CHAPTER 3

Principles of High Quality Assessment

Formulating Instructional objectives or learning targets is identified as the first
step in conducting both the process of teaching and evaluation. Once you have
determined your objectives or learning targets, or have answered the question “what to
assess”, you will probably be concerned with answering the question “how to assess?
At this point, it is important to keep in mind several criteria that determine the quality
and credibility of the assessment methods that you choose. This lesson will focus on the
different principle or criteria and it will provide suggestions for practical steps you can
take to keep the quality of your assessment high.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

● Gain deep understanding of the various principles of high quality assessment

● Differentiate the different learning targets and the appropriate assessment
methods
● Explain the importance of test validity and reliability
● Determine the ways of establishing test validity and reliability
● Determine the positive consequences of assessment on students
● Explain the importance of test practicality and efficiency

LEARNING CONTENT
1. CLARITY & APPROPRIATENESS OF LEARNING TARGETS
Assessment should be clearly stated and specified and centered on what is truly
important.
"Teaching emphasis should parallel testing emphasis."

LEARNING TARGETS

Knowledge Students’ mastery of the content.

Reasoning Students’ ability to use their knowledge.

Skills Students’ ability to demonstrate what they

have learned.

Products Students’ ability to create.

Affects Students’ emotional attainments.

2. APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT METHODS

Assessment should utilize assessment methods suitable for a particular learning
target.

ASSESSMENT METHODS LEARNING TARGETS

Objective Supply Knowledge

Objective Select Knowledge

Essay Reasoning

Performance-based Skills, products

Oral-question Knowledge, reasoning

Observation Knowledge, skills

Self-report Affects
 3. BALANCE
Assessment methods should be able to assess all domains of learning and
hierarchy of objectives.

A. Cognitive Domain (BLOOM’S TAXONOMY)

The cognitive domain involves the development of our mental skills and the acquisition
of knowledge. The six categories under this domain are:

1. Knowledge: the ability to recall data and/or information.

Example: A child recites the English alphabet.

2. Comprehension: the ability to understand the meaning of what is known.

Example: A teacher explains a theory in his own words.

3. Application: the ability to utilize an abstraction or to use knowledge in a new

situation.
Example: A nurse intern applies what she learned in her Psychology class when she
talks to patients.

4. Analysis: the ability to differentiate facts and opinions.

Example: A lawyer was able to win over a case after recognizing logical fallacies in
the reasoning of the offender.

5. Synthesis: the ability to integrate different elements or concepts in order to form a

sound pattern or structure so a new meaning can be established.
Examples: A therapist combines yoga, biofeedback and support group therapy in
creating a care plan for his patient.

6. Evaluation: the ability to come up with judgments about the importance of concepts.

Examples: A businessman selects the most efficient way of selling products.

B. Affective Domain

The affective domain involves our feelings, emotions and attitudes. This domain is

categorized into 5 subdomains, which include:

1. Receiving Phenomena: the awareness of feelings and emotions as well as the

ability to utilize selected attention.
Example: Listening attentively to a friend.

2. Responding to Phenomena: active participation of the learner.

Example: Participating in a group discussion.
3. Valuing: the ability to see the worth of something and express it.
Example: An activist shares his ideas on the increase in salary of laborers.

4. Organization: ability to prioritize a value over another and create a unique value

system.
Example: A teenager spends more time in her studies than with her boyfriend.

5. Characterization: the ability to internalize values and let them control the person`s
behaviour.
Example: A man marries a woman not for her looks but for what she is.

C. Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain is comprised of utilizing motor skills and coordinating them.
The seven categories under this include:

1. Perception: the ability to apply sensory information to motor activity.

Example: A cook adjusts the heat of stove to achieve the right temperature of the
dish.

2. Set: the readiness to act.

Example: An obese person displays motivation in performing planned exercise.

3. Guided Response: the ability to imitate a displayed behavior or to utilize trial and

error.
Example: A person follows the manual in operating a machine.

4. Mechanism: the ability to convert learned responses into habitual actions with

proficiency and confidence.
Example: A mother was able to cook a delicious meal after practicing how to cook it.

5. Complex Overt Response: the ability to skilfully perform complex patterns of

actions.
Example: Typing a report on a computer without looking at the keyboard.

