent food poisoning in canned food.
luncheon To maintain the natural colour of meat.
meat. To make the meat look fresh.
Benzoic acid / Fruit juice, To slow down growth of microorganisms.
Sodium jams and
benzoate sauces.
Sulphur Fruit juice Used as antioxidants to prevent browning in fuits.
dioxide / Maintain the colour and freshness of vegetables.
sulphate To prevent thr growth of yeast.

✰ antioxidants
 functions : Added to food to prevent oxidation that causes rancid fats
and brown foods and slow down oxidation process
- food with oil and fats turn rancid when oxidized to unpleasant smelling
acids when exposed to air.

Antioxidants Example Uses

Butylated Hydroxyanisole Margarine To retard rancidity in oils.
(BHA)
Butylated Hydroxytoluene
(BHT)
Sodium citrate Cooked To stop fats from turning rancid.
cure meat
Ascorbic acid Fruit juice Preserve the colour of friut juice.
(Vitamin C)
Alpha tocopherol Vegetable Neutralizes free radical compounds before
(Vitamin E) oils the cell membrane are damaged.
Reduce the risk of heart diseases and cancer.

 effects on health :
(i) BHA and BHT – produce adverse reaction in dogs.
(ii) Vitamin C – inhibits formation of carcinogenic
nitrosamines ; stimulates immune system to protect
against chromosome breakage
(iii) Vitamin E – neutralizes free radical compounds before
they damage cell membranes ; reduce risk of heart
disease and cancer
 ✰ flavourings
 functions : Improve taste of food & restore taste loss due to processing.
- Largest group of food addictive
Flavourings Example Uses
Monosodium glutamate (MSG) Spice mixes, To bring out flavour
 sodium salt of glutamic frozen food, salad
acid dressings
Aspartame Diet/ soft drinks To sweeten food
 non-sugar sweetener
 200 times sweeter than
sugar but fewer calories
 stable (dry/ frozen) ; breaks down & lose
sweetness (stored in liquid over 30 degree)

Synthetic essences Fruit juice Produce artficial flavour

 has compounds of homologous that resemble natural
series of ester. flavours.
 cheapter to use artificial flavours
than real fruits.

✰ stabilisers
 functions : prevent emulsion from separating out.
- Emulsions – oil droplets / water droplets suspended in water / oil.
- Used in food containing oil & water (margarine, butter, ice cream)
- Eg : Lecithin, mono- & di- glycerides of fatty acids.

✰ thickeners
 functions: -Thicken the liquid/food & prevent the food from liquefying.
- Absorb water & thicken liquid in food to produce a jelly-like
- Natural carbohydrates

Thickeners Explanation
Modified starch Used in instant soups and puddings.
pectin Used in jams and jellies.
Forms a firm jel when there is sufficient sugar in a mixture.
Is not digested.
Can be considered as a beneficial and dietary fibre.

Xanthan gum To thicken sauce, salad dressing.

Acacia gum To thicken chewing gum, jelly and wine.
Gelatine To thicken yogurt.
✰ dyes
 functions: To add / restore colour in food to improve appearance and
match consumer’s expectations.
(i) Artificial food dyes
- More uniform, less expensive and brighter colour.
(ii) Natural food dyes
- Most food dyes are:
(a) Azo compounds – Red, orange, yellow
- Tartrazine (yellow food dye) – used in orange drinks, custard
powders, sweets and apricot jam, cause hyperactivity in children.
(b) Triphenyl compounds - Blue, green
- Brilliant blue FCF (blue triphenyl dye)
– used in jellies, beverages, syrups
– FCF + tartrazine  shades of green

effect of food additives on health.

