infrastructures

Article
Experimental Study of the Mechanical Behaviour of
Bricks from 19th and 20th Century Buildings in the
Province of Zamora (Spain)
Ana Belén Ramos Gavilán 1, * , María Ascensión Rodríguez Esteban 2 ,
María Natividad Antón Iglesias 2 , María Paz Sáez Perez 3 , María Soledad Camino Olea 4
and Julen Caballero Valdizán 2
1 Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Salamanca, 49022 Zamora, Spain
2 Construction and Agronomy Department, University of Salamanca, 49022 Zamora, Spain;
mare@usal.es (M.A.R.E.); nanton@usal.es (M.N.A.I); zandival@msn.com (J.C.V.)
3 Architectural Construction Department, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; mpsaez@ugr.es
4 Architectural Construction IT MMCC TE Department, University of Valladolid, 47014 Valladolid, Spain;
mcamino@arq.uva.es
* Correspondence: aramos@usal.es; Tel.: +34-980545000-3728




Received: 31 July 2018; Accepted: 11 September 2018; Published: 16 September 2018


Abstract: Interventions in historic brick buildings require an exhaustive analysis of the current
characteristics of bricks in order to establish the role performed by these elements in the buildings.
This study presents the results of an experimental analysis of the compressive strength of brick
specimens extracted from different buildings built in the 19th and 20th centuries in the province of
Zamora (Spain). The study analyses specimens with very different characteristics to compare results
from different masonry units and manufacturing processes. Specimens are classified into four groups
according to their macroscopic and microscopic analyses. Compressive strength results are correlated
to the above classification and to the results of density, absorption and open porosity of the samples.
The compressive strength results present high variation between clay bricks (9.2–64.4 N/mm2 ) and
between samples extracted from the same brick due to the heterogeneity of the material. Correlations
between compressive strength and open porosity, absorption and dry density values are observed,
with less dispersion in the case of high sintering level, up to 1000 ◦ C. Finally, the compliance with the
current Spanish Technical Building Code with respect to their compressive strength is checked.

Keywords: compressive strength; historic bricks; restoration and rehabilitation

1. Introduction
Many studies on interventions in historical masonry buildings, such as those conducted by
Binda et al. [1], Papayianni and Stefanidou [2], Lourenço and Fernandes [3], Brandonisio et al. [4] and
Vintzileou [5], point to the importance of knowing the manufacturing conditions and the compressive
strength, as well as the compatibility with other materials. The mechanical analysis of bricks is common
in many of them, including the works of Fernandes and Lourenço [6], Singha, et al. [7], Matysek et al. [8],
Balasubramanian et al. [9], Azeez et al. [10], Pérez-Gálvez et al. [11], Brozovsky et al. [12] and
Bajare et al. [13]. Because of the difficulty of extracting samples, estimates of the bearing capacity of
brick walls based on empirical formulas and analytical models that use the bricks and mortar strength are
very useful. European Standard EN 1996-1-1 [14] and different research works, such as Sahlin [15] and
Kaushik et al. [16], collect some of the most significant methods. Numerical models based on mechanical
properties of the constituents reduce the difficulties associated with masonry laboratory tests. Computer

Infrastructures 2018, 3, 38; doi:10.3390/infrastructures3030038 www.mdpi.com/journal/infrastructures

Infrastructures 2018, 3, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 11
Infrastructures 2018, 3, 38 2 of 11

