ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

Name Hira Arshad

Roll No CB565446
Course Foundations of Education
Code 6500
Programme M.A Teacher Education
Assignment No 1
Semester Autumn 2020

Q1: Describe how education develops an individual? Highlight the aims of education in global
perspective?

Ans: The fact that education plays an important role in human development is often ignored. This is
a shame. Because it's this value that is often most important. Education can help people develop
economically, socially and intellectually. Future, it’s not just individuals who benefit from education.
Entire communities benefit. In fact, when it comes to the value of education, community investment
is extraordinarily important. When a community doesn't value education, the people who become
educated often leave. This leads to brain drain, which can impact the socio economic viability of
entire regions.

The Economic Benefits of Education

Some people may prickle at the idea of discussing economic benefits in a piece about human
development. Yes, a high salary doesn't guarantee that someone becomes improved as a human
being, nor does a low one guarantee they won't. Still, the truth is that people who are financially
secure have more choices and more opportunities. Education, when it’s accessible, is often the one
factor that allows people to improve their economic situations.

Individuals benefit from higher salaries. They have fever economic worries. Because they aren't
constantly concerned with economic survival they can focus on personal growth, volunteerism, civic
contribution, pursuing interests, self care and nurturing relationships. When they stay, educated
people also contribute to economic stability. They Open businesses. They hire people. They become
educators and mentors. They meet the human resource needs of employers. They make
communities attractive to businesses and vectors. They drive wages up.

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The Intellectual Benefits of Education

The intellectual benefits of education extends far beyond subject matter expertise. Although, the
importance of that should never be diminished. In order for society progress, we need people with
deep expertise in a variety of disciplines. These are the people who use their knowledge to research,
innovative, create policies and make and execute decisions that can have a huge and long lasting
impact. Still, there are other important factors to consider:

Education And Critical Thinking Skills

Education people don't just know about things. They are better able to process information, because
they have better critical thinking skills. People use critical thinking to analyze issues, and the
information available to relates to that issue. It helps them to:

 Discern good information from bad.

 Identify reliable information sources.
 Conduct research.
 Identify bias.
 Draw conclusions and make inferences.
 Develop curiosity.

Discovery of Talents And Abilities

Education leads to exposure. It’s how people are introduced to science, mathematics, literature,
philosophy, fine arts and more. When they spend time immersed in these subjects have the
opportunity to discover where their talents and abilities lie. For example, very few talented artists
would know the depth of their abilities without spending time in an art classroom. Of course, it takes
more than exposure to make a difference. It requires support and mentorship. It’s the students who
have access to tutoring, academic writing help from sources like Studicus.com, economic assistance,
and family support who are in the best position to identify and pursue their talents.

Identification of Deficits

On the other side of the spectrum, a good educational system also provides students and educators
with the stools they need to identify areas of deficit. This includes learning disabilities, mental and
emotional health concerns, physical disabilities, and gaps in education. When these are identified,
appropriate action can be taken to assist students and provide support.

Improved Memory Cognition And Processing

The phrase, ‘the brain is like a muscle’ has some pretty solid science behind it. The more people use
their brains through studying, researching, discussing ideas, debating. Conducting experiments and
testing their knowledge the stronger their brains become. It leads to better memory and recall,
improved ability to process information, and leads to faster and better understanding.

Better Communication Skills

When people are learning, they are often called upon to express themselves verbally and in writing.
Through this, they pick up better communication skills. They Improve their spelling and grammar.
Their vocabulary grows. They learn to use language effectively in order to communicate ideas,
defend their opinions, and ask questions.

The Social Benefits of Education

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There are social benefits to education that impact individuals and communities. The more education
is valued and made available, the more these benefits are realized. These include:

Decreases Poverty

If every child in the world simply had basic literacy skills, poverty would be decreased by 12%
worldwide. Economic disparities between the rich and poor could be reduced by 39% if there was
educational equality. Finally, each additional year of education leads to an average increase in
annual income of 10%.

Lowered Crime Rates

A 5%increase in college graduation rates can lead to an 18.7% decrease in homicides. In fact, it is
shown in the paper linked that it is education not employment that seems to have the biggest
impact on crime reduction overall. This can be attributed to many factors including, better
opportunities, and access to services.

Global education, or global studies, is an interdisciplinary approach to learning concepts and skills
necessary to function in a world that is increasingly interconnected and multicultural. The curricula
based on this approach are grounded in traditional academic disciplines but are taught in the
context of project-and problem-based inquiries. The learner examines issues from the vantage point
of the individual, the local community, the nation and the world community. As social conditioning,
an essential components of schooling, global studies takes an international stance that respects local
allegiances and cultural diversity while adhering to the principles of the United Nations Declaration
of Human Rights. There is, however, no standard definition among proponents of global education.
Kenneth A. Tye and Barbara Benham Tye of the Center for Human Interdependence (CHI) in Orange
County, California, an educational training program that emphasizes global awareness, constructed
the following working definition:

Global education involves learning about those problems and issues that cut across national
boundaries, and about the interconnectedness of systems ecological, cultural, economic, political
and technological. Global education involves perspective taking seeing things through the eyes and
minds of others and it means the realization that while individuals and groups may view life
differently, they also have common needs and wants.

