TÖBA-AMDC 2006

PROGRESS TOWARDS FIRST CITIES

IN EASTERN AND SOUTHEASTERN
ANATOLIA (2600-1900 BC): THE LOCAL
DYNAMICS OF URBANISTIC DEVELOPMENT
DOĞU V E GÜNEYDOĞU A N A D O L U
BÖLGELERİNDE İLK K E N T L E R E
DOĞRU {M.Ö. 2 6 0 0 - 1 9 0 0 ) : K E N T S E L
GELİŞMENİN Y E R E L DİNAMİKLERİ

Alev E R A R S L A N '

K e y - w o r d s ; U r ö a n i s m in the E a r l y U r b a n P e r i o d , local s o c i e t i e s , indigenous u r b a n i s t k d y n a m i c s . E a s t e r n and

Southeastern Anatolia.
A n a h t a r s ö z c ü k l e r : ilk Kent d ö n e m i n d e k e n t l e ş m e , y e r e l toplumlar, y e r e l k e n t s e l dinamikler. D o ğ u ve G ü n e y d o ğ u
Anadolu.

Yakın zamanlara kadar Doğu vc Güneydoğu Anadaki Bölgelerinde kentsel gelişimin Güney
Mezopotamya kültürlerinin etkisiyle geliştiği ve başta hakir olmak üzere çeşitli madenler açısından
zengin olan hu Ixdgelerin, tarımsal artı üıün açısından zengin ancak her fÖrfÛ hammadde y önünden
fakir bir İJÖige olan Güney Mezopotamya toplumlarının taşrası okluğu düşünülmekteydi. Ancak son
yıllardaki arkeolojik kazılar İter iki Ixilgenin de kentleşme sürecinin erken evrelerinden itibaren,
Mezopotamya kültüıii etkilerinin yam sıra karmaşık toplumsal örgütlenmeleri gelişmiş yerel kültür­
lerin oluştuıxhtğu kendine özgü. özgün bir kimliğinin okluğunu göstermektedir. Bu yazıda, her iki
bölgenin de kentleşme sürecinin gerdek anlamda Ük kentlerin ortaya çıktığı Erken Kent Döneminde
(M.Ö. 2600-İ90Ö), kentleşmenin bölgelerin kendi kültürel çevrelerini oluşturan toplumsal, nüfus ve
coğrafi yapıları ile tarihsel geçmişleri gibi iç dinamiklerinden kaynaklanan yere! bir süreç olduğu ve
yakın Ixiigefcideki çağdaşı küilürierden etkilenmekle birlikte yerel kültüre ve Anadolu'nun kent­
leşme geleneğine dayanan bir yerleşme düzeni ve farklı bir siyasi öigütienme m<xleline sahip olduğu
gösterilmeye çalışılacaktır

INTRODUCTION

The early phases o f the urbanisation process o f
eastern and southeastern Anatolia consist o f t w o
phases a s t h e Proto-Urban Period
B C ) a n d the Early U r b a n Period (2600-1900 R C ) .
T h e Early U r b a n Period is the time w h e n first
real cities emerged. W i t h i n this period t h e set­
tlements that c a n actually h e characterised a s
(5500-2600 u r b a n o r t o w n iicgin to a p p e a r in both regions.
T h i s p e r i o d comprises o f E B A 111 (2400-2000 B C )
for eastern Anatolia a n d E B A Tl-IIi (2600-1900

' UıUmıı/ılm- ( j u l Mi-.LI.ih fsnuı Mı*. S " İJ 1 İSefiJıLiî. N J I I I H I I

82

B O for southeastern Anatolia. Nineties c o n t i n u e r,, Oeveli ip a n d t l x ' Anatolian

settlement pattern w i t h roots reaching Ixtck into
Stalling from the Proto-thban Period, that is the Late Chalcolithic Period I x g i n s to emerge in
formative time on the road towards u r h a n i s m , both regions. ' I h i s model consists of small set-
characteristics formed by local societies u n i q u e tlements s o m e of t h e m with fortified, within
it • urban societies, also called c o m p l e x societies, one-or-two n x n n rectangular m u d h r i c k houses
I v g i n to appear in I x t i h regions. W i t h i n the se- o p e n i n g onto n a r r o w s t a r t s reflecting to its
cond phMc of this p e r i o d fa Firct phase c if o w n s c x i a l s t n j t i u r e leased on the nucleus fam-
w h i c h is the I l i n k ! iVricxI-dated to The lirsi half ily ( M . FrangijKine 1990). It l a c k s of a n y e v i -
o f the fourth m i l l e n n i u m a n d called as Local L i t e d e n c e of public building a i x l centralisation as
C h a l c o l i i h i c I V r t o d or l Y c - G m t a c Period i n fa the indicaior erf different ixditical order. T h i s
northern Mesopotamia a n d Anatolia, tttere are n e w settlenxmi partem is refleited in NopaiiHe-
local societies without any sign ol pe level 30, T e p e c i k . Arslantepe VTB2 :tnd V I C .
Mesopotamia^ influence and representing only Zeytinll B a h ^ e . Lidar. Hassek a n d H o n t m ( I I .
local developments in these regions. Tliese H a u p t m a n n 1979, 2003; J . Y a k a r 1985; U Fsin
indigenous polities h a v e a significant level of 1997; M Frangipane 1992, 1 9 % , 2001a, 2<m2a,
political a n d economical complexity from this 2(X)3b, 2003c; M. F r a n g i p a n e et a l , 2 0 0 1 . 2iK)2;
lime. They ex hi till s o m e key characteristics M. Frangipane. E . B u c a k 2001; A. T f o f l el a l .
peculiar to c o m p l e x societies a m o n g these two- 2MK); M J L I t e h m - B l a n c k e J 0 G 3 H f i g . I ) . I n addi-
level site-size hierarchies, a c o m p l e x economy tion. E'ulur-Sakvol displays a seltlenienl pattern
lliat consists o f technological d e v e l o p m e n t a n d that w i l l later l v t l x ' characteristic form of
I high-degree of craft specialisuikin-most parti- Anatolian Early B r o n z e Age architecture. Y a r n e d
culartv i n metallurgy-based txi trade Q f e q u M D - the "Anatolian SertleiixTit Scheme", this plan is
pe. Arslantepe M l . K o r u c u t e p e . F a i m a l i - K a l c c i k . made u p of adjacent houses, e a c h with t w o rec-
Hacmehi A-HI), niomimenial structures in tangular r o o m s w i t h horse-dan* hearths, stan-
administrative quality w i t h s t a m p e d a n d sealed d i n g on a stone foundation a n d with m u d h r i c k
system liased on stamp seal (Noi>unie|H-, « .ills, arranged radially a r o u n d a w i d e courtyard
(T, E f c 2003)- T h e s e local E B I societies reveal
Arslantepe V I I , H a c m e h i A - R I ) , the e c o n o m i c some traces of high-level craft specialisation a n d
centralisation and redistribution system technological advancement especially in metal-
(Arslantepe V I I ) . class si ratification reflecting to lurgy a n d ceramic production. H i e sulistanlial
the architecture (Yot>untepe. Arslante|X' M i l . amount of jewelry a n d w e a p o n s m a d e of valu-
mortuary evidence for hereditary elites a l t k n x i a L s such as gold, silver a n d c o p p e r dLs-
4 Kontcuiepe. JLkinehi A-BI) and mass-pnv c o v e r e d i n the cemeteries i * royal t o m l » in the
d u c c d I x i w l s for !•-••; distribution for unpaid setllenx'nts. allx'it c a n v s o m e I ranscaucasian
workers (Arslantepe MI) and long-distance influences, h a v e b e e n pfpdtffff entirely l i y l o c a l
exchange iNor^umepe. Hacmehi A-BI) (H, craftsmen. T h e s e s<tck-tics w e r e acting a n inter-
llauptmann ©97, 2003: J . Y a k a r 1984. 1985, mediary role in trade between Syro-
1997, 2002; M. Frangipane 1993. 2001a, 2002, Mesopotamian a n d T r a n s c a u c a s i a n polities in
2002a. 2003; M.N. V a n L o o n 1978; U . EsJn 1997; the resource-rich Anatolian E Highlands (G.
K. Hess el a l . 1998; G J . Stein 1 W , 2002; S. Alga/e 19991. C e n i e r s that display e v i d e n c e nF
I i a r m a n k a y a el a l . 1998; A. L u p t o n 1996) (fig. 1). advanced ceramics production c a n i e d out hy
well-miined k x a l artisans as another craft spe-
cialisation are T e p e c i k , Hassek. H a c m e h i . Lidar.
t h e l o u r i h phase of the Proto-Urban I'eriod-The
Zcytinli N f a a n d K i i r i w i Y A ( U E r i n 2003; S.
third phase of w h i c h ta tlx- Late L'ruk Period or
H a m i a n k a y a . B . Erdogu 21X10; M. F r j n g i j K m e et
Contact lY'riod-Ls K i l l dated l o t l x b e g i n n i n g of
al 2002: G J . Stein a a l . 1997; W i l k i n s o n 1990:
the third m i l l e n n i u m H C W i t h this period, the
urhanistic developrtxmt formed h y the Uxal
PrtwnsM Towards l-'irst Qlfc* in EásiOiJ} arid SíxtíhcasfOm Amnttlfo

