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Mole Concept
 Stoichiometry

❖ Empirical Formula , Molecular Formula

(a) Empirical formula : Formula depicting constituent atoms in their

simplest ratio .

Molecular formula : Formula depicting actual number of atoms in

one molecule of the compound.

(b) Relation between Molecular formula and Empirical formula :

Molar mass (g)

n =
Empirical formula mass
 Stoichiometry

❖ Densities :
Mass (g)
● Density =
Volume
Density of any substance
● Density =
Density of reference substance

● Specific Density of any substance

gravity = Density of water at 4oC

● Vapour Density = Ratio of density of vapour to the density of

hydrogen at similar pressure and temperature.
 Stoichiometry

❖ Stoichiometry : Calculations of the quantities of reactants and

products involved in a chemical reaction.
Methods used :

(a) Mole method (Balancing is required) :

Δ
For example : 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2

Mole of KClO3 Mole of KCl Mole of O2

= =
2 2 3
 Stoichiometry

(a) Principle of Atom Conservation (P.O.A.C) method

(Balancing is not required) :
Δ
For example : KClO3 KCl + O2

P.O.A.C for K : 1 × mole of KClO3 = 1 × mole of KCl

P.O.A.C for Cl : 1 × mole of KClO3 = 1 × mole of KCl

P.O.A.C for O : 3 × mole of KClO3 = 2 × mole of O2

 Stoichiometry

❖ Concept of limiting Reagent :

(a) Limiting Reagent :

It refers to reactant which is present in minimum stoichiometry
quantity for a chemical reaction . It is the reactant that is consumed
completely in a chemical reaction.

(b) Limiting Reagent :

Divide given moles of each reactant by their stoichiometric
coefficient, the one with least ratio is limiting reagent .
 Stoichiometry

❖ Percentage yield :

The percentage yield of product :

Actual yield
= × 100
Theoretical maximum yield
 Stoichiometry

❖ Concentration terms :

(a) For solutions (Homogenous mixture ) :

➢ If the mixture is not homogeneous, then none of them is applicable .

Wt. of Solute
● % by mass (w/W) = × 100
Wt. of solution

[ X% by mass means 100g solution contains X gm solute ; ∴ (100-X) gm

solvent ]
 Stoichiometry

Wt. of Solute
● % (w/V) = × 100
Volume of solution

[ X% (w/V) means 100mL solution contains X gm solute]

Volume of Solute
● % (v/V) = × 100
Volume of solution
 Stoichiometry

➢ If the mixture is not homogeneous, then none of them is applicable .

Moles of Solute
● Mole % = × 100
Total moles

● Mole Moles of Solute

fraction = Total moles
Moles of Solute
● Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution (in litre)
Moles of Solute
● Molality (m) =
Mass of solvent (in kg)
 Stoichiometry

Moles of Solute
● Parts per million (ppm) = × 106
Mass of solvent

≅ Moles of Solute
× 106
Mass of solution

No. of formula unit

● Formality (F) =
Volume of solution (in litre)
 Stoichiometry

(b) (i) On adding solvent in a solution (dilution) :

No. of moles of solute remains constant :

MfVf = MiVi

(II) Mixing of two solutions of same solute :

MfVf = M1V1 + M2V2 + . . .

Atomic Structure
 Atomic Structure
❖ Electromagnetic spectrum :

“Gamma” VISI Micro - Radio

X - rays UV IR
γ - rays BLE wave waves

10-11 m 10-8 m 10-6 m 10-3 m 10 m 106 m

[wavelength]
λ increases
v decreases

Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Indigo
400 nm VISIBLE SPECTRUM 750 nm
 Atomic Structure

❖ Light:
➢ Photon is considered as massless bundle of energy.
➢ Energy of light E = mc2 ,
where m = mass of light particle , c = speed of light

➢ Ephoton = hν = hc/λ = hc⊽ ≅ 1240 eV . nm

λ (nm)
where h = Planck constant ; λ = wavelength of photon ; ⊽ = wave number

No. of molecules reacting

➢ Quantum efficiency or Quantum yield :
No. of quanta absorbed
 Atomic Structure

❖ Bohr’s Model :
2 9 2 2
➢ Electrostatic force = Kq1q2 / r where k = 1 / 4πεo = 9 × 10 N-m /C

➢ Bohr quantization rule mvr = n (h/2π) = n.ħ

➢ Kq1q2 / r2 = mv2/r

q1 = charge of electron , q2 = charge of nucleus , m = mass of electron ,

r = radius of Bohr’s orbit
 Atomic Structure

❖ Bohr’s Model :

➢ Total energy of electron in nth Bohr orbit :

2π2me4K2 2 2π2me4K2
En = - Z E1 = - Z2
n2h2 h2

En = -13.6 × (z2 / n2) eV / atom

where z = atomic number of single electron atoms / ions , n = principle

quantum number of shell , E1 = total energy of electron in Ist Bohr orbit.
 Atomic Structure

❖ Bohr’s Model :
h2 n2
➢ th
Radius of n Bohr orbit, rn = ×
2
4π e mK Z
2 2

2 2
= 0.529 × n Ao = r1 × n A
o

Z2 Z2

2πe2K Z
➢ Velocity of nth Bohr orbit, vn = ×
h n

16 Z2
➢ Revolutions per second = v/2πr = 0.657 × 10
n3
 Atomic Structure

❖ Bohr’s Model :

-16 n3
➢ Time for one revolution = 2πr/v = 1.52 × 10
Z2

➢ Energy difference between n1 and n2 energy level :

ΔE = En2 - En1 = 13.6 Z2[1/n12 - 1/n22] eV/atom

= IE × [1/n12 - 1/n22]
 Atomic Structure

❖ Spectral lines:

➢ Rydberg’s Equation (1/λ) = RH [1/n12 - 1/n22] × Z2

RH ≅ 109700 cm-1 = Rydberg constant

➢ When electrons de-excite from higher energy level(n2) to lower energy

level (n1) in isolated atom , then number of spectral lines observed in
the spectrum = (n2-n1)
(n2-n1+1)
2
 Atomic Structure

❖ Spectral lines:
n=6
Pfund series
n=5

n=4

Brackett Series
n=3
Paschen Series
n=2
Balmer Series
n=1

Hγ Hβ Hα

Lyman Series
 Atomic Structure

❖ Photoelectric effect :

➢ Kinetic energy of photoelectron = hν-w = hν-hνo

2
➢ Accelerating potential = eV = KE = ½ mv

❖ De-broglie hypothesis :

➢ λ = h/ mν = h/p

➢ The circumference of the nth orbit is equal to n times of wavelength

of electron i.e, 2πrn = nλ
➢ Number of waves = n = principal quantum number
 Atomic Structure

❖ Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle :

➢ Δx . Δp > h/4π or Δx . Δv > h/ (4π m) or Δx . Δλ > λ2/4π

❖ Schrodinger Equation :

∂2ψ ∂2ψ ∂2ψ ∂2ψ

+ + + (E-V)ψ = 0
2 2
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x ∂x2
 Atomic Structure

❖ Quantum number :

➢ Principal quantum number (n) : It determine the size of an orbital.

