EGR2207: PRINCIPLES OF

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING I

CHAPTER TWO: CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

 Energy and Power
• Energy:
The Energy is Defined as the ability or capacity to do work, which may
exist in the form of Kinetic, potential, chemical, electrical, thermal,
nuclear etc. it is normally expressed in Joules (J).
Energy in Electrical Power System is also expressed in Wh (Watt hour)
or KWh (Kilo watt hour).

Power:
On the other hand the power is defined as the work done (Energy spent)
per unit time or it can just be the time rate of expenditure of energy.it is
expressed in Watt (W).
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 Energy and Power
• In Electrical Engineering, the
quantities used are basically
Voltage, Current and
Resistance/impedance.
• The Energy and power in
Electrical system are thus
calculated using those quantities:

V2
Energy  IVt  I Rt 
2
t
R
V2
& Power  IV  I R 2

R 3
 Energy and Power

• “ The Electric Power generated

by an active element or
dissipated or stored by a passive
element is equal to the product of
voltage across the element and
current flowing through it it can
be expressed in Joule per second
or watt”

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Energy and Power

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 Energy and Power
• Example 2.1
• In the diagram below, determine which element dissipate power and
which element generates the power.

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 Energy and Power
• Solution:
• According to the passive sign convention, an element dissipate power
when the current in it flows from a point of high potential to a point of
low potential.
• Therefore, Element A acts as load and Element B acts as Source
• Hence Element A dissipate power = IV = 420 x 1000 = 420,000W =
420Kw.
• Thus Element B source the same power of 420Kw.

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 Energy and Power
• Example 2.2 Solution:
Calculate the power dissipated by The current passing through the
the 2 ohm resistor in the following resistors is given by:
figure.
V 10
I   2A
R1  R2 3  2

And the power dissipated by 2Ω

resistor is

P  I R2  2 2  8W
2 2

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 Passive and Active Components
• Electrical components falls into two major categories
• Active Components and
• Passive components

• Passive components are the components that do not provide gains by

themselves, eg Resistors Capacitors and Inductors.

• Active components are the ones that provide amplification (gain) or

switching facilities such as transistors and Ics.

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Passive and Active Components

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 Resistors
• Resistors are Electrical components that provide means of controlling
the current and/or voltage in an electrical circuit.
• They are essential in the functioning of all electronic circuit.

• Resistance can be defined as the property of a substance due to which

it opposes the current flow (flow of electrons) in it.

• The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω) which is equivalent to Volt/Ampere.

• Applications of resistor include provision of bias voltage/current for
amplifiers, Changing output current to output voltage and providing a
predetermined value of attenuation.

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Resistors

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 Resistors
• Resistor Types:

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 Resistors
Aluminium
Carbon Metal Clad Wire
Type Composition Carbon Firm Metal Firm Oxid Wound
Low cost, Imperior
Tolerance, temperature Low Temperature
Characteristi coefficient. Poor long Improved tolerance Coefficient, High High stability Very high
cs term stability compared to carbon Stability. and reliability dissipation

Carbon firm Resistive element

deposited on a Tin oxide firm coated with a
Carbon firm ceremic former bonded to an silicon compound
Molded Carbon deposited on a Coated with alkali free glass and bounded to
Construction composition ceramic former cement former Aluminium heat sink
Power 0.25w, 0.5W, 1W 0.125w, 0.25W,
Rating 0.125 to 1W and 2W 0.5W 05W 25W, 50W
Range of
values 2.2Ω to 1MΩ 10Ω to 10MΩ 10Ω to 1MΩ 10Ω to 1MΩ 0.1Ω to 1kΩ
Typical
Tolerance ±10% ±5% ±1% ±2% ±5%
Temperature
o o o o o
Range .-40 to 105 C .-45 to 125 C .-55 to 125 C .-55 to 150 C .-55 to 200 C
General Purpose General Power Supplies
Typical suitable for un-critical General Purpose General Purpose Purpose and high power
Application applications Application Application Application Loads
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 Resistors
• Characteristic:
• The Resistor Characteristics that are of more concern in choosing a
resistor are:
- Resistance: The required value of the resistor normally quoted as Ω,
KΩ and MΩ.
- Power Rating: The maximum power dissipated by the resistor which
is given by P  I 2R
- Tolerance (or accuracy): The maximum allowable deviation from the
marked value (normally in percentage).
- Temperature Coefficient: The change in resistance per unit rise in
temperature.
- Stability: The variation in resistance value which occurs under
specific conditions and over a given period of time.
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 Resistors
• Resistor Color Code:.
• The resistor color codes are marks on the resistor that indicates its
value and tolerance.
• Generally there are FOUR methods used in coding the resistor
- Three color Band
- Four color Band
- Five Color Band and
- Six color Band