Global education is distinct from the concept of globalization, that is the forces of market capitalism,
which tend to focus discussion on global economic systems and information technologies. From a
pedagogical standpoint, economic prosperity and technological progress are part of a broader
emphasis on planetary interconnectedness, interdependencey and sustainability. Key concepts in
global education include human rights, environmental, responsibility, cultural studies and
sustainable economies. Global education views national politics and transnational economic policies
with an eye toward international accountability. It stresses the role of global ethics in shaping
humane, environmentally sound attitudes toward the world as a single ecosystem, and it teaches
that a globally conscious citizenry can effectively overcome such problems as climate change, ocean
pollution, and resource depletion with ingenuity, leadership, and the cooperation. One of the aims
of global education is a shared international global ethic that would be used to govern
socioeconomic decision making. This ethic would be based on a system of universal values found in
United Nations documents on human rights, agreements of the Council of Europe Committee of
Ministers proposals of Amnesty International and other NGOS (nongovernmental organizations) for
the realization of human rights and the Earth Chapter project. The value and utility of global
education derives from the sense that international events require all societies and their citizens to

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become knowledgeable about the world beyond their national borders. Usually, this imperative is
cast in economic terms. Business and political leaders warn that, as the world economies and
financial systems are incredibly interconnected, our material well-being depends on professionals
and workers with sophisticated knowledge of the global economy. In their view, family and local
community can no longer define our values. Rather, community-based values must be integrated
into the large-scale social institutions that govern our lives.

Q2: Compare the basic philosophies e.g Ontology- Epistemology and Axiology. Apply these
philosophies to the field of education.

Ans: There are four philosophical perspectives currently used in educational settings: essentialism,
perennialism, progressivism and social reconstructionism/critical pedagogy. Unlike the more
abstract ontology and axiology, these four perspectives focus primarily on what should be taught
and how it should be taught, i.e the curriculum.

Essentialism

Essentialism adheres to a belief that a core set of essential skills must be taught to all students.
Essentialists tend to privilege traditional academic disciplines that will develop prescribed skills and
objectives in different content area as well as develop a common culture. Typically, essentialism
argues for a back-to-basics approach on teaching intellectual and moral standards. Schools should
prepare all students to be productive members of society. Essentialist curricula focuses on reading,
writing, computing clearly and logically about objective facts about the outside real world. Schools
should be sites of rigor where students learn to work hard and respect authority. Because of this
stance, essentialism tends to subscribe to tenets of Realism. Essentialist classrooms tend to be
teacher-centered in instructional delivery with an emphasis on lecture and teacher demonstrations.

Perennialism

Perennialism advocates for seeking, teaching and learning universal truths that span across historical
time periods. These truths, Perennialists argue, have everlasting importance in helping humans solve
problems regardless of time and place. While perennialism resembles essentialism at first glance,
perennialism focuses on the individual developmental of the student rather than emphasizing skills.
Perennialism supports liberal arts curricula that helps produces well-rounded individuals with some
knowledge across the arts and sciences. All students should take classes in English Language Arts,
foreign languages, mathematics, natural sciences, fine arts and philosophy. Like Essentialism,
perennialism may tend to favor teacher-centered instruction; however, Perennialists do utilize
student-centered instructional activities like Socratic Seminar, which values and encourages students
to think, rationalize and develop their own ideas on topics.

Progressivism

Progressivism focuses its educational stance toward experiential learning with a focus on developing
the whole child. Students learn by doing rather than being lectured to by teachers. Curriculum is
usually integrated across contents instead of siloed into different disciplines. Progressivism’s stance
is in stark contrast to both Essentialism and Perennialism in this manner. Progressivism follows a
clear pragmatic ontology where the learner focuses on solving real-world problems through real
experiences. Progressivist classrooms are student-centered where students will work in
cooperative/collaborative groups to do project-based, expeditionary problem-based, and/or service-

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learning activities. In progressivist classrooms, students have opportunities to follow their interests
and have shared authority in planning and decision making with teachers.

Social Reconstructionism & Critical Pedagogy

Social reconstructionism was founded as a response to the atrocities of World War II and the
Holocaust to assuage human cruelty. Social reform in response to helping prepare students to make
a better world through instilling democratic values. Critical Pedagogy emerged from the foundation
of the early social reconstructionist movement. Critical Pedagogy is the application of critical theory
to education. For critical pedagogues, teaching and learning is inherently a political act and they
declared that knowledge and language are not neutral, nor can they be objective. Therefore, issues
involving social, environmental, or economic justice cannot be separated from the curriculum.
Critical pedagogy’s goal is to emancipate marginalized or oppressed groups by developing, according
to Paulo Freire, conscientizacao, or critical consciousness in students. Critical Pedagogy de-centers
the traditional classroom, which positions teacher at the center. The curriculum and classroom with
a critical pedagogy stance is student-centered and focuses its content on social critique and political
action.

When psychology first emerged as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate over
how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. The different schools of
psychology represents the major theories within psychology.

The first school of thought, structuralism, was advocated by the founder of the first psychology lab,
Wilhelm Wundt. Almost immediately, other theories began to emerge and vie for dominance in
psychology.

