Curs TC2 2018

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
1
1. General aspects
Generally, concrete is referred to as a composite
construction material composed primarily of aggregate,
Portland cement and water, which have been mixed
AGGREGATE
together, placed, consolidated and allowed to solidify and
harden.
CEMENT
The cement is an inorganic material often used in the CONCRETE
construction industry due to its binding capacity (when
comes in contact with water). PORTLAND
WATER
Portland cement (most common type) – obtained by CEMENT
heating limestone (calcium carbonate) together with other
materials (like clay). The process is called calcination and
the final substance that is obtained is called clinker.
The Portland cement can be associated with other fillers
also (such as fly ashes, slag etc) 2
1. General aspects
AGGREGATE
The aggregate is generally a coarse gravel or crushed rocks
such as limestone, or granite, along with a fine aggregate
AGGREGATE
such as sand.
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete

mixture (app 75% of concrete volume).
CONCRETE
Recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition and
excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial PORTLAND
WATER
replacements of natural aggregates. CEMENT
Cement + Water = Paste (Binder/Glue)

Cement + Water + Fine aggregate (sand) = Mortar
Cement + Water + Fine agg. + Coarse agg. = Concrete
3
1. General aspects
WATER
Water is mixed with the dry components which enables the
mixture to be shaped (typically poured) and then solidified
AGGREGATE
and hardened into rock-hard strength through a chemical
process known as hydration. The water reacts with the
cement which bonds the other components together,
eventually creating a robust stone-like material.
PORTLAND
ADMIXTURES CEMENT CONCRETE WATER
Admixtures are sometimes added for specific purposes,

such as:
- retard the initial set of the concrete;
- accelerate the hardening of the concrete;
- waterproof the concrete; ADMIXTURES
- increase the workability of plastic or "fresh"
concrete, allowing it be placed more easily, with less
consolidating effort;
- entrain numerous microscopic air bubbles,
etc.
4
1. General aspects
CONCRETE MIX
1%
17%
2% AGGREGATE 70%
CEMENT 10%
10% ADMIXTURES AND FILLERS 2%
AIR 1%
70% WATER 17%
5
1. General aspects
BASIC PROPERTIES
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but
much lower tensile strength. For this reason is usually
reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often
steel).
Concrete can be damaged by many processes, such as the
freezing of trapped water or corrosion.
USE OF CONCRETE
Concrete’s versatility, durability, and economy have made
it the world’s most used construction material (second
most consumed material after water).
10 Billions tones are produced worldwide each year.
Concrete is widely used for making building structures,

foundations, block walls, pavements, bridges/overpasses,
motorways/roads, highways, streets, parking lots and
structures, dams, pools/reservoirs, pipes, footings for
gates, fences and poles, etc.
Structures made of concrete can have a long service life.

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1. General aspects – what is concrete technology?
Generally speaking - Technology is the current state of

humanity's knowledge of how to combine resources to
produce desired products, to solve problems related to
human needs. In this context, it includes technical/work
methods, skills, processes, techniques,
tools/equipment/machines and raw materials.
The word - Technology comes from Greek

word technología = from téchnē - meaning "art, skill,
craft", and logos - meaning "study of-"
Concrete Technology – refers to that body of knowledge

and methods associated with the design of concrete
mixtures, construction and maintenance of concrete
structures.
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1. General aspects – life cycles stages
GENERAL LIFE-CYCLE OF THE CONCRETE

8
1. General aspects – life cycles stages
EXTRACTING /
PRODUCING /
ACQUIRING THE
MATERIALS
DISMANTLING
MIXING
AND RECYCLING
SERVICE STAGE
(MAINTENANCE,
TRANSPORTING
REPAIRS,
RETROFITTING)
CURING PLACING
CONSOLIDATING
& FINISHING
SPECIFIC CYCLE OF THE CONCRETE 9

2. CONCRETE CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
CONCRETE CLASSIFICATION IN TERMS OF AGE

a. Fresh concrete - the plastic phase, between the moment when water is
added upon cement, up to the setting start. During this stage concrete is
mixed, transported, placed, consolidated and finished. (1 – 2 hours average);
b. Setting concrete (curing stage) - that age of the concrete that corresponds
to its passing from the plastic phase to the completely solid phase.
This time interval contains two sub-intervals:
- setting phase = when the cement paste is setting;
- curing phase = when the concrete is gaining strength, up to the moment
when concrete is considered that has been reached the designed
requirements (28 days*).
c. Cured concrete = conventionally after 28 days.

Normally, the concrete continues to increase it’s strength, beyond this age,
up to (15 – 20)%. (British Code of Practice 110/1972). 10
2.1. PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FRESH CONCRETE
For the designer – the most important characteristic of concrete is the

strength in compression of the cured concrete.
For the contractor – fresh concrete properties are the most relevant because
during this stage the concrete should:
- be easily and properly mixed and transported;
- be easily placed, and consolidated to fill the forms without segregation;
- be properly finished;
- set without shrinkage.
Related to the above requirements, the main concept used to express the
major properties of the fresh concrete is WORKABILITY
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WORKABILITY is a complex attribute because it express a large area of

aspects:
- The ease of placement and the resistance to segregation;
But, this depends on the means of compaction available: a workability
suitable for a mass concrete is not necessary sufficient for thin or heavily
reinforced sections;
- The amount of work necessary to produce full compaction:

- elimination of entrapped air from the concrete until it has
achieved as close as possible the configuration of the given mix;
- the work done for this purpose is to overcame the friction
between the individual particles in the concrete and also between the
concrete and the surface of the formwork elements or of the reinforcement.
12
Workability also reflects the following related characteristics of the fresh

concrete:
CONSISTENCY – represents the degree of wetness (fluidity/mobility of the

fresh concrete). It expresses the ease with which the concrete can flow into
molds/forms, around the structural steel, reinforcing bars and be remolded.
It is a complex attribute because it express a large area of aspects: Wet
concrete are more workable then dry concrete, but concretes of the same
consistence may vary in workability.
STABILITY – the ability of concrete to remain a stable, coherent,

homogeneous mass during handling and vibration, without segregation of
the constituents.
13
In terms of fluidity fluids are of two kinds:

- Newton type fluids: water, wine, oil.
- Bingham type fluids: tooth paste, honey, concrete
Considering that the relative movement of two sections of the fluid is produced by a force F
F v F=USv
L
S U = viscous factor <N/m²>
S = area of the section that moves one of each
L other <m²>
L = distance between two layers <m>
v = displacement speed <m/s>
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F F F
U = tg a U = tg a U = tg a U = tg a
S
F av a F=USv
L
S U = viscous factor <N/m²>
f f S = area of the section that moves one of each
a aS L
SV other <m²>
V SV S
L L L = distanceVbetween two layers <m>
L L
typea)liquid
Newton type liquid b) Bingham type
b) liquid v = displacement speed
Bingham type liquid <m/s>
Bingham type fluids: certain initial resistance - minimum

flowing effort “f” has to be overcome.
That is why compaction is needed: although initially

concrete is very viscous, by vibration it becomes more
fluent so that it could fill the form.
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MEASURING THE WORKABILITY / CONSISTENCY

(according to Romanian Code of Practice NE012/1-2007 and other international standards)
SR EN 12350-1:2009 Încercare pe beton proaspăt. Partea 1: Eşantionare
SR EN 12350-2:2009 Încercare pe beton proaspăt. Partea 2: Încercarea de tasare
SR EN 12350-3:2009 Încercare pe beton proaspăt. Partea 3: Încercare Vebe
SR EN 12350-4:2009 Încercare pe beton proaspăt. Partea 4: Grad de compactare
SR EN 12350-5:2009 Încercare pe beton proaspăt. Partea 5: Încercare cu masa de răspândire
SR EN 12350-6:2009 Încercare pe beton proaspăt. Partea 6: Densitate
SR EN 12350-7:2009 Încercare pe beton proaspăt. Partea 7: Conţinut de aer. Metode prin presiune
SLUMP TEST – SR EN 12350-2

VEBE TEST – SR EN 12350-3 (RELEVANT FOR VERY STIFF CONCRETE MIXES)
COMPACTING FACTOR TEST – SR EN 123450-4
DIN TEST (GERMAN FLOW TABLE) – SR EN 12350-5 (FOR FLOWING COCRETE)
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SLUMP TEST
(most used procedure for fresh concrete – on site)
A frustum of a cone mold is placed on a smooth surface with the smaller base at the top and is filled in
three equal layers and tamped 25 times per layer with a standard diameter (16 mm) steel rod.
Immediately after filling, the cone is slowly lifted. The decrease of the height of the concrete is called
slump.
The higher the slump, the workable the concrete may be considered.
Slump is measured after a minimum quantity of 0,30 mc of concrete was discharged.
17
FRESH CONCRETE CLASSIFICATION - SLUMP TEST
Concrete Slump Degree of

Notes – concrete use
class (mm) workability
Roads – vibrated by power-operated machines or

Very low hand-operated machines
S1 10 - 40
Low Mass concrete foundations
Concrete may be transported by trucks + buckets
Roads, common building structures

S2 50 – 90 Medium
Transport by truck mixers + buckets (usually)
Common building structures, , sections with

congested reinforcement.
S3 100 – 150 High
Transport by truck mixers + buckets/pumping
(usually)
S4 160 – 210 Very high Sections with very congested reinforcement
S5 ≥220 Fluid Special cases (self compacted concrete)
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FRESH CONCRETE CLASSIFICATION - SLUMP TEST
Up to 125 mm 25 - 50 mm
Up to 150 mm
150 - 255 mm
True Slump Shear Collapse
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Concrete must have a workability such that compaction to
maximum density is possible with a reasonable amount
of work.
The lower the density (concrete with voids because of poor

compaction) – the lower the strength of the cured
concrete.
Ex. (acc to Neville): 5% of voids can lower the strength by as

much as 30%.
Voids in concrete:
- Bubbles of entrapped air – Depends mostly by the
grading of the finest particles in the mix. Are more
easily eliminated (by compaction) from a wetter mix
than from a dry one.
- Spaces left after excess water has been removed -
Depends on the W/C ratio of the mix.
CONCLUSION: The method of compaction should be correlated

to the optimum water contend at witch the sum of the
voids in concrete will be a minimum. In this case the
highest density ratio would be obtained
20
FACTORS AFFECTING THE WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
- Water content – The more water – the higher the workability.
- The amount of cement – Correlated with water by W/C ratio. The

higher the W/C ratio, the finer the grading (size of aggregates)
required for the highest workability.
- Aggregate grading, shape and size – Dredged rounded stones (river

aggregates) generally produce more workable mixes than crushed
angular material. Less water is required for a given workability by
increasing the maximum size of aggregate.
- The use of entrained air – reduce the amount of mixing water.
- The use of chemical admixtures – reduce the amount of mixing

water
- Time – Fresh concrete stiffens with time (not related to setting of

cement). It happens because some water from the mix is absorbed
by the aggregate (especially the dry one), lost by evaporation,
removed by initial chemical reactions.
Ex. After 1 hour, slump may decrease from 120 mm to 80 mm.
Therefore Slump Test should be performed on the site.
21
FACTORS AFFECTING THE WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE
Temperature
- High atmospheric temperatures (more than 50 C) will decrease the
workability.
- Fresh concrete temperature should not be lower than + 5 C;
- When atmospheric temperature is lower than -3 C the fresh
concrete temperature should exceed + 10 C (use specific methods to
protect concrete against freezing)
22
SEGREGATION
A proper concrete mix should not easily segregate = it must be

cohesive.
Segregation = separation of the constituents of a

heterogeneous mixture so that their distribution is no longer
uniform.
In case of concrete = 2 forms of segregation:

- Coarser particles tend to settle more than finer particles;
- In case of wet mixes = separation of grout (C+W) from the mix
Segregation depends mostly on the method of handling and

placing of concrete:
- If the concrete does not have far to travel and is transferred
directly to the final position – the danger of Segregation is
small;
- Dropping concrete from a considerable height, passing along a

chute, discharging against an obstacle – the danger of S is high;
- Do not use the vibrator to spread a heap of concrete over a

larger area;
-Do not over vibrate.

