Copyright © P.

Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent

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 Outline

•  Description of Small Signal Stability Problems

  local problems
  global problems
•  Methods of analysis
  time-domain analysis and its limitations
  modal analysis using linearized model
•  Characteristics of local plant mode oscillations
•  Characteristics of interarea oscillations
•  Enhancement of Small Signal Stability
•  August 10, 1996 Disturbance of North American
Western Interconnected system

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•  Small-Signal (or Small Disturbance) Stability is the
ability of a power system to maintain synchronism
when subjected to small disturbances
  such disturbances occur continually on the system
due to small variations in loads and generation
  disturbance considered sufficiently small if
linearization of system equations is permissible for
analysis

•  Corresponds to Liapunov's first method of stability

analysis
•  Small-signal analysis using powerful linear analysis
techniques provides valuable information about the
inherent dynamic characteristics of the power system
and assists in its robust design

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•  Instability that may result can be of two forms:
  aperiodic increase in rotor angle due to lack of
sufficient synchronizing torque
  rotor oscillations of increasing amplitude due to lack
of sufficient damping torque
•  In today's practical systems, small signal stability is
usually one of insufficient damping of system
oscillations.
  local problems or global problems
•  Local problems involve a small part of the system.
They may be associated with
  rotor angle modes
  local plant modes

  inter-machine modes

  control modes
  torsional modes
•  Global problems have widespread effects. They are
associated with
  interarea oscillations

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•  Associated with either local plant mode oscillations or
inter-machine oscillations
  frequency of oscillation in the range of 0.7 to 2.0 Hz
•  Local plant mode oscillations
  oscillation of a single generator or plant against rest
of the power system
•  Inter-machine or inter-plant mode oscillations
  oscillation between the rotors of a few generators
close to each other
•  Stability of the local plant mode oscillations is
determined by
  strength of transmission as seen by plant
  excitation control
  plant output and voltage
•  Instability may also be associated with a non-oscillatory
mode
  encountered with manual excitation control

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Large interconnected systems usually have two
distinct forms of interarea oscillations:

•  A very low frequency mode involving all the generators

in the system
  system is essentially split into two parts
  generators in one part swing against generators in
the other part
  frequency in the order of 0.1 to 0.3 Hz
•  Higher frequency modes involving sub-group of
generators swinging against each other
  frequency typically in the range of 0.4 to 0.7 Hz

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•  The 0.28 Hz mode
in WECC

•  The 0.49 Hz mode

in Eastern US/
Canada
interconnection

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•  The behaviour of a dynamic system can be described by
a set of first order differential equations in the
state-space form

  x is an n-dimensional state vector

  f is an n-dimensional nonlinear function
  u is a r-dimensional input vector
•  The outputs of the system are nonlinear functions of the
state and input vectors

  y is an m-dimensional output vector

  g is an m-dimensional nonlinear function
•  At steady state, the system is at an equilibrium point x0
satisfying

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•  Nonlinear dynamic behaviour:

Output variables:

•  At equilibrium point (x0,u0):

•  Small perturbation about equilibrium point:

•  New state equation:

•  Since perturbations are small:

  f(x,u) can be expressed in terms of Taylor's series
expansion
  terms involving second and higher order powers of Δx
and Δu may be neglected

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•  A, B, C, D are the Jacobians of the system. A is also
referred to as the state matrix or the plant matrix.

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•  Stability is concerned with determination of conditions
of an equilibrium point
  what will happen if the system is perturbed at an
equilibrium condition
•  Stability of a linear system is independent of the input
•  Stability of a nonlinear system depends on
  the type and magnitude of input
  the initial state
•  In control system theory, it is common practice to
classify stability of nonlinear systems into the
following categories, depending on the region of state
space in which the state vector ranges:
  local stability or stability in the small
  finite stability
  global stability or stability in the large

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•  Local stability
  The system is said to be locally stable about an
equilibrium point, if when subjected to a small
perturbation, it remains within a small region
surrounding the equilibrium point
  If, as time increases, the system returns to the
original state, it is said to be asymptotically stable in
the small

•  Finite stability
  If the state of a system remains within a finite region
R, the system is said to be stable within R
  If, further, the state returns to the original equilibrium
point from any point within R, it is said to be
asymptotically stable within the finite region R

•  Global stability
  The system is said to be globally stable if R includes
the entire finite space

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The theoretical foundation for the analysis of stability
in the small is based on Liapunov's first method:

•  The stability in the small of a nonlinear system is given

by the roots of the characteristic equation of the system
of first approximation, i.e., by the eigenvalues of the
state matrix A
•  If the eigenvalues have negative real parts, then the
original system is asymptotically stable
•  When at least one of the eigenvalues has a positive real
part, the original system is unstable

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Using nonlinear time domain simulations to analyze
small signal stability problems has the following
limitations:
•  Results can be deceptive
  critical mode may not be sufficiently excited by the
chosen disturbance
  poorly damped modes may not be dominant in the
observed response
•  It may be necessary to carry out simulations up to 20
seconds
  computational burden is high
  massive amount of data has to be analyzed
•  This approach does not give insight into the nature of
the problem
  difficult to identify sources of the problem
  mode shapes not clearly identified
  corrective measures are not readily indicated

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•  This is a method of spectral analysis
  a method of fitting a series of damped sinusoids to a
given signal
•  For a signal record y(t), the Prony method fits a
function of the form