6. Adaptation: the ability to modify learned skills to meet special events.

Example: A designer uses plastic bottles to create a dress.

7. Origination: creating new movement patterns for a specific situation.

Example: A choreographer creates a new dance routine.

HIERARCHY OF OBJECTIVES

(BLOOM) (ANDERSON)
 Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge
DOMAIN I. COGNITIVE DOMAIN (Adapted by Anderson)
CATEGORIES/ LEVELS
1.1 Remembering – recall
of previously learned
information.
1.2 Understanding –
comprehending the
meaning, translation and
interpretation of
instructions; state a problem
in one’s own word.
1.3 Applying - using what
was learned in the
classroom into similar new
situations.
1.4 Analyzing – separating
materials or concept into
component parts to
understand the whole.
1.5 Evaluating – judging
the value of an idea, object
or material.
OUTCOMES VERBS
Define, describe, identify,
label, match, list, name,
outline, recall, recognize,
reproduce, state, select
Distinguish, estimate,
explain, give example,
interpret, paraphrase,
summarize
Apply, change, compute,
construct, demonstrate,
discover, modify, prepare,
produce, show, solve, use
Analyse, compare, contrast,
diagram, differentiate,
distinguish, illustrate,
outline, select
Compare, conclude,
criticize, critique, defend,
evaluate, relate, support,
Create
Evaluate
Apply
Analyze
Understand
Remember
LEARNING OUTCOMES
STATEMENTS
Recite the multiplication
tables; match the word with
the parts of the picture of a
sewing machine
Explain in one’s own words
the stages in the life cycle
of a butterfly; distinguish the
different geometric figures
Use a mathematical formula
to solve an algebra
problem; prepare daily
menus for one week for a
family of six
Observe a classroom and
list down the things to be
improved; differentiate the
parts of the tree
Defend a research
proposal; select the most
effective solution; critique a

1.6 Creating - building a
structure or pattern; putting
parts together.
DOMAIN II. PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN (Adapted by Simpson, Harrow and Dave)
CATEGORIES/ LEVELS
2.1 Observing – active
mental attention to a
physical activity
2.2 Imitating – attempt to
copy a physical behaviour
2.3 Practising –
performing a specific
activity repeatedly
2.4 Adapting – fine tuning
the skill and making minor
adjustments to attain
perfection.
DOMAIN III. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN (Adapted by Krathwohl)
justify
Categorize, combine,
compile, compose, devise,
design, plan, organize,
revise, rearrange, generate,
modify
OUTCOMES VERBS
Watch, detect, distinguish,
differentiate, describe,
relate, select
Begin, explain, move,
display, proceed, react,
show, state, volunteer
Bend, calibrate, construct,
differentiate, dismantle,
display, fasten, fix, grasp,
grind, handle, measure,
mix, operate, manipulate,
mend
Organize, relax, shorten,
sketch, write, rearrange,
compose, create, design,
originate
class demonstration
Compile personal records
and documents into a
portfolio; write a syllabus for
a school subject.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
STATEMENTS
Detect nonverbal
communication cues;
watch a more experienced
person; observe and read
directions
Show understanding and
do sequence of steps with
assistance; recognize
one’s limitations
Operate quickly and
accurately; display
competence while
performing; performance
is moving towards
becoming automatic and
smooth
Perform automatically;
construct a new
scheme/sequence; apply
skill in new situation;
create a new routine;
develop a new program
 CATEGORIES/ LEVELS
3.1 Receiving – being
aware or sensitive to
something and being
willing to listen or pay
attention
3.2 Responding -
showing commitment to
respond in some measure
to the idea or
phenomenon
3.3 Valuing – showing a
willingness to be
perceived as valuing or
favouring certain ideas
3.4 Organizing –
arranging values into
priorities, creating a
unique value system by
comparing, relating and
synthesizing values.
3.5 Internalizing –
practising value system
that controls one’s
behaviour that is consisted
pervasive, predictable and
OUTCOMES VERBS
Select, point to, sit, chose,
describe, follow, hold,
identify, name, reply
Answer, assist, and,
comply, conform, discuss,
greet, help, perform
practice, read, recite,
report, tell, write
Complete, demonstrate,
differentiate, explain,
follow, invite, join, justify,
propose, report, share,
study, perform
Arrange, combine,
complete, adhere, alter,
defend, explain, formulate,
integrate, organize, relate,
synthesize
Act, display. Influence,
listen, discriminate, listen,
modify, perform, revise,
solve, verify
LEARNING OUTCOMES
STATEMENTS
Listen to others with
respect, try to remember
profile and facts
Participate in discussions,
give expectations; know
the rules and practice
them; question concepts in
order to understand them
well
Demonstrate belief in the
concept or process; show
ability to resolve
Accept responsibility,
recognize the need for
balance between freedom
and responsible
behaviour, explain how to
plan to solve problem;
prioritize time effectively
for family, work and
personal life
problems/conflicts propose
plan for improvement,
inform
management/supervisor
on matters that need
attention
Show self-reliance when
asking; cooperate in group
activities; demonstrate
objectivity in problem
solving; revise judgment in
 characteristics of the light new evidences; value
person people for what they are
and not for how they look