2.2. PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CURED CONCRETE

The most important properties of cured concrete are:
compactity, density, compressive strength and durability.
A) COMPACTITY reflects the amount of air voids (p):
- Compact concrete: p = 1 -5 % (for structural elements)
- Semi-compact concrete: p = 5-20%
- Macroporous concrete: p = 20-40 %
- Cellular expanded concrete: p = 40-75%
The compressive strength of the concrete decreases with the increase

of the voids percentage.
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B) DENSITY (volumetric weigh):
According to NE 012-1/2007, Cap. 3 - for dry concrete:

- Heavy concrete: ρc > 2600 kg/mc;
- Normal weight concrete: ρc = 2000 - 2600 kg/mc;
- Light concrete: ρc < 2000 kg/mc.
The concrete weight is primarily given by the aggregate weight

and aggregate grading used for the mix proportioning.
Heavy concrete and normal weight concrete is made of (very)

heavy aggregates (2,3-2,9 t/mc), having a compact or semi
compact structure (often used as shields again radiations).
26
Light weight concrete may be achieved in three ways:

i) By not using fine aggregates (no-fines concrete);
ii) By using lightweight aggregate;
iii) By aerating or foaming the concrete.
i) No – fines: is made by mixing a coarse aggregate with cement

and water. Aggregate may be normal or light weight.
Usually the aggregates must have the same size
(diameter).
The mix is commonly 1C/8Ag, with W/C = 0.40 or less.
Advantages:
- higher thermal insulation properties
- not subject to capillarity
27

ii) Light weight aggregate concrete: is made with clinker aggregate or

foamed blast-furnace slag.
A large part of the production of this kind of concrete is in the form of
precast concrete blocks (up to 1C/10Ag).
It is used for internal partitions for non-bearing elements.
28

iii) Cellular (aerated or foamed) concrete: air or gas bubbles

are dispersed throughout the concrete, giving reduced density
and strength, but the thermal insulating properties are
important in this case. Usually this elements (blocks) are
autoclaved (= cured under pressurized steam).
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C) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
The most important characteristic of the concrete since it is

one of the most significant basis for design.
The main classification of concrete is in terms of Classes of

compressive strength (for normal weight concrete)
fck.cyl = characteristic compressive strength tested on cylinders

(d=150mm; h=300mm) at 28 days.
fck.cub = characteristic compressive strength tested on cube
(l=150mm) at 28 days.
fck - characteristic compressive strength = the value of

strength below which max 5% of all possible strength test
results for the specified concrete may be expected to fall.
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COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH CLASSES ACCORDING TO ROMANIAN NORM NE 012/1-2007
31
3. COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE – INFLUENCE AND PROPERTIES
3.1 CEMENT
DEF: a material with adhesive and cohesive properties which

make it capable of bonding aggregate to produce mortar and
concrete. Cement influences the properties of the fresh and
cured concrete with respect to its quality and quantity.
The principal constituents of the Portland cement are the

compounds of lime.
Cement is capable of setting and hardening under water by

virtue of a chemical reaction = hydraulic cement.
32
3.1 CEMENT – PRODUCTION STAGES
33
3.1 CEMENT
A) Chemical composition of Portland cement
The raw materials used: lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide.
These compounds interact during the production process and form the cement clinker.
Oxide Romanian
Name of the component Abbreviation
composition name
Tricalcium silicate 3CaO∙SiO2 C3S Alit
Dicalcium silicate 2CaO∙SiO2 C2S Belit
Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO∙Al2O3 C3A Celit I
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite 4CaO∙Al2O3∙Fe2O3 C4AF Celit II

Other components (EN197-2011): blast-furnace slab, silica fume, pozzolana, fly ashes,
burnt shale, limestone
- C3A (Celit I) and C3S (Alit) are the first components that chemically react – the cement paste starts hardening
(cement setting). The setting process produces the increase of temperature in the cement paste
- C3S determines the speed of hardening
- The C2S (Belit) hydration is slower and also produce less heat
- In order to reduce the hardening speed the cement compound includes also other components (admixtures)
34
3.1 CEMENT
B) Degree of Fineness - Portland cement
- The rate of hydration depends on the fineness of the cement particles
- The degree of Fineness will influence the speed of achieving the
characteristic compressive strength
- The hydration speed increases with the degree of fineness
Usually, for normal cements dmax = 90 µm.
Fineness of cements is usually tested by either sieving or by determining the
specific surface by air permeability method.
EFFECTS
-High percentage of C3S (Alit) and degree of fineness – superior compressive strength and speed of hardening for
concrete
-High percentage of C3S (Alit) – high hydration heat (risk of affecting the homogeneity)
35
3.1 CEMENT
C) CEMENT CLASSIFICATION (according to SR EN 197-1 Cement – Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity
criteria fir common cements)
27 types of cements are presented in SR EN 197-1 (Table 1), grouped in 5 Classes
CEMENT CLASSES
CEM I – PORTLAND CEMENT - CIMENT PORTLAND FARA ADAOSURI (CLINKER 100%)
CEM II – COMPOSITE PORTLAND CEMENT - CIMENT PORTLAND COMPOZIT (CLINKER + ADAOSURI S,D,P,Q,V,W,T,L,LL)
CEM III – BLAST – FURNACE PORTLAND CEMENT - CIMENT CU ZGURA DE FURNAL (CLINKER + ZGURA DE FURNAL)
CEM IV – POZZOLANA CEMENT - CIMENT PUZZOLANIC (CLINKER + CENUȘĂ VULCANICA (PUZZOLANA) + CENUȘA DE
TERMOCENTRALĂ)
CEM V – COMPOSITE CEMENT - CIMENT COMPOZIT (CLINKER + ZGURĂ DE FURNAL+CENUȘĂ VULCANICĂ+CENUȘĂ DE

TERMOCENTRALĂ)
36
A , B – PROPORTIE DE CLINKER
K – CLINKER
S – BLAST FURNACE SLAB /

ZGURA DE FURNAL
D – SILICA FUME / SILICE

ULTRAFINA
P – POZZOLANA / PUZZOLANA
NATURALA
Q – POZZOLANA NATURAL
CALCINATED / PUZZOLANA
NATURALA CALCINATA
V – FLY ASH SILICEOUS / CENUSA

ZBURATOARE SILICIOASA
W – FLY ASH CALCAREOUS /

CENUSA ZBURATOARE CALCICA
T – BURNT SHALE / SIST

CALCINAT
L, LL – LIMESTONE / CALCAR
37
3.1 CEMENT
D) CEMENT STRENGTH
* Standard strength of cement = compression strength (MPa) at 28 days (determined according to SR EN 196-1)
Each type of cement is defined by 3 classes of standard strength:

- Class 32,5
- Class 42,5
- Class 52,5.
* Initial strength of cement = compression strength of cement (MPa = N/mm2) at 2 days or 7 days
For each class of standard strength, 2 classes of initial strength are defined:
- Normal (common) initial strength - N
- Rapid hardening - R
Compression Strength (MPa) Initial

Strength
Initial Strength Standard Strength Set
Class
(min)
2 days 7 days 28 days
32,5 N -  16,0
 32,5  52,5  75
32,5 R  10,0 -
42,5 N  10,0 -
 42,5  62,5  60
42,5 R  20,0 -
52,5 N  20,0 -
 52,5 -  45
52,5 R  30,0 -
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3.1 CEMENT
E) STANDARDAD NOTATION
Cements should be identified by specifying:
- Type of Cement – according to Table 1;

- Class of Standard Strength (32,5/42,5/52,5) - according to Table 2;
- Class of Initial Strength (N/R) - according to Table 2.
Example 1
Portland Cement (EN 197-1) compressive strength 42.5 with high initial strength:
Portland Cement EN 197-1 – CEM I 42.5 R
Example 2
Portland Cement with slag (zgura de furnal) between 6% and 20%, compressive strength 32.5 with normal initial
strength:
Portland Slag Cement EN 197-1 – CEM II/A-S 32.5 N
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3.1 CEMENT
F) INFLUENCE OF CEMENT QUANTITY
The cement quantity has to be sufficient so that the gel
(obtained by hydration) to cover the aggregate and to fill
the gaps among the aggregate particles and consequently
to provide a proper compactity of the concrete mix.
Generally speaking, the more cement, the greater the

concrete strength in compression occurs. This statement is
valid up to a certain point. After this, increasing the
cement quantity produce no/very little gains for concrete
strength.
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3.2 WATER
Water influences the properties of concrete (in both fresh
and cured state) through its quality and quantity.
A) WATER QUALITY (SR EN 1008/2003)
In many specifications the water appropriate for concrete
preparation is referred to as potable water.
In general, water with pH between 6 – 8, with no salinity

is suitable for concrete preparations.
Any impurities in water my interfere with the setting

properties of the cement and, consequently, may affect
the final compressive strength of the concrete.
Water containing high quantities of chlorides (salt water)

tends to cause persistent dampness and surface
efflorescence. These types of waters are not suitable for
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concrete preparation.
3.2 WATER
B) WATER QUANTITY
The quantity of water used in a concrete mix will influence
the properties of both fresh concrete and cured concrete.
The minimum quantity of water required by the chemical

reaction (hydration) reasons correspond to W/C = 0,36
(provides the maximum of compactity and strength).
BUT, this figure makes difficult the compaction of

concrete.
THUS, the suitable quantity of water required for making a
concrete mix is the one that provides the required
workability (depending with the form dimensions and
shape, density of reinforcement, compacting equipment,
aggregate size and shape, etc).
According to NE 012/1997 – W/C ratio is 0,45 – 0,65.