Ai the amplitude of the ith mode in the signal

the frequency (Hz) of the ith mode

the damping ratio of the ith mode

θi the phase (rad) of the ith mode in the signal

•  Prony analysis has the advantage that it can be used

on any signal: measured or simulated
•  It can be used together with time-domain simulation to
estimate the frequency and damping of modes of
oscillations
•  First published in 1795

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•  A linear model can be aggregated from a time domain
response
•  This gives useful information which can help verify
and complement the results of the linear modal
analysis
•  However, the basic limitations of the time domain
analysis approach still remain
•  The spectral analysis is subject to these drawbacks:
  it can evaluate only those modes that exist in the
variables monitored
  limited or no information about mode shapes
  it only looks at the system through a small window
  resolution of close modes presents challenges
  for a nonlinear system, different windows may give
different results
•  Often, useful in extracting modal information from
measured time domain response

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•  Modal analysis using eigenvalue approach has proven
to be the most practical way to analyze small signal
stability problems

•  Advantages are:
  individual modes of oscillations are clearly identified
  relationships between modes and system variables/
parameters can be easily determined by computing
eigenvectors

•  Frequency response, poles, zeros, and residues can be

easily computed. Such information is useful in control
system design

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•  Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

  λ is an eigenvalue
  φ is the right eigenvector associated with λ
  ψ is the left eigenvector associated with λ
•  Modal matrices

  Φ is the right eigenvector matrix

  Ψ is the left eigenvector matrix
•  Relationships

  I is the unit matrix

  Λ is a diagonal matrix: Λ=diag[λ1... λn]

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•  Free motion of a linear dynamic system is described
by

•  In order to eliminate the cross coupling between the

state variables consider the state transformation

•  State space equations in z is a set of decoupled

differential equations

•  The above represents uncoupled first order (scalar)

differential equations

•  Time domain response

where is the initial condition

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•  Response in terms of the original state vector:

x(t) = Φz(t)

•  The time response of the state variable xi is given by

  a linear combination of n dynamic modes

corresponding to the n eigenvalues of the state matrix
  ci=ψix(0) represents the magnitude of the excitation of
the ith mode due to the initial conditions
  if the initial condition lies along the jth eigenvector, only
the jth mode will be excited (since ΨiΦj=0 for all i ≠ j)

•  If the vector representing the initial condition is not an

eigenvector, it can be represented by a linear
combination of the n eigenvectors. The response of the
system will be the sum of n responses
  if a component along an eigenvector of the initial
conditions is zero, the corresponding mode will not be
excited.

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•  A real eigenvalue corresponds to a non-oscillatory
mode
•  A pair of complex eigenvalues λ = σ ± j ω correspond to
an oscillatory mode
  frequency of the mode

  damping ratio of the mode

positive real eigen value indicate

non-oscillatory mode, however, the
magnitude continues to rise towards
instability.

Eigenvalue plots and corresponding

time response
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•  Determines rate of decay of the amplitude of
oscillation
•  For an oscillatory mode represented by a complex pair
of eigenvalues σ ± jω, the damping ratio is given by:

•  The time constant of amplitude decay is

•  The amplitude decays to 1/e or 37% of the initial

amplitude in τ seconds or in cycles of oscillation

•  As we are dealing with oscillatory modes having a

wide range of frequencies, damping ratio rather than
time constant is more appropriate for expressing the
degree of damping
•  A 5 sec time constant represents amplitude decay to
37% of initial value in 5 cycles for 1 Hz local plant
mode, and in one-half cycle for 0.1 Hz interarea mode
•  A damping ratio of 0.03 represents the same degree of
amplitude decay in 5 cycles for all modes

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•  A state variable is related to individual modes by

  φji is the ith element in the right eigenvector φj

  if φji = 0, the jth mode is unobservable in xi
  if φji is large, the jth mode will show up strongly in xi
  therefore, φj determines the mode shape of the jth
mode
•  The mode shape indicates the relative activities of the
state variables when a particular mode is excited.
•  The magnitudes of the the eigenvector elements give the
extent of the activities; the angles of the elements give
phase displacements.
•  The relative phase angles of the elements in the right
eigenvector can be used to determine the direction of
the oscillation in the associated state variables.

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•  Mode shape geographical plot

This plot shows the generator rotor angles observable in

the mode at 0.28 Hz and 1.46% damping. The ones with
red cross oscillate against those with blue circles.

This is a mode in which units in northern WECC swing

against those in the southern WECC.

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•  A mode is related to individual state variables by

  ψji is the ith element in the left eigenvector ψj

  if ψji = 0, the jth mode cannot be controlled by xi
  if ψji is large, the jth mode is largely determined by xi
•  One problem in using directly the left eigenvector to
quantitatively determine the contribution of a state
variable to a mode is that the elements of the left
eigenvector are dependent on units and scaling
•  The solution is to weight the left eigenvector by the right
eigenvector to obtain a quantity independent of unit and
scaling

  this is called the participation factor

  participation factors measure the participation of state
variables in modes. For instance, the larger pji the
more the state variable xi participates in the jth mode

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•  In frequency domain, a mode refers to a real eigenvalue
or a pair of conjugate complex eigenvalues
  Modal analysis of the linearized system model is the
perfect tool to obtain characteristics of individual
modes
•  In time-domain, a mode is a component in a time
response that has a single frequency and damping,
together with other attributes of the sinusoid (amplitude
and phase angle).
  Prony analysis is one way to decompose time-domain
signals to obtain individual modes, although it is often
difficult to obtain the complete modal characteristics
•  By its dynamic nature, a power system inherently
consists of many modes.
  If a mode has poor damping and when it is excited by a
disturbance, it can be observed from the post-
disturbance time-domain responses of variables that
have high observability in this mode
•  When the system is unstable
  individual mode(s) unstable