In the past, psychologists often identified themselves exclusively with one single school of thought.
Today, most psychologists have an eclectic outlook on psychology. They often draw on ideas and
theories from different schools rather than holding to any singular perspective. The following are
some of the major schools of thought that have influenced our knowledge and understanding of
psychology:

Structuralism and Functionalism: Early Schools of Thought

Structuralism is widely regarded as the first school of thought in psychology. This outlook focused on
breaking down mental process into the most basic components. Major thinkers associated with
structuralism includes Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. The focus of structuralism was on
reducing mental processes down into their most basic elements. The structuralists used techniques
such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the human mind.

Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was
heavily influenced by the work of William James. It functioned on the mind’s functions and
adaptations. Unlike some of the other well-known schools of thought in psychology.

Functionalism is not associated with a single dominant theorist. Instead, there are some different
functionalist thinkers associated with this outlook including John Dewey James Rowland Angell, and
Harvey Cari.

Author David Hothersall notes, however, the some historians question whether functionalism should
be considered a formal school of psychology at all given its lack of a central leader or formalized set
of ideas. 1

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Instead of focusing on the mental process themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead interested
in the role than these process play.

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt Psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things as
unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th
century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism.

Instead of breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt
psychologists believed that you must look at the whole of experience. According to the Gestalt
thinkers, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

The Behaviorist School of Thought in Psychology

Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the work of
thinkers such as:

 John B. Watson
 Ivan Pavlov
 B.F. Skinner

Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by
internal forces. Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior. Theories of learning including
classical conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of a great deal of research.

The behavioral school of psychology had a significant influence on the course of psychology, and
many of the ideas and techniques that emerged from this school of thought are still widely used
today. Behavioral training, token economics, aversion therapy and other techniques are frequently
used in psychotherapy and behavior modification programs.

The psychoanalytic School of Thought

Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought

emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, ego, and superego.
The id consists of primal urges while the ego is the component of personality charged with dealing
with reality. The superego is the part of the personality that holds all of the ideals and values we
internalize from our parents and culture. Freud believed that the interaction of these three elements
was what led to all of the complex human behaviours.

Freud’s school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated considerable debate. This
controversy existed not only his time but also in modern discussions of Freud's theories.

Other major psychoanalytic thinkers include:

 Anna Freud
 Carl Jung
 Erik Eriksson

The Humanistic School of Thought

Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic

psychology instead focused on individual free will, personal growth and the concept of self-

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actualization. While early schools of thought were primarily centered on abnormal human behavior,
humanistic psychology differed considerably in its emphasis on helping people achieve and fulfill
their potential.

Major humanist thinkers include:

 Abraham Maslow
 Carl Rogers

Humanistic psychology remains quite popular today and has had a significant influence on other
areas of psychology including positive psychology. This particular branch of psychology is centered
on helping people living happier, more fulfilling lives.

Cognitive School of psychology

Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that studies mental processes including how people
think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of
psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics.

Cognitive psychology began to emerge and during the 1950s, partly as a response to behaviorism.
Critics of behaviorism noted that it failed to account for how internal presses impacted behavior.
This period is sometimes referred to as the “ cognitive revolution” as a wealth of research on topics
such as information processing, language, memory and perception that began to emerge.

One of the most influential theories of this school of thought was the stages of cognitive
development theory proposed by Jean Piaget.

Q3: Explain the Islamic philosophy of education and discuss its application in our education
system?

Ans: Thus in this way, Islamic education began. Pious and learned Muslims (mu' allim or mudarris).
dedicated to making the teachings of the Koran more accessible to the Islamic community, taught
the faithful in what come to be known as the Kuttab (plural, katatib). The Kuttab could be located in
a variety of venues: mosques, private homes, shops, tents or even out in the open.

Historians are uncertain as to when the katatib were first established, but with the widespread
desire of the faithful to study the Koran, katatib could be found in virtually every part of the Islamic
empire by the middle of the eight century. The Kuttab served a vital social function as the only
vehicle for formal public instruction for primary-age children and continued so until western models
of education were introduced in the modern period. Even at present, it has exhibited remarkable
durability and continues to be an important means of religious instruction in many Islamic countries.

The curriculum of the Kuttab was primarily directed to young male children, beginning as early as
age four, and was centered on koranic studies and on religious obligations such as ritual ablutions,
fasting and prayer. The focus during the early history of Islam on the education of youth reflected
the belief that raising children with correct principles was a holy obligation for parents and society.
As Abdul Tibawi wrote in 1972, the mind of the child was believed to be “like a white clean paper,
once anything is writing on it, right or wrong, it will be difficult to erase it or superimpose new
writing upon it” (p. 38). The approach to teaching children was strict, and the conditions in which
young students learned could be quite harsh. Corporal punishment was often used to correct
laziness or imprecision. Memorization of the Koran was central to the curriculum of the Kuttab, but

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little or no attempt was made to analyze and discuss the meaning of the text. Once students had
memorized the greater part of the Koran, they could advance to higher stages of education, which
increased complexity of instruction. Western analysts of the Kuttab system usually criticize two
areas of its pedagogy: the limited range of subjects taught and the exclusive on memorization. The
contemporary Kuttab system still emphasizes memorization and recitation as important means of
learning. The value placed on memorization during student’s early religious training directly
influences their approaches to learning when they enter formal education offered by the modern
state. A common frustration of modern educators in the Islamic world is that while their students
can memorize copious volumes of notes and textbook pages, they often lack competence in critical
analysis and independent thinking.