compressive strength of masonry buildings, as reported by Lemos [17], Barbosa et al. [18], Uday et
al. [19] and Sousa
simulations [20]. the mechanical behaviour and compressive strength of masonry buildings, as
can predict
Thisby
reported paper
Lemos analyses the results
[17], Barbosa et al. of compressive
[18], strength
Uday et al. [19] tests carried
and Sousa [20]. out on ancient clay brick
samples extracted from facades of different buildings built
This paper analyses the results of compressive strength tests carried in the 19th andout 20th centuries
on ancient clayinbrick
the
province of Zamora
samples extracted from(Spain)
facades of during
differenttheir intervention
buildings built in or
the demolition.
19th and 20thThe workinincludes
centuries the provincethe
experimental
of Zamora (Spain)analysis of the
during porosity,
their absorption
intervention and density,
or demolition. The asworkwellincludes
as the macroscopic
the experimental and
microscopic
analysis of thestudy of theabsorption
porosity, material. The andcompression strength
density, as well as theofmacroscopic
clay bricks isand
related to their physical
microscopic study of
properties,
the material.origin and manufacturing
The compression strengthprocess.
of clay bricks is related to their physical properties, origin and
Lastly, theprocess.
manufacturing study checks on compliance with the requirements of BD SE-F of the Spanish
Technical
Lastly,Building
the studyCode checks[21], which facilitates
on compliance therequirements
with the evaluation of of the state of
BD SE-F oftheconservation of the
Spanish Technical
building, required
Building Code [21],by Lawfacilitates
which 8/2013 LRRRU [22].
the evaluation of the state of conservation of the building, required
by Law 8/2013 LRRRU [22].
2. Brick Specimens
2. Brick Specimens
This study was carried out on 15 ancient clay bricks from buildings located in different
This study
municipalities of was carried out
the province on 15 ancient
of Zamora. clay buildings
The selected bricks from were buildings located
built between theinend
different
of the
municipalities
19th century and of the
the beginning
province of of Zamora. The selected
the 20th century. Most buildings were built
of them originate from between the end
Toro, where of
brick
the 19th century
building and the
construction beginning
greatly of theat20th
increased the century.
end of theMost of century,
19th them originate
or were from Toro, whereinbrick
manufactured the
building
San construction
Antonio greatlyin
Factory, located increased at the end
the municipality ofof
Elthe 19th century,
Perdigón. The studyor were
also manufactured
includes a clayin the
brick
San Antonio
from Factory, located
the municipality of Oteroin the municipality
de Bodas, locatedofinElthe
Perdigón. The study
Sanabria-La also includes
Carballeda Area, and a clay brick
another
fromfrom
one the municipality
Entrala. Most of Otero
of thedeclay Bodas, located
bricks in thewere
analysed Sanabria-La Carballeda
traditionally Area, by
produced andaanother
handmadeone
from Entrala.
process, exceptMost
those of manufactured
the clay bricks in analysed were traditionally
San Antonio producedorbymoulded
Factory by extruded a handmade process,
process. The
exceptused
clays thosecome
manufactured
from differentin San Antonio
facies, Factory
mainly frombyEntrala
extrudedandorTierra
moulded process. The
de Campos. clays used
Therefore, the
come from different facies, mainly from Entrala and Tierra de Campos. Therefore,
study analyses samples with different origins, manufacturing processes, surface finishes and physical the study analyses
samples with different origins, manufacturing processes, surface finishes and physical properties.
properties.

Macroscopic and
Macroscopic and Microscopic
Microscopic Study
Study
Prior to
Prior to the
the mechanical
mechanical analysis
analysis of of bricks,
bricks, an
an initial
initial visual
visual inspection
inspection andand an
an optical
optical microscopy
microscopy
analysis were
analysis were carried
carried out.
out. This
This initial
initial study
study facilitates
facilitates the
the specimen
specimen description
description based
based on
onpeculiarities:
peculiarities:
inclusions, phases, textures, flow lines caused by the manufacturing process, interaction between
inclusions, phases, textures, flow lines caused by the manufacturing process, interaction between
minerals, sintering
minerals, sintering and
and firing
firing processes,
processes, reactions
reactions between
between particles,
particles, etc.
etc.
The analysed
The analysed bricks
bricks are
are classified
classified into
into four
four groups
groups according
according toto the
the visual
visual inspection and their
inspection and their
behaviour during the cutting process. Group number one (G1) is made up of
behaviour during the cutting process. Group number one (G1) is made up of bricks 1, 6 and 8. These bricks 1, 6 and 8.
These specimens
specimens presentpresent softdetected
soft zones zones detected
by visualby visual inspection
inspection andprocess,
and cutting cuttingwhich
process,
havewhich have
yellowish
yellowish colour because of the low content in iron oxides [23–30], and cracks between
colour because of the low content in iron oxides [23–30], and cracks between macro phases. A detail macro phases.
A
of detail of oneclassified
one sample sample classified as G1 isinshown
as G1 is shown Figurein1a.
Figure 1a.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1. Brick classification based on macroscopic analysis: (a) G1; (b) G2; (c) G3; (d) G4.

Bricks 2, 5, 7 and 9 form group number two (G2). The visual inspection of these bricks identify
identify
granular texture because of the sand particle content, as
as can
can be
be seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure 1b.
1b.
Clay bricks 3, 4 and 10 form the third
third group
group (G3). These specimens
(G3). These specimens present
present vitreous
vitreous zones,
zones,
identified by optical microscopy, and large visible purple and dark red areas identified by optical
microscopy and visual inspection. Clay bricks of this group present hardness when cut, and their
Infrastructures 2018, 3, 38 3 of 11