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With Mode #1 With Modes #1 With Modes #1,
only (DC offset) and #2 #2, and #3

Simulated or Signal composed

measured signal from modes
identified

Eigenvalue for mode #2: -0.19+j4.52

Eigenvalue for mode #3: -0.26+j4.21

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 system mode

torsional mode

torsional mode

torsional mode

torsional mode

Fig. 15.3 Rotor natural frequencies and mode shapes of a 555

MVA, 3,600 RPM steam-turbine generator
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•  For a linear dynamic system

•  Apply state transformation x = Φz,

•  If the ith row of matrix Φ-1B is zero, the ith mode is said to
be uncontrollable

•  If the ith column of matrix CΦ is zero, the ith mode is said

to be unobservable

•  These concepts are useful in control system design

•  First proposed by R.E. Kalman in 1960

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•  For a single-input-single-output (SISO) system (assuming
D=0)

•  The transfer function is given by

  S1, S2, ... are poles (eigenvalues)

  z1. z2... are zeros
  R1, R2, ... are residues, given by:

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•  The key problem in modal analysis is to compute
eigenvalues of the linearized model of power systems

•  Depending on the system size or analysis objectives,

one of two computation options can be used:

a)  Computation of all eigenvalues of the system using QR

method
  This is possible for small to medium sized power
systems (up to a couple of thousand states)
  All modes present in the model will be captured

b)  Computation of partial eigenvalues in specific

frequency ranges using Arnoldi-type algorithm
  Applicable to systems of any size
  Ideal for analysis of interarea modes
  Selective computation also helps focus on the
modes of interest and facilitates analysis

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The following shows the comparison of typical
computation speed for time-domain simulations and
eigenvalue calculations:
•  On one 2.0 GHz Pentium 4 PC with 512 MB memory,
running Windows 2000
•  For a power system model with 34,381 buses, 3,870
generators, and 41,382 dynamic states

Computation Time (min)

One 10-second time-domain simulation - TSAT 7.9
Mode scan in the frequency range of 0.2 and 0.8 2.9
Hz and damping range of 0% and 10% (24 modes
were computed) - SSAT

•  Computation time is scalable to the system size and

number of contingencies to be processed

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•  Local mode oscillation problems most commonly
encountered
  dates back to the 1950s and 1960s
  associated with units of a plant swinging against rest of
system
•  Characteristics well understood
  analysis using block diagram approach (K-constants)
gives physical insight
•  Encountered by a plant with high output feeding into weak
transmission network (K5 negative)
  more pronounced with high response exciters/AVR
•  Adequate damping readily achieved using Power System
Stabilizers (PSS)
  excitation control

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•  First published by Heffron and Phillips to analyze a
single machine (or a plant) connected to a large
system (represented by an infinite bus) through a
transmission network

•  System is represented by a block diagram as shown in

Fig. SSS-1 with
  K constants as parameters
  Δδ, Δω, Δ Ψ fd, ΔEfd as the state variables

•  This approach is limited to analysis of single machine-

infinite bus systems with generator damper windings
neglected
  here we use it to complement the results of
eigenvalue analysis
  provides physical insight into the effects of
excitation control

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δ = ROTOR ANGLE (rads)
ω = ROTOR SPEED (p.u.)
Ψfd = FIELD FLUX LINKAGE
Efd = FIELD VOLTAGE
Ef = TERMINAL VOLTAGE
Gex = EXCITER TRANSFER FUNCTION
GPSS = PSS TRANSFER FUNCTION
M = INERTIA CONSTANT (2H)

Fig. SSS-1 Block diagram of a synchronous machine with

excitation control

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The following expressions form the basis for the block
diagram
•  Rotor acceleration

•  Electrical torque

•  Field flux linkage

•  Terminal voltage

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•  Consider the following simple system

•  Initial condition

P = 0.9, Q = 0.3, Et = 1.0

•  Small signal and transient stability are studies with

  classical model
  constant field voltage
  static exciter with AVR
  static exciter with AVR and PSS

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•  Generator output: P = 0.9, Q = 0.3
•  K – constants: K1 = 0.758, KD = 0
•  State variables: Δω, Δδ

•  Eigenvalues zero damping

•  Eigenvectors

•  Participation matrix

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•  Block diagram representation

KS=K1=0.758 KD=0

(a)
•  Constant flux
•  Positive synchronizing torque coefficient
•  Negligible damping

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•  K-constants:

K1=0.764, K2=0.865, K3=0.323, T3=2.36, K4=1.42

•  State variables:
Δω, Δδ, ΔΨfd

positive damping - stable system

•  Eigenvalues:

λ1,2 = -0.11 ± j 6.41 (ζ = 0.017, fn = 1.02 Hz)

λ3 = -0.20 + j 0

•  At 1.02 Hz

KS=K1+KS(ΔΨfd)=0.7643-0.00172=0.7626 pu torque/rad
KD=KD(ΔΨfd)=1.53 pu torque/pu speed change

•  Participation matrix

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Generator Output:

P = 1.387, Q = 0.462, Et = 1.0,

K1 = 0.457, K2 = 0.760, K3 = 0.303, K4 = 1.57

Eigenvalues:

λ1,2 = -0.23 ± j4.95 (ζ = 0.046, fn = 0.8 Hz)

λ3 = +0.006 + j 0 (aperiodic instability)

The steady-state synchronizing torque:

Ks = K1 - K2K3K4

= -0.0014

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•  Field flux variations are caused only by feedback of
through K4
  this represents the demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction
•  Constants K2 and K3 are always positive; K4 is usually
positive
•  Due to the phase lag introduced by field circuit time
constant (T3), the effect of ΔΨfd due to armature reaction
is to introduce
  negative synchronizing torque at low frequencies
  positive damping torque and a small negative
synchronizing torque component at typical oscillating
frequencies of 1 Hz
•  System stability depends on the net synchronizing
torque
  reaches steady state stability limit when
K 1 = K 2K 3K 4

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Case 1: Generator output P=0.9, Q=0.3

•  K-constants:
K5 = -0.146, K6 = 0.417
oscillations growing
•  Eigenvalues:

λ1,2 = +0.5±j 7.23 (ζ= -0.07, fn = 1.15 Hz)

λ3 = -20.2 ±j 0 oscillatory instability
λ4 = -31.2 ±j 0

•  At 1.15 Hz:
KS(AVR+AR) = 0.2115 pu torque/rad
KD(AVR+AR) = -7.06 pu torque/pu speed change

Case 2: Generator output P = 0.3, Q = 0.1

•  K – constants:
K5 = 0.025, K6 = 0.54

•  Eigenvalues:
λ1,2 = -0.04±j 6.15 (ζ =0.007, fn = 0.98 Hz)

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 negative K5 introduces negative damping

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•  Effect of AVR depends on the values of K5 and K6
  K6 is always positive
  K5 can be positive or negative
•  K5 positive
  for low Xe and low P0
  effect of AVR is to introduce
  negative synchronizing torque

  positive damping torque

•  K5 negative
  for high Xe and high P0
  effect of AVR is to introduce
  positive synchronizing torque

  negative damping torque

  above effect is more pronounced with higher exciter

response
•  Situations with K5 negative is commonly encountered
  this could lead to oscillatory instability
  an effective solution is to use PSS

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•  Uses auxiliary stabilizing signal to control excitation
  most logical signal is Δω
•  If transfer functions of exciter and generator were pure
gains
  direct feedback of Δω would result in damping
torque
•  In practice, the generator and possibly exciter exhibit
frequency dependent gain and phase characteristics
  phase compensation results in a pure damping
torque component
•  Exact phase compensation results in a pure damping
torque component
  over compensation introduces negative
synchronizing torque component
  under compensation introduces positive
synchronizing torque component

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PSS introduce damping torque (proportional to delta 'w' rotor speed devation)
PSS introduce phase lead circuit to compensate for phase lag introduced by exciter.

Block Diagram of a synchronous machine with excitation

control

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Fig. 12.14 Thyristor excitation system with AVR and PSS

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•  Generator Output:

P = 0.9, Q = 0.3

•  Eigenvalues:

= -1.0 ± j6.6 (ζ = 0.15, fn = 1.06 Hz)

= -19.8 ± j12.8
= -39.1 ± j0

= -0.74 ± j0

•  At 1.06 Hz:
KS = K1+KS(AVR+AR) + KS(PSS)
= 0.7643 + 0.21 - 0.14
= 0.8293 pu torque/rad
KD = KD(AVR+AR) + KD(PSS)
= -8.69 + 22.77
= 14.08 pu torque/pu speed change

•  represent rotor angle mode

represent "exciter" mode

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Fig. SMIB-1 Rotor Angle

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•  Small signal stability problem is usually one of
insufficient damping of system oscillations
•  Power system stabilizers (PSS) are the most cost
effective means of solving SSS problems
•  The purpose is to add damping to the generator rotor
oscillations
•  This is achieved by modulating the generator
excitation so as to develop a component of electrical
torque in phase with rotor speed deviations
•  Common input signals include: shaft speed, integral of
power and generator terminal frequency

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a)  Application to Hydraulic Units:
•  Used successfully since mid-1960s
•  Requires minimization of noise
  noise below 5 Hz level must be <0.02%
  shaft runout (lateral movement) produces most
significant noise components
  low frequency noise cannot be removed by
conventional filters; elimination must be intrinsic in
method of signal measurement
•  Speed outputs are summed from several locations on
shaft
•  Stabilizer disconnected at gate positions below 70%
  prevent effects of turbine vibrations at partial gate
opening
b)  Application to Thermal Units:
•  Stabilizer may cause instability of torsional
oscillations
•  Speed should be sensed at nodes of torsional modes;
requires torsional filters

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•  The disadvantages of the Delta-Omega stabilizer are:
  torsional filer is needed. This can introduce phase
lag at lower frequencies and destabilize exciter
mode
  it imposes maximum limit on stabilizer gain
  custom design is required for each unit to deal with
torsional modes

•  Delta-P-Omega stabilizer was developed to overcome

these problems

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•  The frequency signal is obtained in one of two ways
  terminal frequency signal is used directly as the
stabilizer input signal
  Vt and It are used to derive the frequency of a
voltage behind a simulated machine reactance so as
to approximate the machine rotor speed
•  On steam-turbine units torsional modes must be
filtered
•  Gain may be adjusted to obtain the best possible
performance under weak ac transmission system
conditions
•  Better performance for damping interarea modes than
speed-based stabilizers
•  Disadvantages
  spike may occur in EFD during a rapid transient
(terminal frequency signal will see a sudden phase
shift)
  frequency signal often contains power system noise
  torsional filtering is required

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 commonly used PSS

•  Signal proportional to rotor speed deviation can be

derived from the accelerating power

•  It is important to derive Δωeq which does not contain

torsional modes
•  Torsional components are inherently attenuated in the
integral of ΔPe signal
•  The problem is to measure the integral of ΔPm free of
torsional modes
•  Neglecting ΔPm is unsatisfactory if mechanical power
changes
•  Delta-P-Omega uses:

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•  Pm changes are slow; so, simple low pass filter can be
used to remove torsionals

•  Advantages over the Delta-Omega stabilizer

  ΔPe signal has a high degree of torsional attenuation
  generally there is no need for a torsional filter in the
main stabilizing path
  higher stabilizer gain is possible which results in
better damping of system oscillations

  Standard design for all units (end-of-shaft speed

sensing arrangement with a simple torsional filter)

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•  Used to occur in isolated situations
  since mid-1980s has become more commonplace
  increasingly being identified in planning and
operating studies
•  In the early 1990s major efforts undertaken to
investigate interarea oscillation problems:
  Canadian Electric Association (CEA) Research
Project 294 T622 Report, 1993
  IEEE System Oscillations Working Report 95TP101,
1994
  CIGRE Technical Brochure on “Analysis and Control
of Power System Oscillations" prepared by
TF38.01.07, 1996
•  We first illustrate the nature of interarea oscillations by
considering a simple two area system
  see paper #2 in Appendix

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Example 12.6: A Simple Two Area System

•  Two similar areas connected by a weak tie. Each area

consists of two 900 MVA thermal units, loaded to 700
MW

•  With all 4 units on manual excitation control,

determine:
  all eigenvalues of the system state matrix
  for each mode, state variables with high
participation
  frequencies, damping ratios, and mode shapes of
rotor angle modes

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Example 12.6 (cont'd)

Table E12.3 System modes with manual excitation control

zero
eigen
values

G3 G2 G4
G1 G4 G1
G2 G3

(a) Inter-area mode (b) Area 1 local mode (c) Area 2 local mode
f=0.545 Hz, ζ=0.032 f=1.087 Hz, ζ=0.072 f=1.117 Hz, ζ=0.072

Fig. E12.10 Mode shapes of rotor angle modes with manual

excitation control
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Example 12.6 (cont'd)
•  Determine the frequencies and damping ratios of rotor
angle modes with different types of control

Type of excitation Eigenvalue/(frequency in Hz, damping ratio)

control
Inter-area mode Area 1 local mode Area 2 local mode
(i) DC exciter -0.018 ± j 3.27 -0.485 ± j 6.81 -0.500 ± j 7.00
(f = 0.52, ζ = 0.005) (f = 1.08, ζ = 0.07) (f = 1.11, ζ = 0.07)
(ii) Thyristor with +0.013 ± j 3.84 -0.490 ± j 7.15 -0.496 ± j 7.35
high gain (f = 0.61, ζ = -0.008) (f = 1.14, ζ = 0.07) (f =1.17, ζ = 0.07)
(iii) Thyristor with +0.123 ± j 3.46 -0.450 ± j 6.86 -0.462 ± j 7.05
TGR (f = 0.55, ζ = -0.036) (f = 1.09, ζ = 0.06) (f =1.12, ζ = 0.06)
(iv) Thyristor with -0.501 ± j 3.77 -1.826 ± j 8.05 -1.895 ± j 8.35
PSS (f = 0.60, ζ = 0.13) (f =1.28, ζ = 0.22) (f =1.33, ζ = 0.22)

•  Local inter-machine modes have same degree of damping with

DC and thyristor exciters (with and without TGR)
•  Inter-area mode has
  a small positive damping with DC exciter
  a small negative damping with a high gain thyristor
exciter
  a large negative damping with thyristor exciter with TGR
•  PSS results in a significant damping of all the rotor angle
modes

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•  Formulation of system state equations uses absolute
change in machine rotor angle and speed
  will result in one or two zero eigenvalues
•  One of the zero eigenvalues associated with lack of
uniqueness of absolute rotor angle
  angles of all machines may be changed by same
value without affecting stability
  absent if "infinite buses" included
•  Second zero eigenvalue exists if all generator toques
are independent of speed deviation
  no governors and KD = 0
•  Zero eigenvalues may not be computed exactly due to
limited computational accuracy

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Note: 1. These results are from Paper #2 in Appendix
2. Loads assumed to have constant Z characteristics

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Case 2B: Generators Real Power

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Case 2B: Generators Real Power and Loads

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•  Oscillations between two groups of generators

•  Two distinct forms:

a)  A very low frequency mode involving all generators
  entire system split into two parts, with
generators in one part swinging against
generators in the other part
  frequency in the range: 0.1 to 0.3 Hz

b)  Higher frequency modes involving a subgroup of

generators swinging against another subgroup
  frequency in the range: 0.4 to 0.7 Hz

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Interarea Modes in the WSCC system

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Many incidents of poorly damped or unstable oscillations
have been reported worldwide:

•  Michigan-Ontario-Quebec: 0.25 Hz in 1959

•  Saskatchewan-Manitoba-Ontario West: 0.35-0.45 Hz in the
1960s
•  WSCC (WECC): Between 0.1 - 0.33 Hz in 1967-1980; 0.28 Hz
August 1996 and August 2000
•  MAPP: Over 70 unstable oscillations (0.12-0.25 Hz) in 1971 and
1972
•  NPCC: 0.24-0.4 Hz in 1985
•  Nordel: 0.5 Hz in late 1960; 0.33 Hz in 1980
•  Italy-Yugoslavia-Austria: 0.17-0.22 Hz in 1971-1974
•  Australia: 0.6 Hx in 1975; 0.2 Hz in 1982 and 1983
•  Scotland-England: 0.5 Hz in 1978 and 1979
•  Taiwan: 1.0-1.1 Hz in 1984
•  Ghana-Ivory Coast: 0.6-0.7 Hz in 1985
•  Southern Brazil: 0.5, 0.8, 1.2 Hz in 1985-1987
•  Scandinavia: 0.5 Hz in January 1997