During the golden age of the Islamic empire ( usually defined as a period between the tenth and
thirteenth centuries), when western Europe was intellectually backward and stagnant, Islamic
scholarship flourished with an impressive openness to the rational sciences, art and even literature.
It was during this period that the Islamic world made most of its contributions to the scientific and
artistic world. Ironically, Islamic scholars preserved much of the knowledge of the Greeks that had
been prohibited by the Christian world. Other outstanding contributions were made in areas of
chemistry, botany, physics, mineralogy, mathematics and astronomy, as many Muslim thinkers
regarded scientific truths as tools for accessing religious truth. Gradually the open and vigorous spirit
of enquiry and individual judgment (ijtihad) that characterized the golden age gave way to a more
insular, unquestioning acceptance (taqlid) of the traditional corpus of authoritative knowledge. By
the thirteenth century, according to Aziz Talbani, the ‘ulama' (religious scholars) had become “self-
appointed interpreters and guardians of religious knowledge.......learning was confined to the
transmission of traditions and dogma, and[was] hostile to research and scientific inquiry” (p.70). The
mentality of taqlid reigned supreme in all matters, and religious scholars condemned all other forms
of inquiry and research. Exemplifying the taqlid mentality, Burhan al-Din al-Zamuji wrote during the
thirteenth century, “Stick to ancient thinks while avoiding new things" and “Beware of becoming
engrossed in those disputes which come about after one has cut loose from the ancient authorities”.
Much of what was written after the thirteenth century lacked originality, and it consisted mostly of
commentaries on existing canonical works without adding any substantive new ideas. The Itehal
combination of taqlid and foreign invasion beginning in the thirteenth century served to dim Islam's
preeminence in both the artistic and scientific worlds.

Despite its glorious legacy of earlier periods, the world seemed unable to respond either culturally or
educationally to the onslaught of Western advancement by the eighteenth century. One of the most
damaging aspects of European colonialism was the deterioration of indigenous cultural norms
through secularism. With its veneration of human reason over divine revelation and its insistence on
separation of religion and state, secularism is anathema to Islam, in which all aspects of life, spiritual
or temporal, are interrelated as a harmonious whole. At the same time, Westem institutions of
education, with their pronounced smaller/religious dichotomy, were infused into Islamic countries in
order to produce functionaries to feed the bureaucratic and administrative needs of the state. The
early modernizers did not fully realize the extent to which secularized education fundamentally
conflicted with Islamic thought and traditional lifestyle. Religious education was to remain a
separate and personal responsibility, having no place in public education. If Muslim students desired
religious training, they could supplement their existing education with more instruction in traditional
religious schools-the Kuttab. As a consequence, the two differing education systems evolved
independently with little or no official interface.

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Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education: The Arabic language has three terms for education,
representing the various dimensions of the educational process as perceived by Islam. The most
widely used word for education in a formal sense is ta’lim, from the root ‘alima (to know, to be
aware, to perceive, to learn), which is used to denote knowledge being sought or imparted through
instruction and teaching. Tarbiyah, from the root raba (to increase, to grow, to rear), implies a state
of spiritual and ethical nurturing in accordance with the will of God. Ta'dib, from the root aduba (to
be cultured, refined,well-mannered), suggests a person's development of sound social behavior.
What is meant by sound requires a deeper understanding of the Islamic conception of the human
being.

Education in the context of Islam is regarded as a process that involves the complete person,
including the rational, spiritual and social dimensions. As noted by Syed Muhammad al-Naquib al-
Attas in 1979, the comprehensive and integrated approach to education in Islam is directed toward
the “balanced growth of the total personality......through training Man's spirit, intellect, rational self,
feelings and bodily senses.... such that faith is infused into the whole of his personality”. In Islamic
educational theory knowledge is gained in order to actualize and perfect all dimensions of the
human being. From of Islamic perspective the highest and most useful model of perfection is the
prophet Muhammad, and the goal of Islamic education is that people be able to live as he lived.
Sayed Hussain Nasr wrote in 1984 that while education does prepare humankind for happiness in
this life, “its ultimate goal is the abode of permanence and all education points to the permanent
world of eternity". To ascertain truth by reason alone is restrictive, according to Islam, because
spiritual and temporal reality are two sides of the same sphere. Many Muslim educationists argue
that favoring reason at the expense of spirituality interferes with balanced growth. Exclusive training
of the intellect, for example, is inadequate in developing and refining elements of love, kindness,
compassion and selflessness which have an altogether spiritual ambiance and can be engaged only
by processes of spiritual training.

Education in Islam is twofold: acquiring intellectual knowledge (through the application of reason
and logic) and developing spiritual knowledge (derived from divine revelation and spiritual
experience) According to the worldview of Islam, provision in education must be made equally for
both. Acquiring Knowledge in Islam is not intended as an end but as a means to stimulate a more
elevated moral and spiritual consciousness, leading to faith and righteous action.

Q4: Elaborate the Philosophy of idealism in the context of Metaphysics. Determine the
relationship of idealism with aims and process of education?

Ans: people have both minds and bodies. Everyone knows this. Yet over the centuries, there has
been much disagreement about the exact relationship between the human mind and the human
body.

Many people regard the mind as something separate from the body. This includes many religious
believers, who regard personality and self as attributes of an immortal soul. Some philosophers,
relying on logic instead of faith, also have taken the position that the mind is distinct from the body
and is not explainable in terms of bodily processes alone. The belief that a person is composed of a
mind and a body, with neither one reducible to the other, has traditionally been called dualism.