microscopy and visual inspection. Clay bricks of this group present hardness when cut, and their
optical microscopy analysis reveals a solid cohesion, since there are no necks between particles,
the initial stage of sintering [31]. Figure 1c shows a brick sample classified as G3.
Finally, the fourth group (G4) is made up of moulded and extruded bricks manufactured in San
Antonio Factory, which correspond to specimens 11 to 15. These bricks show flow lines due to the
shaping process, as shown in Figure 1d, which could weaken some load directions.
Table 1 summarizes the main results obtained in the visual inspection and optical microscopy
study of each specimen, with T representing the estimated firing temperature, D the disintegration
or detachment of particles during the handling of the pieces, R the reaction between mineralogical
components during firing, Df the silica diffusion and breakage after firing, I the final interaction
between the clay minerals, and C the red colour due to the higher content of iron oxides. D and C are
visually assessed, R, Df and I are identified by optical microscopy, and T is estimated through visual
inspection and optical microscopy. Since the range of temperatures from 900 to 1000 ◦ C is suitable for
the firing/sintering of bricks, the presence of necks between particles reveals a low sintering level,
under 900 ◦ C, and the presence of visible dark-coloured areas reveals a sintering temperature over
1000 ◦ C [23–25,28,29].

Table 1. Description of the specimens analysed in the study.

Microscopic Analysis 1
Clay Brick Test Specimens Origin Production Group
T D R Df I C
1 8 Toro handmade G1 <900 ◦C y n n y n
2 15 Toro handmade G2 <900 ◦ C y n y y y
3 4 Toro handmade G3 >1000 ◦ C n y y y y
4 3 Toro handmade G3 >1000 ◦ C n y y y y
5 2 Toro handmade G2 <900 ◦ C y y n y y
6 8 Toro handmade G1 <900 ◦ C y n n y n
7 1 Toro handmade G2 <900 ◦ C y y n y y
8 2 Toro handmade G1 <900 ◦ C y y n y n
9 11 Entrala handmade G2 <900 ◦ C y y y y y
10 4 Otero Bodas moulded G3 >1000 ◦ C n y y y y
11 12 El Perdigón moulded G4 ≥900 ◦ C n y y y y
12 11 El Perdigón moulded G4 ≥900 ◦ C n y y y y
13 8 El Perdigón extruded G4 ≥900 ◦ C n y y y y
14 6 El Perdigón extruded G4 ≥900 ◦ C n y y y y
15 4 El Perdigón moulded G4 ≥900 ◦ C n y y y y
1 y: yes/n: no.

3. Experimental Analysis

3.1. Reception and Classification of Specimens

Dirt and remains of mortar were removed from clay bricks by sandpaper and metal brushes,
as shown in Figure 2, to avoid contamination of the material. After that, bricks were numbered and
catalogued recording their origin, characteristics and geometry. The elaborated register includes
photographs to know the original shape of the specimens.
Infrastructures 2018, 3, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11
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Infrastructures 3, x38FOR PEER REVIEW
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(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 2. Brick cleaning treatment (a) and cataloguing (b–d).
Figure
Figure2.
2. Brick
Brickcleaning
cleaningtreatment
treatment(a)
(a) and
and cataloguing
cataloguing (b–d).
(b–d).
3.2. Preparation and Measurement of Test Specimens
3.2. Preparation
3.2. Preparation and and Measurement
Measurement of of Test
Test Specimens
Specimens
Sampling of clay bricks was carried out by cutting, trying to extract the maximum number of
Sampling of
Sampling of clay
clay bricks
bricks was
was carried
carried out out by by cutting,
cutting, trying
trying to extract
extract the
the maximum
maximum number of of
specimens of the available material after removing grooves andtosuperficial damages. Asnumber shown in
specimens
specimens of the available material after removing grooves and superficial damages. As shown in
Table 1, theof the available
number material after
of test specimens removing
extracted fromgrooves
each clay and superficial
brick damages.toAs
varies according shown
their size. in
A
Table 1,
Table 1, the
thenumber
numberofoftest test specimensextracted
extracted from each clay brick varies according to their size.
total of 102 specimens werespecimens
tested, grouped intofrom each
15 series clay
that brick varies
correspond according
to the bricks to of
their size.
origin. A
In
A total
total of of
102 102 specimens
specimens werewere tested,
tested, grouped
grouped intointo
15 15 series
series that that correspond
correspond to to
the the bricks
bricks of of origin.
origin. In
the extracting and conditioning operations, a STRUERS Labotom cutter with disc for ceramic cutting,
In the extracting and and conditioning operations, a STRUERS Labotom cutter with disc for cutting,
ceramic
athe extracting
STRUERS LaboPol-1conditioning operations,
brand polisher witha180 STRUERS Labotom
grit sandpaper, cutter
and with
a Memmerte disc for ceramic
brand dryer (T max
acutting,
350STRUERS a STRUERS LaboPol-1
°C) wereLaboPol-1
used. The brand
test specimens
brandwith
polisher polisher180 grit
are parallelepiped,
with 180 grit sandpaper,
sandpaper,
and theirandsize
a Memmerteand a Memmerte
is not uniform,brand dryer
with
brand
(T max
a height
dryer (T 350 ◦ C) were used. The test specimens are parallelepiped, and their size is not uniform,
350 °C) max used. The test specimens are parallelepiped, and their size is not uniform, with a height
were
in the 13–33 mm range and a width in the 15–46 mm range. Although some bricks do not reach the
with
in thea13–33
heightmm in the 13–33 mm range and a width in therange.
15–46 Although
mm range.some Although some bricks do the
not
minimum numberrange and a width
of specimens in the
required for15–46 mm
compression tests according bricks
to the do not
European reach
Standard
reach
minimum the minimum
number number
of[32],
specimens of specimens
required required
for compression for compression tests according to the European
UNE EN 772-1: 2000 the study considers all the results.tests according to the European Standard
Standard
UNE UNE EN
EN 772-1: 2000772-1: 2000study
[32], the [32], considers
the study all considers all the results.
the results.
The
The samples are measured to obtain their apparent dry
samples are measured to obtain their apparent density ((ρ
dry density ρb)),, absorption
absorption (w (wmm)),, open
open
The samples are measured to obtain their apparent dry density (ρbb), absorption (wm ), open
porosity ( π a) and compressive strength (f c ) , following the procedures
porosity (πa ) and compressive strength (fc ), following the procedures outlined in Standards EN outlined in Standards EN 772-
772-13:
porosity
13: 2001 ( π
[33],a) and compressive strength (fc), following the procedures outlined in Standards EN 772-
2001 [33], ENEN 771-1:
771-1: 2003
2003 [34][34]
andandENEN 772-1:
772-1: 20002000 [32],
[32], as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 3. 3.
13: 2001 [33], EN 771-1: 2003 [34] and EN 772-1: 2000 [32], as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Measurement of the brick samples.