Each value of n represents a shell of orbital. POssible values of n = 1, 2,
3, 4, . . . . .
➢ Azimuthal quantum number (l) : It determine the shape of an orbital.
Each value of l represents a subshell of an orbital. POssible values of l
= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . .(n-1)
➢ Magnetic quantum number (l) : It determine the orientation of an
orbital in space . Possible values of m = -l , -l+1 , . . . , 0, 1, 2, l

➢ Spin quantum number (l) : It is intrinsic property of an electron. The

electron has two spin states. Possible values of s = +½ , -½
 Atomic Structure
❖ Various curves:
 Atomic Structure

❖ Important points on quantum number :

➢ Orbital angular momentum = h/2π [l(l+1)]½

➢ Spin angular momentum = h/2π [s(s+1)]½

➢ Spin magnetic moment = [n(n+1)]½ B.M.

➢ Maximum number of electrons in a shell = 2n2

➢ Maximum number of electrons in a subshell = 2(2l+1)

➢ Maximum number of electrons in an orbital = 2

 Atomic Structure

❖ Important points on quantum number :

➢ Total number of orbitals in a subshell = 2l + 1

➢ Number of subshells in a shell = n

➢ Number of orbitals in a shell = n2

➢ Radial Nodes = (n - l - 1)

➢ Angular nodes = l

➢ Total nodes = (n-1)

 Atomic Structure

❖ Pauli’s Exclusion principle :

● No two electrons in an atom can have the same set

of all four quantum numbers , i.e , an orbital cannot
have more than 2 electrons because three
quantum numbers ( principal, azimuthal and
magnetic )at the most may be same but the fourth
must be different , i.e, spins must be different.
 Atomic Structure

❖ Aufbau principle :

Electrons are filled in various orbitals in order of their

increasing energies. An orbital of lowest energy is filled first.
The sequence of orbitals in order of their increasing energy is :
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, …

The energy of the orbitals is governed by (n+1) rule.

 Atomic Structure

❖ Hund’s Rule :

● No electron pairing takes place in the orbitals in a sub

energy shell until each orbital is occupied by an electron
with parallel soin. Exactly half filled and fully filled orbitals
make the atoms more stable.
Gaseous State
 Gaseous state

❖ Experimental gas laws :

Boyle’s Law V ∝ 1/p T & n constant P1V1 = P2V2

Charles's Law V∝ T P & n constant V1/T1 = V2/T2

Gay Lussac’s law P∝ T V & n constant P1/T1 = P2/T2

Avogadro’s law V∝ n T & P constant V1/n1 = V2/n2

 Gaseous state

❖ Dalton’s law of partial pressure:

Ptotal = PA + PB + . . .
PA = mole fraction × Total Pressure
% of gas in mixture = Partial pressure
× 100
Total pressure

Pwet gas = Pdry gas + PH20 vapour (aqueous tension)

 Gaseous state

❖ Graham’s law of Diffusion or Effusion :

r ∝ 1/ √d or r ∝ 1/ √M or r ∝ P/
√M
r1/r2 = √(d2 / d1) = √(M2 / M1) = Pressure
Pressuredrop
dropIII
Moles diffused Distance travelled in a narrow tube
r= =
Time taken Time taken
 Gaseous state

❖ Types of speeds :
√3RT √3PV √3P
➢ Root mean square speed, u = = =
√M √nM √d
u1 + u2 + …+ un √8RT
➢ Average speed = = = ū
N √πM

√2RT
➢ Most probable speed = = umps
√M
➢ Relationship between three types of speeds =
Most probable : average : r.m.s. = √2 : √(8/ π) : √3 = 1 : 1.13 : 1.22
 Gaseous state

❖ Vander Waals equation of states:

[ P + (an2)] (v-nb) = nRT

V2
A and b are Vander waals constants and different for each gas.
 Gaseous state
❖ Interpretation of deviation from Vander Waals
equation :
PV a
➢ At low pressure Z = = 1-
RT VRT

PV Pb
➢ At high pressure Z = = 1+
RT RT

PV
➢ At extremely low pressure Z = = 1 ; PV = nRT
RT
 Gaseous state

❖ Boyle temperature (TB) :

The temperature at which a real gas obeys Boyle’s law (i.e,
behaves as an ideal gas) in low pressure range.
a
TB =
bR

❖ Critical temperature (Tc) :

The maximum temperature at which a gas can be liquified, i.e,
the temperature above which a liquid cannot exist.
8a
TC =
27bR
 Gaseous state

❖ Critical Pressure (PC) :

Minimum pressure required to cause liquefaction at the
temperature TC.
a
PC =
27b2
❖ Critical Volume (Vc) :

Volume occupied by one mole of gas at critical temperature and

critical pressure.

VC = 3b
 Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Properties

Intensive properties : Extensive properties :

Do not depend on the Depend on the amount
amount of matter of matter present in
present in system system

Example : Pressure , Example : Mass,

Temperature , Volume , Heat,
Density , MP, BP etc. Capacity, etc.
 Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Process

Isothermal : Isobaric : Isochoric : Adiabatic : Polytropic :

Temperature Pressure Volume System cannot PVn = constant
remains remains remains change heat
constant constant constant with the
throughout the throughout throughout the surroundings
process the process process i.e, dq = 0
i.e, dt = 0 i.e, dP = 0 i.e, dV = 0
 Thermodynamics

❖ Enthalpy :
➢ H = U + PV
ΔH = ΔU + Δ(PV)
ΔH = qP

➢ The difference between ΔH and ΔU becomes significant only

when gases are involved.