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3.3 AGGREGATES
Aggregate for concrete may be:
- Natural aggregates = formed from naturally occurring materials: naturally sized

(gravel from rivers) or crushed (from quarry);
- Artificial aggregates = manufactured from industrial products;
- Recycled aggregates = obtained by crushing old demolished concrete
elements/structures.
Aggregate influence the quality of the concrete by their properties and grading.
- Many properties of the aggregate depend on the properties of the parent rock:
chemical and mineral composition, petrographic description, specific weight,
hardness, strength, physical and chemical stability, pore structure, etc.
- The specific properties of the aggregates (in their final shape), that influence
the characteristics of the concrete, are: particle shape and size, surface texture,
water absorption and grading.
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3.3 AGGREGATES
A) Particle shape and texture
According to their shape, aggregate may be classified in:
- Rounded: completely shaped by erosion (produced by water);

- Irregular: naturally irregular, partly shaped by erosion , having rounded edges;
- Flat: the thickness is small relative to the other two dimensions;
ROUNDED
- Angular: possessing well defined edges (crushed rocks);
- Elongated: usually angular, with the length is larger than the other two dimensions.
ANGULAR
IRREGULAR FLAT ELONGATED 44

3.3 AGGREGATES
A) Particle shape and texture
1. USUALLY: b/a ≥ 0,66; c/a ≥ 0,33;

c
2. In a mixture of two aggregates, one angular, the other rounded, in varying proportions – a
increasing the proportion of rounded particles – decreases the proportion of voids. b
3. Rounded particles have a smaller Ratio of Surface to Volume – increase the workability of
the concrete mix. Usually, the percentage of elongated or flat particles should not exceed 10-
15% of the total volume of aggregates.
4. Usually, if the particles have rough and large surface area, the adhesive forces between the
aggregates and the cement paste are increased, but, in the same time, the necessary water
quantity for obtaining the workability class also increases.
IRREGULAR FLAT ELONGATED ANGULAR ROUNDED

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3.3 AGGREGATES
B) Strength of the aggregates
The rock compressive strength must be bigger than the one of the concrete . A
good average value of the crushing strength of the aggregates is about 200 MPa.
C) Porosity and Absorption of Aggregate
The porosity of aggregate, its permeability and absorption influence some of the
concrete properties, such as:
- the bond between aggregate and the cement paste;
- the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing;
- the chemical stability of concrete;
- the resistance to abrasion of concrete.

The absorption of the aggregate indicates the quantity of water which will be
absorbed into the pore structure.
When all the pores in the aggregate are full with water it is said to be saturated
and surface – dry. Dry aggregate will tend to become saturated (to absorb water
from cement paste – will reduce workability).
3.3 AGGREGATES
D) Moisture content of the aggregates
Aggregate exposed to rain collects a large amount of moisture on the surface of the particles, especialy in the case of fine
aggregate.
The surface moisture (moisture content) is expressed as a percentage of the weight of the saturated aggregate.
The total water content of aggregate = moisture content + absorption.
Moisture content should be determined in order to fix the quantity of water to be added in the concrete mix.
3.3 AGGREGATES
E) GRADING
Sieve Analysis = dividing a sample of aggregate into fractions, each consisting of particles of the same size. Each fraction
contains particles between specific limits, these being the openings of standard test sieves.
Grading Curves = graphical representation of the sieve analysis.
By using a chart it is possible to see whether the grading of a given sample conforms to that specified, or is too coarse or
too fine, or deficient in a particle size.
In the grading chart, the ordinate represents the cumulative percentage passing and the abscissa represents the sieve
size.
3.3 AGGREGATES
Basic set
E) GRADING
0
A optimum grading curve must provide:
1
2
-A minimum void volume among the aggregate particles (for reducing the
4
quantities of cement, water and air);
-
-A proper workability.
-
8
To fulfill these requirements the aggregate grading curve must be:
- Continue
-
- Placed between two standard grading curves – provided by standards -

specifications. (The curves are different for different D (maximum size)). -
-
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-
-
31,5 …63
3.3 INFLUNECE OF AGGREGATES
E) GRADING
Good Grading
-The curves most commonly referred to as a basis
for mix design are those provided by NE 012/1-
2007 – based on EN 206-1/2000.
-Four curves are shown for each maximum size of
aggregate, but in practice, the curves that are
used usually between the limits of these 4
curves.
- Curve No.3/5: represents the coarsest grading.

Such a grading can be used for mixes with a low
W/C ratio. These curves can be used but the
segregation effect must be taken into account
and special measures have to be considered.
- Curve No.1/2: represents a fine grading.

It is cohesive but not very workable, requiring a
good compaction. Thus, it demands a higher
quantity of water which may lead to a lower
strength class unless the cement quantity is also
increased.
3.3 INFLUNECE OF AGGREGATES
E) GRADING
-Gradings lying partly in one zone, partly in

another – danger of segregation when too many
intermediate sizes are missing.
-Gap Grading (curve 4)

There must be a minimum difference between
the sizes of any two adjacent particle fractions
(sizes differing but little cannot be used side by
side).
Gap grading = a grading in witch one or more
intermediate size fraction are omitted.
In grading curves, the gap gradings are
represented by a horizontal line over the range
of sizes that are not included.
Omission of these sizes would reduce the
number of stockpiles of aggregate required and
may lead to decreases in the production costs.
ZONE DE GRANULOZITATE PENTRU DIMENSIUNEA
MAXIMA A AGREGATELOR DE 32 MM
100
89
80
80 77
Treceri (vol %)
65
62 62
60
53
47
1 42 2
40 37 38
30
3 4
29 28 30
23 5
20 18
15 14
8
5 8
2
0
0 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16 31.5
Site cu ochiuri patrate (mm)
1 Defavorabila
2 Utilizabila
3 Favorabila
4 Favorabila pentru compozitie granulometrica discontinua
5 Defavorabila
ZONE DE GRANULOZITATE PENTRU DIMENSIUNEA
MAXIMA A AGREGATELOR DE 16 MM
100
88
80 76
74
Treceri (vol %)
62
60
60 56
49
1 42
40 36
34
32
3 4
30 30 30
20
2 21 5
20 18
12
8 8
3
0
0 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16
Site cu ochiuri patrate (mm)
1 Defavorabila
2 Utilizabila
3 Favorabila
4 Favorabila pentru compozitie granulometrica discontinua
5 Defavorabila
3.3 AGGREGATES
F) PRODUCTION
Basic steps:
Size reduction - CRUSHING
Size separation - SCREENING (SIEVING)
Elimination of undesirable material - WASHING
TRANSPORT and STORAGE
4. EXPOSURE CLASSES FOR CURED CONCRETE
4.1. General presentation of the exposure classes
Cured concrete can be subjected to various environmental actions, classified according to the exposure classes:
XO Exposure class for no risk of corrosion or attack

XC…E. c. for risk of corrosion induced by Carbonation
XD…E. c. for risk of corrosion induced by chlorides other than from sea water (Deicing salt)
XS…E. c. for risk of corrosion induced by chlorides from Sea water
XF…E. c. for risk of corrosion induced by Freeze/thaw attack
XA…E. c. for chemical attack (Aggressive environment)
XM…E. c. for Mechanical abrasion.
The detailed classification is presented in the tables below.
4.2. Corrosion induced by carbonation
Class Description of the environment Examples where exposure

designation classes may occur
1. No risk of corrosion or attack
XO For concrete without reinforcement
or embedded metal: All exposures except
freeze/thaw or chemical attack. Concrete inside buildings with very low air
For concrete with reinforcement: humidity
Very dry
2. Corrosion induced by carbonation (from air or moisture)
XC1 Dry or permanently wet Inside buildings with low air humidity
Permanently submerged in water
XC2 Wet, rarely dry C. surfaces subject to long-term water contact
Many foundations
XC3 Moderate humidity Inside buildings – moderate/high air humidity
External c. sheltered from rain
XC4 Cyclic wet and dry Other than XC2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

• Physicochemical reaction – CO2 from air penetrates into concrete and reacts with calcium
hydroxide to from calcium carbonates (in presence of water)
• The precipitation of calcium carbonate reduces the pH level of concrete
• Compressive strength of carbonated concretes slightly Increases in comparison with non-
carbonated concretes.
• Carbonation depth increases with an increase of carbonation time and higher CO2
concentration has a higher carbonation depth.
• The splitting strength of carbonated concretes slightly increases compared to the non-
carbonated concretes.
• Carbonation leads to a significant reduction in the permeability and porosity of concrete.

• The depth of carbonation decreases with an increase in compressive strength.
4.3. Corrosion induced by chlorides
Class Description of the Examples where exposure classes may

designation environment occur
3. Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from sea water
XD1 Moderate humidity C. surfaces exposed to airborne chlorides
XD2 Wet, rarely dry Swimming pools

C. Exposed to industrial waters containing
chlorides
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry Parts of bridges exposed to spray containing
chlorides
Pavements, Car park slabs
4. Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water
XS1 Exposed to airborne salt but not in Structures near to/on the coast
direct contact with sea water
XS2 Permanently submerged Parts of marine structures

XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones Parts of marine structures
4.3. Corrosion induced by chlorides
4.4. Corrosion induced by freeze/thaw attack
Class Description of the Examples where exposure classes may

designation environment occur
5. Freeze/thaw attack with or without de-icing agents
XF1 Moderate water saturation, without Vertical c. surfaces exposed to rain and
de-icing agent freezing
XF2 Moderate water saturation, with Vertical c. surfaces of road structures
de-icing agent exposed to freezing and airborne de-icing
agents
XF3 High water saturation, without de- Horizontal c. surfaces exposed to rain and
icing agent freezing
High water saturation, with de- Road and bridge decks exposed to de-icing
icing agent or sea water agents
C. Surfaces exposed to direct spray
XF4 containing de-icing agents and freezing
Splash zones of marine structures exposed
to freezing
4.4. Corrosion induced by freeze/thaw attack
4.5. Corrosion induced by chemical attack
Class Description of the Examples where exposure classes
designation environment may occur
6. Chemical attack
XA1 Slightly aggressive chemical
environment – according to
Table 2/SREN 206 - 1
XA2 Moderately aggressive chemical
XA3 Highly aggressive chemical