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•  First observed in 1985 in planning and operating
studies
•  Confirmed by on-line measurements
•  Involved the entire NPCC and eastern interconnected
system
•  Frequency varied between 0.25 and 0.4 Hz depending
on operating conditions and load levels
•  Mode shape for one condition shown in Figure
•  Based on extensive investigations, following remedial
measures taken by OH:
  returned PSS on all major units (static exciters)
  retrofitted Pickering NGS with PSS (AC exciters);
most effective since close to load centre
  PSS for new units at Darlington NGS designed to
damp LFIO
  monitors installed throughout Ontario

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SSS - 73
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 Interarea Mode
Type of Excitation Control
Frequency Damping Ratio
a) Thyristor Exciter with high 0.192 Hz 0.009
transient gain
b) Thyrister Exciter with 0.187 Hz -0.057
transient gain reduction

d) Thyristor Exciter with high 0.179 Hz 0.122

transient gain and PSS

Note: Based on results presented in Paper #1 in Appendix

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Conclusions regarding fundamental nature of LFIO:

•  Characteristics (mode shape, damping) of LFIO are a

complex function of:
  network configuration/strength
  load characteristics
  types of excitation systems and their locations
•  Load characteristics, in particular, have a major effect
  more pronounced with slow exciters
•  In a stressed system, motor or constant power load at
  receiving end has adverse effect on damping
  sending end has slightly beneficial effect
•  A mode of oscillation in one part of system can excite
units in a remote part due to mode coupling
•  Analysis requires detailed and same level of
representation throughout the system

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Damping of LFIO with PSS
•  The controllability of LFIO with PSS is a function of:
  location of units with PSS
  characteristics and locations of loads
  types of exciters on other units

•  Damping of LFIO wit PSS achieved primarily by

modulating loads

•  Identification of units on which PSS most effective:

  a high participation factor is a necessary but not
sufficient condition
  initial screening by participation factors
  residues and frequency responses can supplement
screening

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1.  Excitation Control: Power System Stabilizers

2.  Supplementary Control of HVDC Links, SVCs,

and other FACTS devices

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•  An important index related to small-signal stability
  The nature of system response largely depends on
the damping ratios of individual modes
•  The minimum acceptable level of damping below
which the power system cannot be operated
satisfactorily is not clearly established
  Situations with damping ratios of less than 0.02 for
local plant mode and interarea mode oscillations
must be accepted with caution
•  In addition to the absolute value of damping ratio, what
is important is its sensitivity to variations in operating
conditions and system parameters
  A low damping ratio but less sensitive to operating
conditions and system parameters is often
acceptable
•  In the design of power system stabilizer and other
forms of controllers for damping power system
oscillations, a good design target is to have a damping
ratio ζ of at least 0.1 for the mode(s) of interest

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Design objectives:

•  Maximize the damping of the local plant modes as well

as interarea mode oscillations without compromising
the stability of other modes
•  Enhance system transient stability
•  Not adversely affect system performance during major
system upsets which cause large frequency
excursions
•  Minimize the consequences of excitation system
malfunction due to component failures

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Fig. 17.5 Block diagram of thyristor excitation system
with PSS

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•  Exciter gain
  high value of KA for transient stability (200)
  transient gain reduction (TGR) is required only if
voltage regulator time constant is large or exciter
has significant time delays
  TA about 1 second

  TB about 10 seconds

  TGR not required for Thyristor exciters

•  Phase lead compensation

  compensate for lag between exciter input and
resulting electrical torque
  design should provide damping over wide range of
frequency to cover local and interarea modes

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•  Phase lead compensation (con't)
  compute the frequency response between the
exciter input and the generator electrical torque with
the generator speed and rotor angle remaining
constant (assuming large inertia for the machine)
  frequency response of any machine is sensitive to
the Thevenin equivalent system impedance at its
terminals but relatively independent of the dynamics
of other machines (assuming other machines are
infinite buses)
  resulting phase characteristic has a relatively simple
form free from the effects of natural frequencies of
the external machines
  select characteristic suitable for different system
conditions
  Do not overcompensate !

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•  High pass filter which prevents steady change in
speed from modifying the field voltage
•  Washout time constant TW should be high enough to
allow signals associated with oscillations in rotor
speed to pass unchanged
•  From the viewpoint of washout function, can be in the
range of 1 to 10 seconds
  pass stabilizing signals at the frequencies of interest
  not so long that it leads to undesirable generator
voltage excursions as a result of stabilizer action during
system islanding conditions

•  For local plant modes, TW of 1.5 s or higher

satisfactory
•  TW of less than 5 s results in significant phase lead at
low frequencies associated with interarea oscillations
  this can reduce the synchronizing torque component

•  For systems with dominant interarea oscillations

  either set TW to about 10 s, or
  use one of the phase compensation blocks to provide
phase lag at low frequencies

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•  The stabilizer gain, KSTAB, has an important effect on
damping or rotor oscillations
•  It is necessary to examine the effect of KSTAB for a
wide range of values
•  Damping increases with an increase in KSTAB up to a
point
•  Gain is set to provide maximum damping with the
following considerations:
  Delta-Omega stabilizer: due to the effect of the
torsional filter, the stability of the "exciter mode"
becomes an overriding consideration
  Delta-P-Omega stabilizer: exciter mode stability is
not a problem, and a considerably higher value of
gain is acceptable – limited only by amplification of
signal noise considerations

