Métodos objetivos de

construcción de secciones
384
Isógonas Folds

α α

t0 =T0
T

α
isog

t α
on

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 14.16 Dip isogons: (a) construction; (b) isogon pattern; (c) thickness variation.

metrical classification (Ramsay, 1967, p. 365). For consistency the inner arc of the fold
is taken as the reference point for statements of the direction of isogon convergence.
Accordingly, there are then two basic patterns – isogons may converge or diverge. These
can be subdivided into five easily recognizable patterns, including three general and two
Ragan, 2009

special cases.
 14.8 Alternative graphs 387

Isógonas
Table 14.5 Fold classes based on
isogon angle φ for positive α

Fold class φ

1A φ<0
1B parallel φ=0
1C α>φ>0
2 similar φ=α
3 φ>α

Left Limb Right Limb

−90
h
3
−60
α 1C
2 1A
−30
isogon
φ
φ 0 1B 1B

+30
1A 2
1C
+60
Left Limb Right Limb 3
(a) (b)
+90
−90 −60 −30 0 +30 +60 +90
α
Ragan, 2009

Figure 14.19 Isogon angle: (a) fold and isogon angle φ; (b) graph of φ vs. α (after Hudleston, 1973, p. 7).
 Figure 15.4 Arcs though two adjacent dips: (a) concave down; (b) concave up.
D O

2. With OA and OB as radii and δpoint B

O as center draw D
δA arcs AC and BD which are the
δA
traces of the boundaries passing through stations A and B. Note that the thickness of

Busk
A B
A B
the stratum is represented by segments AD = BC along the dip normals.
δB
3. There are two cases.
C
(a) If the dip increases from A(a) to B (δA < δB ) the circular arcs are concave(b) downward
O C
(Fig. 15.4).
(b) 15.4
Figure If theArcs
dipthough
decreases B ) they
(δA > δdips:
two adjacent are concave
(a) concave down; (b)upward
concave(Fig.
up. 15.4b).

2. With OA and OB as radii and point O as center draw arcs AC and BD which are the
traces of the boundaries passing through stationsO2A andFigure NoteArcs
B. 15.5 thatthrough
the thickness
three of
the stratum is represented by segments AD = BC along adjacent
thedips:
dip (a) dips in same
normals.
A A direction; (b) dips in opposite
3. There are twoB
cases. B direction.
(a) If the dip increases from A to B (δA < δB ) the circular arcs are concave downward
C
(Fig. 15.4).C
(b) If Othe
2 dip decreases (δA > δB ) they are concave upward (Fig. 15.4b).
O1 (a) O1 (b)
418 Parallel folds

Figure 15.5 Arcs through three

Similarly, a composite arc may be drawn throughOthree
2 adjacent
adjacent dips:
dips
(a)
at stations
dips in same
A, B
W middleOdip Figure 15.6 Linked arcs
and C. The
A
1
may be in the same
A direction as the
E other
direction;
tangent
two
(b)
to
(Fig.opposite
dips 15.5a)
fourindip lines.
or the
middle dip mayBbe in the opposite direction (Fig.
B 15.5b).direction.
This construction is easily extended to any number
O3 of dips by working along the line
C C
of section using successive pairs of dips to carry the linked tangent arcs from one dip
normal toOthe
2 next.
B
O1 (a) O1 F (b)
A E
Problem C D
G
• The dips atafour
Similarly, stationsarc
composite are,may
frombewest to through
drawn = 20◦adjacent
east, δA three 30◦ at
E, δB =dips δC = 40
W,stations ◦ 2009
A, E
Ragan,
B
◦
and
and D = middle
C.δThe 15 W. dip
Reconstruct
may be inthe
O2 surface passing through point A.
the same direction as the other two (Fig. 15.5a) or the
424

Problem
Busk
• Complete the structure section of the folds at depth for the data of Table 15.1.
Parallel folds

Table 15.1 Structural data

Station Dip Station Dip
A 20◦ E F 25◦ E
B 10◦ W G 75◦ E
C 45◦ W H 50◦ E
D 10◦ W I 20◦ E
E 0◦ J 0◦