426). T h e art of ceramics a n d metal working transformed into t o w n s w h i c h began to exhibit

apjteaffi to h a v e been highly developed, adding in ban characteristics in eastern Anatolia. Within
n e w types to the repertory o f this phase. I n the this period, a settlement pattern a n d a political
graves of southeastern Anatolia, the most p o p u ­ structure k i s e d o n entirely kxnl culture a n d
lar ceramics shape appears to I x 1 that o f the appropriate to i h e urbanisation tradition o f
w h c o l m a d e fruit stand, it is often referred to as Anatolia dominated in the region (M.
a ' c h a m p a g n e glass , a n d t h e pins w i t h a n i m a l - Frangipane 199Ü).
h e a d terminals as very widespread metal arte­
fact. T h e s e are felly k x a l culture elements p e c u ­ Settlements o f this period were m o r e densely o n
liar to this region w i t h i n this period f l v Serrok; the Malarya-Elazig plains. T h e n u m b e r o f settle­
F. Kulakoğlu 2001; K. Sertofc, R. Ergeç 199ft ments increased a n d the population intensified
Sertok 2003). in s m a l l [owns, s h o w i n g a considerable growth
in size a n d a t o w n - p l a n n i n g ( M . Frangipane
With the Ix-ginning Of WW Q, that is the last 1996. 2001. 2003b). A c c o r d i n g to identified but
phase o f the Proto-Urhan Period o r eastern as yet not been investigated m a n y m o u n d s da­
Anatolia, t h e Transcaucasia n cultural çömpO- ting to this p c r k x l in the Mabuya Plain, a hierar­
ncnts penetrated into the local societies a n d [he chically - structured settlement |xtttern consisted
region revealed a culture that c o m b i n e d a local of tenters a n d satellite settlements have
elaboration ö f Kast Anatolian/Trans-Caucasian « p p e * f c d in the region s u c h a s demons!rated
cultural elements ( M . Frangipane 1996- 2 0 0 1 . the existent e o f different sizes o f sites -large a n d
2<X)3a). The influences of Transcaucasia small- CM, Frangipane 1993a. 1996, 2003b). T h e
increase, but the local settlement model conti­ conical s h a p e o f the m o u n d s suggests dial all
nue to d e v e l o p , bonifications w a l l s , domestic the E B A I l l settlements had m a i k e d boundaries,
architecture with disc hearths o r horse-shoe surrounded by fortification walls (Ibid).
hearths inside a n d settlement pattern reflect Arslaniepc V I Dl w a s s u i v o u n d e d b y a m u d brick
local trailitittn. T h i s model is reflected in town wall w i t h semi-circular l o w e r s o n stone
T e p e c i k . Afslanffipe V I C a n d TüKntCpe CO, E s i n foundations ( M , Frangipane 1993a, 1996). O f the
1997; S. H a r m a n k a y a . B , Erdogu 2(X12; M. Elazig region. Tültntepes 130-meter defence
Frangipane 1992. 1996)- ' l i t i s |x i ri<xl confirms w a l l standing o n a foundation 2 meters thick is
die high development o f craftsmanship in m e - evidence o f a considerably large-scale settle­
lalworking at Arslantepe, Norşuntepe a n d ment ÍS. H a r m a n k a y a . IT E r d o g u 2002), T h e
T e p e c i k ( M . Frangipane 1992: J . Y a k a r 1984; H walls o f T e p e c i k are thought to h a v e Iteen loca­
[ l a u p t m a n n 2003; 5- H a r m a n k a y a , lî. Erdogu ted at a distance from t h e hillside slo|je ( S .
2002). H a n u a n k a y a . B , E r d o g u 2002).