1. VALIDITY
Assessment should be valid. There are several types of validity that are to be
established.

Types of Validity

Validity tells you how accurately a method measures something. If a method

measures what it claims to measure, and the results closely correspond to real-world
values, then it can be considered valid. There are four main types of validity:

● Construct validity: Does the test measure the concept that it’s intended to measure?
● Content validity: Is the test fully representative of what it aims to measure?
● Face validity: Does the content of the test appear to be suitable to its aims?
● Criterion validity: Do the results correspond to a different test of the same thing?

Note that this article deals with types of test validity, which determine the accuracy of
the actual components of a measure. If you are doing experimental research, you also
need to consider internal and external validity, which deal with the experimental
design and the generalizability of results.

1. Construct validity
Construct validity evaluates whether a measurement tool really represents the
thing we are interested in measuring. It’s central to establishing the overall validity of
a method.

What is a construct?
A construct refers to a concept or characteristic that can’t be directly observed, but
can be measured by observing other indicators that are associated with it.

Constructs can be characteristics of individuals, such as intelligence, obesity, job

satisfaction, or depression; they can also be broader concepts applied to organizations
or social groups, such as gender equality, corporate social responsibility, or freedom of
speech.

Example

There is no objective, observable entity called “depression” that we can measure

directly. But based on existing psychological research and theory, we can measure
depression based on a collection of symptoms and indicators, such as low self-
confidence and low energy levels.
What is construct validity?
Construct validity is about ensuring that the method of measurement matches the
construct you want to measure. If you develop a questionnaire to diagnose depression,
you need to know: does the questionnaire really measure the construct of depression?
Or is it actually measuring the respondent’s mood, self-esteem, or some other
construct?

To achieve construct validity, you have to ensure that your indicators and
measurements are carefully developed based on relevant existing knowledge. The
questionnaire must include only relevant questions that measure known indicators of
depression.

The other types of validity described below can all be considered as forms of
evidence for construct validity.

2. Content validity
Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the
construct.

To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement method must
cover all relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are missing
from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included), the validity is threatened.

Example

A mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her class. The
test should cover every form of algebra that was taught in the class. If some types of
algebra are left out, then the results may not be an accurate indication of students’
understanding of the subject. Similarly, if she includes questions that are not related to
algebra, the results are no longer a valid measure of algebra knowledge.

3. Face validity
Face validity considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the
surface. It’s similar to content validity, but face validity is a more informal and subjective
assessment.

Example

You create a survey to measure the regularity of people’s dietary habits. You
review the survey items, which ask questions about every meal of the day and snacks
eaten in between for every day of the week. On its surface, the survey seems like a
good representation of what you want to test, so you consider it to have high face
validity.
As face validity is a subjective measure, it’s often considered the weakest form of
validity. However, it can be useful in the initial stages of developing a method.
 4. Criterion validity
Criterion validity evaluates how closely the results of your test correspond to the results
of a different test.

What is a criterion?
The criterion is an external measurement of the same thing. It is usually an
established or widely-used test that is already considered valid.

What is criterion validity?

To evaluate criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between the results of
your measurement and the results of the criterion measurement. If there is a high
correlation, this gives a good indication that your test is measuring what it intends to
measure.