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 Resistors
• 3 Colour Band: Here the • 4 Colour Band: Here the
Tolerance and Temperature Temperature coefficient is
coefficient are neglected neglected

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 Resistors
• 5 Colour Band: Here also the • 6 Colour Band: in this case all
Temperature coefficient is parameters are considered
neglected

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 Resistors
• The color codes are represented in the following table:

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 Resistors
• The color codes are represented in the following table:

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Resistors

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 Resistors
• BS (British Standard) 1852 Code:
• This type of coding use letters to indicate the resistance values and
tolerance. The letters which are multipliers, are R=1, K=1,000 and M=
1,000,000.
• The tolerance colors are shown in the table below:

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 Resistors
• Example 2.4: Here are some • Example 2.5: Some resistor values
resistors Values.

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 Resistors
• Series and Parallel Combination of Resistors: Resistors may be
combined in series or in parallel.

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 Resistors
• Some common Applications of Resistors:
• (i) Potential Divider
A common Application of resistors is that of providing a simple form of
attenuation in which the output voltage is reduced by a factor
determined by the resistor values

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 Resistors
• (ii) Current
Another application of resistor is that of diverting current from one
branch of the network to another. The current is also divided by a factor
determined by the values of the resistors in the circuit.

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 Resistors
• (iii) Thermistor
Another type of resistor is the thermally sensitive resistor, whose value
and other characteristic varied with temperature.
This characteristic makes it suitable for temperature sensing element.
The Thermistors are of two types, the ones with
- Negative temperature coefficient and
- Positive temperature coefficient

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 Capacitors
• The capacitors are the circuit elements that provide means of storing
electrical energy in the form of electric field.

• The Electric field Strength or Potential gradient is given by:

V
E  vo lt/m eter
d
• Where V is the Potential difference and d is the distance between the
plates 28
Capacitors

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 Capacitors
• Applications:
Some Applications of Capacitors
include:
- Storage and smoothing
Capacitors in power supplies
- Coupling AC signals between
various stages of amplifier
- Decoupling power supply rails
so that AC signals are
indistinguishable from 0V.

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 Capacitors
• Important Characteristics of Capacitor:
Typical characteristics of capacitors that are of interest are:
(a) Capacitance: the value of the capacitor in μF, nF or pF.
(b) Voltage Rating: The maximum voltage that the capacitor can handle
continuously, above which the capacitor can be damaged.
(c) Tolerance: Maximum allowable deviation of capacitance from quoted
value.
(d) Temperature Coefficient: the change in capacitance per unit temperature
change.
(e) Leakage Current: The DC current passing through the Dielectric when the
rated DC voltage is applied
(f) Insulation Resistance: The resistance of the Dielectric when the rated DC
voltage is applied
(g) Stability: The variation of the capacitance under specific conditions with
time
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 Capacitors
• Types of Capacitors:
• The most common types of capacitors are:
(a) Ceramic Capacitors
(b) Electrolytic Capacitors
(c) Metal oxide Film Capacitors
(d) Polycarbonate Capacitors
(e) Polyester Capacitors
(f) Polypropylene Capacitors
(g) Polystyrene Capacitors
(h) Tantalum Capacitors

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 Capacitors
Capacitance:
• In a capacitor there equal but opposite charges on the parallel plates,
+Q and –Q respectively.

• The property of the parallel plates which determine how much charge
is stored due to a given voltage between the plates is called
capacitance.
Q
Capaci tance C 
V
• The unit of Capacitance is Farad. But it is mostly in μF, nF or pF.

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 Capacitors
• Capacitor Colour code:
Like resistors, the capacitors are sometimes represented by colour
codes.
It usually comes with 5 colours representing the value of the
capacitance, tolerance and voltage.