All o f these factors present that both regions h a d T h e urban fabric o f the settlements comprised
an a d v a n c e d c o m p l e x social organisation a n d a (juanera o f m u d b r k k houses w i t h one-or t w o
u n i q u e Identity thai hat! beetl created b y deve­ large rooms rectangular in plan o p e n i n g onto
loped local cultures from the Proio-Urban streets. T h e settlements w e r e Functionally r e ­
Period, beginning o f initial stages o f u r b a n i s m . determined a n d included areas o f different func­
bçsttles stune influences o f Mesopotamian a n d tion s u c h as abodes, w o r k s h o p s a n d s o m e o f
T m n s c a u c a s i a n cultures. them w i t h cultic a r e a s Arslaniepe V I D J g r e w
i n i o a l o w n w i t h functionally p l a n n e d urban lay­
out, comprising areas of houses, w o r k s h o p s a n d
THE EMERGENCE O F TOWNS IN
worship, built o n the terraced a r e a s CM.
EASTERN ANATOLIA
Frangipane 1990. 1993b; A.M. Conti, C . Peisümi
1993). Jl e x i x i n d e d its area d o w n the slope o f
D u r i n g the Early Urban Period, settlements w e r e
84 Atev ERAÉSIAN

the m o u n d a n d d i s d o s e d a n urban planning w h o l e o f the A h m o v a Region ( H . H a u p t m a n n

w i t h large-scale terracing a n d channels to drain 1976. 1999) (figs 3-4). Enlarging considerably at
of rain-water (M. F r a n g i p a n e 1993b, 1996). T h e level V I , the building lakes Its final s h a p e at 270Ü
w e l l - p l a n n e d settlement o f this period are m a d e m 2 an<l c o m p r i s e s t w o floors ol adjacent rooms
up o f large buildings with spacious multi- in the h u m o f t w o L-shaped w i n g s built a r o u n d
roomed with benches horse-shaped hearths a central courtyard iftg. -i). O n the higher level
inside, w i t h a street passing through from n o i i h of Alg building, o n the north w i n g , w a s found a
to south, Ihe gradient o f w h i c h follows the slope palace-like building-pithos buitding-und o n the
of the m o u n d ( M . Frangipane 1991. 1993a, l o w e r s o u t h slope groups o f rooms that w e r e
1996). At T e p e c i k a planned t o w n settlement used a s houses, kitchens, ateliers a n d storage
consists o f neiglilx>ui hoods o f o n e - a n d t w o - spaces. T h i s palace contained n u m e r o u s gra­
rooms m u d brick dwellings with streets running naries \yhere approximately 20b ions o f grains
perpendicular to e a c h other, east-west a n d north- stored ( G . Arsebük 1986; H . H a u p t m a n n 1979a)
south ( U . E s i n 1974, 1997; S , Harmankaya, B . w a s the political center o f the region i n c h a r g e
E i d o g u 2002) (fig. 2). Noj>untepc level VTI1 has a o f concentrating agricultural surplus. B e c a u s e
main avenue 1 meters in w i d e that separates the any o f the administrative apparat us-sea ling a n d
settlement into north and south, a n d also has side mass-produced I x j w l s - a n d o f the variety of
streets w h i c h are surrounded by quartet, giving types a n d Functions o f different stores u n i q u e to
the appearance o f a structurally well-planned complex centralised systems recovered here,
township. T h e domiciles are one- and two- Frangipane asserts that these granaries may h a v e
roomed m u d brick with horse-shoe-shaped only b e e n Used to feed the edits, a n d possibly for
hearths inside <H. H a u p t m a n n 1997) (fig. 3 ) . the population in times o f crisis, rather ıhan
Iteing a s u r p l u s l o r reinvestment in elite activi­
ties ( M F r a n g i p a n e 1996. 2001). S o , Norşunte-
N o n e o f the settlements o f the p e r k x l exhibit a pe L palace h a d not a real e c o n o m i c intervention
public structure a n d e v i d e n c e o f a central eco­ or powerful central political control o f the terri­
nomy. Each town in the region w a s largely tory, but a t y p e o f rule based o n e n s u r i n g d i e
autonomous, a s e v i d e n c e d by the lack o f a n y security o r the people (M. F r a n g i p a n e 1996).
dominant political centers a n d the w a l l s sur­ T h i s system, w h i c h Is w h o l l y u n i q u e to Anatolia,
r o u n d i n g the settlements a n d d i e absence o f any w h i l e o n the o n e h a n d reflects o f ihe political
e v i d e n c e o f external conflicts a r e interpreted as sovereignty o f élites, o n the oilier also indicates
an indication thai there were local conflicts that they have a n y e c o n o m i c responsibility o v e r
between towns in the region, a n d this must die production (M. Frangipane 2003b). T h i s
have prevented a central d o m i n a n c e o f any o n e political stJiicture reflects o w n cultural e n v i r o n ­
settlement o v e r another (M. Frangipane 1993a. ment o f t h e region a n d local seulement tradi­
1996; A . M . Conti. C . Persiani 1993). Even tion. T h e s e polities are defined as political enti­
Arslantepe, w h i c h demonstrates a central posi­ ties or city-states based o n urbanism Without
tion, d i d not have a political a n d e c o n o m i c con­ any form centralisation o f e c o n o m i c activities
trol over the region { M . Frangipane 1993a. (M. F r a n g i p a n e 2001; J . Y a k a r 1985a).
1996). Although a different architecture h a s
been a p p e a r e d at K o n i t u i e p e . Ettfcjkerbaba a n d
I m a m o g l u . these a r e not administrative struc­
T h e traces o f a high-degree o f craft specialisa­
tures. I n this period the o n l y building that d o e s
tion c a n b e s e e n in the sites o f this period. T h e
point to a political center appeared o n the
most important fields of special i sation a r c t h e
acropolis o f Nor$uniepe. I l i e structure in levels
production o f ceramics a n d metal artefacts. H i e
Yni-VL r characterised as a palace, d o c s belong
hand-made, camel-colored mica-alloyed day
to local authority that h a d control o v e r the agri­
b o w l s - k n o w n as AlTinova Painted Pottery-pro­
cultural surplus a n d the mineral beds o f the
duced at a large number o f settlements tike
fntjtn-y- J i m u n i * F i n i < j f n > in I \-:- -\ jmt -- -..n^ .,-). .-r\ A i u r o f c i m

Noiçuntepe, Tepedk, Tûlhucpe, Korucutepe, produced. Also w i d e s p r e a d is the manufacture