ΔH = ΔU + Δ(PV)
ΔH = ΔU + nR ΔT
ΔH = ΔU + (Δng)RT
 Thermodynamics

❖ Zeroth law of thermodynamics:

Two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system , are also
in thermal equilibrium with each other.

❖ First law of thermodynamics:

It is law of conservation of energy. Mathematically for a closed
system at rest in absence of external fields this law is written as :

ΔU = q + W
 Thermodynamics

❖ Work done in various processes :

➢ Isochoric Process = Since dV = 0 , so W = 0

From first law : ΔU = qv + W

➢ Isobaric Process = w = -Pext(V2 - V1 ) & ΔH = qP

➢ Isothermal Process = Since dT = 0 , so dU = 0

From first law : q + w = 0 or q = -w

● If process is reversible , w = -nRT ln(V2 / V1 ) = -nRT ln(P1/P2)

● If process is irreversible , w = -Pext [(nRT/P2) -(nRT/P1)

 Thermodynamics

❖ Work done in various processes :

➢ Adiabatic Process = q=0

ΔU = w = nCv(T2-T1) = (P2V2 -P1V1)

γ-1
● If process is reversible , T1V1γ - 1= T2V2γ - 1

● If process is irreversible , T2-T1

γ-1
➢ Cyclic Process = Work done = Area enclosed in PV diagram
● For clockwise it is -ve.
● For anti-clockwise it is +ve.
 Thermodynamics
❖ Reversible adiabatic process
(involving ideal gas)

● T1V1γ - 1= T2V2γ - 1
● TVγ - 1 = constant
● PVγ = constant
● Tγ P1-γ = constant

❖ Molar specific heat (Cm) of ideal gas in any reversible

Polytropic Process
Cm = Cv, m+ R/(1-x) = R R
+
γ-1 1-x
 Thermodynamics

❖ Entropy Change :

● ΔS = nCV ln (T2 / T1) + nR ln( V2 / V1)

● ΔS = nCP ln (T2 / T1) + nR ln( P2 / P1)

❖ Reversible phase transformation :

● ΔSFusion = ΔHFusion / Tm , Tm is normal melting point(K)

● ΔSvap = ΔHvap / TB , TB is normal boiling point(K)
● ΔSsub = ΔHsub / Tsub , Tsub is sublimation temperature (K)
● ΔStrans = ΔHtrans / Ttrans , Ttrans is phase transition
temperature(K)
 Thermodynamics

❖ Third law of thermodynamics:

At absolute zero temperature, the entropy of perfectly crystalline
substance is taken as zero.
T
● ST-S0K = ∫q rev
/T
0

● ΔSo = ΣνPSom(Products) - ΣνRSom(Reactants)

 Thermodynamics

❖ Gibbs free energy and spontaneity:

● G = H- TS or ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
ΔG < 0 for spontaneous process
ΔG = 0 for equilibrium

❖ Criteria for spontaneity:

● For a feasible process ΔST = ΔSsys + ΔSsurr > 0
● In absence of non PV work at constant T and P
for a feasible process ΔG < 0.
 Thermodynamics

❖ Relationship between ΔG and wnon-PV :

dU = dq + dwPV + dwnon PV

For reversible process at constant T and P

dU + PdV - TdS = dwnon-PV

dH - TdS = dwnon-PV

(dGsystem)T,P = dwnon-PV

-(dGsystem)T,P = (dwnon-PV)by system

Chemical Equilibrium
 Chemical Equilibrium

❖ Law of chemical equilibrium :

[X]x [Y]y
For the reaction : aA(aq) + bB(aq) ⇌ xX(aq) + yY(aq) Kc =
[A]a[B]b
❖ Types of equilibrium constant :
[X]x [Y]y
KC= Equilibrium constant in terms of molar concentration =
[A]a[B]b
pxX PyY
Kp= Equilibrium constant in terms of pressure =
PaAPbB

x y
KX= Equilibrium constant in terms of mole fraction = (Xx
) (Yy
)
(XA)a(XB)b
 Chemical Equilibrium

❖ Unit of Equilibrium constant :

Unit of KP = (atm)Δng (where Δng= change in as mole of reaction )

Unit of KC = MΔng
Unit of KX = Unitless

Relationship between Kp and KC : KP = KC (RT)Δng

(where R = Universal gas constant , T= Temperature )

Relationship between Kp and KX : KP = KX (P)Δng

(where P = Equilibrium pressure in container)
 Chemical Equilibrium

❖ Predicting the extent of a reaction:

 Chemical Equilibrium

❖ Predicting the direction of a reaction:

[C]c [D]d
aA(aq) + bB(aq) ⇌ cC(aq) + dD(aq) Qc =
[A]a[B]b

● If QC> KC , the reaction proceeds towards the direction of

reactants

● If QC< KC , the reaction proceeds towards the direction of products

● If QC= KC , the reaction mixture is at equilibrium.

 Chemical Equilibrium

❖ Le- Chatelier Principle :

If a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change of
concentration , temperature or pressure , the equilibrium shifts in
a direction so as to undo the effect of the change imposed.

➢ Effect of change in concentration : As we add or remove

reactant (or product) the ratio of equilibrium concentration
become Q (Reaction quotient )

● Q < K : Equilibrium shift towards forward direction

● Q > K : Equilibrium shift towards backward direction
 Chemical Equilibrium

➢ Effect of change in pressure :

● If a system in equilibrium consists of gases, then the

concentrations of all the components can be altered by changing
the pressure.

● When the pressure is decreases, volume decrease

proportionately.

● The equilibrium will shift in the direction in which there is

decrease in number of moles.
 Chemical Equilibrium

➢ Effect of change in temperature :

● For endothermic reaction, as temperature increases, Reaction

shift in forward direction.

● For exothermic reaction, as temperature increases, Reaction shift

in backward direction.
 Chemical Equilibrium

➢ Addition of inert gas :

● For reactions in which np= nr , there is no effect of adding an inert

gas at constant volume or constant pressure on the equilibrium.

● For reactions in which np≠ nr , there is no effect of adding an inert

gas at constant volume but at constant pressure equilibrium shift

towards larger mole side.

Ionic Equilibrium
 Ionic Equilibrium

❖ pH Concept :
● pH = -log [H+] or -log [H3O+] or [H+] = 10-pH

● Ionic product of water : Kw = 1 × 10-14 = [H3O+] [OH-] at 298K

● KW increases with increase in T.