W E
O1
O8
e
M N r fac
P u
O2 es O7 O9
ng
Hi
L
A B C D E F G H I J

A1 K Q A6
O6
A2 A5
A3 O5
A4
A4 R
A3
A5 O3
A2
A6
A1
S
T
O4
Ragan, 2009
Figure 15.12 Full reconstruction by tangent arcs showing trace of the hinge surface.
 Kink

Kink
 Dominios
de
Buzamiento

Límites de
dominios

Construcción
kink y capa
guia

Groshong, 2006
 Restauración
426 Parallel folds

Beds straightened without change of length

??

(a) (b)

Figure 15.13 Unequal shortening (after Carey, 1962): (a) reconstruction; (b) restoration (from Carey,
1962). Used with permission of the Journal of the Alberta Society of Petroleum Geology.

15.4 Balanced cross sections

In the light of these limitations, it would be useful to have some way of testing our
Ragan, 2009
reconstruction for internal consistency and geological reasonableness. Here, we briefly
3
 428
Compatibilidad Parallel folds

428 Cinemática Parallel folds

Figure 15.15 Reconstruction of fold at depth by maintaining original bed length and conserving area
(from Goguel, 1952). Used with permission of Mason et Cie.

Figure 15.15 Reconstruction of fold at depth by maintaining original bed length and conserving area
(from Goguel, 1952). Used with permission of Mason et Cie.

Figure 15.16 Section through a part of the Jura Mountains (from Buxtorf, 1916). Ragan, 2009
 Mecanismos -
15.9 Faults in fold cores
An important advantage of this method of depicting angular folds is that the bed length
and area of beds in section can be easily determined. With such information, attempting

Geometrización
to restore the pre-fold geometry shows, not surprisingly, that there is a deficiency of mass
in the core of the folds just as in the case of the folds with rounded forms. In order to
balance the cross sections, some additional structural elements are required. Two figure
prominently in resolving the space problems:

1. Fault-bend folds (Fig. 15.27a)

2. Fault-propagation folds (Fig. 15.27b)

(a) (b)

Figure 15.27 Angular folds and faults: (a) fault-bend fold (after McClay, 1992); (b) fault-propagation
fold (after Suppe, 1985, p. 351).

Ragan, 2009
e & Medwedeff (1984) is balanced.
his article, a geometric analysis is presented that

Mecanismos de
ds the approach of Suppe (1983) and Suppe &
wedeff (1984). Certain of the constraints of their 15.2 Rounded folds
l are relaxed in order to permit variations in the
is very much greater. Clear evidence of such bedding-plane sli

plegamiento
nt or type of deformation through the fold. Detach-
occurring folds where veins or dikes are offset across bedd
folds are added as a third type of thrust-associated
and striated or fibrous-coated bedding surfaces.

a fault-bend folding

(a) (b)

Ragan, 2009

fault-propagation folding Flexural slip(1964, p. 48)Flexural

Donath and Parker introduced the idea that co
flow
by flexural flow, that is, like a card deck with vanishing thin
(1967, p. 391; Ramsay & Huber, 1987, p. 446f) discussed this
However, it requires that such a layer be sufficiently anisotr
analogous to the simple shear of a card deck.
Using a finite-element model, Hudleston, et al. (1996)
c detachment folding
anisotropy in the folding of a single embedded layer. Using
Three types of fold-thrust interactions: (a) aJamison,
fault-bend
a fault-propagation fold, and (c) a detachment fold.
1987
with x parallel to the plane of anisotropy the composite flow
fold, (b)
Propagación por falla

Falla transfiere
desplazamiento
a un pliegue

Erslev, 1991
nations were tested. This yields a three-dimensional (3-D)
matrix of chi-square values, with dimensions of fault slip,
trishear angle, and P/S ratio.
Two-dimensional slices through the 3-D matrix of chi-
Propagación por falla
square values illustrate the effectiveness of the grid search
searches were also conducted for unknown ramp angle
and fault tip location. In these cases, the best fit parameters
were exactly or close to those used in the forward model,
depending on the step increments in ramp angle and x and y
fault tip locations.