1. Sulphates ions
2. Alkalinity
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Amonium ions
5. Magnesium ions
6. Acids
4.6. Corrosion induced by mechanical abrasion
Class Description of the Examples where exposure classes
designation environment may occur
7. Mechanical abrasion
XM1 Slightly mechanical abrasion Industrial slabs/pavements with vehicles
having tires.
XM2 Intensive mechanical abrasion Industrial slabs/pavements with
mechanical pilers having tires
XM3 Highly intensive mechanical Industrial slabs/pavements with caterpillar
abrasion vehicles.
Abrasion resistance has close proximity to the compressive strength of concrete. Strong concrete is more abrasion-
resistant than weak concrete.
5. CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
The concrete mix design is a process of selecting suitable ingredients and

determining the optimum quantities that will produce concrete that satisfies
the designed / job requirements, such as:
- minimum compressive strength,
- workability
- durability (resistance to a certain exposure class)
- impermeability
- gelivity
- etc.
When the concrete mix is designed, all relevant requirements (related to mixing, transportation, placing, compaction,
curing and other treatments) should be take into account and carefully evaluated:
- application of the fresh/hardened concrete;

- curing conditions;
- dimensions of the structure / element (heat development);
- environmental actions to which the structure is exposed;
- concrete - cover of the reinforcement;
- minimum section width, maximum aggregate size, etc;
Concrete shall be specified as:
- DESIGNED CONCRETE: by presenting the requirements

- Concrete class
- Exposure class
- W/C ratio
- Type of cement / strength class / speed of hardening
- Type and max. diameter of aggregate
- Workability class
- Gelivity class
- Permeability class
- Homogeneity class
- Type of additive
- PRESCRIBED CONCRETE: by prescribing the exact composition for 1 m3 of concrete (or in parts):
- Quantity of cement
- Quantity of water
- Quantity of aggregates on each granulometric interval
- Quantity of additives
Classical Approach:
The concrete mix design assumes a series of necessary approximations for successive stages:
PRELIMINARY MIX;
LABORATORY COMPOSITION - MIX;
WORKING (FULL SCALE) MIX.
A. PRELIMINARY MIX
is obtained by taking into considerations theoretical information given by standards and the materials
characteristics (cement type).
The assumption is that the aggregates are dry.
Computing steps:
1. Based on the Exposure class
- Minimum compressive class
- Maximum W/C ratio
- Minimum quantity of cement
2. Establish the water quantity by taking into account:
- Compressive class
- Workability class
- Type of aggregates
3. Establish the water / cement ratio based on the values and
general rules presented in the norm (NE012/1-2007).
- Correct the W/C ratio based on the permeability requirements
A. PRELIMINARY MIX
Computing steps:
4. Calculate the cement quantity
W
C  Cmin
W /C
5. Establish the entrapped air (un-eliminated due to compaction):
P  2%
6. Establish the total quantity of dry aggregates
Gag C
1m3  1000dm3   W  P
 ag c
 
C
Gag   ag 1000   W  P  kg dm3
c
 
 
A. PRELIMINARY MIX
Computing steps:
7. Establish the quantity of dry aggregates on each size fraction
Pj  Pi
Agi  Gag
100
S0 4  ....  kg m 
3
G48  ....  kg m3 
Gag   Gagi
G816  ....  kg m3 
G16 22  ....  kg m3 
G1632  ....  kg m3 
G32 63  ....  kg m3 
8. Specific weight of the concrete
c  W  C  Gag kg m3 
B. LABORATORY COMPOSITION
Based on the workability and density requirements, new corrections for the components are made.
Assumptions and principles:
•Aggregates are still considered dry.
• The workability and density are evaluated on a mixture of concrete of 30 liters, with dosages calculated from the
preliminary composition.
• Water is introduced gradually until the desired workability is obtained
• New amounts of materials will result and different specific weight of concrete
B. LABORATORY COMPOSITION
W W *
W / C  the same
W*
C'
W /C
Gag ,lab  recalculated
Pj  Pi
Agi  Gag ,lab
100
S '0 4  ....  kg m3 
G '48  ....  kg m3 
G '816  ....  kg m3 
G '16 22  ....  kg m3  c ,lab  W *  C '  Gag ,lab  kg m3 
G '1632  ....  kg m3 
C. WORKING COMPOSITION/MIX
comes from the laboratory mix, by correcting it with the real aggregates humidity.
The moisture content of aggregates is known ( uij ):
ui _ sand  ...% The quantity of each wet aggregate is recalculated

S0' f 4  ....  kg m3 
ui _ gravel  ...%
S 4' f 8  ....  kg m3 
The water from the aggregats is:
G8' f 16  ....  kg m3 
Gagi 
ui
100

 Gagi _ lab. l m3  G16' f  22  ....  kg m3 
G16' f32  ....  kg m3 
Wgi   Gagi l m3 
G32' f 63  ....  kg m3 
The total quantity of wet aggregates is:
The final specific weight of the concrete:
G final
ag  Gag _ lab.  Wgi  kg m  3
The final quantity of water is corrected: c , final  W final  C ' Gagfinal  kg m3 
W final  W *  Wgi l m3 

ADDITIVES (ADMIXTURES) FOR CONCRETE
The admixtures are the components in concrete, other than portland cement, water, and aggregate, that are added to
the mix immediately before or during mixing.
Producers use admixtures primarily to:
- reduce the cost of concrete construction;
- modify the properties of hardened concrete;
- ensure the quality of concrete during mixing, transporting, placing, and curing;
- and to overcome certain emergencies during concrete operations.
Successful use of admixtures depends on the use of appropriate methods of batching and concreting. Most
admixtures are supplied in ready-to-use liquid form and are added to the concrete at the plant or at the jobsite.
Certain admixtures, such as pigments, expansive agents, and pumping aids are used only in extremely small amounts
and are usually batched by hand from premeasured containers.
The effectiveness of an admixture depends on several factors including: type and amount of cement, water content,
mixing time, slump, and temperatures of the concrete and air.
Sometimes, effects similar to those achieved through the addition of admixtures can be achieved by changing the
concrete mixture, such as:
- adding additional cement,
- using a different type of cement,
- reducing the water-cement ratio
- changing the aggregate and aggregate grading
WATER REDUCTION
OF THE ADMIXTURES
RETARDING
BASIC FUNCTIONS
ACCELERATING
SUPERPLASTICIZERS
AIR-ENTRAINING

A) WATER REDUCING ADMIXTURES
Usually reduce the required water content for a concrete mixture by about 5 to 10 percent. Consequently, concrete
containing a water-reducing admixture needs less water to reach a required slump than untreated concrete. The
treated concrete can have a lower water-cement ratio. This usually indicates that a higher strength concrete can be
produced without increasing the amount of cement.
Thus, the water reducing admixtures can be used for:
- Decreasing the quantity of water that has to be used for producing a concrete mix of a certain workability class;
- Reducing the W/C ratio;
- Decreasing the quantity of cement;
- Providing a superior workability class.

B) RETARDING ADMIXTURES
Are decreasing the setting rate of concrete, beingused to counteract the accelerating effect of hot weather on
concrete setting. High temperatures often cause an increased rate of hardening which makes placing and finishing
difficult. Retarders keep concrete workable during placement and delay the initial set of concrete. Most retarders also
function as water reducers and may entrain some air in concrete.
Thus, the retarding admixtures are usually used for:
- Placing concrete when the environmental temperatures are high (<250C);
- The cases when the concrete has to be transported on long distances (if the construction site if far from the
concrete producing station);

C) ACCELERATING ADMIXTURES
The accelerating admixtures are increasing the rate of early strength development, reduce the time required for
proper curing and protection, and speed up the start of finishing operations.
Thus, the retarding admixtures are usually used for:
- Placing concrete when the environmental temperatures are low ( up to -50C);

- Placing concrete in urgent strengthening applications;
- Concrete elements that have to be used in a short time after the concrete has been placed.

D) PLASTICIZERS AND SUPERPLASTICIZERS ADMIXTURES
They are also known as plasticizers or high-range water reducers (HRWR), reduce water content by 12 to 30 percent
and can be added to concrete with a low-to-normal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing
concrete. For example, the slump can be increased from 75 mm to 230 mm.
Usually, flowing (fluid) concrete is being obtained. This is a highly fluid but workable concrete that can be placed with
little or no vibration or compaction.
The effect of superplasticizers lasts only 30 to 60 minutes, depending on the brand and dosage rate, and is followed by
a rapid loss in workability. As a result of the slump loss, superplasticizers are usually added to concrete at the jobsite.

E) AIR ENTRAINING CONCRETE
Used in many applications, air-entrained concrete uses a chemical admixture to produce a system of small voids
during the mixing process.
These voids are stabilized by the air-entraining admixture and remain in the hardened concrete paste. The primary
use of air-entraining concrete is for freeze-thaw resistance. The air voids provide pressure relief sites during a freeze
event, allowing the water inside the concrete to freeze without inducing large internal stresses.
WATER REDUCTION
OF THE ADMIXTURES
RETARDING
BASIC FUNCTIONS
ACCELERATING
SUPERPLASTICIZERS
AIR-ENTRAINING
6. TECHNOLOGY OF EXECUTING CONCRETE ELEMENTS
BASIC STAGES OF THE EXECUTION

6.1. LAYING OUT THE POSITION OF THE CONCRETE ELEMENT/S
6.2. FORKMWORK AND SCAFFOLDING SYSTEM
6.3. REINFORCING THE CONCRETE ELEMENTS
6.3. TECHNOLOGY OF PLACING THE CONCRETE AND CURING CONDITIONS
6.1. LAYING OUT THE POSITION OF THE CONCRETE ELEMENT/S
- The position of the concrete elements is set based on the layouts of the technical project.
- On site, the position of the structural elements, in both horizontal and vertical plans, is established by installing landmarks.
Usually, the position of the landmarks corresponds to the position of the axes of the building.
- The landmarks should be executed in such a way that, during the entire execution stage, their position will not be changed or
damaged. Any change in the position of a landmark can lead to an incorrect execution position of one ore multiple structural
elements.
6.1.1. LAYING OUT THE POSITION OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS THAT ARE EXECUTED WITHOUT USING FORMWORKS (A
LARGE NUMBER OF FOUNDATIONS)
- Setting the position of the concrete elements that are executed without formworks is usually done with respect to the general
axes of the building.
- Most of these types of concrete elements belong to the infrastructure of the
buildings (isolated foundations, raft foundations, parts of the continuous foundation beams etc.)
- Setting the position of the concrete elements that are executed inside the excavations consists in:
- establishing the position of the excavation with respect to the landmarks which have to be placed outside the
excavation area
- fixing the correct positions of the concrete element/s in plan and elevation
- the laying out system must be done in such a way that it can be used at any point in time during the execution
stages.
- For the concrete elements that are reinforced or contain enclosed steel elements (bolts, plates, pipes etc), the laying out
process should respect the following rules:
a) Generally, the reinforcements and the anchoring bolts are first assembled, according to the details given in the technical
project, and after that installed. The position of each assembly is laid out with respect to the general axis of the element or
to its boundaries.
b) The laying out system should be simple and easy to perform (lines, marks, auxiliary elements)
Reinforcement cage Anchoring screws assembly Anchoring screws assembly