● pH + pOH = PKw = 14 ( AT 298K)

● For weak acid and its conjugate base KaKb = Kw

Or pKa + pKb = pKw = 14 (at 298 K)

 Ionic Equilibrium

❖ pH calculation of weak acid (HA) :

pH = ½ (pKa - log C)

❖ pH calculation of weak base (BOH) :

pOH = ½ (pKb - log C)

❖ pH calculation of mixture of two weak acid HA and HB :

[H+] = √(Ka1C1 + Ka2C2)

 Ionic Equilibrium

❖ Salt hydrolysis :

● Salt of SA + WB :

pH = 7 - ½ (pKb + log C)

● Salt of WA + SB :

pH = 7 + ½ (pKa + log C)

● Salt of WA + WB :

pH = 7 + ½ (pKa - pKb)
 Ionic Equilibrium

❖ Buffer solutions :
Whose pH does not change significantly on adding a small
quantity of strong base or strong acid.

➢ Types:
Acidic Buffer : Weak Acid + Conjugate Base

Examples : CH3COOH and CH3COONa ; NaHCO3 and H2CO3 .

Basic Buffer : Weak Base + Conjugate Acid

Examples : NH3 and NH4Cl ; RNH2 and RNH3Cl .

 Ionic Equilibrium

❖ Henderson’s equation:
For acidic buffer solution : pH = pKa + log([salt]/[acid])

For basic buffer solution : pH = pKb + log([salt]/[base])

 Ionic Equilibrium

❖ Solubility(S) and Solubility product (KSP):

AxBy ⇌ xAy+ + yBx-

- xS yS

KSP = (xS)X . (yS)y = xxyy . (S)x+y

● If Q < KSP , the solution is unsaturated, no precipitation takes place.

● If Q = KSP , the solution is saturated.
● If Q > KSP , the solution is super saturated, precipitation takes place
Chemical Kinetics
 Chemical kinetics

❖ Rate law and rate constant :

Rate ∝ [A]a [B]b or Rate = k[A]a [B]b
❖ Molecularity :
It is always a whole number ( not zero ) and never a fraction. Its
value does not exceed 3 and it has no meaning for a complex
reaction.
❖ Order of reaction : aA + bB → cC
Rate of reaction = k[A]m [B]n
Order of reaction = m + n and the order w.r.t A,B are
m,n respectively
Chemical kinetics
 Chemical kinetics

r
r r

a0 a0 a02

Zero order First order Second order

Electrochemistry
 Electrochemistry

❖ Faraday’s laws of electrolysis

➢ First law of electrolysis :

Amount of substance deposited or liberated at an electrode is
directly proportional to amount of charge passed through the
solution.
W∝Q
W = zQ = Z × i × t

Actual charge utilized in process

Current Efficiency = × 100
Charge passed through battery
 Electrochemistry

❖ Faraday’s laws of electrolysis

➢ Second law of electrolysis :

When same amount of charge is passed through different
electrolyte solutions connected in series then weight of
substances deposited or dissolved at anode or cathode are in the
ratio of their equivalent weights, i.e, W1 / W2 = E1 / E2
 Electrochemistry

❖ Product of electrolysis :
S No. Electrolyte Anode product Cathode product

1. NaCl (molten) with Pt electrode Cl2(g) Na(l)

2. NaCl (aq) with Pt electrode Cl2(g) H2(g)

3. Na2SO4 (aq) with Pt electrode O2(g) H2(g)

4. NaNO3 (aq) with Pt electrode O2(g) H2(g)

5. AgNO3 (aq) with Pt electrode O2(g) Ag(s)

6. CuSO4 with inert electrode O2(g) Cu(s)

7. CuSO4 (aq) with Cu electrode Cu dissolve Cu(s)

 Electrochemistry

❖ Nernst’s equation
Ecell = Eocell - 2.303 RT . logQ
nF

At 298K temperature: Ecell = Eocell - 0.0591 . logQ

n

❖ Cell thermodynamics :

● ΔG = -nFEcell
● ΔGo = -nFEocell
● Equilibrium constant (K) , log K = n× Eocell
0.0591
 Electrochemistry

❖ Batteries :
Electrochemical cells can be used as batteries.

➢ Primary battery : Where the reaction occurs only once and

cannot be reused once it becomes dead over the course of time

Examples : dry cell(Leclanche cell) , Mercury cell

➢ Secondary battery : Which can be charged by passing current

through it in the opposite direction so that it can be used again.

Examples : lead-acid battery, Nickel-cadmium cell

 Electrochemistry

❖ Fuel cells :
Galvanic cells that convert the energy of combustion of fuel(e.g:
Hydrogen, methane, methanol, etc.) directly into electrical energy.

❖ Conductance :
Reciprocal of the electrical resistance i.e, G = 1/R .
Unit : Siemen , S or Ω-1
 Electrochemistry

❖ Conductance :
➢ Specific resistance or resistivity :
Resistance in ohm of a conductor having length equal to
1 cm and area of cross section equal to 1 cm2. ρ = RA/l

➢ Specific conductance or conductivity :

Reciprocal of specific resistance k=1/ρ
Unit : Scm-1 , Ω-1cm-1

➢ Molar conductivity :
The conducting power of all the ions produced by
dissolving 1 mole of an electrolyte in solution.
 Electrochemistry

❖ Kohlrausch’s Law :
● The molar conductivity of an electrolyte at infinite dilution
is the sum of the ionic conductivities of the cations and the
anions each multiplied by the number of ions present in
one formula unit of the electrolyte , e.g, AxBy

● The equivalent conductivity of an electrolyte at infinite

dilution is the sum of the equivalent conductivities of the
cations and the anions.