Other thinkers, especially those influenced by scientific thought, have held that the mind is not
distinct from the body, but is in some way a product of the body. Typically, such thinkers hold that
the mental functions of a person are simply functions of that person’s brain. The belief that the mind
is reducible to material things and processes is known as materialism.

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Still other thinkers, influenced by logical arguments and reflective thought, have maintained that the
mind is not really separate from the body, but that the physical world is in some sense a product of
minds. This viewpoint is know as idealism.

Idealism, then, is the philosophical view that material things owe their existence to minds.
Actually, there are other philosophical positions called “idealism” which are different from the
position 1 just described. The view that material things owe their existence to minds is sometimes
called metaphysical idealism to distinguish it from other viewpoints called “idealism”. I won't go into
these other ideas here, but I will name a few of them: epistemological idealism (A hypothesis about
what we can know): ethical idealism (the belief that moral ideals are worth striving for): and political
idealism (the belief that one should strive for an ideal form of government). The words “dualism”
and “materlism" also have other meanings, but I won't go into these here, either.

First, let me dispel one of the greatest myths about idealism: idealism dies not deny the reality of the
observable world.

No idealist (at least no sensible idealist) has believed that there is no observable world – that the
world we see, hear, touch, smell and taste is not there at all.

Idealists typically believe in the existence of the observable world, just like everyone else. They do
not regard the observable world as a figment of anyone's imagination. What makes idealists
different is their understanding of the nature of the observable world. Most people think of the
observable world as something independent of minds-something that could continue to exist even if
all minds were to disappear from the universe. Idealists go beyond this view; they think of the
observable world as depending, in some way or other, on minds and the activities of minds.
According to the idealist view of reality, if there had never been any minds of any sort in the
universe, then there world not have been a universe at all. But the observable world is not merely
something that people dream up. Some idealists (especially Berkeley, whom I discuss below) even
have claimed that there is no matter – but by “matter" these idealists generally mean a non-mental,
mind-independent substance. Claiming that the world is dependent on minds isn't the same as
claiming that the world isn't really there!

Another common belief about idealism is that it is contrary to reason – or, as some people put it,
“crazy” . This too is a myth that needs to be put to rest. Most idealistic through, particularly in the
West, is based on logical arguments of various sorts. In itself, idealism isn't contrary to reason or
logic. The worst that might be said is that it’s contrary to common sense. But this same charge can
be levelled at many of our beliefs about the world - such as the true belief that the Sun is a star,
which contradicts the common – sense observation that the Sun is just too big to be a star!

Still another myth about idealism is that idealism is contrary to science. Actually, the idealistic
concept of the material world is logically compatible with the scientific view of matter. Idealism does
not say that the natural world is unreal: It does not say that the laws of nature are mere inventions
of the human mind: It does not say we can change the world magically by thinking differently. Nor
does idealism place humanity at the center of the universe: It merely assigns conscious minds (of any
kind, human or nonhuman) to a rather important role in the universe.

Most of the best-known idealists of the western world have been either scientists or scientifically
oriented philosophers. And as anyone knows who follows the popular scientific literature, some
scientists start sounding like idealists when they discuss the picture of reality provided by quantum
physics.

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Also, idealism does not have any direct relation to the idea of “mind over matter". Although idealism
affirms that matter depends on mind, idealism does not require you to believe that your own mental
processes (or even everyone’s mental processes together) can affect the actual course of material
events. Some individuals who regard themselves as skeptics have associated idealism with belief in
paranormal phenomenon, and have tried to tar both beliefs with the same brush. Actually this is
silly, since idealism neither supports nor contradicts belief in the paranormal.

Idealism Comes in Several Flavors

All idealists agree that matter somehow depends on mind. However, different idealists have held
different views on exactly how matter depends on mind. Thus, there are several different kind of
idealism. A few of these are discussed below.

(Warning: to keep these summaries brief, I may gloss over some of the fine points of the theories I
am describing. The summaries give here are meant only to provide a thumbnail summary of
idealistic through. Do not really on any information in this document for school papers or for any
other purpose; consult appropriate research sources instead.)

Idealistic Theory No. 1: Subjective Idealism

The most straightforward kind of idealism- and possibly the most famous kind as well – is known as
subjective idealism. This is the view that matter is a construct built up from the mental contents of
the mind which observes it. In other words, the sensations that observers have when they
experience a brick are all there really is to the brick. A brick is simply an aggregate or system of the
sensations. When you experience a brick (by seeing it feeling it, etc.), the sum total of these
sensations, and other sensations like them, are all that you really can find there. The brick exists but
there is nothing else to the brick besides these sensations.

Of course, this doesn't mean that the brick isn't made of atoms, electrons etc..., as science says it is.
A subjective idealist might argue that the atoms and electrons also are systems of sensations –
perhaps including the sights and sounds that scientists experience, when they read instruments that
detect atoms and electrons. These systems of sensations could be parts of a greater system of
sensations, namely the brick.

Subjective idealism may seem weird, but it has a certain logic behind it. After all, what do you really
know of the brick besides the sensations you get when you experience it? When you think about it,
it seems as though the sensations are all you really find there. Normally, people assume that along
with the sensations of a brick there also is a non-mental brick which causes the sensations. But if the
non-mental brick vanished and only the sensations were there – how would you know the
difference?