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•  Positive output limit is set at a relatively large value
(0.1 to 0.2 pu)
•  This allows a high level of contribution from PSS
during large swings
•  Et limiter needed
•  High gain limiter can cause torsional mode instability
(Et has small components of torsionals) ... choose TC
and TD to provide high attenuation at torsional
frequencies, in addition to ensuring adequate degree
of limiter loop stability
•  Negative limit of -0.05 to -0.1 pu allows sufficient
control range and satisfactory transient response

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•  Overall performance should be evaluated for the
stabilizer parameter setting
  small signal stability program can be used to
examine performance over range of conditions
  there should be no adverse interactions with the
controls of other nearby generating units and
devices, such as HVDC converters and SVCs
  transient stability and long-term stability simulations
should also be used to verify the performance
  coordination with other protections and controls,
such as Volts/Hz limiters and overexcitation/
underexcitation protection

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•  Actual response of unit with PSS measured and used
to verify analytical results
  step change to AVR reference
  disturbance external to plant, e.g., line switching
•  If there are discrepancies between measured and
computed responses
  models modified and revised PSS settings
determined
•  During commissioning, PSS gain increased slowly up
to twice the chosen setting
  exciter mode stability margin
  input signal noise amplification
•  On-line tuning of PSS impractical !

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•  Allow setting of PSS parameters over sufficiently wide
range

•  Ensure high degree of functional reliability and

flexibility for maintenance

  component redundancy

  duplicate PSS, AVR

•  Built-in facilities for dynamic tests

  routine testing to avoid undetected failures

•  Importance of good design features often overlooked

  many instances of operators disconnecting PSS

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•  Two thermal 488 MVA units equipped with thyristor
excitation systems
•  Units exhibit two dominant rotor oscillation modes: an
interarea mode of about 0.5 Hz and a local inter-
machine mode of about 2.0 Hz
•  Objective of excitation control design is to enhance
the transient as well as small signal stability of the
power system
•  Examine the performance using slow rotating exciters
also

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Thyristor excitation system:

Power system stabilizer

•  High exciter gain of 212 (with no TGR) is used to

ensure good transient stability performance

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Slow rotating excitation system:
•  Self-excited dc exciter

1.  Type DC1A exciter model

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 Slow signal stability performance:
Local inter-machine mode Inter-area mode
Type of exciter
Frequency ζ
Frequency ζ

(a) Thyristor (no PSS) 1.823 Hz 0.049 0.550 Hz 0.006
(b) Rotating exciter 1.793 Hz 0.075 0.498 Hz 0.046

Selection of PSS parameters

•  Determination of phase-lead compensation
•  G1 and G2 are represented with large inertia - all
others as infinite buses

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•  Parameters for compensation shown

T1 = 0.06 T2 = 0.02 T3 = 1.5 T4 = 4.0 TW = 7.5

Local inter-machine mode Inter-area mode

KSTAB
Frequency ζ
Frequency ζ

0 1.823 Hz 0.049 0.550 Hz 0.006
20 2.079 Hz 0.156 0.547 Hz 0.087
30 2.218 Hz 0.197 0.548 Hz 0.124
40 2.366 Hz 0.227 0.533 Hz 0.156

•  Other parameters

Vsmax = 0.2 Vsmin = -0.05 VLS = 1.15 KL = 17

TC = 0.025 TD = 1.212 TRL = 0.01

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Fig. 17.13 Response of unit G1 to a five-cycle three-
phase fault; peak load conditions
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•  For damping inter-area oscillations, best locations for
PSS may not be obvious in large systems
•  PSS adds damping to an inter-area mode largely by
modulating system loads
•  PSS with regard to a local mode is only slightly
affected by the load characteristics
•  Understanding these mechanisms is essential
•  Participation factors corresponding to speed
deviations of generating units are very useful for initial
screening
•  Rigorous evaluation using residues and frequency
responses should be carried out to determine
appropriate locations for the stabilizers

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•  Main tasks in controller design:
•  Selection of device and its location
  option may not always exist
  based on participation factors, residues, and
frequency response
•  Selection of feedback signal:
  modes of concern must be observable in signal(s)
  based on frequency response between device input
and potential signals
•  Controller design procedure
  a variety of linear techniques available
  varying degrees of procedure automation,
complexity, robustness, and applicability to large
system
•  Test overall performance
  broad range of conditions and contingencies
  small-signal and transient stability

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•  The physical mechanism by which non-generator
devices contribute to damping of inter-area
oscillations in highly meshed networks is not obvious

•  Control design techniques based on physical

principles, such as in PSS design, cannot be readily
applied

•  Control design methods based on linear control theory

were investigated

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•  Phase and gain margin
  based on Nyquist criteria
  controller is designed to improve phase and gain
margins of the closed loop system
•  Pole placement
  controller is designed so that the closed loop
system has a pole (eigenvalue) at a specific location
•  H-infinity
  a computer aided control design technique
  minimize H-infinity norm of the system transfer
function from the disturbance to the output over the
set of all stabilizing controllers
  produces a controller that is robust in some sense
  reduced order system model required

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•  Design of controller for an embedded HVDC link (with
parallel ac paths)