Man Ibrahim gah, A f W i K a l e , Arclantepe, Tiret. of borie tools a n d .small h u m a n a n d a n i m a l fi-
Imanitiglu, ^emsiyetepe and Yenlkity. have gurines m a d e o f u n b a k e d d a y ( H . Hauptmann
h u m a n a n d a n i m a l motifs decorated with paint 1976a). Hie w o r k s h o p s of tame, h o r n artefacts
around rite mouth of the b o w l as w e l l as geo- a n d small elay statuettes w e r e also recovered in
metrical patterns ÎM. Frangipane 2tX)jli; Ù. Hilgi Arslantepe (M Fr.ingipane ©90, 1993ak
2003: I . B a y w n 1997>. These weO-baked b o w b X u m e r o u s h o n e a n d w e a p o n s m a d e from tame,
are completely unique to tlx- region a n d have horn, b u r n i s h i n g stones as w e l l as of flintsione
I x v n produced h y local master a n i s a n s t l h i d ) . a n d o l i s i d i a n . a n d also i h e prLxluction of a n i m a l
C)f these settlements. T e p e d k is the regions and female figurines of talked clay were
mosi important ceramic production center w i t h revealed in great n u m b e r s at T e p e d k ( U . E s i n
large scale ceramic production ( U . E s i n 2003). 1974, 1997, 2003).
Metal artefact is another .spécialisation area in
the region. Findings related to metal production Although the craft specialisation w a s o n very
are encountered at Arslantepe. NorsuiUcpe. advanced k*vel. it w a s on k x a l level a n d d i d
T o j x v i k a n d T u l i n l e p e . E v i d e n c e of thus pixv not d e v e l o p into a regional industry like p r e v i -
d u c t i o n at Arslantepe is a metal atelier, the flat IHLS period ( J . Y a k a r 1985. 1985a). litis imjilies
axes. tlx- c a r v i n g - p e n casting molds a n d the that the societies in tlx- region h a v e a very
thick metal spirals uncovered here t M. closed social structure I M . Frangipane 20O3b>.
F r a n g i p a n e 1993a). A l Norçuniepe. a two-piece T l x - spare n u m l x r of Syrian tartlles found at
casting m o l d lor a axe a n d bronze tings a n d Aislantqx1 and metallic w a r e recovered at
needles were discovered in the w o r k s h o p s of Norsunlepe. T e p e d k and Arslantefx 1 , although
palace ( I I . Hauptmann 1976a). T h e casting imported, were not i n the proportions that
m o l d s a n d slags as w e l l a s the doubte-eyed a n d w o u l d c h a n g e the ck>sed societal structure o f
ring-headed c o p p e r needles a n d the k i n g trian- the region 4M. Frangipane 20113b; M.
gular-handled small dagger unearthed at H a u p t m a n n I 9 7 f a . 1979k
Tcpccik are all indicator of a d v a n c e d m.-r.il
technology' t U . E s i n 1982. 1997. S. Mamuinkaya,
Ik Erdogu 2002). At Titlintepe, the c o p p e r slags T H E MORE DEVELOPED SETTLEMENTS:
d i s c o v e r e d in a w e l l a n d the d o m e d kiln used in SOUTHEASTERN ANATOLIA
melting copper found in a courtyard are- Indica-
tors of metal production a n d a high degree of 'Hie period f o l l o w i n g the tlruk period in the
specialisation ( t t E s i n 1997a; S. M a n n a n k a y a . b. middle of the 3rd in northern Mesopotamia w a s
Ertlcrgu 20C)2). I n addition, the hoard of bronze the Secondary Ilrtainisation Period. D u r i n g this
w e a p o n s consisted of a short s w o r d of bronze p e r i t x l . settlements lltat c a n be considered real
a n d five spearheads h a s revealed in tlx- settle- cities a n d the city-state s y s t e m with a tribute sys-
ment, suggesting to a d v a n c e d craftmanship in tem Ijegan to appear in the region s u c h a s T e l l
metallurgy <LJ. E s i n 1997; 5. H a m t a n k a y a , B . Leilan. FJila. M a n . T e l l Mozan, T e l l B a n a l . T e l l
Erdoftu 2002). T l x - most w i d e s p r e a d metal arte- Brak. T d ! Btydar. Tell Taya. Tell O i u e r a . Tell
facts of the period in terms of form a n d size are Sweyhat, Tell Hadidi. Tell al-Hawa and Tell
the standard, thick metal spirals w e r e found in H a m o u k a i , areas c o v e r i n g 40-100 hectares, sur-
mass amounts at Nor^untepe, Arslantepe a n d rounded b y small t o w n s a n d villages-a small city
T e p e d k (M. Frangipane 2003b). T h e manufac- states system w i t h regional capitals 0 ' Matney
ture of obsidian, bone tools a n d the production 2002; G.M. S c h w a r t z 1994) (fig. 1). A similar
of talked clay objects are another spécialisai ions development to the p h e n o m e n o n experienced
of t l x ' |x-riod. I n Nor$umepe' palace, ateliers in the northern Mesopotamia region also
h a v e Iteen u n v e i l e d w h e r e obsidian ux>ls w e r e u n d o u t a e d l y emerged i n southeastern Anatolia
i n the m k l - L n e E l i A . T h i s is the time in w h i c h
to -Mi t m\ksL\\

truly u r b a n state-level societies ruled l w inde- K u r l u n tai 20 k m distance) ( G . Alga/e 1999;