Could you know the difference, if all the sensations remained exactly the same? So how do you
know that there’s anything the sensations, even as things are now? Even if you don’t believe
subjective idealism, these three questions are worth thinking about! The philosopher usually
regarded as the founder of subjective idealism is George Berkeley, who lived in the 17th and 18th
centuries. Using arguments rather like the one I just used (but much more complete and precise),
Berkeley argued that physical objects, though quite real, actually are collections of sensations. He
expounded his views in two books. The Principles of human knowledge and three dialogues between
Hylas and Philonouns. Berkeley tried to show that the concept of “matter" as a non-mental
substance is a mistaken idea.

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One of the big problems facing subjective idealism is the problem of why the same objects should
exist for everyone even through everyone has different mental contents. If you and I both see a
brick, then you and I will have slightly different experiences, depending on our positions, the
lighting, etc. The brick as I see it is constructed from my mental contents, and the brick as you see it
is constructed from your mental contents. So how can we say we're seeing the same brick? How can
I even know that you are seeing a brick to all? Berkeley recognized a problem much like this, and
thought he could solve it without abandoning subjective idealism. Other idealists abandoned
subjective idealism and devised idealistic theories which seemed to avoid such problems. I will
mention some of these theories below.

Idealistic Theory No. 2 Absolute Idealism

Absolute idealism is the view that the existence of material things depends upon one underlying
mental reality rather than upon the mental contents of individual observers. It differs from
subjective idealism mainly in its picture of the “mind" that underlies matter. According to subjective
idealism, matter is a construct based on the mental contents of individual observers, like you and
me. According to absolute idealism, there is a single underlying mental or spiritual thing, or principle,
whose mental activitiy and content underpins the existence of the entire material world.

In western philosophy, the best-known absolute idealist is the 18th/19th-century philosopher G.W.F.
Hegel. Hegel regarded the universe as a manifestation of what he called “the Absolute.” The
absolute, as Hegel conceived of it, is a spiritual principle which encompasses minds and material
objects a like and is the ground of all existence. Hegel thought of the evolution of the universe, from
atoms to galaxies, as an image of the process of unfoldment or development of the Absolute. He
wrote a number of books. Including one known in English as Science of Logic.

The idea that there is one mental or spiritual reality behind everything may sound religious or
mystical. One can interpret it that way if one likes; certainly, some idealists with religious or mystical
inclinations have equated the Absolute with God. But absolute idealism, in and of .

Idealistic Theory No 3: pluralistic Idealism

Pluralistic idealism is the view that there are many individual minds which together underlie the
existence of the observed world. Unlike absolute idealism pluralistic idealism does not assume the
existence of a single ultimate mental reality or Absolute. According to pluralistic idealism, it is
individual minds which make possible the existence of the physical universe.

Pluralistic idealism differs from absolute idealism by denying that all minds are encompassed by one
absolute mind. According to the pluralistic idealist view, individual minds are the sources of reality; it
is the individual minds, not the Absolute, that do all the work. Pluralistic idealism also should be
distinguished from subjective idealism. Although it is possible to be a subjective idealist and also a
pluralistic idealist, most pluralistic idealists have regarded matter as the resultant of the activity of
interrelated minds acting together, rather than as constructs built up from the contents of single
minds.

Pluralistic Idealism, Version 1 : Monadism

One form of pluralistic idealism is monadism. According to monadism, the minds that underlie the
material world are no limited to human and animal minds. They also include rudimentary minds the
exist whenin all material things. In modern terms, one might state this form of idealism as follows:
the ultimate particles which make up matter are not merely material; they have some slight degree

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of consciousness. It is these primitive consciousness, together with more complex minds such as
human minds, that underpin the existence of the world.

According to monadism, matter is not a construct of mind, but it is made of minds-very simple
minds, which perhaps don't have thought and feelings as we do, but which nevertheless have some
degree of consciousness.

Monadism is the creation of the 17th/18th-century philosopher G.W. Leibniz, who also co-invented
calculus. Leibniz used the term “monad" to refer to any of the different minds in his theory-human
and animal minds, the primitive minds within matter, and some other minds as well. Leibniz also
held other views about monads that I won't discuss here because they aren’t directly relevant to my
discussion of idealism.

Leibniz’s idealism is presented in a straightforward way in his short book. Monadology.

Pluralistic Idealism, Version 2: Personal Idealism

Another form of pluralistic idealism is personal idealism. This is the view that the minds which
underlie reality are the minds of persons. According to personal idealism, the world is at heart a
world of conscious, personal beings, including ourselves. The interactions or relationships among
these beings give rise to the system of experiences that we call experiences of the observable world.

Like other types of idealism, personal idealism acknowledges the existence of the observable world,
and regards that world as dependent upon the activity of minds. Personal idealism denies that there
is a single absolute mind behind the world. It also denies that things are merely constructs of the
mental contents of single minds. Instead, personal idealism regards things as resultants of the
interrelated mental activities of persons. For example, if you and I both see a brick, the existence of
the brick depends upon your experiences and upon my experiences, and perhaps upon the
experiences of other observes as well. If you hand me a brick, your experience of handing it and my
experience of receiving it both contribute to the existence of the brick.