∧0M (AxBy) = xλ0M(Ay+) + yλ0M(Bx-)

∧0eq (AxBy) = λ0eq(Ay+) + λ0eq(Bx-)

Solutions and Colligative
properties
 Dilute Solution

❖ Vapour Pressure

KP2 P2 ΔHvap
ln = ln = (1/T1 - 1/T2 )
KP1 P1 R1

❖ Raoult’s Law
P = PoAXA + PoBXB

YA YB 1
= =
PoA PoB P
 Dilute Solution

❖ Ideal Solutions
The solutions which obey Raoult’s Law are called ideal
solutions. For Ideality :
FSolute…….Solvent ≈ FSolute…...Solute (F = Intermolecular attractive
interactions)
≈ FSolvent…..Solvent

ΔHmix = 0 ; ΔVmix = Examples : Benzene & Toluene,

0 Hexane & Heptane, C2H5Br &
ΔSmix > 0 ; ΔGmix < 0 C2H5I

❖ Non-Ideal Solutions
The mixture which do not follow Raoult’s law will be known
as non ideal solutions
 Dilute Solution

❖ Types of Real or Non - ideal Solutions

➢ Non-ideal solution with positive deviation :
PT,exp > ( PoAXA + PoBXB )
A---A
A---B <
ΔHmix = +ve B---B
ΔVmix = +ve
ΔSmix = +ve
ΔGmix = -ve

Example : H2O + CH3OH ; H2O + C2H5OH ; CHCl3 + CCl4

 Dilute Solution

❖ Types of Real or Non - ideal Solutions

➢ Non-ideal solution with negative deviation :
PT,exp < ( PoAXA + PoBXB )
A---A
A---B >
ΔHmix = -ve B---B
ΔVmix = -ve
ΔSmix = +ve
ΔGmix = -ve

Example : H2O + CH3COOH ; H2O + HNO3 ; CHCl3 + CH3COCH3

 Dilute Solution

❖ Normal Colligative properties :

● Relative lowering of vapour pressure : Po - P = XSolute

Po
● Elevation of boiling point : ΔTb = Kbm
● Depression of freezing point : ΔTf = Kfm
● Osmotic pressure : π = CRT
 Dilute Solution

❖ Relative lowering of vapour pressure :

Po - P = XSolute = n
Po n+N

o
Molality = P - P = 1000
Po M(in g/mol)
 Dilute Solution

❖ Elevation in boiling point :

● ΔTb = Kbm

● Kb = RTob2
1000 LV

● Kb = MRTob
2
1000 ΔHvap
 Dilute Solution

❖ Depression in freezing point :

● ΔTf = Kfm

● Kf = RTof2
1000 Lf

● Kb = MRTof2
1000 ΔHfus

❖ Osmotic Pressure : π = CRT = hρg

 Dilute Solution

❖ Henry law :

Deals with dissolution of gas in liquid i.e, mass of any gas

dissolved in any solvent per unit volume is proportional
to pressure of gas in equilibrium with liquid .

I. M=k×P
II. P = KH . Xgas
Solid State
 Solid state

❖ Types of crystalline Solids :

 Solid state

❖ Crystal system :
 Solid state

❖ Cube system :
 Solid state

❖ Type of packing :

S No. Property HCP CCP

1. Coordination No. 12 12

2. No. of atoms per Z=6 Z=4

unit cell

3. Packing Fraction P.F. =0.74 P.F. =0.74

4. Type of packing ABAB... ABCABC...

 Solid state

❖ Type of Voids :

S No. Name of void Rvoid / rsphere C No.

1. Triangular void 0.155 3

2. Tetrahedral void 0.225 4

3. Octahedral void 0.414 6

4. Cubic void 0.732 8

 Solid state

❖ Radius Ratio :

S No. Radius ratio C No. Shape

1. < 0.155 2 Linear

2. 0.155 - 0.225 3 Planar triangle

3. 0.225 - 0.414 4 Tetrahedral

4. 0.414 - 0.732 6 Octahedral

5. 0.732 - 0.999 8 Like body central cubic

 Solid state

❖ Types of ionic structure :

 Solid state

❖ Defects :
 Solid state

❖ Stoichiometric defects :

● Vacancy : When constituent particle missing, vacancy defect

occurs
● Frenkel : The defect in which an ion is displaced from its
regular position to an interstitial position creating a vacancy.

● Schottky : Defect in which a pair of one cation and one anion

of equal valence is missing from an ionic crystal leading to a
pair of vacant sites.
 Solid state

❖ Non- Stoichiometric defects :

● Metal-excess defect : The defect occurs due to anionic

vacancies or due to the presence of extra cations at the
interstitial site.

● Metal-deficiency defect : The defect occurs due to anionic

vacancies or due to the absence of extra cations from lattice
site or extra interstitial negative ions.
 Surface Chemistry

❖ Comparison between Physisorption and Chemisorption :

 Surface Chemistry

❖ Freundlich Adsorption isotherm : x/m∝ p

● Freundlich’s equation (x/m) = k1/n

x/m↑ x/m∝ po
● Where x = mass of adsorbate adsorbs ; m
x/m∝ p1/n
= mass of adsorbent ; p = pressure

● At low pressure : (x/m) = k × P P→

● At intermediate pressure : (x/m) = k × P1/n where n >

1
● At high pressure : (x/m) = constant
Hydrocarbons
Preparation of alkane
Preparation of alkane
Reactions of Alkanes
Reactions of Alkanes
Preparation of alkene
Preparation of alkene
Reactions of alkene
Reactions of Alkenes
Reactions of alkene
Reactions of alkene
Preparation of alkyne
Reactions of alkyne
Reactions of alkyne
Alkyl Halides
Reactions of alkyl halides
Reactions of alkyl halides
Reactions of alkyl halides
Aryl Halides
Preparation of aryl halides
Preparation of aryl halides
Reaction of aryl halides
Reaction of aryl halides
Reaction of aryl halides
Properties of aryl halides
Benzene
Preparation of benzene
Reaction of benzene
Reaction of benzene
Alcohols
Reactions of alcohol
Reactions of alcohol
Preparation of phenol
Reaction of phenol
Reaction of phenol
Reaction of phenol
Reaction of phenol
Reaction of phenol
Aniline
Preparation of Aniline
Preparation of aniline
Reactions of aniline
Reactions of aniline
Reactions of diazonium salt
Reactions of aniline
Reaction of aniline
Aldehydes and Ketones
Preparation of aldehyde
Reactions of aldehyde
Reactions of aldehyde
Important reactions
Carboxylic Acids
Preparation of carboxylic acids
Reactions of carboxylic acids
Reactions of carboxylic acids
Grignards Reagent
Reactions of Grignard’s reagent
Reactions of Grignard’s reagent
Periodic Properties
 Atomic Radius

Vanderwaal
Covalent radius Metallic radius
radius

It is one - half of the It is one-half of the It is one -half of the

internuclear distance distance between the internuclear distance
nuclei of two adjacent between two adjacent
between the two covalently
metal atoms atoms in two nearest
bonded atoms
neighbouring molecules

rcovalent < r metallic < r van der

 Atomic Radius

Variation of atomic radius in period (from left to right)

Zeff increases

Atomic size decreases

● Number of orbitals remain constant.