6.1.2. LAYING OUT THE POSITION OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS THAT ARE EXECUTED BY USING FORMWORKS
The most important stages in laying out the position of these types of elements consist in setting the correct position of the formwork
system:
a) Laying out the correct position in plan
b) Laying out the correct position in elevation
c) Setting the concrete placing limits
- The in-plan position of the formworks is usually related to the axes of the concrete elements that are executed. Generally, reference
lines or marks are used for positioning and fixing the formwork elements that come in contact with the concrete.
- The elevation position of the formworks is usually related to the ±0.00m level which is set on a landmark, outside the perimeter of the
building. Thus, the level of the formworks should not be related only to the level of the previously executed structural elements.
- The concrete placing limits are generally marked on the vertical faces of the formwork that come in contact with the concrete. The marks
that are used for setting the concreting limits should be also visible and usable during the concreting stage.
6.1.2. LAYING OUT THE POSITION OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS THAT ARE EXECUTED BY USING FORMWORKS
Setting the concrete placing limit
Setting the in-plan position
Setting the vertical (elevation) position

6.3. TOOLS AND DEVICES USED DURING THE LAYING OUT STAGES OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS
Total station
Automatic levels
Telemetru
Rulers
6.1.3. TOOLS AND DEVICES USED DURING THE LAYING OUT STAGES OF CONCRETE ELEMENTS
Square (echer)
Elbow (vinclu)
Water level tubes
Powder line (Fir cu pudra colorata pentru trasare)
Fir cu plumb
6.2. FORMWORK AND SCAFFOLDING SYSTEM

6.2.1. Components and classification
MAIN COMPONENTS
- FORMWORK (LINER) – The elements that come in contact with the fresh concrete
- PRIMARY RESISTING ELEMENTS – principal or secondary beams (horizontal)
- SECONDARY RESISTING ELEMENTS (SCAFFOLDINGS) – struts and diagonals (vertical)

CLASSIFICATION
1) Depending on the position of the formwork system since the concrete placing starts until the formwork is removed:
a) Fix formwork systems
b) Climbing formwork systems
a) Fix formwork systems

6.TECHNOLOGY OF EXECUTING CONCRETE ELEMENTS

b) Climbing formwork systems

CLASSIFICATION
2) Depending on the way in which the components of the formwork system are used:
a) Stock formwork systems (either wood or metallic) – reusable
b) „One-use” or unique formwork systems (usually wood) – used for only one application (for complex or specific elements)
c) Blind or „left in place” formwork systems – the elements of the formwork are not removed after the concrete has
hardened (technological or constructive reasons)
a) Stock formwork systems


CLASSIFICATION
b) „One-use” or unique formwork systems

CLASSIFICATION
c) Blind or „left in place” formwork systems

CLASSIFICATION
3) Depending on soundness and roughness degree of the concrete face after the formwork liner has been removed:
a) Formworks for visible concrete elements
b) Formworks for concrete elements that will be covered or plastered

CLASSIFICATION
4) According to the materials:
a) Timber
b) Metallic (steel or aluminum)
c) Combination between steel and timber
d) Composite systems (usually for „left-in-place” configurations)

6.2.2. Basic requirements of the formwork systems
a) Formability – the formwork should be of the desired shape, size and fit at the location of the member in structure,
according to the drawings
b) Strength – it should be strong enough to undertake the dead and live loads during the specific technological stages
c) Stiffness – the elements of the formwork system should be rigid enough to avoid excessive bulging, twisting or sagging
due to the dead and live loads
d) Quality of the surface – the formwork system must be carefully selected in order to obtain the required finish surface
e) Leak-free – the panels of the formwork should be tightly connected to minimize the gaps at the formwork connections, in
order to prevent leakage of cement paste
f) Ease of removing – the formwork system should be easily removable without damaging the concrete element or even
iteself, so that it could be used repeatedly

6.2.3. Designing the formwork systems
a) Loads evaluation
VERTICAL LOADS: HORIZONTAL LOADS:
- Own weight of the formworks - Lateral pressure of concrete
- The weight of the fresh concrete - Impact of concrete during placing
- Uniformly distributed technological loads - Wind loads
- Concentrated technological loads - Seismic loads
- Uniformly distributed loads that come from compaction - Earth or water pressure (exterior)
b) Loads combination
Different loads combinations depending on the type of design (strength or stiffness) and on the type of elements.

6.2.4. Treating agents for formworks that come in contact with concrete
The concrete release agents are special products that are applied on the surface of the formwork elements that come in contact with the
concrete. Their purpose is to decrease the adhesion between the liner of the formwork and the concrete so that, after the concrete has
hardened, the formworks can be easily removed.
The most important requirements for the concrete release agents are:
a) To avoid staining the concrete
b) Not changing the properties of the fresh concrete
c) Not affecting the adhesion between hardened concrete and plasters or any other adhesives that can be applied on its surface
d) To maintain its properties under various climatic conditions during the execution stage
e) Ease of application and inspection
The concrete release agents can only be used according to their technical recommendations, provided by the supplier, which should contain
information regarding the range of application, specific conditions and techniques of applications etc.
The concrete release agents must be applied only after the surface of the formworks have been cleaned. Depending on their technical
specifications, the agents must be applied on the surface of the formworks a certain time before the concrete is being placed.

6.2.5. Cleaning the formworks
Keeping the interior space of the formworks clean is a fundamental requirement.
Depending on the configuration of the formwork system, there are two different situations:
a) When there is access to the entire volume of the formwork – cleaning and removing any contaminants can be done directly and
easily right before placing the concrete
b) When, due to the configuration of the formwork system, there is not full access to the entire volume of the formwork – cleaning
and removing any contaminants can be only done through special technological openings in the formwork system (usually for
elements with big heights)
These technological openings in the formworks must fulfill three requirements: to be sufficiently large, to be as many as necessary in
order to clean the entire volume of the concrete and to be simple enough in order to be able to close them when the concrete level
reaches to their position/level.

6.2.6. Installing the formwork systems
The main stages of installing the formwork systems consist in:
a) Mounting the scaffoldings (if necessary)
b) Laying the formworks in the correct positions (according to the laying out stage)
c) Fixing the final position in both horizontal and vertical directions, joining and sealing the formwork panels
d) Checking and acceptance

Simple
The main stages of installing the formwork systems consist in: Scaffolding
a) Mounting the scaffoldings (if necessary)

According to the Romanian Norm NE012/2-2010 there are two types of
scaffoldings:
- Simple scaffolding systems used for carrying the formworks of light
concrete elements (usually slabs with girders), having max. 6 m in height,
that can be executed without any Technological Documentations
Complex
provided by the designer. Scaffolding
- Complex scaffolding systems used for carrying the formworks of massive

or complicated concrete elements, that must be executed according to a
specific Technological Documentation provided by the designer.
Complex
Scaffolding

b) Laying the formworks in the correct positions (according to the laying out stage)
Placing the formworks in the correct position refers to:

- Setting the appropriate in-plane position
- Setting the appropriate height (elevation) position
During this stage, great care must be given to the zones

in which the position of the formworks changes as a
result of the configuration of the concrete element
in order to avoid increasing or decreasing the
thickness of the elements.
Example: corners of slabs, slab-girders intersections,
technological or structural openings in the elements

c) Fixing the final position in both horizontal and vertical directions, joining and sealing the formwork panels
This stage corresponds to:

- For formworks of the horizontal concrete elements (slabs and girders) - fixing the height of the scaffolding elements
- For formworks of the vertical or inclined concrete elements (walls, columns) – fixing the position of the inclined or horizontal supporting
elements (struts, shores, diagonals etc)
- Fixing and tying the interior elements of the formworks (wallers, yokes, tie-rods, spacers, distance bolts etc)
6.2. FORMWORK AND SCAFFOLDING SYSTEM Complete formwork

c) Fixing the final position in both horizontal and vertical directions, joining and
sealing the formwork panels
Correlated to the reinforcing stage, installing the formwork system can be divided in
three categories:
- Complete, when the entire formwork system is installed before the reinforcements
are introduced (ex. a large number of slabs)
- Partially, when only some of the formwork elements are installed before the Complete reinforcing
reinforcements are introduced (ex. for walls, one face is formworked before
reinforcing while the second is done at the end of the reinforcing stage)
- The formwork system is installed after the reinforcing stage ends (ex. large number
of foundations, columns, retaining walls etc)
Partial formwork

d) Checking and acceptance
Before placing the concrete the following elements must be checked:
- Concrete surfaces that are inside the volume of the formwork and that will be covered by the new layers of concrete. In some cases, some
surface treatments must be applied (brushing, roughening, priming etc) (a Technical record is done – Proces verbal de recepție aspect
beton).
- Reinforcements that can be already installed inside the formwork system: type, diameter, number, clear distance, position, concrete cover,
cleanliness , overlapping lengths etc. (a Technical record is done – Proces verbal de recepție lucrări ascunse).
- The formwork system: position in plan and elevation, strength and stability conditions, leak proof, cleanliness -> lack of contaminants
inside the volume of the formwork (wires, wood dust, dirt, plastic elements, pieces of steel etc.) (a Technical record is done – Proces
verbal de receptie calitativa sistem de cofrare)

6.2.7. Maximum tolerances in installing the formworks
The maximum tolerances in installing the formworks refer to the following categories:
- General dimensions of the formwork
- Elevation marks (dimensions) – for the bottom parts of the formworks that come in contact with concrete, for the concrete placing limits
- Position of the axes of the concrete elements (in both plan and elevation) – checking if the axes are straight-lined and if the angles at the
intersection of axes correspond to the ones in the Technical Project
- Shape of the formwork surfaces (smoothness (planeitate) and local unevenness (denivelari locale)
For normal concrete elements the maximum tolerances in installing the formworks are Ts,III for smoothness and TN,I for
local unevenness.
Smoothness tolerance classes (Table C7 from NE012/2-2010) Local unevenness tolerance classes (Table C9 from NE012/2-2010)
Area of the surface (m2) 10 100 1000 10000 Tolerance class TN,I TN,II TN,III TN,IV TN,V
Minimum dimension (m) 2 6 25 50 Hn,max (mm) 2 4 8 20 40
Tolerance class Tolerance (mm) An,max (mm2) 3 12 32 80 120
Ts,I 0,6 1 2 4
Ts,II 2 3,2 4 8
Ts,III 4 6 8 16
Ts,IV 8 12 16 24
Ts,V 12 20 32 50