•  System based on the WSCC system with two HVDC

links:
  Pacific Intertie, and
  Intermountain

•  Controller designed for Pacific DC Intertie to improve

damping of 0.3 Hz north-south oscillations

•  All three methods of control design gave satisfactory

results

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Mode All ccts I/S Grizzly-Malin O/S
No. Freq. (Hz) Damp Ratio Freq. (Hz) Damp Ratio
1. 0.298 0.079 0.284 0.077
2. 0.446 0.059 0.442 0.058
3. 0.607 0.045 0.606 0.046
4. 0.735 0.011 0.724 0.006
5. 0.747 0.073 0.746 0.072
6. 0.779 0.048 0.781 0.053
7. 0.804 0.045 0.796 0.042
8. 0.862 0.015 0.861 0.015

Note: Active component of loads assumed to have constant

current characteristics

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•  Mode to be damped, must be
  observable in the signal
  controllable by the device
•  Mode 1 (north-south mode) is controllable by the DC Intertie

Mode 4 (Arizona-California) is not controllable by the DC

Intertie but may be stabilized by PSS at Helms GS in California
  PSS location identified by participation factor
•  Several signals considered for modulating the DC Intertie
  difference between angles of rectifier and inverter ac bus
voltages selected for modulating the rectifier controls

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Frequency Response for Angle Difference in the Post
Disturbance System

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•  For application H-infinity robust controller design
technique

•  Objective:

Reduce a large order system model with up to 20,000

states to a transfer function model of order less than
15 which captures the essential characteristics of the
system

•  Approaches
  compute poles and zeros in a dynamically reduced
model and eliminate close poles/zeros
  compute important poles and zeros in large system
and supplement the transfer function using system
identification techniques

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Full system: 3866 states

Reduced transfer function: 12th order

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Frequency Response Between the Rectifier Current Reference and
Difference Between Rectifier and Inverter AC Voltage Phase Angles

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Controller Pole Phase/Gain
None H-infinity
Design Modification Margin

Freq. (Hz) 0.284 0.294 0.316 0.311

Damp Ratio 0.077 0.169 0.173 0.176

PSS Out-of-Service In-Service

Freq. (Hz) 0.724 0.730

Damp Ratio 0.006 0.016

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 Allowable
Effect on Achievement of Handle on
Method System
Other Modes Robustness Damping
Model

Phase and Gain Can be Compromise in

Large Good
Margins considered design

Difficult to Compromise in
Pole Placement Large Very good
predict design

Reduced Considered Automatically

H-infinity Weak
(<15 states) in design considered

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General:
•  Each of the three methods has its advantages and
disadvantages
•  With care and judgment, any method can be applied
successfully

H-infinity:
•  Robustness is built into the method
•  Selection of the weighting functions is critical
•  Method needs reformulation to be more directly
applicable to power systems

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SSS - 109
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•  High ambient temperatures in Northwest; high power
transfer from Canada to California

•  Prior to main outage, three 500 kV line sections from

lower Columbia River to load centres in Oregon were
out of service due to tree faults

•  Line outages caused voltage reduction in lower

Columbia River area from around 540 kV to 510 kV

•  Main outage at 15:47:36, loss of Ross-Lexington 230 kV

line due to tree flash over

•  Growing 0.234 Hz oscillations caused:

  tripping of lines resulting in formation of four islands
  loss of 30,500 MW load

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 4 5
3
4
1
2

Event 5: 15:47:36-15:48:09 8 McNary Units trip

Event 4: 15:47:36 Ross-Lexington 230 kV - flashed to tree (+ 115 kv cct loss)
Event 3: 15:42:03 Keeler-Alliston 500 kV - LG - flashed to tree
Event 2: 14:52:37 John Day - Marion 500 kV LG - flashed to tree
Event 1: 14:06:39 Big Eddy - Ostrander 500kV LG fault - flashed to tree

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Recordings showed undamped oscillations throughout
WSCC with a frequency of about 0.23 Hz

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As a result of the
undamped
oscillations, the
system split into
four large islands

Over 7.5 million

customers experienced
outages ranging from a
few minutes to nine
hours! Total load loss
30,500 MW

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 MEASURED
RESPONSE

SIMULATED
RESPONSE

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Mode shape and participation
factors were computed for the
critical mode
Participations of generator
speed terms, controllability
and observability used to find
best locations for PSS tuning
or additions

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San Onofre
(Addition) Palo Verde
(Tune existing)

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 With existing controls

Eigenvalue = 0.0597 + j 1.771

Frequency = 0.2818 Hz

Damping ratio = -0.0337

With PSS modifications

Eigenvalue = -0.0717 + j 1.673

Frequency = 0.2664

Damping ratio = 0.0429

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•  HVDC shown (as expected) to have low participation in
mode
•  Often however, HVDC can be modulated to improve
damping provided adequate input signal is found and
proper compensator is designed
•  Frequency responses were examined for several
potential input signals

•  Frequency response magnitude identifies local bus

frequency as having good observability/
controllability of mode of interest
•  Frequency response phase used to design
compensator which provides proper modulation signal
to HVDC controls
•  Time-domain and eigenvalue analysis used to verify
modulation performance

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 Without HVDC Modulation

Eigenvalue = 0.0597 + j
1.771
Simulation event
Frequency = 0.2818 Hz

Damping ratio = -0.0337

With HVDC Modulations

Eigenvalue = -0.108 + j 1.797

Frequency = 0.2859 Hz

Damping ratio = 0.0602

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Copies of Papers:

1.  Application of Power System Stabilizers for

Enhancement of Overall System Stability
2.  A Fundamental Study of Inter-Area Oscillations in
Power Systems
3.  Analytical Investigation of Factors Influencing Power
System Stabilizers Performance
4.  Effective Use of Power system Stabilizers for
Enhancement of Power system Reliability

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