Geometrización Tri-shear

Fig. 2. Forward trishear model used to test the algorithm. The areas of input data are highlighted in gray. The table below shows the range of values used in the
grid search. The parameters included in the search are: (i) P/S ratio, (ii) trishear angle, and (iii) fault slip. The success of the grid search is indicated by how
close the computed best-fit parameters are to those input to the forward model.

Cardozo, 2005
 Propagación por falla
11''':;11;, through the fnld dcformillion progresses und
:1<"
Geometrización Kink A B'
'"
orag:ltiull nrigin. Ftllll1 -p r"p:lg;uion fold.s are nonmilly A'
ffcrent :i'pceb nf fault- propagatio n folding have been
f(l ld hli nd nappes, and drag folds.
e pre'enr ( 1) a (llI'llilati.,c dc.'icriplion of the main phe-
fold ing using ,imrle geome tric models and geologic slip
f tW() qunntitath e geoll1CI ric and kinematic theo ries Ihat
, !>..'it'd on rwu diffcrent ('on.servation and
compa ring fold ,hares wilh the predictions of the Ihe-
a and ,!rala dc po,i lcd duri ng deformmion .

uh -IIriIII;IL:alio ll filids

fofdl B'
A
e fnl d, Ihat form iHld at [he of pmpagating
R!': S U I'P t. & M FDW I1)H' I'JX4). a faul l continues to A' B
n grow at the raul! lip. J\ fnld interpreted \0 form by a
in Figure 5 from the tml hracite cllal basin of
1. IY5 5). T he structu re is " ell-k nown hecause the coal
e that cllal 6 IIHI.ugh \I h.. \'e an offsel of more than slip
k Ihnl'! " he rea, bed 10 no offset.
n n Ihe gone nearl y til zcro lind the has
l fold .
of Ihe progrcsloi\'c de velopment of a fa ult-propagation
mooel is quant iWliycly :lccur:.1Ie. retrodcfoml:"lblc. Imd
features o f natur,,1 (,lilli-propagation fo lding. It is
ry prescllted in a later '\Cction. In the uppe r figure the
A B'

Slip

Rcu ..dd" ,n.al>lc .... ..!d .. , Ihe r"'lIn"''''" ..r j,,1J

.hru'l ,,' 11>0.' c,ql to""", ' '''nn<)II"n;:I "'rl""lId.;;'n,. ('"" :otIC' 'i<, ••• ".kl I' HI,. IlK- dm",ng" r". ,ICI"uj'I .. ngk ,of 1m .. h,d, ., "fI.",1
h ... ,j, num' ... fall(' H•• 11I!i!i). N"IC II><: ,l«noa";ltJ .o:lol"'CC '" 1110: malenal llndn IIw:<.<- ..... and II",oOleo; rralK"1 ,0.1"""",,1 1,,1d Suppe, Medwedeff, 1990
,hoI""'
 Flexión por falla
Geometrización Kink

Suppe, 1983
 Flexión por falla
Solución balanceada por Kink

Suppe, 1983
 Solución balanceada por Kink
Geometry of folds in thrust terranes 209
210 W . R . JAMISON
210 W . R . JAMISON
FAULT-PROPAGATION geometric relationships presented in this analysis are
FOLDING FAULT-BEND
simplyFAULT-BEND
the solutions to these
FOLDING FOLDING
balanced equations (see
DETACHMENTDETACHMENT FOLDING FOL
60- Appendix). (a/f = 1)
60 The interrelated parameters in the truncation anti- (a/f = 1)
60
60
50- clines are the ramp angle (a), the interlimb angle60(3'),
50- 5 0 - the thickness change (tf/t) occurring in the forelimb
and
5O
4O (Figs. 2 & 3). In the detachment fold, backlimb dip5O(ab)
v
% geo- %
'~ 40- ' ~ replaces
40- ramp angle (Fig. 4). Additionally, the
30 _¢ _¢ metric analysis of the detachment fold requires specifica- Q_
4o
Q_
4o