|ViHkiil kMil k i n g d o m s fust appear in souih- G . Alga/e et a l . 1992). "lítese sites w e r e parts of
eastern Anatolia ( G . J . Stein I9H7; J . Y a k a r 2IM2; a r c g i i m a l e c o n o m y OHUrollcd by Tiiriş a n d this
5. I k i r m a n k a y a 2002; A. A r t h i 1988; G . Pettmato radius means that they d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n their
1991: T , L M e r i d i a n 1999)- U n d e r (he influence o w n agricultural sustaining areas, but as far as
of the Secondary Uibanistulon Period, the their sulvsisieiice e c o n o m y was c o n c e r n e d , lliey
legion e x h i b i t s m u c h larger a n d densely p o p u ­ may Iv regarded as semi-autonomous (G.
lated urtam settlements and a regional seitle- Algaze J 999; G . Algaze et a l . 1992. 20(11; l .
meni hierarchy txwuiJosed of central s c l l l c n x n i Mamey. G . Alga/e 1995; ( i Algaze. J . Poumelle
and smaller satellite t o w n s a n d villages sur­ 2tM».M. Storage facilities c o m p o s e d o f s t o r a g e |kls
r o u n d i n g it : L S w e l l as a rcgiimal e c o n o m y c o n ­ a m i a very I k g sik», OOVCJCd MOO m - area, used
trolled Iw a central settlement ttr capiial w i t h to store surpluses ck'rived front s u m binding svi-
tribute system, ' H i e uit>an fabric o f t l x settle­ Lİeıneıits w e r e u n c o v e r e d o n the L o w e r Town
ments consists ( i f areas serving different lunt- a n d surface collections m a d e from the regional
tions s u c h a s the upper t o w n or acropolis, the survey yielded a higher proportion of large Mo-
lower t o w n , the outer t o w n ami sometimes rage jais al Tltrifl ıhan al smaller sites in ıhe
cemeteries d u e to the Inluences of this period. vicinity I G , Algaze el a l . 1992; P. W a i t e n m a k e r
H o w e v e r , the urbanisation movement in the 1994, 199ft T J . W i l k i n s o n 1994 J . T h i s p a n e m
region d i d e a r n s o m e local features. T h e s e are indícales thai s u r p l u s w a s transferred from hin­
local politics w i t i i a d v a n c e d c o m p l e x social a n d terland DO the center, so Tiıriş a s the regional
economical organisations. Wititin this perk*! • .ıpıi.ıl drew agricultural surpluses front i x a r f i y
iheix." are three areas o f settlement in the region: foWTtS to tribute ( P . Wattenmaker 1994. 1998; G .
lite k.r.il'ili.i KIM:-, the i da Plain a n d lite Algaze 199ftJ. Y a k a r 2 d * h T . Mamey. G . AlgaA*
1995). O t e r tribute conınHKİiiy sent to capital.
i i a z i a n t e p Area. Tiıriş. is animals W a i t c n m a k e r e x p l a i n s thai t l x
a l i e n e e of prime-aged animals al K u r b a n sug­
The Karabal>a Basin is located in the area gests ıha! they may have sent to Titriş as tribute
I x t w c e n the T a u r u s Mountains a n d the northern (P. wmtenmaker 1987, 1994. 199ft 2ÍXK); J .
M e s n p o l a m i a n Plains (fig. 5). f i l e settlements <t[ Y a k a r 199ft 21)00},
lite region are Tilris, K u r b u n a n d Lklar, Tiiris
w a s tlte largest setlk-meni w i l h i3 Ita. in m i d E B
a m i 52.7 h a . i n late E l i w h i l e l.idar cowtfog a n T i l e ev idences of a d v a n c e d urban p l a n n i n g and
area o f 15 hectares w a s the second largesi site, structurally p l a n n e d a n u n t l v r o f distinct quar¬
a i n l K u r f x i n w x s the third w i t h i> hectares <G. ters w e r e found at sites oí the regkm. Tilrg? w a s
Algaze 1999; 11. Y n h a a r e n t 9 9 A Tlirc^ W A S the c o m p o s e d of a central acropolis 3 3 ha. sur­
regii mal capital " I .i small indigenous (\t) {State rounded by a m u c h more extensive L o w e r Gay.
system that w a s situated o n a n important over- altocu 35 hectares in extent, w h i c h is d i v i d e d
L m d trade route in 5yn>-Anatolia t G . Algaze et into a l/jwer T o w n , w hich s u r r o u n d s the s i t e s
al. 1995, 1996; T . Matney. G . Algu/e 1995). It acropolis, and a m o r e extensive O u t e r T o w n to
3Ct& a n intermediary role between polities the north (O, Algaze 1999; G . Algaze et a l . 1 9 % ,
Mesopotamia and Anatolia l o r cross-cultural 2 ( K H ; G . A l g a z c J , Poumelle 2t)03; T . Matney. G .
e x c h a n g e ( T . Matney. G . Algaze 19951 H a v i n g Algaze 199ft T. Mamey et a l . 1997). S u r r o u n d i n g
an estimated population ca.5lNNl-hHKK) people, the settlement w e r e several snburiis. spec ialised
activity areas a i n l a n extramural cemetery ( I h k l ) .
ii w a s a l t l x peak o f a four-tier settlement hier­
A l late EH. I x v u u s c the sufxirfjs o f site w e r e
archy w i t h i n satellite s e i i k n t e n i s in its e n v i n m s .
abondoncd. ii contracted from 43 hectares to
t e n t e r s s u r r o u n d e d by smaller dependent vil­
52.7 hectares a n d eastern flank of the city w a s
lages s u r r o u n d i n g Titris have been al LitLir tai
surrounded by a 3-3.5 m w i d e m a s s i v e fortifica-
11.5 k m distance). T a t a r (at hJ k m djsiance) a n d
ftiigftss T"nnnls l'itsi Cilk* in ü/vını :ntd Sntıilnıı^ı-m Aıuittkı

lion w;i]l bu İli m u d b r i c k o v c r s t o n e foundations, G . Algaze 1995; T . Matney 2(X)2) (fig. 6 ) . At

h u m v s s e s on irs interior Face a n d associate Kuiban I V B w a s uncovered a carefully con­
mtxil system in the O u t e r T o w n ( ü . Algaze structed administrative l i u i k t i n g or elite house
1999; G . Algaze,.1. Poumelle 2003; G . Algaze et contained a large storage jar a n d two clay dQQr
a l 2 0 0 1 ) , 11x- settlement of late E B A consists of locks inside a w a l l e d inner quarter (I- MarEcx,
large çottrtyard houses arranged alongside G - Algaze 199(fc P. Wattenmaker 1994. 1998).
siıvcis in the O u t e r a n d L o w e r T o w n , that devel­ H i e c o m m o n char.itierisiics of these buildings
o p e d a s a result o f irade contacts w i t h contem­ arc- lack o f the rich administrative apparatus-
porary polities İn the southern Mesopoiamiun they h a v e o n l y small amount of them as a trail
contrajy t<i the thesis to have b e e n a n A k k a d i a n of A n a i o l i a on the contrary those in northern
t impost, suggesting a n evidence of urban p l a n ­ Meso|Xitamia,
ning ( G . A l g a / e e l aL 2 0 0 1 ; T . Mainey, G . Alga/c
1995: % Mainey 2002) (fig. © , Although the
T h e s e indigenous societies point 10 a high-level
smicturos a n d organisation of the settlement of
social structure of different e c o n o m i c a n d social
m i d t'.BA are difficult to characterise due to only
classes, e v e n among the elites. Some elites
ümfted e\|xxsuies of those levels, they d e a r l y
bouses recovered in the L o w e r T o w n at m i d E l i
represent c o m p o u n d s ol massive size ( G . Algaze
settlement of Titri^, most o f the m u d brick w a l l s
1999; G . Algaze, J . Poumelle 2003), O t h e r site
w e r e massive nearly a meter in thickness, w a l l s
K u r b a n [ V B w a s it medium-sized t o w n , w h i c h
a n d floors of t h e m w e r e w e l l reptastered with
has o v e r a t h o u s a n d population, with a fortified
well-built hearths areas (G. Algaze, J , Poumelle
inner quarter centered o n the southern m o u n d
20(13; G . Algaze d a l . 1995, 2001). I n contrast, in
a n d unfortified outer t o w n ( L Maıfoe. G . Algaze
the s u b u r b s w e r e u n c o v e r e d modest a n d fltmsi-
l y y o ; B. V e r h a r e n 1997). T h e settlement y i e l d e d
ly constructed structures ( G . Algaze. J . Poumelle
a n u m b e r of distinct quarters, domestic a n d pro­
2UU3; T . Mainey, G . Algaze 1995: T . Matney d
duction a i v a s , so there w e r e large scale w e l l -
al. 1997). Another indicaior o f variability in
p l a n n e d construction program over several s e c ­
social ranking c o m e s from (lie e x t r a m u r a l ceme­
t o r o f the site İ L Maıfoe. G . Algaze 1990: 1'.
tery dating to m i d E H , w h e r e there are m a n y
Watienmaker 1994). T h e hou.se p l a n o f high-sta­
stone cist graves w i t h or without d r o m o s . only
tus inhabitants c o m p r i s e s of large building c o m ­
some contain burial gilts consist of jewelry in
plexes, sometimes with a s e c o n d story, included
bronze, silver a n d s h e l l , c e r a m i c vessels and
a series rooms w i t h a n entrance r o o m a n d a
n«mer©US imported stylized violin-shaped mar­
courtyard l i n i n g the Cobble streets w h i l e non-
ble figurines generalised Aegean type (M.D.
eliie architecture is small w i t h lesser room ( P .
H o n p , G . Algaze 1998; G . Algaze et a l . 1995).
W s t t e n m a k e r 1998).
Indicators of social differences were also
encountered from graves at late K B of Tiirfy
W h i l e only vessels, several bronze pins w e r e
A s far as p u b l i c architecture is c o n c e r n e d , it İs found as burial gifts in the graves of e x t r a m u r a l
seen that s o m e settlements have these s i r e c - cemeteries of this period, the burial offerings
mres. Although the public building of Tiiriş is buried in the courtyards a n d the floors of the
thought to h a v e been w i t h i n the O u t e r T o w n at rooms of the houses in Ehe L o w e r T o w n are
mid E B , the information is scant " r i fa p l a n a n d m u c h richer a n d rarer quality a n d the graves
inner artefacts because it lias b e e n partially themselves are larger ( T . M a i n e y et a l . 1997; T .
uneo-vered ( G . Algaze et a l . 2 0 0 1 ; G . Algaze, j . M a i n e y , G . Algaze 1 9 9 5 ; G . Algaze e l a l . 1992.
P o u m e l l e 2003)- T h e r e is no public building at 1996). B o t h substantia] a n d elaborate as w e l l as
late Eö, t l i c regularity of the quarters exhibits, fairly modest a n d flimsily structures w e r e also
h o w e v e r , a level oF labor mobilisation carried encountered in Kurban V f B (P. Wattenmakei
out by centralised administrators ( G . Algaze, J . 1994, 1994a). T h e houses of high-status families
Poumelle 2003; G. Algaze e l aL 2001; T . Matney,
SB AICV ERARSLAN