One of the leading personal idealists (and the one who used the term “ Personal Idealism” most
specifically for his ideas) was the 19th/20thcentury philosopher George H. Howison. Howison put
particular emphasis on the role of purpose and values in idealism. He argued that the flow of time is
a result if the activity of personal minds, and that for this reason, person’s must be regarded as being
who transcend the flow of time. Howison’s ideas are expounded in his book The Limits of Evaluation
and Other Essays.

My Own Suggestions: Physiodealism and Recursive Idealism

Earlier I said that idealism is compatible with the scientific view of nature. One possible sticking point
in this compatibility is the fact that scientists are attempting to understand the human mind in terms
of the activity of the brain. Scientists have made considerable progress in explaining mental
functions in terms of brain function. Although no complete explanation is yet available, many people
believe that such an explanation (known as a materialistic explanation of mind) is possible.

In many opinion, the possibility of a materialistic explanation of mind is not as blatantly obvious as
many scientifically include philosophers might believe. There still are major open philosophical
problems about the nature of the mind. Even if every single mental function are found to associated
with a specific physical process, we still would have trouble establishing that each mental function
really IS the corresponding physical process. Before such an identification could be made, there
would be philosophical questions to answer as well as scientific ones. Science alone cannot do the

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job; both science and philosophy are necessary. But suppose that a materialistic explanation of
mind is found one day. Idealism claims that matter depends on mind for its existence. If minds ever
are shown to be reducible to matter. Will metaphysical idealism still be a tenable philosophical
position? In many opinion, the answer to this last question is a resounding Yes. Even if the mind we
were shown to be nothing but a set of functions of the brain, the material universe still could owe its
existence entirely to minds.

My argument for this opinion is found in my book, From Brain to Cosmos. There I describe a version
of metaphysical idealism that I call physiodealism, and a specific type of Physiodealism that I call
recursive idealism. These viewpoints are not entirely new; both of them have precedents in recent
philosophy, and especially in the current thinking of some scientists. I discuss these precedents in
the book.

Q5: Compare the traditional philosophies and Islamic philosophies of education.

Ans: To seek knowledge is a scared duty, it is obligatory on every Muslim, male and female. The first
word revealed of the Qur’an was “Iqra" READ! Seek knowledge! Educate yourselves! Be educated.

Surah Al-Zumr, ayah 9 reveals: “Are those equal, those who know and those who do not know?”
Surah Al-Baqarah, ayah 269 reveals: “Allah grants wisdom to whom he please and to whom wisdom
is granted indeed he receives an overflowing benefit.”

Centuries old monarchy, colonialism and the oppressive rule of their own people have brought
about moral and spiritual degeneration of Muslims throughout the world. To retrieve them from this
degeneration, it? Is about time that the Muslim Ummah restructures its educational priorities along
Islamic lines, fulfilling the existing needs as well. By virtue of such an educational program, the
future generations will become the torch-bearers of Islamic values and play an effective role in the
present world. The challenges of modern lines call for rebuilding the structure of our educational
program on such a foundation as to fulfil our spiritual as well as temporary obligations. Today we
need an education system which can produce, what the late Sayyid Abul A?la Mawdudi said,
“Muslim philosopher, Muslim scientist, Muslim economist, Muslim jurist, Muslim statesman, in brief,
Muslim experts in all fields of knowledge who would reconstruct the social order in brief, Muslim
experts in all fields of knowledge who would reconstruct the social order in accordance with the
tenets of Islam.”

The Muslims today are the most humiliated community in the world. And should they persist in
following the same educational program as given by their colonial masters, they will not be able to
recover themselves from moral and spiritual decadence.

Ibn Mas?ud (Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Messenger of Allah (S) said: the position of
only two persons is enviable; the person whom Allah bestowed wealth empowering him to spend it
the way of righteousness, and the person whom Allah give wisdom with which he adjudges and
which he teaches to others.

According to Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah. Ibn Abbas (Allah be pleased with him) narrated that the
Messenger of Allah (S) said: A single scholar of religion is more formidable against shaytaan that a
thousand devout persons.

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Islam is our greatest gift. We have to be thankful for this gift. We have to render to Allah his due.
Allah has given us so much by making us a part of the Ummah of the Prophet Muhammad (S) so we
must totally commit ourselves as followers of the Prophet (S). We must become true Muslims.

Now how can we become Muslims in the true sense of the word? First let?s define what a Muslim is.
A Muslim is not a simply because he?s born one. A Muslim is a Muslim because he is a follower of
Islam, a submitter to the will of Allah. We?re Muslim if we consciously and deliberately accept what
has been taught by the Prophet Muhammad (S) and act accordingly. Otherwise we?re not true
Muslims.

The first and most crucial obligation on us is to acquire knowledge and secondly to practice and
preach this knowledge. No man becomes truly a Muslim without knowing the meaning of Islam,
because he becomes a Muslim not through birth but through knowledge. Unless we come to know
the basic and necessary teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (S) how can we believe in him, have
faith in him, act according to what he taught? It is impossible for us to be a Muslim, and at the same
time live in a state of ignorance.

It is essential to understand that the greatest gift of Allah ? for which we are so over whelmed with
gratitude ? depends primarily on knowledge. Without knowledge one can?t truly receive Allah?s gift
of Islam. If our knowledge is little, then we will constantly run the risk of losing that magnificent gift,
which we have received unless we remain vigilant in our fight against ignorance.