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 Capacitors
• The colour codes are also similar to the resistors but the value is in pF.
Please note the differences in tolerance when the capacitance is above 10pF

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 Capacitors
• Example 2.6 • Example 2.7

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 Capacitors
Symbols of capacitor: Some capacitors come with the
values of their capacitance and
voltage written on them:

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 Capacitors
• Capacitors in series and parallel: Capacitors can also be arranged in
series or in parallel, but opposite is the case with resistor when taking
the total capacitance of series and parallel combinations:

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 Capacitors
• Example 2.8 Calculate the • Example 2.9 Calculate the
equivalent capacitance here. The equivalent capacitance.
values of C1, C2, and C3 are
10F, 10F and 33F respectively.

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 Capacitors
• Capacitors in AC Circuits
The reactance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of voltage to the
current in the current in it, measured in ohms (Ω). It is a function of the
capacitance and the frequency of the applied voltage:

Where Xc is the capacitive reactance, w is the angular velocity, f is the

frequency and C is the capacitance of the capacitor
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 Capacitors
• Example 2.10
If a 100nF capacitor forms part of afilter connected across 240V, 50Hz
main supply. What is the reactance of the capacitor. Also Find the
current through the capacitor.
Solution:
1
Xc   31.85K
2 50100109

The current flowing through the capacitor will be:

240 240
Ic    7.55mA
Xc 31.85K

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 Inductors
Electromagnetic Induction:
Electromagnetic Induction is the process by which EMF and (thus
current) is induced in a conductor when it move in a magnetic field or
when it experience changing flux.
Inductance is a name given to the property of a circuit, where EMF is
induced due to change of flux linkage produced by a current, inductance
is of two type of inductance:
- Self Inductance, L: Due to the Emf induced by the coil in the same
circuit with the field current
- Mutual Inductance M: Due the induced emf from the current in
another coil.
d
- The unit of inductance is Henry H. Induced EM F   N volts
dt
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 Inductors
Inductors:
An inductor is a passive component that posses the property of
Inductance. It is basically a wire in form of coil.

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 Inductors
Factors that affect the inductance of an Inductor:
These factors include:
(a) Number of turns: of the wire in the conductor
(b) The cross-sectional area of the coil: the greater the area the higher
the inductance
(c) The presence of magnetic core: the inductance increase with
increase in the permeability of the core material.
(d) The way their turns are arranged: Thick coils usually have higher
inductance than the thin ones.

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 Inductors
Energy Stored in an Inductor:
An inductor possesses the ability to store energy in the magnetic field.

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 Inductors
Example 2.11
An 8H has a current of 3A, flowing through it. How much energy is
stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
Solution

1 2 1
E  LI   8 3  36Joules
2

2 2

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 Inductors
Inductance of a coil:
If a current changing from 0 to I Amperes, produces a flux change from
0 to Ф webers then dI = I and dФ = Ф
The Induced EMF will be
N LI
E 
t t
From which
N
L Henrys
I
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 Inductors
Example 2.12
Calculate the coil Inductance when a current of 4A in the coil of 800
turns produces a flux of 5mWb.

Solution:

N 800  510 3
L   1Henry
I 4
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 Inductors
Example 2.13
A flux of 25mWb links with a 1500 turns coil when current of 3A passes
through the coil.
Calculate
(a) The Inductance of the coil
(b) The Energy stored in the magnetic field
(c) The average emf induced if the current fall to zero in 150ms
Solution:
(a)
N 15002510 3
Inductance, L   12.5H
I 3
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 Inductors
• (b)
1 2 1
Energy stored W  LI  12.53  56.25J
2

2 2
• (c)
dI 30
Induced EMF, E   L  12.5  3
 250V
dt 150 10
d 2 5  1 0 3
A ls o E   N  1500 3
 2 5 0V
dt 150 10
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 EXERCISE II
• Q1 Determine the equivalent Resistance in the following circuits all
resistances are in ohm

• Q2 Determine the Equivalent Capacitance of the following Circuits

(between terminals A and B):

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 EXERCISE II
• Q3 Verify the values of the following Resistors:

• Q4 Write the equivalent of the following resistors in BS 1852 Code:

10Ω, 2k Ω, 3.7Ω, 15kΩ and 200KΩ.
• Q5 Calculate the value of the Energy stored when a current of 30mA is
flowing in a coil of inductance 400mH.
• Q6 The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor is 80J. When
the current flowing in the inductor is 2A. Calculate the inductance of
the coil.

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