demotisttale a m u c h lafger scale well-construct- spindle w h o r l s associated wittr textile produc-

e d o f architecture, i n additional s e c o n d story, tion are also c o m m o n w i t h i n e a c h o f the hous-
better quality w o r k m a n s h i p , the plastered w a l l s e s as w e l l a s w i t h i n the houses are a fair n u m -
and floors, t h i c k e r w a l l s , m o r e rooms, richer and ber of C a n a d i a n blades ( G . Algaze 1999; T ,
scarcer objects s u c h a s metals, shells, stamp Matney et a l . 1997). T h e r e are trade conracis
seals, a greater proportion o f w h e e l - m a d e pot- with external regions at site in mid-late B B . I b i s
tery a n d higher concentration o f specialist-pro- is demonstrated b y the M e d i i e m i n e a n shells, the
d u c e d serving vessels, a n u n e v e n distribution o f K a r a z w a r e vessels u n i q u e to eastern Anatolia
craft good? and variability i n activities cariled a n d C a u c a s u s , the large amounts oF c o p p e r a n d
out b y [fee residents o f these buildings, c o m - silver from central a n d eastern Anatolia, numer-
pared to (hose i n Lite lower-status families ( P . o u s stylized marble violin-shaped figurines gen-
W a t t e n m a k e r 1994, 1994a T 1998). A n increased eralised A e g e a n type, two-handled de|xis i n
diversity i n status o f elites families h a v e even west Antolian tyt>e> a 1-mana stone weight
existed at site ( P . W a [ t e n m a k e r 1998), Large inscribed in O l d A k k a d i a n a n d several imported
c h a m b e r tombs discovered at t h e lajge town- southern Mesopotamian cylinder seaLs, used
sized site o f Lidar contained m u c h mote diverse t h e m as burial gifts ( G . Algaze et a l . 1992, 1995;
metal finds s u c h a s toggle-pins, dagger blades, T , Matney 2002; T . Matney, G . Algaze 1995X At
rings, stone a n d shell pendants a s w e l l a s ves- K u r b a n I V B , the |X>ttery prcxluction w a s chiefly
sels, suggesting thai these tombs b e l o n g to the craft specialisation a n d found t w o groups
high status persons f H . H a u p t m a n n 2003; E . ceramics-produced o n last w h e e l b y specialists
trailer. A. Parker 1995; J . Y a k a r 1985a). a n d highly standardised. a n d the other h a n d -
made ceramics prcxluced l)y household ( P .
Wattenmaker 1994. 1994a, 1998). T h e potter's
"Ihey have a complex e c o n o m y based o n a m a r k s o n particular pottery types suggest the
high-degree laige-scale craft specialisation car- d e v e l o p m e n t o f centralised c e r a m i c production
ried out l o r export rather than local c o n s u m p - lor regional distribution ( 1 , Marfoe, G Algaze
tion a s w e l l a s extensive import, w h i c h w a s a n 199(1). T h a t the c e r a m i c assemblage from P a l a t e
important c o m p o n e n t o f the e c o n o m i e s o f the G o f Ebla is .similar to that o f K u r b a n I V indicate
settlements. At m i d E l i Tiliiji, at the w o r k s h o p s thai Libia had e x c h a n g e relations w i t h sites i n
in tlie s u b u r b s the large scale tnuss-proction of the E u p h r a t e s V a l l e y ( P . W a t t e n m a k e r 1994a; G .
C a n a u n e a n blades were revealed-highly sian- Algaze 1990) O t h e r craft specialisation is metal-
dardised i n their slackness a n d width-manufac- lurgy. Metal objects a r c rare a n d associated w i t h
tured for export ( G . Algaze 1999; G . Algaze, J . m o r e elaborate houses and exclusively high-
P o u m d l e 2003; G . Algaze d a l . 1999. 2 0 0 1 ; T . r a n k i n g families i n v o l v e d in metal w o r k i n g , s u g -
Matney. G . Aigaze 1995). O t h e r specialised pro¬ gesting metallurgy w a s administered b y socio-
d u c t i o n undertaken a i these ateliers w e r e flint economically dominant families at site ( P .
blade, lithic artefacts a n d metal production ( G . W a t t e n m a k e r 1994, 1994a. 1998). T i l e l o w den-
Algaze e l a l . 1995, 1996; T . Matney, G . Algaze sity o f spindle w h o r l s s h o w s (bit textile p n x l u c -
1995; 8. E J a r m a n k a y a , H. Erdogu 2002), Rut s p e - tion is not a major activity at site a n d e v e n n o n -
cialised production at late E l i site differs from elite households may h a v e l x : e n relied o n spe-
that i n m i d H l i . i n that it took place w i t h i n the cialised w e a v e r s , so textiles m a y have been
h o u s e s ( G . Algaze 1999; T . Matney et a l . 1997). imported into site a s a evidence of import ( P .
Q n n m o n l y recovered w i t h i n r o o m s or courtyard Wattenmaker 1994a, 1998). Stone tools a r e
in almost a l l o f the houses a r e o v a l plastered another craft specialisation and especially large
basins s e r v e d to p r c x e s s grapes, possibly in c o n - prismatic blades, which a r e standardised i n
nection w i t h w i n e production w h i c h is a house- appearance, w e r e manufactured b y specialists
hold industry at site especially i n the O u t e r (P. W a t t e n m a k e r 1994a). B u t C a n a a n c a n blades
T o w n ( G . Algaze et a l . 1995). L<x>m weights a n d
PntRivss Towards First Qlics in tZt&t'tn and .taufftOBMEni AdMoflfa