A person without knowledge is like someone walking along a track in complete darkness. Most likely
his steps will wander aside and he easily can be deceived by shaytaan. This shows that our greatest
danger lies in our ignorance of Islamic teaching and in our unawareness of what the Qur?an teaches
and what guidance has been given by the Prophet (S). But if we are blessed with the light of
knowledge we will be able to see plainly the clear path of Kufr, shirk and immorality which may cross
it. And whenever a false guide meets us on the way, a few words with him will quickly establish that
he is not a guide who should be followed.

On this knowledge depends whether our children and we are true Muslims and remain true
Muslims. It is therefore not a trivial to be neglected. We do not neglect doing whatever is essential
to improve our trades and professions. Because we know that if we do neglect, we will starve to
death and so lose the precious gift of life. Why then should we be negligent in acquiring that
knowledge on which depends whether we become Muslims and remain Muslims?

Does such negligence not entail the danger of losing an even more precious gift? Our Iman? Is not
Iman more precious then life itself? Most of our time and labor is spent on things, which sustain our
physical existence in this life. Why can we not spend even a tenth part of our time and energy on
things, which are necessary to protect our Iman, which only can sustain us in the present life and in
the life to come? It is not necessary to study extensively to become a Muslim. We should at least
spend about one hour out of twenty-four hours of the day and night in acquiring the knowledge of
this Deen, the way of life, the Islam.

Every one of us, young or old, man or woman, should at least acquire sufficient knowledge to enable
ourselves to understand the essence of the teachings of the Qur'an and the purpose for which it has
been sent down. We should also be able to understand clearly the mission, which our beloved
Prophet (S) came into this world to fulfil. We should also recognize the corrupt order and system,
which he came to destroy. We should acquaint ourselves, too, with the way of life which Allah has
ordained for us. Not only should we seek knowledge, but when we learn it, it becomes obligatory on
us to practice it. Thought we must remember that correct knowledge should come before correct

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action. Knowledge without action is useless because a learned person without action will be the
worst of creature on the day of resurrection. Also, action should not be based on blind imitation for
this is not the quality of the thinking, sensible human being.

Knowledge is pursued and practiced with modesty and humility and leads to beauty and dignity,
freedom and justice.

The main purpose of acquiring knowledge is to bring us closer to God. It is not simply for the
gratification of the mind or the senses. It is not knowledge for the sake of knowledge or science for
the value of sake. Knowledge accordingly must be linked with values and goals.

One of the purpose of acquiring knowledge is to gain the good of this world, not to destroy it
through wastage, arrogance and in the reckless pursuit of higher standards of material comfort.
Another purpose of knowledge is to spread freedom and dignity, truth and justice. It is not to gain
power and dominance for its own sake.

Obviously, what we may call the reservoir of knowledge is deep and profound. It is a vast and open
field that is not limited.

It is impossible for anyone to gain anything more than a fraction of what there is to know in the
short span of one?s life. We must therefore decide what is most important for us to know and how
to go about acquiring this knowledge.

The following ahadith shows how important and how rewarding knowledge is.

“He who acquires knowledge acquires a vast portion .”AND" if anyone going on his way in search of
knowledge. God will, thereby make easy for him the way to Paradise.”

We, the children, are the further. The further lies in our hands, but only through knowledge because
whoever neglects learning in youth, loses the past and is dead for the future.

May Allah (SWT) give us strength to behave and act just as he likes us to do and pleased with us, and
that should be the purpose of our lives. Rabbi zidnee ilma (O Lord, increase us in knowledge).
Aameen.

Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we come to
know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more of the general or
world philosophies just discussed. These educational philosophical approaches are currently used in
classrooms the world over. They are perennialism, Essentialism, progressivism and
Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT we should teach, the
curriculum aspect.

Perennialism: For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire
understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for
solving problems in any era. The focus is to each ideas that are everlasting, to seek, enduring truths
which are constant. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and
their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a
worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing
students growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized
the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational
philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and
Mortimer Adler, who further developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of Western
civilization.

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Essentialism : Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be
transmitted to students in a systematic disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative
perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the
curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational
philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism. Essentialists accept the ideas that this core
curriculum may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable
members of society. It should focus on facts- the objective reality out there and “the basics" ,
training, students to read, write, speak and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to
set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority and discipline.
Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or
mindlessness. This approach was in reaction approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William
Bagley, took progressivist to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism
are: James D. Koerner (1959), H.G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978) and Theodore Sizer
(1985).

Progressivism: Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on
the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by
active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through
experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who
makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context.
Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is
derived from student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist
educators so the students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis
is on process-how one comes to know. The progressive education philosophy was established in
America from the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of
his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing
freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making planning of teachers with students,
student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.

Reconstructionism/Critical Theory

Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a
quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a
curriculum that highlights social reforms as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)
was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He
recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the
capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George Counts
(1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating this new
social order.

Critical theories, like social reconstructionist, believe that systems must be charged to overcome
oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose
experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social
change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress
others. To do so requires dialog critical consciousness, the development of awareness to overcome
dominating and oppression. Rather than “Teaching as banking,” in which the educator deposits
information into student’s heads. Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which
the child must invent and reinvent the world.

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For social reconstructionist and critical theories, curriculum focuses on student experience and
taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hungur international terrorism, inflation and
inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and
literature), inquiry, dialogue and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and
bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.

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