Example

A university professor creates a new test to measure applicants’ English writing

ability. To assess how well the test really does measure students’ writing ability, she
finds an existing test that is considered a valid measurement of English writing ability,
and compares the results when the same group of students take both tests. If the
outcomes are very similar, the new test has a high criterion validity.

5. RELIABILITY
Assessment should show consistent and stable results. There are methods which can
be used to measure and establish reliability.

RELIABILITY CAN BE MEASURED USING:

Test-retake or Retest Method Giving the same examination after several

minutes to several years.

SPLIT-HALF This is used to establish internal

consistency using Pearson r formula.

Parallel-form/Equivalence test Giving the same examination within the

day.

Test of Stability Giving the same examination content but

not in the same manner or form after
several minutes to several years.
 Measurement of stability & Equivalence Giving the same examination content but
not in the same manner or form within the
day.

Kuder-Richardson Establishment of reliability using KR 21

and KR 20 formulas.

6. FAIRNESS
Assessment should give equal opportunities for every student. There should be no
discrimination of any kind (racial, age, gender, etc.)

7. AUTHENTICITY
Assessment should touch real life situations and should emphasize practicability.

8. PRACTICALITY & EFFICIENCY

Assessment should save time, money, etc. It should be resourceful.

9. ASSESSMENT IS A CONTINUOUS PROCESS.

Because assessment is an integral part of the teaching-learning process, it should be
continuous.

ASSESSMENT FORMS:

PLACEMENT ASSESSMENT Done before instruction to assess

the needs of the learners to determine
their capacities and capabilities.

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Done during instruction

to monitor students’ progress and
to reinforce learning.

DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT Done to see the problems and

 learning difficulties of the students.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT Done after instruction to assess

students’   achievement and to see
the result of the teaching-learning
process.

10. ETHICS IN ASSESSMENT

Assessment should not be used to derogate the students. One example of this is the
right to confidentiality.

11. CLEAR COMMUNICATION

Assessment's results should be communicated to the learners and the people involved.
Communication should also be established between the teacher and the learners by
way of pre- and post-test reviews.

12. POSITIVITY OF CONSEQUENCE

Assessment should have a positive effect. It should motivate students to learn and do
more and should give way to improve the teacher's instruction.

learning task

A. The following are examples of learning outcomes; on the second column, write
the domain in which each outcome is classified and on third column the level or
category to which the learning outcome belongs.

Domain Level or Category

1. Formulate a affective organizing

procedure to follow
in preparing for
 class
demonstration.

2. Formulates new affective organizing

program

3. Perform repeatedly affective internalizing

with speed and
accuracy

4. Listen to others affective receiving

with respect

5. Select the most cognitive evaluating

effective among a
number of
solutions

6. Watch a more psychomotor observing

experienced
performer

7. Know the rules and affective responding

practice them

8. Show ability to affective valuing

resolve
problems/conflicts

9. Apply learning organize application

principles in
studying pupil
behavior

10. Recite prices of cognitive reasoning

commodities from
memory

B. Using the indicated topic or subject matter, write learning outcomes for each of
the 3 domain arranged from the simplest to the most complex level or category.

1. Cognitive Topic: Investigative Project in Biological Science

1.1 Remembering: The students can recall what is biological science.

 1.2 Understanding: Discuss and understand the principles of  gene theory,
evolution, homeostasis, and laws of thermodynamics.

1.3 Applying: Apply the knowledge of biological science to distinguish

between the life of living organisms, including their physical structure,
chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms,
development and evolution.

1.4 Analyzing : To differentiate the types of living and nonliving things.

1.5 Evaluating: Master laboratory techniques including, and using of

spectrometer, and PCR.

1.6 Creating : Design, perform and analyze experiments in biology.

2. Psychomotor Topic: Table Setting

2.1 Observing: Following the techniques in table setting

2.2 Imitating: Explain the different kinds of table setting.

2.3 Practicing: Perform the different kinds of techniques in table setting.

2.4 Adapting: create a new different style of table setting.

2. Affective Topic: Developing and Nurturing Honesty

2.1 Receiving: Identify and apply contemporary theories of honesty.

2.2 Responding: Participate on seminars for self awareness

2.3 Valuing: Share the knowledge that you learn.

2.4 Organizing: Learn to manage conflicts and understand and apply the
skills of problem solving.

2.5 Internalizing : Learn to balance confidence with humility.