Figure 3. Measurement of the brick samples.
Figure 3. Measurement of the brick samples.
The lengths of the edges of the test specimens were obtained through a MITUTOYO CD 6" digital
The lengths of the edges of the test specimens were obtained through a MITUTOYO CD 6" digital
callipers of ±0.01ofmm
The of
lengths resolution.
theresolution.
edges of the These measurements
test measurements
specimens allow
wereallow for the
obtained obtaining
through of the apparent
a MITUTOYO volume
CD 6"volume
digital
callipers ±0.01 mm These for the obtaining of the apparent
(Vg ), andofthe
callipers ±0.01length
mm and cross-sectional
resolution. These area (Ab ) forallow
measurements compressive
for the testing. Due
obtaining of to apparent
the the difficulties
volumeof
(Vg), and the length and cross-sectional area (Ab) for compressive testing. Due to the difficulties of
cutting, specimens
(Vg), andspecimens
the lengthdo do not
and satisfy the geometrical tolerances of European Standard EN 772-1: 2000 [32],
cutting, notcross-sectional area (Ab) for
satisfy the geometrical compressive
tolerances testing. Standard
of European Due to theEN difficulties
772-1: 2000of
so the study
cutting, considers
specimens do the average
not satisfy length
the of the four
geometrical axial edges
tolerances of and the average
European Standard cross-sectional
EN 772-1: area
2000
[32], so the study considers the average length of the four axial edges and the average cross-sectional
of the
[32], soload faces. considers the average length of the four axial edges and the average cross-sectional
the load
study
area of the faces.
The
area The
of themass
loadofoffaces.
the dry samples (md ) and the mass of the wet samples, after one hour of immersion at
mass the dry samples (md) and the mass of the wet samples, after one hour of immersion
100 ◦The
C (mmass), were obtained by means ) of a KERN AIS-20-4N precision balance of 0.0001 gr resolution,
at 100 °C (mwof the dry samples (mdmeans
and the
of mass of theAIS-20-4N
wet samples, after one hour ofofimmersion
w
), were obtained by a KERN precision balance 0.0001 gr
a MICROTEST
at 100 °C (m oven with programmable temperature controller Call 95000 P Process Controller,
w), were obtained by means of a KERN AIS-20-4N precision balance of 0.0001 gr
resolution, a MICROTEST oven with programmable temperature controller Call 95000 P Process
and a temperature-controlled
resolution, a MICROTEST PRECISTERM
oven kettle, JP SELECT, Fusecontroller
with programmable (A) 8.
Controller, and a temperature-controlled PRECISTERMtemperature
kettle, JP SELECT, FuseCall (A) 95000
8. P Process
Controller, and a temperature-controlled PRECISTERM kettle, JP SELECT, Fuse (A) 8.
Infrastructures 2018, 3, 38 5 of 11