discovered at site w e r e imported because there I l a n n a n k a y a , B . Mrdogu 2002). At site t w o p u b -

was any evidence for local production (G. lic structures w e r e recovered. O n e of them, a
Alg&ze 1999). And the majority o f m a r i n e shells monumental building c o m p l e x of stone ami
St site indfeates the strength o f trade rclation- m u d b r i c k . comprises of two architectural Com-
s h i p s (L. Marftx-. G . A l g a z e 1990). O t h e r site ponents; a massive outer stone w a l l o v e r 5 m
Lidar w a s a large-scale mass-produced c e r a m i c thick with three large rectangular blocks of
production center for the Upper Euphrates stone s e r v e d a s t o w e r bases a n d a n inner m u d -
Basin in (his period ( H , H a u p i m a n n 1982, 1984, brick c o m p l e x , identified as a palace, is located
1999: J , Y a k a r 1985a). 19 kilns i n v a r i o u s types in the L o w e r T o w n a n d the either o n e w i t h a
w e r e encountered at fa potters' quarter indicate storage r o o m c o n t a i n i n g a large quantity of ves-
to industrial area, separated from the main resi- sels a n d several pieces of clay s e l l i n g s w a s
dential area ( I I . H a u p r m a n n 1982, 1984. 1999; J . found in the O u t e r T o w n beside the city w a l l 11'.
Y a k a r 1985a). T h e r e are pottery production for Wattenmaker 1996, 2000, 2003; M H . Gales
different purposes indicating a variety of m i d - 1997). A n industrial quarter, i n c l u d i n g textile
late MBA w a r e s a n d types w e r e b e i n g produced and pottery production, associated w i t h this
for regional distribution ( H . H a u p i m a n n 1982; massive building unearthed in the O u t e r T o w n
G . Algaze 1999: J . Y a k a r 1985a). It is s e e n pot- ( P . W a t t e n m a k e r 1996, 1998, 2003). I n this area,
ter*' m a r k s especially o n painted W M , suggest- w;ts f o u n d a l a i ^ e n u m b e r of w e a v i n g tools
ing that these w a r e s w e r e produced by Specia- c o m p o s e d of copper a n d bronze needles as
lists ( H . H a u p t m a n n 2003); T h e striped or spiral w e l l as large s p i n d l e w h o r l s as indicator o f large
decorated vessels uncovered In Lidar's tombs scale textile production and the great amount of
have also discovered in the tombs at T e l l I ladkli. c e r a m i c pile appeared En a large pottery k i l n as
Haw a, $emseddin, Tawi and Wreide iH. evidence fat significant amounts o f ceramic
H a u p t m a n n 1997b), this manner may have been production d i d l a k e place here (P. W a U e n m a k e r
an indication of the commercial ties of the ceram- 1996. 1998, 2003). H i e n u m e r o u s painted-deco-
ic prod net ion at site. So, specialist-produced rated vessels here w e r e prcxluced b y specialised
c e r a m i c vessels at Lidar and K u r b a n w e r e impor¬ local ceramic craftsmen (S. 1 l a r m a n k a y a . 13.
tant in Syro-Mesopotamian exchange systems. Erciogu 2002). I n addition, the massive stone
foundations 2 m . in w i d e i n this sector indicate
that this section is inhabited by high-status
T h e second area in the regional settlement hier- groups of the .settlement (P. Wattenmaker 2(103).
a r c h y is the Urfa Plain. K a z a n e a n d Marian are That the w o i l i s h o p area w a s d o s e b y fa put>
to Ise found here (fig 5). K a z a n e . believed !i>r lic structure, n u m e r o u s s a m p l e s of sealing clay
rese^tfafs c o u l d be ancient A b i r s a l - r e a c h e d collected from this plot a n d elite residents here
size of 100 hectare*-was the laigest settlement in demons!rales that production and exchange
southeastern Anatolia ( T J , W i l k i n s o n 1994; T , L . w e r e carried out b y attached specialists a d m i n -
Mcclellan 1999; G . Algaze, J . Poumelle 2003; P. istered b y the political elites in the settlement (P.
W a t t e n m a k e r 2000). Nestled in the m o u n t a i n s Wattenmaker 1994, 1994a, 1998). So, K a z a n e
b e t w e e n northern Mesopotamia a n d southeast - w a s the large mator political center w ith public
e m Anatolia, it w a s located in a n a r r o w valley architectures i n administrative quality a n d a
w h i c h w a s a c o m m e r c i a l route, o n l y Cai. 40 k i l o - highly e c o n o m i c s o c i a l i s a t i o n in this period.
meters of Titri? (S. T l a r m a n k a y a , B . E r d o g u 2002;
P. Wattenmaker 1994). l i is s u r r o u n d e d b y a
substantial city wall of sun-dried brick, 45 i n .
T i l e other settlement in the Utfa Plain is Tlamtn
w i d e a n d 8 m. high, a n d m a d e up of three main
or Hara-an k i , o n l y 38 k m south of K a z a n e ,
a i t a s - a n acropolis at a height of 20 m. a L o w e r
mentioned frequently at Ebla tablets a s the w o r d
Town and an Outer T o w n (P. Wattenmaker
m e a n i n g " r o a d ". Unfortunate that although it is
2000, 2003; P, Wattenmaker. A. M i a r 1993; S.
very important for the urbanisation process o f
 Alev EftARSLAN

the region, nil information sbotlt it has b e e n although e x h i b i t i n g in their layers e v i d e n c e o f