● The atomic radius of inert gases (zero group) is highest in magnitude in
their respective period because for inert gas only vanderwaal radius is
considered.
Variation of atomic radius in group (from top to bottom)

● Number of orbital increases

● Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) almost

remain same because of increased
screening effect of inner shells electrons

● The effect of increased number of atomic

shells overweight the effect of increased
nuclear charge.

No of Atomic
shell radius
increases increases
 Exception :
● In the transition series (e.g. in first transition series), the covalent
radii of the elements decrease from left to right across a row until
near the end when the size increases slightly

Screening effect = nuclear charge

Nearly same

Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Atomic radius (A) 1.44 1.32 1.22 1.18 1.17 1.17 1.16 1.15 1.17 1.25

Decreases Increases
Due to increase in nuclear Screening effect > nuclear charge
charge
 Ionization energy

Amount of energy required to remove the most loosely

bound electron from an isolated gaseous atom to form
a cation.
IE1

IE2

IE3
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < ...
 Ionization energy

● Moving from left to right in a period I.E. ↑ as (Zeff ↑)

● Moving from top to bottom in a group I.E. ↓ as (Size↑)

❖ Exception :

● For transition elements

Generally in period IE increases, but the increase is not so
regular (Sc, Ti, V, Cr) differ only slightly from each other and
Fe, Co, Ni, Cu values are fairly close to each other from Cu -
Zn again increasing
 Electron Affinity

● The energy released when an electron is added to an

isolated gaseous atom to produce a monovalent
anion is known as electron affinity

❖ Electron gain enthalpy :

● Enthalpy change of this process is known as electron
gain enthalpy

● Minus sign indicates that energy is released

Electron
ΔHeg = -Ae - 5/2 (ΔHeg = electron gain enthalpy)
affinity
 Factors affecting Electron Affinity

● Atomic radius or size of the atom : 1

E. A. 𝛼
Atomic
size

● Nuclear charge : Nuclear charge 𝛼 E.A.

● Half filled and fully filled electronic configuration :

Atoms having above configuration is most stable and they do

not show tendency to accept the extra electron.

 Electron Affinity

❖ In a period, atomic size decreases with increase in effective

nuclear charge and hence increase in electron affinity.
Exception :
● The values of electron affinity of inert gases are zero,
because there outermost orbit has fully-filled p orbitals.
 Electron Affinity

❖ The values of electron affinity normally decreases on

going from top to bottom in a group because the atomic
size increases which decreases the actual force of
attraction by the nucleus.
Exception :
● The values of electron affinity of alkali metals and
alkaline earth metals can be regarded as zero, because
they do not have tendency to form anions by accepting
electron.
 Electron affinity
Expected : EA

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Be B C N O F Ne

1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 2p1 1s2 2s2 2p2 1s2 2s2 2p3
Full filled p orbital (stable) Half filled p orbital (stable)
EA of Be < B EA of N < C
Actual : F > O > C > B > N > Be

● The E.A. of 2nd period is lower than E.A. of 3rd period elements.
● E.A (F) < E.A. (Cl)
F is small size and
Expected: F > Cl > Br > I Actual : Cl > F > Br > I incoming e- experience
Expected: Cl > S > P > Si Actual : Cl > S > Si > P repulsion
 Electronegativity

● Ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract

shared electrons to itself
● Defined in bonded state

Mulliken scale :

Mulliken Scale: Mulliken gave the electronegativity as

the average value of ionisation potential and electron
affinity of an atom.
S Block Elements
 Important compounds and their formulae

Compound Formulae
Baryta water Ba(OH)2 solution
Baking soda and Washing soda NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 . 10H2O
Bleaching powder CaOCl2
Brine NaCl solution
Caustic soda and caustic potash NaOH and KOH
Soda - lime and soda ash NaOH + CaO and Na2CO3 (anhy)
Salt cake Na2SO4 (anhydrous)
Fusion mixture Na2CO3 + K2CO3
Glauber salt Na2SO4 . 10H2O
Hydrolith CaH2
 Important compounds and their formulae

Compound Formulae
Lime (quick lime or burnt lime) CaO
Mortar Slaked lime + sand (1 : 3 in water)
Sorel's cement (Magnesia cement) MgCl2 . 5MgO . XH2O
Milk of magnesia Paste of Mg(OH)2 in water (Antacid)
Magnesia MgO
Nitrolim CaCN2 + C (a fertilizer)
Slaked lime Ca(OH)2
Indian saltpetre KNO3
Pearl ash (Potash) K2CO3
Plaster of paris CaSO4 . ½ H2O or 2CaSO4 . H2O
 Physical properties of s-block elements
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal
Physical state
● 1 e- in outermost shell ● 2 e- in outermost shell
● General formula ns1 ● General formula ns2

● Francium is radioactive element ● Radium is radioactive element

● All are silvery white ● All are greyish white

● Light soft, malleable and ductile ● These are harder than alkali
metals with metallic lustre metals

● All are paramagnetic in atomic ● All are diamagnetic and

form, diamagnetic and colourless colourless in form of atoms and
in form of ions ions
 Physical properties of s-block elements
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal
Atomic size
● Biggest in their respective period ● Smaller than IA group elements

● Size increases from Li to Fr due to ● Size increases gradually from Be

addition of an extra shell. to Ra
Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs < Fr Be < Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba
IA IIA
Li Be ● In s-block elements Be is the smallest,
Na Mg
K Cs is the biggest
Ca
↓ ↓
Rb Sr
↓ ↓
Cs
 Physical properties of s-block elements
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal
Softness
These are soft because of - These are slightly harder than IA
Large atomic size group because of -
● BCC crystal structure (HCP in Li) ● Smaller atomic size
● Loose packing (68% packing ● FCC, HCP crystal structures
efficiency) ● Packing capacity 74%
● Weak metallic bond ● Stronger metallic bond due to
presence of 2 e- in valence shell

● Cs is the softest metal in s-block ● Be is the hardest metal in s-block.