3.3. Dry Density, Absorption and Open Porosity

Based on the measurements previously discovered, the dry density (ρb ) and absorption (wm ) of
specimens are determined by Equations (1) and (2), according to Standards EN 772-13: 2001 [33] and
EN 771-1: 2003 [34].
ρb = md /Vg , (1)

wm = (mw − md )/md × 100%. (2)

The open porosity (πa ), expressed as a percentage in volume, is obtained through Equation (3),
where ρl corresponds to the density of the water at the tank temperature:

πa = (mw − md )/ρl /Vg × 100%. (3)

Table 2 lists the average values and the coefficient of variation (CoV) of absorption, dry density and
open porosity of each clay brick, calculated based on the experimental results of the specimens extracted
from each brick. The average dry density of clay bricks ranges from 1225 kg/m3 to 2193 kg/m3 .
This difference is due to the various origins, manufacturing processes and deterioration, as in the
case of clay brick number 7. Despite the differences between bricks, the results obtained from the
specimens extracted from a clay brick show a low CoV, ranging from 0.36% to 3.54%, as seen in Table 2
and Figure 4a.

Table 2. Average values of the properties of the specimens from each clay brick and group.

Group Clay Brick wm (%) CoV wm (%) ρb (kg/m3 ) CoV ρb (%) πa (%) CoV πa (%) fc (N/mm2 ) CoV fc (%)
1 19 7.89 1577 2.59 31.0 6.38 9.5 55.69
6 14 3.42 1832 1.06 25.9 3.13 23.6 16.92
8 19 6.91 1570 0.51 31.2 7.60 12.1 2.40
G1 16 18.48 1687 7.60 28.49 10.71 15.5 53.23
2 12 6.48 1904 1.22 23.5 5.39 17.5 26.14
5 12 41.07 1954 0.36 24.0 40.92 18.3 22.79
7 15 - 1225 - 19.2 - 9.2 -
9 11 6.81 1854 1.49 21.1 5.95 13.7 18.62
G2 12 13.17 1853 7.31 22.3 12.31 15.9 29.26
3 6 20.20 2193 1.79 12.8 18.94 61.7 23.69
4 7 3.43 2069 0.90 14.6 4.15 64.4 15.91
10 10 9.08 1889 1.61 19.8 8.81 45.1 34.40
G3 7 30.58 2044 6.84 15.5 23.31 55.6 30.63
11 12 3.27 1919 1.18 23.4 3.06 24.0 27.04
12 12 5.40 1876 3.54 24.3 5.07 20.6 13.5
13 13 3.20 1894 1.59 25.0 3.01 13.2 18.28
14 13 6.57 1875 1.12 26.0 5.53 12.9 22.52
15 12 2.34 1946 0.45 24.0 2.64 22.6 33.47
G4 12 5.86 1894 2.34 24.45 5.05 19.37 34.62
wm : absorption; ρb : dry density; πa : open porosity; fc : compression strength.

In general, the clay bricks from G1 present lower density mean values, while those from G3
record higher ones, as shown in Table 2 and Figure 5a. The results are related to their sintering level,
presented in Table 1. Except for bricks 3 and 4, the density values are in the typical range for old bricks,
between 1200 and 1900 kg/m3 [35]. Finally, it should be noticed that the G4 specimens, manufactured
in San Antonio Factory, have a very similar density among them, with a CoV of 2.34%.
 Infrastructures2018,
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11

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Results grouped by clay bricks: (a) dry density; (b) open porosity.

Porosity is an important parameter of clay bricks due to its influence on other properties [35].
As Fernandes et al. point in their work [35], historical clay bricks exhibit high porosity, ranging
between 20% and 50%; only bricks 3 and 4 are outside of this range, with lower values in this case.
The average results of open porosity and absorption vary significantly between bricks (see Table 2
and Figure 4b). Excluding brick 5, the open porosity of clay bricks exhibits low CoV compared with
the old bricks analysed by Fernandes et al. [35], mainly in the case of bricks from G4. The clay bricks
classified as G1 and G2 exhibit higher open porosity values (19.2–31.2%) and CoV, reaching 40.92%.
In these two groups, the(a)
macroscopic analysis found larger defects, such as (b) cracks between the phases
and granular texture
Figure with
Figure4. largegrouped
4.Results
Results silica particles.
grouped by clay
by clay bricks: (a) dry density;
density; (b)
(b) open
open porosity.
porosity.