gathered from the Ebla tablets rather l h a n from being v e i y important p a i l s o f the urbanisation
archeologîcal data ÎS. I l a r m a n k u y a . K Erdogu process in southeastern Anatolia, r c l a t i v d v little
2002; A- A r c h i 1988). T a b l e t s tell es thai the site is k n o w n o f their actual fabric d u e to the small
d u r i n g this period w a s surrounded l i y a w a l l area In w h i c h archcokigical studies have been
a n d it w a s a major regional political a n d eco­ caöted (HIE It c a n b e s a i d , h o w e v e r , that these
nomical center w i t h its o w n lemple a n d palace large a n d important cities h a d a w a l l e d citadel-
(S. Ilarmankaya. B. Erdogu 2002; P- k n o w n as the upper town-as w e l l a s a l o w e r
W a Hen m a k e r 1998). It w a s a n independent city, t o w n e x p a n d e d o n the terraces o f the sites a n d
FUled b y a local q u e e n , Z u g a l u m . but that along fay w e r e city-states w h i c h w e r e ruled o v e r b y
w i i h her. there w a s also a king, or representa­ aristocratic elite class ( J . Y a k a r 1985a; S.
tive o f a k i n g Called " i K i d a l u m " w h o shared this I l a r m a n k a y a 2002J.
n i l e ( A . A r c h i 1988; S. I l a r m a n k a y a . B . Hrdogu
2002). T h e tablets reveal thai there w e r e eco­
At the e n d o f third m i l l e n n i u m I v t w e c i i 22IWI-
nomic a n d political ties between H hi a a n d
1900 B C - i h e MB/MB transition w h i c h is the e n d ­
l l a r r a n . Gifts o f Valuable metals ant! fabrics w e r e
ing o f the Early U r b a n Peripd o f the region-
sent to the q u e e n of H a r e m a n d B a d a l u m from
nortlicrn Mesopotamia have suffered a climatic
Ebla a n d in t h e s a m e w a y , metals a n d textiles
deterioration, acidification, that c a u s e d to a n end
w e r e sent as gilfr from I larran to Ebla ( A . A r c h i
[he u r b a n i s m in the Syro-Mcsopotamian plains
1988: G . Petlinato 1991). H i e fact thai H a r r a n
t G . Algaze 1999; J . Y a k a r 199$). At t h e s a m e
w a s U x a t e d o n the main route just south of
period, a collapse of urbanism h a s also
K e b a n is a n IffiportaiEil archaeological evidence
appeared in the K a r a baba B a s i n d u e to severe
pointing to the metal trade between Ebla a n i l
Keban (A, Yener 1982. 1983). in addition. draught, but there w a s n o d e m o g r a p h i c col­

Marian provided El>la w i t h livestock. especially lapse, hiatus, even i f the settlements size s h r a n k

sheep, a n d imported s h e e p from l l a r r a n were ( G . A l g a z e 1999). T h e urbanised population in

allocated n o i o n l y for E b l a itself but for vassal the region w a s dispersed Into self-sufficient s u b ­

states CG, Petlinato 199b Astour 1988». A n d sistence communities, villages a n d hamlets to

other trade c o m m o d i t y between llarran a n d adapt themselves to the c h a n g i n g climatic c o n ­

Ebla is textile. Marian i n v o l v e d hi the e x c h a n g e ditions. A l 'finiş, the L o w e r a n d O u t e r T o w n s as

with Ebla textiles like evident from the text ( A . w e l l as the sububs w e r e a l x i n d o n e d in this peri­

Y e n e r 1982). od a n d occupation continued in the high

mound, so it ruralised ( G . Alga/e 1999; G.
Algaze et pL 2 0 0 1 ; T . Mamey, G . A l g a a e 1995).
A: K u r b a n h a v e a|SÖ encountered a contract a n d
Within this period, the third area o f the region is
it retrenched from 6 to 1.20 h a in Period I I I
the G a z i a n t e p area. Here the Only site Tftbeçar
dated to itus period as w e l l as K a z a n e contract­
has a massive s t e p | X ' d m u d b r i c k high terrace o r
ed, but not abandoned ( G Algaze 1990; J * Y a k a r
citadel i n E B 11 ( A . M . G r e a v e s , B. 1 I c l w i n g 2001 ).
1998; P. W a t i e n m a k e r 1998). But ruralisation d i d
in E l i 111. the city has e x p a n d e d both the north­
not l a k e place in the other area o f the region,
ern a n d the southern sectors o f the L o w e r
the Z e u g m a - C a r c h e m i s h area, I x c a u s e this is a
T o w n , the citadel s u r r o u n d e d b y a n enclosure
partial decline. Here?, the n u m l x r o f site, o n lite
w a l l a n d the L o w e r C i t y c o v e r e d aboui sixty
contrary, increased in this transition p e r i o d a n d
hectares a n d it l i e c a m e a large city d u r i n g Early
a settlement hierarchy centered at O i r c h e n t i s h
a n d Middle B r o n z e ( A . M . G r e a v e s , B . H c l w i n g
(40 h a extenO-the capital of a city-state s y s t e m
2001; C Kepinski-Leconue 2001; Kcpinski-
on the Euphrates-emerged ( G . Algaze L999; G .
Lecomte, Ergeç 1999. 2000). T h e other settle­
Algaze e l a l . 1994).
ments in area such as Oylum, Tilmen,
Carchemish. Zincirli a n d Gedikli.Kamhdyiik,
P i t f t s i s à Towards arks in Eastern -.mü Southeastern Aûttiotia

CONCLUSIONS

The foregoing presents a picture o f what w e
k n o w a l x n i l local aspects o f u r U m i s a t i o n i n the
Early I rban E'eriod thai is the time- w h e n first
real c i l l e s . t o w n s emerged in eastern a n d south­
eastern Anatolia, A s pointed
period exhibits localized urban growth in both
regions. 'The urlianisalion here is d e a r l y a local
process formed by indigenous cultures with
a d v a n c e d c o m p l e x social-political a n d econo­
mical organisation, besides Ix-ing s o m e affected
by the S y r o Mesopotamia!! cultures, f i o m I x g i n -
nlng o f initial stages o f urban ism. litis local for­
mation d e r i v e d from the internal
mic d y n a m i c s o f their cultural e n v i r o n s such a s
their o w n social, d e m o g r a p h i c structures a n d
historical backgrounds. A n d both regions have
their o w n settlement p a i i c m based o n entirely
local culture a n d appropriate to the urbanisation
tradition o f Anatolia w i t h a different type o f
socio-polit leal organisation. S o , the Anatolian
Town/city model is quite different from that ©f
Syiu-Mesopotamia 11 a n d il does carre s o m e local
charnel eristics a s w e l l a s a n u m b e r o f c o m m o n
trails w i t h other regions o f Anatolia (M Esta
out above, this 1998; M. ô z d o g a n 2000; M, Frangipane 1 9 % ) .
The most prominent diversities a m o n g t h e m a i e
its s m a l l n e s s i n s i z e a n d without a n y form o f
e c o n o m i c centralisation. Especially the lack o f
e c o n o m i c centralisation is the rtn>si impoitani
trail thai separates lïoih regions from Syix>
Mesoporanita. Although s o m e settlements have
m o n u m e m a l public s t r u a u r e s a n d little a d m i n i s ­
sodo-econo- trative Artefacts, there is n o evidence o f the c e n ­
tralisation o f the e c o n o m i c activities. So, these
regions h a v e a u n i q u e identity created b y local
cultures played Unique role i n the d e v e l o p m e n t
of the first cities, c o n i m r y to the thesis thai
urbanism i n both regions flourished under the
influences o f the Syro-Mesopotamia!] cultures

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