6.2.8. Checking and accepting the formworks and scaffoldings
The formworks and the scaffoldings must be checked:
- When the formworking stage is completed (for either the entire set of concrete elements or just of a limited number, depending on the
execution sequence)
- Right before placing the concrete
Checking the formworks and the scaffolding must be done by:
- Direct observation and simple measurements
- Complex measurements using special devices
DIRECT OBSERVATION AND SIMPLE MEASUREMENTS
- Checking if the quality requirements provided in the technical project or in the technological documentations are fulfilled:
a) General layout – visual inspection
b) Types of materials and their integrity – visual inspection and checking the quality certificates of the products
c) Dimension of the formworks – simple measurements
d) Joints, connections and fitments of the formwork elements – visual inspection and manual pushing/pulling to check for stability and
fitment
- Checking the correct position of the formwork panels and identification of gaps – visual inspections
- Checking the anchorage and the bracings of the scaffoldings – visual inspection and manual pushing/pulling
- Cleanliness of the formwork faces and volume – visual inspection
- Treating agents for formworks – visual inspection
- Setting the concrete placing limit marks – visual inspection and simple measurements
- Aspect of existing concrete surfaces that will be covered by the new layers of fresh concrete – visual inspection

6.2.8. Checking and accepting the formworks and scaffoldings
COMPLEX MEASUREMENTS USING SPECIAL DEVICES
- Level marks for the bottom faces of the formworks (cote de nivel)
- Axes of the structural elements
- Inclinations
- layers of fresh concrete – visual inspection
Usually, all errors and unconformities must be correct by the contractor.

All checking must be done before the concrete is placed.
Example of Technical record that is done at the end of the formworking stage
PROCES VERBAL DE RECEPȚIE CALITATIVĂ
Nr. ..... Data ...............
FAZA DIN LUCRARE SUPUSĂ VERIFICĂRII:
COFRARE PLANȘEU COTA +8,35 M
ELEMENTE DE IDENTIFICARE:
Sector; porțiune; ax; cota; etc. BLOC C1 - COFRAJ PLANȘEU COTA +8,35 M - GRINZI + PLACĂ + SCĂRI DIN BETON ARMAT
Verificările s-au realizat pe baza prevederilor proiectului numărul. 16 /2017, Planșele C1 - R09, R11, R13, R23 și pe baza normativelor aflate
în vigoare.
CONCLUZII:
Grinzile din beton armat au dimensiuni secționale de 30x45 cm (cele longitudinale, axele A, B, C/1÷13), respectiv 30x55 cm (cele
transversale, axele 1÷13 / A, C). Acoperirea cu beton este de 2,5 cm, fiind asigurată cu distanțieri plastici la fiecare metru liniar, pe cele 3 fețe
ale carcaselor.
Placa din beton armat are grosime constantă de 13 cm. Acoperirea cu beton este de 1,5 cm, fiind asigurată cu distanțieri plastici, 2 buc/mp.
Scările de acces au grosimea rampelor și a podestului de 13 cm, iar treptele au înălțime de 17,5 cm și lățime de 30 cm. Acoperirea cu beton
este de 1,5 cm, fiind asigurată cu distanțieri plastici.
Suprafața cofrantă a fost tratată prin stropire cu agent de tip DECOFROL. Suprafețele cofrante și interiorul cofrajelor sunt curate, fără agenți
contaminanți sau acumulări de deșeuri.
Elementele principale de rezistență ale sistemului de cofraj sunt alcătuite din grinzi tip DOKA, montate la interax de maxim 60 cm, iar
elementele secundare de rezistență sunt alcătuite din popi metalici extensibili, montați la intradosul grinzilor DOKA.
Abaterile geometrice identificate respectă clasele de toleranță specifice Normativelor C56/1985 și NE 012/2010 - TS III la planeitate și TN I
la denivelări locale. Verificările s-au realizat prin sondaj în minim patru secțiuni / element, rezultând valori ale grosimii de 29,80; 30,10;
30,00; 29,50 cm, respectiv 13,10; 13,00; 12,80; 13,00 cm placă și scările de acces.
Din punct de vedere al alcătuirii, sistemul de cofraj are asigurate cerințele de rezistență, stabilitate, etanșeitate și planeitate. În timpul și după
finalizarea turnării se vor lua toate măsurile necesare privind protejarea betonului.
Se recepționează calitativ faza curentă și se admite continuarea lucrărilor.

Nume Prenume Semnătură Ștampilă
Beneficiar
Executant
Proiectant
Example of Technical record that is done at the end of the formworking stage
TECHNICAL RECORD – QUALITY ACCEPTANCE

No. ..... Date ...............
CONSTRUCTION STAGE THAT IS BEING CHECKED:
FORMWORK SYSTEM FOR +8,35 M SLAB
POSITION:
BUILDING C1 - FORMWORK SYSTEM FOR +8,35 M SLAB – R.C. BEAMS + SLABS + STAIRS
The qualitative checking have been performed with respect to the active technical norms and with respect to Project no. 16/2017, layouts C1-
R09, R11, R13.
CONCLUZII:
The cross-sectional dimensions of the beams are 30x45 cm (longitudinal beams on axes A,B,C/1÷13), and 30x55 cm (transverse beams on
axes 1÷13 / A, C). The concrete cover is 2,5 cm. Plastic spacers are installed every meter, on each of the 3 sides of the reinforcement.
The r.c. slab has a constant thickness of 13 cm. The concrete cover is 1,5 cm. Plastic spacers have been installed at the bottom part, 2 pcs/m2.
The slabs of the stairs are 13 cm thick and the counter-step is 17,5 cm in height and 30 cm in width.
The formwork liner has been treated with concrete release agents, type DECOFROL. The surface of the formworks are clean, without any
contaminants or wastes.
The primary resisting elements are made of DOKA wood beams, installed at 60 cm clear distance, while the secondary resisting elements are
made of metallic extensible props.
The geometrical dimensions of the formworks are between the tolerances of the C56/1985 and NE012/2010 tolerance classes: TS III for
smoothness and TN I for local unevenness. The geometrical verifications have been made in random locations, minimum 4 positions for
each type of elements. The measured values are: widths of beams 29,80; 30,10; 30,00; 29,50 cm, and height of slabs 13,10; 13,00; 12,80;
13,00 cm.
The formwork system fulfils its specific requirements in terms of strength, stability, leaking-free, formability and surface quality. During the
concrete placing and curing stages, the contractor must fulfil all necessary conditions in order to protect the concrete.
The current stage is being accepted and the contruction works can be continued.
Name Surname Signature Stamp

Investor
Contractor
Designer

Technical norms:
ST 009 – 2011 Specificatie tehnica privind produsele din otel utilizate ca armaturi: cerinte si criterii de performanta
NE012/2 – 2010 Normativ pentru producerea si executarea lucrarilor din beton, beton armat si beton precomprimat – Partea 2.
Executarea lucrarilor din beton
SR 438/1 – 2012 Produse de otel pentru armarea betonului. Partea 1: Otel beton laminat la cald. Marci si conditii tehnice de
calitate
SR 438/2 – 2012 Produse de otel pentru armarea betonului. Partea 2: Sarma rotunda trefilata
SR 438/3 – 2012 Produse de otel pentru armarea betonului. Partea 3: Plase sudate
SR 438/4 – 2012 Produse de otel pentru armarea betonului. Partea 4: Sarma cu profil periodic obtinuta prin deformer plastic la
rece
SR EN 10080 -2005 Oteluri pentru armarea betonului. Oteluri sudabile pentru beton armat
SR 13513 – 2007 Imbinari mecanice ale barelor pentru armarea betonului


6.3.1. Types of steel reinforcements
6.3.1.1. Hot-rolled structural steel (plain (cu profil neted) / with ridges – cu profil periodic)) – SR 438-1:2012
Class Reinf. type Steel class Profile type

carbon steel plain
low alloy
with ridges
carbon steel

OB 37 Steel reinforcements – Dimensions and geometrical tolerances
Nominal Maximum Cross-sectional

diameter area Perimeter Weight / meter
tolerance

For PC52 steel products the spiral ridges have the same
direction on both sides of the reinforcement (Figure 1).
For PC60 steel products the spiral ridges on the sides of

the reinforcement have opposite directions (Figure 2).
PC52/60 Steel reinforcements – Dimensions and geometrical tolerances
Thickness of the Distance between

Height of the ridges, mm Distance the spiral ridges Area of
Total ridges, mm between the along the length of
Nominal Web the
Max. diameter ends of the Notch Weight /
diameter diameter tolerance Maximum the bar nominal
(web + Longitudinal Spiral spiral ridges radius meter
tolerances for cross-
height of and section
longit. longitudinal
ridges) Maximum Maximum ridges
Maximum
tolerance tolerance
tolerance

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF OB37 and PC52/60 STEEL REINFORCEMENTS

NOMINAL YIELDING ULTIMATE ELONGATION AT
CLASS OF
DIAMETER STRENGTH STRENGTH BREAK
REINFORCEMENT
(mm) (MPa) (MPa) (%)
6…12 255
OB37 360 25
14…40 235
6…14 355
16…28 345 510 20

PC52
32…40 335
>40 Mutual agreement
6…12 420
PC60 14…28 405 590 16
32…40 395

SIZE (mm) WEIGHT (kg/m)
6.3.1.2. BST 500s REINFORCEMENTS 8 0.40
Spiral ridges with opposite directions but
10 0.62
no longitudinal ridge
12 0.89
14 1.21
16 1.58
18 1.99
20 2.46
22 2.98
25 3.85
28 4.84
32 6.31

6.3.1.3. Cold drawn roud wire (Sarma trasa rotunda trefilata) STNB (SR 438-2:2012)
Used for making reinforcement nets
STNB – DIMENSIONS AND GEOMETRICAL

TOLERANCES
DIAMETER OF MAX. CROSS-
PERIMETER OF WEIGH / METER
THE WIRE TOLERANCE SECTIONAL
THE WIRE
AREA

6.3.1.3. Cold drawn roud wire (Sarma trasa rotunda trefilata) STNB (SR 438-2:2012)
STNB – MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
WIRE YIELD ULTIMATE ELONGATION

DIAMETER STRENGTH STRENGTH AT BREAK

6.3.1.4. Cold reduced wire with periodic ridges (Sarma cu profil periodic obtinuta prin deformare plastica la rece) SPPB (SR 438-
4:2012) Characteristics of the ridges
Nominal Diameter Nominal Weight Height of the ridge Pace of
maximum cross- / meter Specific
Used for making reinforcement nets diameter
tolerance sectional area
Middle Quarter the ridge
Width area of the
ridges