Effects Explanation
Allergy  Caused by Sodium sulphite, BHA and BHT , MSG
and food dyes ( yellow No.5).
 Cause an diseases named ‘ Chinese restaurant
syndrome’ (giddiness, chest pain and difficulty in
breathing)
 Cause ‘blue baby’ diseases occuring on babies
which iits synptoms is lacking of oxygen and the
presence of sodium nitrate /nitrite.
Cancer  Caused by carcinogens(sodium nitrite)
 Nitrite reacts with amines to produce
nitrosamine( cause cancer)
Brain damage  Caused by excessive intake of nitrites.
Hyperactivity  Caused by tartrazine (additives)
 Difficul to sleep or relax and felt restles.
Advantages of food additives
1. Food last longer
 2. Improve nutritional value

(c) medicines
 functions: Prevent/ cure disease, relieve pain
- Not processed & cause serious side effects
- Medicinal plant with alkaloid – toxic to liver

traditional medicines

(i) Plants

Medicinal plant Function

1. Aloe vera
2. Centella asiatica (pegaga)
3. Eurycoma longifolia
(Tongkat ali)
4. Orthosiphon aristatus (misai
kucing)
5. Andrographis paniculata
(hempedu bumi)
6. Ocimum basilicum (selasih)
Treat skin wounds
Treat depression and for longevity
Increase male libido
Treat gout, diabetes, rheumatism
Treat diarrhea, fever, diabetes
Treat coughs, bronchitis, colds

(ii) Animals

Medicinal animal Function

1. Sea cucumber Treat japanese emcephalitis and
hole in heart
2. Centipede Treat lockjaw & convulsions
3. Ant Treat Hepatitis B
 modern medicines
✰ Analgesics
 functions: relieve pain without numbness / affecting consciousness
- Do not treat cause of pain but provide relief.
Analgesics
Aspirin
 Pain relief and anti-
inflammatory action.
 Acetylsalicylic acid (Active
ingredient)
 Contains 2 functional
groups(carboxylic acid/ester)
 Acidic.
Paracetamol
 neutral
Codeine
 Is an organic compounds that
contains carbon, hydrogen
oxygen and nitrogen
elements.
 Uesd in headache tablets and
cough medicine
 Is synthesized from
morphine
 Is a nacortic drugs.
 Is a strong analgesics.
Uses Side effect
oReduce fever  Ca
oRelieve headaches, use brain and
muscle aches and joint liver damage of
aches. illed- children.
oTreat arthritis  Ca
oActs as an anticoagulant use bleeding in
– prevent clotting blood. the stomach.
o Reduce the risk of heart  Ca
attack and strokes. use allergy
reactions, skin
rashes, asthmatic
attacks.
oTo relieve mild to  Causes skin
moderate pain rashes, blood
(headache,muscle and disorders and acute
joint pain, backache , inflammation of the
period pains) pancreas.
oDoes not irritate the  Cause liver
stomach to bleed. damage.
 Cause addiction,
depression, nausea,
drownsiness
 ✰ Antibiotics
- Obtained from microorganisms – bacteria / fungi
 functions:
- Kill / slow down growth of bacteria
- Treat infections caused by bacteria but will not cure infections by viruses
(cold/flu)

(i)Penicillin
 functions: Cure bacterial diseases – Tuberculosis, pneumonia
- Extracted from fungus Penicillium notatum
(ii)Streptomycin
 functions: Treat tuberculosis, whooping cough, pneumonia
- Produced by soil bacteria of genus Streptomyces.

✰ Psychotherapeutic medicine

Psychotherapeutic medicines Uses Side effects

Stimulants i) Adrenaline Cause addiction
A medicine which activates the A need in demanding energetic
level of arousal and alertness of activities.
the central nervous system to ii) caffeine
reduce fatigue and elevate moon weak, naturally occuring stimulant
in most people. found in coffee, tea and cola drinks.
iii) Amphetamines
Strong synthetic stimulants
Increase alertness & physical
ability.
Increase the heart *repiration rates
& blood pressure.
Antidepressants i) tranquilizers cause drowsiness, poor
Medicine used primarily in the to clam down a person coordination and light
treatment of depression. reduce tension & anxiety headedness, respiratory
difficulties,
sleeplessness, coma
and death if overdose.

i) Barbituarates Cause sleep (high dose)

To sedate, calm and relax individual Cause addiction and
in low doses. habit forming
Cause death.
Antipsychotic To treat psychiatrie illness such as Cause mild, dry mouth,
i) chlorpromazine schizophrenia (loses touch with reality) blurred vision, urimary
ii) haloperidol retention, constipation,
iii) clozapine tremor and less rrest as
well as sedation(more
clmer/sleepy)