Porosity is an important parameter of clay bricks due to its influence on other properties [35].
As Fernandes et al. point in their work [35], historical clay bricks exhibit high porosity, ranging
between 20% and 50%; only bricks 3 and 4 are outside of this range, with lower values in this case.
The average results of open porosity and absorption vary significantly between bricks (see Table 2
and Figure 4b). Excluding brick 5, the open porosity of clay bricks exhibits low CoV compared with
the old bricks analysed by Fernandes et al. [35], mainly in the case of bricks from G4. The clay bricks
classified as G1 and G2 exhibit higher open porosity values (19.2–31.2%) and CoV, reaching 40.92%.
In these two groups, the macroscopic analysis found larger defects, such as cracks between the phases
and granular texture with large silica particles.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Results
Results groupedby
grouped bygroups:
groups:(a)
(a) dry
dry density;
density; (b)
(b) absorption,
absorption,(c)
(c)open
openporosity.
porosity.

Absorption
Porosity is an values,
importantshown in Figureof5b,
parameter arebricks
clay in the due
typical range
to its for old on
influence bricks,
otherfrom 6% to 32%
properties [35].
As [35]. Since G1
Fernandes has
et al. the in
point highest absorption
their work values, ranging
[35], historical clay bricksfromexhibit
13% tohigh
21%, this group
porosity, is thebetween
ranging most
20%vulnerable
and 50%; to moisture,
only bricks 3predicting
and 4 areaoutside
strengthofdrop in case with
this range, of wet pieces
lower [2]. in this case. The average
values
results of open porosity and absorption vary significantly between bricks (see Table 2 and Figure 4b).
3.4. Compressive Strength Test
Excluding brick 5, the open porosity of clay bricks exhibits low CoV compared with the old bricks
analysed The
byexperimental
Fernandes etanalysis of the compressive
al. [35], mainly in the case ofstrength
bricks from were G4.
carried
The out
clayusing
bricksaclassified
universalas
G1 electromechanical
and G2 exhibit higher testing machine
open CODEIN
porosity valuesMCO-30
(19.2–31.2%)model. Loading
and speed ranged
CoV, reaching 40.92%. between
In these 0.12
two
and 0.89 N/mm 2/s, adjusted to the achieved strength, according to the European Standard EN 772-1:
groups, the macroscopic (a) analysis found larger defects, (b)such as cracks between the phases (c) and granular
2000 with
texture [32]. The
largecompressive strength (fc) is determined by dividing the maximum load (Nmax) by the
silica particles.
Figure 5. Results grouped by groups: (a) dry density; (b) absorption, (c) open porosity.
cross-sectional area of shown
Absorption values, the pieces (Ab), affecting
in Figure 5b, are in the
theratio by a range
typical shape for
factor
oldofbricks,
δ, whichfromdepends on the
6% to 32% [35].
geometry
Since G1 of specimens,
has the highest as shown in Equation (4):
Absorption values,absorption values, 5b,
shown in Figure ranging
are infrom 13% to 21%,
the typical rangethis
for group is thefrom
old bricks, most6%vulnerable
to 32%
to[35].
moisture, predicting a strength drop in case f of
c = wet
δ N pieces
max/A b . [2].
Since G1 has the highest absorption values, ranging from 13% to 21%, this group is the most (4)
vulnerable to moisture, predicting a strength drop in case of wet pieces [2].
3.4. Compressive Strength Test
3.4. The
Compressive Strengthanalysis
experimental Test of the compressive strength were carried out using a universal
electromechanical
The experimental analysis of CODEIN
testing machine MCO-30strength
the compressive model. Loading speed
were carried ranged
out usingbetween 0.12
a universal
and 2
0.89 N/mm /s,testing
adjusted to the achieved
electromechanical machine CODEINstrength,
MCO-30according to the European
model. Loading Standard
speed ranged EN 772-1:
between 0.12
2000 [32]. The compressive strength (f ) is determined by dividing the maximum load
and 0.89 N/mm /s, adjusted to the achieved strength, according to the European Standard EN 772-1:
2 c (N max ) by the
cross-sectional area of the pieces
2000 [32]. The compressive strength (A ), affecting the ratio by a shape factor of δ, which depends
b (f c) is determined by dividing the maximum load (N max) by the on the
geometry of specimens,
cross-sectional as pieces
area of the shown(A inb),
Equation
affecting(4):
the ratio by a shape factor of δ, which depends on the
geometry of specimens, as shown in Equation (4):
fc = δ Nmax /Ab . (4)
fc = δ Nmax/Ab. (4)
Infrastructures 2018, 3, 38 7 of 11
Infrastructures 2018, 3, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 11