6.3.1.4. Cold reduced wire with periodic ridges (Sarma cu profil periodic obtinuta prin deformare plastica la rece) SPPB (SR 438-
4:2012)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SPPB WIRES
YIELDING ULTIMATE ELONGATION AT
DIAMETER
STRENGTH STRENGTH BREAK
(mm)
(MPa) (MPa) (%)
4…12 460 510 10
TECHNOLOGY OF EXECUTING CONCRETE ELEMENTS
Most common types of reinforcement nets
REINFORCEMENT NET: DL (mm) x DT (mm) – Length (m) x Width (m) – Type & Diam. of wire on
longitudinal dir. / Type & Diam. of wire on transverse dir.
Example:
100 x 100 – 6 x 2 – STNBB 6 mm / STNB 6 mm
100 x 200 – 6 x 2 – SPPB 8 mm / SPPB 5 mm
Most common reinforcement nets:

Diameter 4, 5, 6, 8 mm
Distance between wires 100x100, 150x150, 200x200, 100x150, 100x200
Dimensions 2 x 6m, 2,5 x 6m, 2 x 5m
6.3.2. Performance and quality credentials for steel reinforcements
The steel reinforcement products that are acquired for executing r.c. elements must be produced according to the performance
and quality requirements which are presented in the active technical Norms (ST 009, SR 438-1,2,3,4 etc).
The properties of the reinforcement products must be presented in the specific documents that are handed when acquired.
Each reinforcement coil, bundle, net or cage must have a label attached to it which should contain the following information:
- Name of the manufacturer
- Type and class of the product
- Number of the lot
- Conformity mark
- Quality assurance mark
6.3.2. Performance and quality credentials for steel reinforcements
The documents that are handed over when the reinforcement products are acquired must contain the following information
(declaration of conformity given by the manufacturer):
- Name and address of the manufacturer
- Number of the declaration of conformity
- Properties of the product:
- Number of the product standard
- Type and class of the product
- Diameter
- Yielding strength
- Ultimate strength
- Elongation at break
- Carbon content
- Number of lot
6.3.3. Conditions for storing the reinforcements
The reinforcement products must be stored in distinct groups based on the types, classes and diameters. The storing conditions
must be conceived and equipped in such a way, in order to avoid:
- The initiation of conditions and reactions that lead to the corrosion of the reinforcements;
- Staining the reinforcement with earth, oils, acids or other substances that may affect their integrity and quality;
The products that are used in reinforcing the concrete elements must have a clean surface (non-adherent rust or other substances
that may affect the steel, the concrete or the adhesion between the latter)
6.3.4. Cutting and bending the reinforcement products
The reinforcement bars are usually produced by the manufacturers at standard dimensions of 12m.
The process of shaping the reinforcements to the specific geometrical configurations of the r.c. elements consists in cutting and
bending.
The shaping stage can be done by the contractor (in its private shop or directly on site) or it can be outsourced to an external
shaping shop.
Specific conditions for cutting and bending the reinforcements:
- Minimum environmental temperature for -10oC
- Reinforcements must be bent with constant low speed, avoiding shocks;
- The mandrel used for bending the reinforcements must be:
- For reinforcements with diameters (Φ) ≤ 16mm, minimum 4Φ
- For reinforcements with diameters (Φ) > 16mm, minimum 7Φ
- The hooks of the reinforcement bars must have correct lengths and bending
angles, according to the specifications of the technical documentations.
Usually for OB37 the bending angles are 900, 1350 or 1800 and for PC52 900 or 1350
6.3.4. Cutting and bending the reinforcement products
MAXIMUM TOLERANCES IN SHAPING THE REINFORCEMENTS
- for dimensions (cutting, total and partial dimensions):
Straightness tolerance classes (Table C6 from NE012/2-2010)
- Bars with lengths ≤ 1.00 meters TD,VII Reference length (m) 3 10 100 500
- Bars with lengths > 1.00 meters TD,IX Tolerance class Tolerance (mm)
- Straightness TR,IV TR,I 0,4 0,6 1 2

TR,II 1 2 3,2 4
- Bending angles TU,II
TR,III 2 4 6 8
Dimensions tolerance classes (Table C3a from NE012/2-2010)
TR,IV 5 8 12 16
From 0 0,1 0,3 0,9 3
D (m) TR,V 8 12 20 32
To 0,1 0,3 0,9 3 9
Tolerance class Tolerance (mm)
Bending tolerance classes (Table C8 from NE012/2-2010)
TD,I 0,24 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Reference length (m) 0,5 2 10 50 100
TD,II 0,4 0,6 1 1,2 1,6
Tolerance class Tolerance (mm)
TD,III 0,8 1 1,8 2 2,4
TU,I 1 3,2 16 80 160
TD,IV 1,2 1,6 2,4 3 4
TU,II 4 16 80 400 800
TD,V 2 2,4 4 5 6
TU,III 8 32 160 800 1600
TD,VI 3 4 6 8 10
TU,IV 12 50 250 1250 2500
TD,VII 4 6 10 12 16
TU,V 16 64 320 1600 3150
TD,VIII 6 10 16 20 24
TD,IX 10 16 24 32 40
TD,X 16 24 40 50 60
6.3.5. Installing the reinforcements
The reinforcements can be installed on their designed position only if the following conditions are fulfilled:
- The formworks have been checked (stability, dimensions, leakiness, cleanliness)
- The reinforcements are shaped according to the specifications of the technical documentation
- The reinforcing procedure has been correlated with the way in which the concrete is placed (there are situations when some
of the reinforcements (usually at the top side of the elements) are installed the concrete placing starts)
Fixing the position of the reinforcements with respect to the faces of the formwork consists in:
- Tying the intersections of reinforcement bars
- Installing spacers between the formwork faces and the first set of reinforcements and between opposite sets of
reinforcements (usually for slabs and walls)
Tying the intersections of reinforcement bars can only be done using black steel wire. Usually two separate wires of 1 .. 1.5 mm
are used for tying the intersection.
Using zincked steel wires or welds is forbidden.
Rules for tying the intersection of reinforcement bars:

I) For reinforcements of slabs and walls
a) Each intersection on contour, only the first two rows
b) All other intersections, alternative tying (staggered) each set of two intersections
II) For reinforcements of thin curved slabs – all intersections
Rules for tying the intersection of reinforcement bars:
III) For reinforcements of beams and columns
a) All intersections in the corners of the stirrups and clips
b) Alternative tying at each set of two intersections with the straight sides of the stirrups
MAXIMUM TOLERANCES IN INSTALLING THE REINFORCEMENTS
A) Tolerances for distances between consecutive reinforcement bars:
- For concrete elements of the foundations: TD,IX but not more than ±10mm
- For slabs and walls: TD,VIII but not more than ±5mm
- For columns and beams: TD,VIII but not more than ±3mm
- For stirrups, clips and hoops: TD,IX but not more than ±10mm
B) Tolerances for concrete covers (Cnom):