Q. tion of a fourth parameter, viz. the ratio of the fold

30- 30-
E
2o Q. Q. amplitude (a) to the normal stratigraphic thickness tm 3o ( f ) tm 3o
E E
E E of the ductile unit infilling the core of the fold. 2~ As a 2~
20- 20-
10
result, the geometric relationships of the detachment ~ 20 ~ 20
..Q ..Q
fold are a direct function of the size (amplitude) of the
10 10
structure. The angular relationships derived for the
0
0 30 60 9O 120 150 180 truncation anticlines have no dependence on fold am-
a fold interlimb angle (y) o
o 3o
plitude.
o
60 o 90 3o 12o 60 15o 90 18o 12o 0 0
15o 18o
Although the model configurations have been made 0 30 60 090 120
30 150
60 180
90 120
a fold interlimb
a simplistic tofold angle (y)
interlimb angle (y)
facilitate the calculations, the general a forms foldainterlimb angle fold(7)interlimb angle
are compatible with many folds observed in overthrust
terranes. Faill (1969) noted that the dominant charac-
teristics of folding in the Appalachians in Pennsylvania
are planar limbs and angular hinges. Similar characteris-
b tics are evident in published examples of stiff unit
thrust- stiff unit
b 'a b
a-cot -1 [cot8 +associated folds in Alberta (Brown & Spang 1978), f
2" (tanb/2 - tanpt2)] ductile unit
a-cot -1 [cot8 + 2" (tanb/2 - tanpt2)]
British Columbia (Fitzgerald & Braun 1965), b Tennessee b t f ductile unit
7
7
t
(Serra 1977), England (Williams & Chapman 1983) and
~ in the Jura of Switzerland upper(Laubscher
flat 1977).
lowerflat~ ~
~
u'~perramphinge
upperflat DETACHMENT FOLDING
DETACHMENT FOL
C lowerflat~ ~ u'~perramphinge (uniform bed thickness)
Mode C
!' . . . . . a~ ,,o~ (uniform bed thick
Mode G!'E. O
. . .M E T,,o~
. a~ RIC RELATIONSHIPS 6O
6O
Jamison, 1987

Fault-propagation folding 50-

 OWLAND / Structural Analysis and Synthesis 15-rolland-015 Final Proof page 132 21.9.2006 3:53pm

Sección balanceada por

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Construction of Balanced Cross Sections -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

área cutoff points a and a’ cutoff points b and b’

cutoff points c and c’
ramp c’
b’ flat
ramp b c
a’ flat
ramp a
flat
FWRa FWRb
a & future thrust fault &
HWRa HWRb
FWRc
& Requiere
HWRc
deformación
hinterland foreland dentro del
panel
plano de la
Ra

Rb
hinge zone flat flat

Rc
HW

sección
HW
flat flat flat
c’

HW
flat flat flat
flat
b’
b c
a’
a

FWRa FWRb
FWRc
b Rowland, 2007
Secciones Balanceadas
• Admisible (fiel al estilo estructural en
campo)
• Retrodeformable (sin translapes o huecos)
• es decir, es Viable
• Balanceada: admisible y viable
• No es necesariamente correcta, pero si no
balancea, es incorrecta
Elliott, 1983
 Referencias para leer
• Elliott, D. (1983). The construction of balanced cross-sections. Journal of Structural
Geology, 5(2), 101.

• Dahlstrom, C. D. A. (1969). Balanced cross sections. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences,

6(4), 743-757.

• Suppe, J., & Medwedeff, D. A. (1990). Geometry and kinematics of fault-propagation

folding. Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae, 83(3), 409-454.

• Suppe, J.,(1983). Geometry and kinematics of fault-bend folding. American Journal of

Science 283, 684-721

• Erslev, E. A. (1991). Trishear fault-propagation folding. Geology, 19(6), 617-620.

• Jamison, W. R. (1987). Geometric analysis of fold development in overthrust terranes.

Journal of Structural Geology, 9(2), 207-219.