The
Thesmall
smalldimensions
dimensionsofofthe theclay
claybricks,
bricks,andandtherefore
thereforeof ofthe
thespecimens
specimensobtained
obtained fromfromthem,
them,
prevent the use of the shape factor defined in European Standard EN 772-1: 2000
prevent the use of the shape factor defined in European Standard EN 772-1: 2000 [32]. For this reason,[32]. For this reason,
according
accordingto to the
the research of Caballero
Caballero[36],
[36],the
theshape
shapefactor
factorofof ASTM
ASTM C42/C42M-16
C42/C42M-16 [37][37] is used.
is used. This
This factor
factor is calculated
is calculated basedbased on the
on the mechanical
mechanical slenderness
slenderness of theof the pieces.
pieces. DueDue to their
to their geometry,
geometry, the
the specimens achieve mechanical slenderness values in the range
specimens achieve mechanical slenderness values in the range from 0.41 to 1.13, from 0.41 to 1.13, but mostly
mostly under1.1.
under
Figure
Figure66showsshowsthe thecompressive
compressivestrength
strengthresults
resultsofofall
alltests.
tests.These
Theseresults
resultsvary
varybetween
betweenclay clay
bricks and between samples taken from the same brick. This is particularly the case
bricks and between samples taken from the same brick. This is particularly the case in those that reach in those that reach
higher
highervalues
valuesofofresistance.
resistance.In Inaddition,
addition,Figure
Figure66points
pointsout
outthetheaverage
averagevalues
valuesofofresistance
resistanceofofeacheach
brick,
brick,listed
listedininTable
Table 2. 2.
TheTheaverage
average values areare
values determined
determined from the the
from compressive
compressivestrength results
strength of theof
results
pieces whosewhose
the pieces slenderness is greater
slenderness than 0.5,than
is greater since0.5,
below thisbelow
since value this
unpredictable resistance results
value unpredictable are
resistance
expected
results are[38,39].
expected [38,39].

(a) (b)
Figure6.6.Compressive
Figure Compressivestrength
strengthofof(a)
(a)clay
claybricks
bricksand
and(b)
(b)groups.
groups.

4.4.Analysis
Analysisof
ofthe
theResults
Results
The 2
Theaverage
averagecompressive
compressivestrength
strengthofofeach
eachbrick
brickexceeds
exceeds5 5N/mmN/mm2ininall allcases—the
cases—theminimum
minimum
normalised compressive strength required according to Spanish Technical
normalised compressive strength required according to Spanish Technical Building Code [21]—and Building Code [21]—and
ranges 2
rangesbetween
between9.2 9.2and
and24.024.0N/mm
N/mm2.. TheThe results
results arearesimilar
similartotothose
thoseobtained
obtainedininother
othercomparable
comparable
studies
studies [8,11,13,16], except in the case of bricks of G3, in which the average strengthisisbetween
[8,11,13,16], except in the case of bricks of G3, in which the average strength between45.145.1
and 64.4 N/mm 2 . Unusual strengths, higher than 50 MPa, were also reported by Pauri et al. [40].
and 64.4 N/mm . Unusual strengths, higher than 50 MPa, were also reported by Pauri et al. [40]. Most
2

Most
studiesstudies on ancient
on ancient clay clay
bricksbricks exhibit
exhibit highhigh
CoVCoV for compressive
for compressive strength,
strength, ranging
ranging between
between 25%25%and
and
55%55% [35],[35], as with
as with most most of the
of the clayclay bricks
bricks in this
in this study.
study.
Figure
Figure77shows
showsthe thecorrelation
correlationbetween
betweencompressive
compressivestrength
strengthand andopenopenporosity,
porosity,and
andbetween
between
compressive strength and dry density, using all brick results. As shown in Figure
compressive strength and dry density, using all brick results. As shown in Figure 7a, the compressive 7a, the compressive
strength
strengthofofbricks
bricksisisinversely
inverselycorrelated
correlatedwith
withopen
openporosity.
porosity. AA linear fitfit
linear with thethe
with equation
equation πaπ=a 27.9
= 27.9−−
0.18f , provides an R 2 of 0.50. Due to the differences between clay bricks, a low correlation is obtained.
c
0.18fc, provides an R of 0.50. Due to the differences between clay bricks, a low correlation is obtained.
2