Depending on the height of the concrete element (h)
- For h ≤ 150 mm : ±10mm
- For h = 400 mm: - 10mm up to + 15mm
- For h ≥ 2500 mm: - 10mm up to + 20mm
(for intermediate values of the heights, the tolerances of the concrete cover will
be obtained by interpolation)
6.3.6. Spacers for concrete cover
A) Conditions for installing spacers between opposite layers of reinforcements (for slabs and walls)
Spacers for slabs
- the spacers for walls and slabs are made of steel and should
have enough strength and stiffness in order to avoid changing
the distance between the two layers of reinforcements during
the concrete placing stage
- For slabs and walls the spacers must be installed at least
1 piece / m2
- For cantilever slabs, the minimum number of spacers is
4 pieces / m2 Spacers for walls
6.3.6. Spacers for concrete cover
B) Conditions for installing spacers between the faces of the formwork and the formwork layers
- using metallic spacers is forbidden
- spacers can be made up of plastic materials of from mortar
- for slabs and walls the minimum number of spacers is
2 pieces / m2
- for beams and columns the minimum number of spacers is
1 piece / m (bottom and top) for each side of the element
6.3.7. ANCHORAGE AND LAPS
For longitudinal reinforcements, the stresses can be transferred between two continuous reinforcements by:
- Overlapping
- Welding
- Other mechanical methods
Overlapping Threaded reinforcement
Aligator coupling
Welding
6.4. TECHNOLOGY OF CONCRETE PLACING AND CURING CODITIONS
6.4.1. GENERAL ASPECTS
Before starting the concrete placing stage, the following elements must be checked:
- The formworks (stability, leakiness, position, dimensions, treating agents, cleanliness etc.)
- The reinforcements (type, number, clear distance, position, cleanliness, spacers for concrete cover etc.)
- The elements that will be embedded in the concrete layer (position, stability, concrete cover etc.)
- The concrete joints (if necessary)
For each building, during the execution stage, all concretes that are used for the structural elements must be listed in the
„CONCRETE REGISTER” (CONDICA DE BETOANE). The following information must be presented for each concrete:
- The number of the delivery receipt (BONUL DE LIVRARE)
- Type of concrete and quantity
- The place/position where the concrete has been placed
- The time when the concert placing started and ended
- The temperature of the fresh concrete (when delivered)
- Number and code for each concrete sample and the testing results
- Specific actions/solutions for protecting the fresh concrete
- Special events during the concrete placing stage
- Environmental temperature
- The workers/engineers who conducted and controlled the concrete placing and compaction
6.4.2. DELIVERY, TRANSPORT AND ACCEPANCE CONDITIONS
The most important conditions that must be taken into account when concrete is transported consist in preserving its properties
and avoiding segregation, losing some of the components or contamination.
Concrete can be accepted on site only if the DELIVERY RECEIPT contains the following information:
- Name of the concrete batch factory - Maximum transport time in order to avoid affecting the
- Date and hour when the concrete has been prepared and properties of the concrete
loaded (when the cement came in contact with water) - Concrete class
- Type and number of the vehicle (concrete lorry) - Exposure class
- Name of the client - Consistency class (workability)
- Name and address of the construction site - Maximum values/quantities of the components
- Number of the order - Type and strength class of the cement
- Quantity (m3) - Types of additives
- Declaration of conformity - Special specifications (if they were requested)
- Time of delivering the concrete on site - Dimensions of the aggregates
- Time when the discharge has stared
- Time when the discharge has ended
6.4.3. TEMPERATURE OF FRESH CONCRETE
- Usually, the optimum temperature of the fresh concrete must be between 50C and 300C;
- If the environmental temperature is between -30C and 50C, the temperature of the fresh concrete must be at least 50C. But, if
the cement quantity is lower than 240 kg/m3 or if the cement has la low hydration heat (ex. 32.5 N type) the temperature of
the fresh concrete must be at least 100C.
- If the environmental temperature is between -30C and -100C the temperature of the fresh concrete must be at least 100C, for
all compositions. Also, special conditions must be imposed for protecting the concrete against freezing. Usually, cements with
high hydration heats or anti-freezing and cure-accelerating additives are used for these conditions.
- If the environmental temperature is below -100C it is not recommended to place concrete.
6.4.4. CONDITIONS FOR PLACING AND COMPACTING THE CONCRETE
Concrete must be placed in such a way, that all reinforcements are correctly embedded and that, after curing, it will have the
designed properties, in terms of strength and durability.
The entire volume of the concrete must be compacted but, special attention should be given to:
- The regions of the formwork where the cross-sectional dimensions of the concrete elements are changing;
- Elements of small widths/thicknesses;
- Intersections of concrete elements (frame nodes usually);
- Concrete elements which are highly reinforced.
The speed of placing and compacting the concrete should be high enough in order to avoid the occurrence of concrete joints and,
in the same time, it should not exceed certain values that can lead to deflections or failures of the formwork. Concrete joints
occur when two layers of concrete come in contact and the first one is hardened before the second one is placed and compacted.
General rules for placing concrete:
a) Before placing the concrete, the wood elements of the formworks or other materials that come in contact with the fresh
concrete (old concrete or masonry elements) must be watered. Usually the procedure takes place 2-3 hours before placing
the fresh concrete.
b) The fresh concrete is discharged from the concrete lorry in skips, pumps, belt conveyors, chutes or directly in the formwork.
Concrete skip Concrete pump Belt conveyors
Concrete chutes
c) For each concrete quantity which is delivered on site, the workability must be checked. If the delivered concrete has
inappropriate workability or if it is segregated, the contractor is not allowed to use it. Thus it is refused.
d) The maximum height of placing concrete must be:
- Maximum 3 meters for concrete elements having widths of max. 1 meter
- Maximum 1.5 meters for all other concrete elements
For elements with heights greater than 3 meters, the concrete must be placed through intermediate gaps in the vertical faces of
the formworks or with tubes which assure that the height of placing concrete is maximum 1.5 meters.
e) During the concrete is placed the position of the reinforcements must be check and, if necessary, it must be immediately
corrected (usually for top reinforcements for cantilever slabs). Also, all reinforcements must be embedded in concrete and,
for all elements, it must be check if the designed concrete cover is obtained.
It is not allowed to make contact between the shaft of the vibrator and the reinforcement bars.
f) During the concrete placing stage, circulation lanes must be prepared (footwalks) in order to avoid stepping directly on the
reinforcements
g) The concrete must be placed continuously, avoiding the occurrence of accidental concrete joints.
h) The allowable maximum time gaps between concrete placements is usually determined by laboratory tests and should not
exceed the setting time of the cement. Approximately, the maximum time gaps, starting from the mixing stage, is 2 hours for
composite cements (CEM II, III, IV, V) and 1.5 hours for clinker cements (CEM I).
General rules for compacting concrete:
a) Concrete must be compacted in order to minimize the quantity of entrapped air.
b) Compaction is compulsory for all concrete elements and can be achieved through different procedures, depending on the
consistency of the concrete, on the type of the element etc.
c) The vibration technique is only used for compaction reasons and not for moving the concrete inside the formwork or for
extending its fresh state (when deposited before placement in formworks).
d) The vibrator is systematically introduced into the volume of the concrete, at distances previously calculated based on the
technical specifications of the device which is used. Over-vibration should be avoided since it may produce segregation or
reductions of the compressive strength.
e) The thickness of the concrete layers should be correlated with the height of the vibrator.
f) During the compaction stage, changing the position of the reinforcements must be avoided.
g) Concrete can be compacted only while it’s in the fresh state.
6.4.5. TREATMENT AND PROTECTION CONDITIONS FOR CURING CONCRETE
The treatment and protection methods after the concrete has been placed consist in creating the appropiate conditions for
obtaining the designed characteristics of the concrete.
The characteristics which can be influenced by incorrect treatment and protection conditions refer to:
- The strengths and strains of the concrete;
- Avoiding the initiations of cracks due to the contraction of the concrete during the curing stage;
- Durability, depending on the exposure classes.
During the curing stage of concrete these characteristics can be negatively influenced by:
- Blocking the evaporation of water from concrete;
- Avoiding the mechanical actions (vibrations, shocks, impacts etc);
- Avoiding the freezing effect;
- Avoiding the contamination with oils or other aggressive substances.
During the curing stage, concrete can be protected by the following methods:
- Keeping the formwork in place;
- Covering the external surface of the concrete with plastic sheets that block the transfer of the vapors, fixed at the ends of the
elements, in order to avoid the early drying effect of concrete;
- Using special wet coating elements on the surface of the concrete;
- Regularly spraying the surface of the concrete with water.

Table 1 - Minimum number of days for structural elements until 35% of the
compressive strength is reached
Duration of treating: TEMPERATURE AT THE MINIMUM NR. OF DAYS OF TREATING CONCRETE
SURFACE OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, r
- For non-structural concrete elements – minimum 12 CONCRETE fast medium slow
hours after the placement has ended;
- Structural concrete elements with exposure classes X0

Table 2 - Minimum number of days for structural elements until 50% of the
or XC1, until 35% of the final compressive strength (28 compressive strength is reached
TEMPERATURE AT THE MINIMUM NR. OF DAYS OF TREATING CONCRETE
days) is obtained (the number of days is determined SURFACE OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, r
CONCRETE fast medium slow
from Table 1);
- Structural concrete elements with all other exposure

classes (except X0 or XC1), until 50% or 75% of the final Table 3 - Minimum number of days for structural elements until 75% of the
compressive strength is reached
compressive strength (28 days) is obtained depending TEMPERATURE AT THE MINIMUM NR. OF DAYS OF TREATING CONCRETE
SURFACE OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, r
on the functions of the concrete element (the number of CONCRETE fast medium slow
days is determined from Table 2 and 3, respectively)
𝑓𝑐𝑚,2 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟. 𝑠𝑡𝑟. 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 2 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝑟= =
𝑓𝑐𝑚,28 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟. 𝑠𝑡𝑟. 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 28 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

6.4.6. CONDITIONS FOR REMOVING THE FORMORKS
Related to the evolution of the compressive strength of concrete, the formworks can be removed under the following conditions:
- The lateral formworks of the concrete elements can be removed when concrete has reached a compressive strength of 2,5
N/mm2
- The bottom formworks of the concrete slabs and beams can be removed only when concrete has reached:
- 70% of its final compressive strength for elements with spans smaller than 6m;
- 85% of its final compressive strength for elements with spans greater than 6m;
- The vertical safety props can be removed based on the provisions given by the designer in the technical project.

6.4.6. CONDITIONS FOR REMOVING THE FORMORKS
Table 1
Based on the environmental temperatures and on the EVOLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE 0C
CONCRETE STRENGTH
evolution of the compressive strength the elements of the AGE OF CONCRETE (DAYS)
SLOW
formworks can be removed according to the following MEDIUM
conditions:
Table 2
ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE 0C
- For lateral formworks of the concrete elements – Table 1 SPAN OF THE ELEMENT EVOLUTION OF THE CONCRETE STRENGTH
SLOW MEDIUM
AGE OF CONCRETE (DAYS)
- For bottom formworks of the concrete elements – Table 2
Table 3
- For the vertical safety props – Table 3 ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE 0C
(but never when the above slab is being executed) SPAN OF THE ELEMENT EVOLUTION OF THE CONCRETE STRENGTH
SLOW MEDIUM
AGE OF CONCRETE (DAYS)

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CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete

Cement + Water = Paste (Binder/Glue)

Admixtures are sometimes added for specific purposes,

10 Billions tones are produced worldwide each year.

Concrete is widely used for making building structures,

Structures made of concrete can have a long service life.

Generally speaking - Technology is the current state of

The word - Technology comes from Greek

Concrete Technology – refers to that body of knowledge

GENERAL LIFE-CYCLE OF THE CONCRETE

SPECIFIC CYCLE OF THE CONCRETE 9

CONCRETE CLASSIFICATION IN TERMS OF AGE

c. Cured concrete = conventionally after 28 days.

2.1. PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FRESH CONCRETE

For the designer – the most important characteristic of concrete is the

- be easily and properly mixed and transported;

- be easily placed, and consolidated to fill the forms without segregation;

- set without shrinkage.

WORKABILITY is a complex attribute because it express a large area of

- The amount of work necessary to produce full compaction:

Workability also reflects the following related characteristics of the fresh

CONSISTENCY – represents the degree of wetness (fluidity/mobility of the

STABILITY – the ability of concrete to remain a stable, coherent,

In terms of fluidity fluids are of two kinds:

Bingham type fluids: certain initial resistance - minimum

That is why compaction is needed: although initially

MEASURING THE WORKABILITY / CONSISTENCY

SLUMP TEST – SR EN 12350-2

Concrete Slump Degree of

Roads – vibrated by power-operated machines or

Roads, common building structures

Common building structures, , sections with

S4 160 – 210 Very high Sections with very congested reinforcement

S5 ≥220 Fluid Special cases (self compacted concrete)

True Slump Shear Collapse

The lower the density (concrete with voids because of poor

Ex. (acc to Neville): 5% of voids can lower the strength by as

CONCLUSION: The method of compaction should be correlated

- The amount of cement – Correlated with water by W/C ratio. The

- Aggregate grading, shape and size – Dredged rounded stones (river

- The use of entrained air – reduce the amount of mixing water.

- The use of chemical admixtures – reduce the amount of mixing

- Time – Fresh concrete stiffens with time (not related to setting of

A proper concrete mix should not easily segregate = it must be

Segregation = separation of the constituents of a

In case of concrete = 2 forms of segregation:

Segregation depends mostly on the method of handling and

- Dropping concrete from a considerable height, passing along a

- Do not use the vibrator to spread a heap of concrete over a

-Do not over vibrate.

2.2. PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CURED CONCRETE

A) COMPACTITY reflects the amount of air voids (p):

- Compact concrete: p = 1 -5 % (for structural elements)

- Semi-compact concrete: p = 5-20%

- Macroporous concrete: p = 20-40 %

- Cellular expanded concrete: p = 40-75%

The compressive strength of the concrete decreases with the increase

B) DENSITY (volumetric weigh):

According to NE 012-1/2007, Cap. 3 - for dry concrete:

The concrete weight is primarily given by the aggregate weight

Heavy concrete and normal weight concrete is made of (very)

B) DENSITY (volumetric weigh):