Open
Openporosity
porosityisisrelated
relatedtotothe theinternal
internalflaw,
flaw,impurities
impuritiesand andfiring
firingtemperature,
temperature,which whichsignificantly
significantly
affect
affect the compressive strength of the pieces. Due to the flow lines associated with the process,
the compressive strength of the pieces. Due to the flow lines associated with the shaping shaping
clay bricks
process, from
clay G4 have
bricks from G4 a similar
have acompressive strengthstrength
similar compressive to brickstowith
bricksa low
withsintering level, from
a low sintering level,
G1 andG1
from G2,andas G2,
shown in Figure
as shown 6b. Clay
in Figure 6b.bricks from G3
Clay bricks fromhave
G3 open
have porosities ranging
open porosities between
ranging 12%
between
and 20%, much lower than in similar studies [7,9], an estimated sintering temperature up to 1000 ◦ C,
12% and 20%, much lower than in similar studies [7,9], an estimated sintering temperature up to 1000
and
°C, therefore
and therefore an unusual
an unusual compressive strength.
compressive strength.
 Infrastructures 2018, 3, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 11
Infrastructures 2018, 3, 38 8 of 11

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 7.7.Correlations
Correlationsbetween
betweenthe
theclay
claybrick
brickresults:
results:(a)
(a)open
openporosity-compressive
porosity‒compressivestrength
strengthand
and(b)
(b)
dry density‒compressive strength.
dry density-compressive strength.

Figure
Figure7b7bshows
showsthetherelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenthe
thecompressive
compressivestrength
strengthofofbricks
bricksand
andthe
thedry
drydensity.
density.
2
AAlinear
linearfitfit
with the
with equation
the equation ρbρ=b 1756.18 + 5.03f
= 1756.18 c , c,provides
+ 5.03f anRR ofof0.42.
providesan 2 0.42.Removing
Removingthe thevalues
valuesfrom
from
G1
G1bricks
bricks(poorly
(poorlysintered),
sintered),the correlation
the improves,
correlation improves, providing anan
providing average
averageR2Rvalue ofof
2 value 0.61.
0.61.

5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
This
Thisstudy
studyanalyses
analysesthe thephysical
physicalproperties
propertiesand andcompressive
compressivestrength
strengthofofancient
ancientclayclaybricks
bricks
extracted
extracted from different buildings built in the 19th and 20th centuries in the province ofZamora
from different buildings built in the 19th and 20th centuries in the province of Zamora
(Spain).
(Spain).The
Thevisual
visualinspection
inspection of of
clay
claybricks and
bricks their
and behaviour
their behaviour during
duringthe the
cutting process
cutting allowed
process to
allowed
classify them into four groups and predict their physical and mechanical
to classify them into four groups and predict their physical and mechanical properties. properties.
The
Theresults
resultsshow
showthat
thatopen
openporosity
porosityisisthethemost
mostsignificant
significantphysical
physicalcharacteristic
characteristicforforestimating
estimating
the
thecompressive
compressivestrength
strength ofofancient
ancientclay
claybricks.
bricks.Therefore,
Therefore,thethevisual
visualinspection
inspectionofofthe
thebricks
brickscan
canhelp
help
ususestimate the compliance with the minimum required compressive strength in
estimate the compliance with the minimum required compressive strength in samples that presentsamples that present
a acompact
compactsection
sectionwith
withfew
fewpores
poresororinternal
internalcracks.
cracks.
Dry
Dry density values are directly related to sintering
density values are directly related to the process
the sintering and have
process and ahave
positive correlation
a positive with
correlation
the compressive strength of bricks. In this study, a high firing temperature, over 900 ◦ C, and a high
with the compressive strength of bricks. In this study, a high firing temperature, over 900 °C, and a
high density level, over 1700 kg/m3, lead to compressive strength values of over 10 N/mm2, as long
as there are no cracks that cause failure.
Infrastructures 2018, 3, 38 9 of 11

density level, over 1700 kg/m3 , lead to compressive strength values of over 10 N/mm2 , as long as
there are no cracks that cause failure.

Author Contributions: For research articles with several authors, a short paragraph specifying their individual
contributions must be provided. The following statements should be used “Conceptualization, A.B.R.G., M.A.R.E.,
M.N.A.I., M.P.S.P. and M.S.C.O.; Methodology, A.B.R.G., M.A.R.E., M.N.A.I. and J.C.V.; Validation, A.B.R.G.,
M.A.R.E., M.N.A.I., M.P.S.P. and M.S.C.O.; Investigation, A.B.R.G., M.A.R.E., M.N.A.I. and J.C.V.; Writing-Original
Draft Preparation, A.B.R.G.; Writing-Review & Editing, A.B.R.G., M.N.A.I., M.P.S.P.; Funding Acquisition,
M.A.R.E., A.B.R.G., M.A.R.E., M.N.A.I., M.P.S.P. and M.S.C.O.”
Funding: This research was funded by Fundación Memoria de Don Samuel Solorzano Barruso (Universidad de
Salamanca) FS/18-2015.
Acknowledgments: Authors acknowledge the support given by GRUPO INZAMAC, in whose premises the
compressive strength tests were carried out.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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