 Physical properties of s-block elements
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal
Melting point and Boiling point
● Weak interatomic bonds are due to ● Metallic bond is stronger than IA
their large atomic radii and presence group due to smaller atomic size and
of only 1 valence e- hence MP & BP 2 e- in valence shell hence MP & BP
are low are higher

● Order of MP & BP is ● Order of MP & BP is

Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs Be > Ca > Sr > Ba > Mg

● With the in the size of metal atom, ● MP & BP of Ca, Sr and Ba is higher
the repulsion of the non-bonding than Mg because of presence of
electrons and therefore MP & BP d-orbitals in the outermost shell,
from Li to Cs. which forms stronger metallic bond.

MP & BP ∝ Strength of metallic bond

 Physical properties of s-block elements
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal
Ionisation potential (I.P.)
● First I.P. is very less because of ● First I.P. is higher than IA group
bigger atomic size and only 1 e- in because of smaller atomic size and
outermost shell. completely filled s-orbital
(stability)

● Second I.P. is very high because of ● Second I.P. is lesser than IA group.
achieving inert gas configuration

● Order of I.P. ● Order of I.P.

Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs Be > Mg > Ca > Sr > Ba
(Ist and 2nd I.P. difference > 16eV) (Ist and 2nd I.P. difference < 11eV)
 Physical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Oxidation state
● These metals shows only + 1 ● These metals show only +2

Electropositive Character or Metallic Character

● Electropositivity ∝ 1/Ionisation ● Their atomic size is smaller

● Due to their larger size, electron
can easily be removed to form
M+ ion.
● Electropositivity increases
from Li to Cs.
than IA group so these are less
electropositive than IA group.
● Electropositivity increases from
Be to Ba
 Physical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Density
● (D = M /V) density increases from Li ● Density increases from Be to Ba as (D
to Cs = M /V)

● Exception : Density of Na is higher ● Exception : Density of Be is higher

than K as empty d-orbitals are
present in K. Maximum capacity of M
shell is of 18 electrons but it contains
only 8 electron, which decreases its
density. Increasing order of density
than Ca and Mg because of less
volume in comparison to its mass
● Density of Mg is higher than Ca,
(reason – As in IA group.) Increasing
order of density -

● Li < K < Na < Rb < Cs ● Ca < Mg < Be < Sr < Ba

● K < Na < Ca < Mg
 Physical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Conductivity
● Due to the presence of loosely ● These are also good conductor of
held valence electrons which are heat and electricity due to
free to move in a metal structure, presence of two free electrons.
these elements are good ● Conductivity of IA < IIA
conductor of heat and electricity.
 Physical properties of s-block elements
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal
Flame Test
● Alkali metals and their salts gives ● Be and Mg atoms, due to small size,
characteristic colour to bunsen bind their electrons more strongly,
flame. so are not excited to higher level,
● The flame energy causes an hence no flame test.
excitation of the outermost electron ● Other elements gives characteristic
which on dropping back to ground colour to flame:
state emits absorbed energy as ● Ca - Brick red
visible light ● Sr - Crimson red
● Li - Crimson red ● Ba - Apple green
● Na - Yellow
● K - Violet
● Rb - Red violet
● Cs - Blue
 Physical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Solubility in liquid ammonia

● All the alkali metals dissolves in NH3 ● Only Ca, Sr and Ba gives blue
(liq.) and produces deep blue solution of ammoniated electron.
solution

● Blue solution conducts electricity ● Be and Mg are small in size and have
and strong reducing power, due to high I.P. so do not dissolves in liquid
the presence of ammoniated e-. NH3.

● Na(s) + (x + y)NH3 ⟶ ● Deep blue black colour of solution

[Na(NH3)x]+ + [e(NH3)y]− becomes fade if it allowed to stand
for a long time, because of metal
ammoniated electron
amide formation
 Physical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Solubility in liquid ammonia
● This dilute solution is ● Blue colour of solution disappears
paramagnetic in nature. on addition of ammonium salt, due
to NH3 formation.
● In concentrated solution, the blue
NH4+ + NH2− ⟶ 2NH3
colour changes to bronze colour
and becomes diamagnetic.
 Physical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Photoelectric effect
● Atomic size of K, Rb and Cs is ● These elements do not show this
quite large, so their I.P is very low property as their I.P. is higher
than IA group.

● Due to very low I.P. their valence

shell electrons gets excited even
by absorbing visible light.
● That's why Cs is used in
photocells.
 Physical properties of s-block elements
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal
Standard oxidation potential
● They have high +ve values of ● They have lower values of standard
standard oxidation potential oxidation potential due to their small
(tendency of releasing electrons in size.
water or self ionic solutions)
● These are good reducing agent, ● Increasing order of standard oxidation
having upper most positions in the potential is -
electrochemical series ● Be < Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba
● Tendency of losing electron increases
● Li has highest standard oxidation potential (+3.05 eV) due to its high hydration
energy. Such that it converts into Li+ ion by losing one electron.
Order of standard oxidation potential of s - block element
Li > K > Ba > Sr > Ca > Na > Mg > Be

Hydration energy ∝ Charge density on ion

 Physical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Hydration energy (Heat of hydration)
Hydration energy ∝ 1/cation size

● Alkali metals salts are generally ● Due to smaller ionic size and higher
soluble in water due to hydration of charge density their hydration
cations by water molecules. energy is high.

● Smaller the cation, greater is the ● Its decreasing order is

degree of its hydration. Be+2 > Mg+2 > Ca+2 > Sr+2 > Ba+2

● Li+ Na+ K+ Rb+ Cs+

– Degree of hydration decreasing

– Hydration energy decreasing
– Hydrated ion size decreasing
– Ionic conductance increasing
 Physical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Complex formation tendency
Only those elements can form ● Less tendency to form complex
complex compounds which have compound, but due to small size of
● Small cation size cations Be and Mg forms complex
● High charge density compounds like
● Vacant d-orbital to accept electrons (BeF4)–2, Be4O(CH3COO)6
Mg – Chlorophyll

● Only Li+ can form complex

compound, due to its small size rest
alkali metals have very less
tendency to form complex
compounds.
 Chemical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Reactivity
● Very reactive, so do not found in ● Less reactive than alkali metals.
free state in nature. ● Be < Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba
● Reactivity ∝ 1/Ionisation potential
● order of reactivity –
Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs

● Li is stable, reacts slowly with ● Be ⟶ No reaction even with hot

steam. While Rb and Cs reacts water
even with cold water. ● Mg ⟶ reacts with hot water
● Ca, Sr, Ba ⟶ Reacts with cold water
 Chemical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Reaction with air
● Gets tarnish in air due to the
formation of oxide at their surface
hence they are kept in kerosene or
paraffin oil.
● Reacts with moist air to form
carbonates
4Na + O2 ⟶ 2Na2O
Na2O + H2O ⟶ 2NaOH
(moist)
2NaOH + CO2 ⟶ Na2CO3 + H2O
(in air)
● In dry air, only Li gives nitride and
oxide both while other elements
gives only oxides.
● Except Be, these metals are easily
tarnished in air, as a layer of oxide is
formed on the surface.
● Barium in powdered form, burst into
flame on exposure to air.
● In moist air, except Be all the
elements converts into carbonates.
● In dry air Be and Mg gives nitride and
oxide both while other gives only
oxides.
 Chemical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Reaction with oxygen
● Li forms only Li2O (Lithium oxide).
● Na reacts with O2 to form peroxide
(Na2O2).
● K, Rb and Cs forms MO2 type oxides
(super oxides) in excess O2.
● (Li2O) (Na2O2) (KO2, RbO2, CsO2)
● Their stability order is -
Normal oxide > Peroxide > Superoxide
● Alkaline earth metals reacts with O2
to form ‘MO’ type oxides
● Ca, Sr and Ba due to low IP and more
reactivity, forms MO2 (peroxides) at
low temperature.
Ex. CaO2, SrO2, BaO2
● Peroxides are coloured due to Lattice
defect.
● BeO - amphoteric property.
MgO - weak base
CaO, SrO & BaO - Strong base
● Basic properties increases from Be to
Ba
 Chemical properties of s-block elements
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal
Reaction with hydrogen
● Alkali metals combine with H2 ● Except Be, all the alkaline metals
forming ionic hydrides forms MH2 type hydrides, (MgH2,
2M + H2 ⟶ 2MH CaH2, SrH2, BaH2) on heating directly
with H2
● LiH is covalent hydride while others ● BeH2 is prepared by action of BeCl2
are ionic. with LiAlH4
● Electrolysis of fused MH gives H2 at 2BeCl2 + LiAlH4 ⟶ 2BeH2 + LiCl + AlCl3
anode.
● Hydrides of alkali metals are ● BeH2 and MgH2 are covalent (have
attacked by water to give back H2 tendency of polymerisation), other
LiH, NaH, KH, RbH, CsH are ionic
-Thermal stability decreases
-Basic property increases
 Chemical properties of s-block elements
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal
Reaction with water
● React vigorously with water ● Reacts slowly with water
2M + 2H2O ⟶ 2MOH + H2 M + 2H2O ⟶ M(OH)2 + H2
● Reacts with alcohol ● From Be(OH)2 to Ba(OH)2 basic
2Li + 2C2H5OH ⟶ 2C2H5OLi + H2 property and stability increases.

● Reactivity with water increases from
Li to Cs.
Li ⟶ least reactive towards water
Na ⟶ reacts vigorously
K ⟶ reacts producing a flame
Rb, Cs ⟶ reacts explosively
● Monoxides gives strongly alkaline
solution with water
M2O + H2O ⟶ 2MOH
● Be does not reacts with water
● Mg reacts only with hot water
● Ca, Sr, Ba reacts with cold water
but not as energetically as alkali
metals.
Order of reactivity :
Ba > Sr > Ca > Mg > Be
 Chemical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Carbonates
● Forms M2CO3 type carbonates ● Forms MCO3 type carbonates

● Except Li2CO3, all the carbonates ● Except BeCO3, all the carbonates are
are stable towards heat stable towards heat

● Thermal stability of carbonates ∝ ● Order of decreasing stability -

1/ (Ionic potential) BaCO3 > SrCO3 > CaCO3 > MgCO3 >
● Order of stability is Cs2CO3 > BeCO3
Rb2CO3 > K2CO3 > Na2CO3 > Li2CO3
 Chemical properties of s-block elements

Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal

Nitrides
● Only Li reacts directly with N2 to form ● Only Be and Mg burns in N2 to give
nitride which gives NH3 on reacting M3N2 (Be3N2, Mg3N2)
with water. ● Be3N2 + 6H2O ⟶ 3Be(OH)2 + 2NH3
● 6Li + N2 ⟶ 2Li3N ● Mg3N2 + 6H2O ⟶ 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3
● Li3N + 3H2O ⟶ 3LiOH + NH3↑

Formation of amalgam
● Alkali metals gives amalgam with Hg.

● These metals reacts with other ● Shows same properties

metals to give mixed metals (alloys)
 Sodium (Na)
Preparation Properties Uses

Extraction: Down’s Process Crystalline soft metal. Preparation of sodium

By Electrolysis of fused NaCl +
CaCl2 + NaF
At cathode (Iron Vessel) :
Na+ + e– ⟶ Na(s)
At Anode (Graphite) :
2Cl– ⟶ Cl2 + 2e–
(CaCl2 + NaF) is used to lower
Melting point (800oC) of NaCl to
about 600oC.
Highly reactive, so kept in
kerosene.
Dissolves in liquid NH3 to
give blue solution
amalgam
Sodium vapour lamp, which
emits yellow monochromatic
light
H
Heat transfer medium in
nuclear reactors

Aqueous NaCl cannot be used for

preparing sodium by electrolysis.
 Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
❖ Occurrence : Sea water is the main source and also found in salt lakes.

Preparation Properties Uses

● Sea water NaCl [2.7 - 2.9%] on Hygroscopic due to the As a preservative for
evaporation gives crude NaCl presence of Mg and CaCl2 in pickles, meat and
● Impurities – Na2SO4, MgCl2, CaCl2 small amounts. fish.
etc. ● NaCl + AgNO2 ⟶ NaNO2 +
● Insoluble impurities removed by AgCl (white ppt.) For making freezing
filtration mixture with ice.
● ● 4NaCl + K2Cr2O7 +
● HCl (g) on passing through
5H2SO4 Δ
filtrate gives pure NaCl ppt
● MgCl2, CaCl2 are more soluble in 4NaHSO4 + K2SO4 +
water so left in solution. 2CrO2Cl2 + 3H2O
(orange red)
 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
❖ Preparation: By electrolysis of NaCl.
Castner – Kellner Cell : (Hg – Cathode Process)
Electrolyte (Brine) : NaCl ⇋ Na+ + Cl–
On electrolysis –
At Cathode (Hg)
Na+ + e– ⟶ Na. & Na + Hg ⟶ Na.Hg
amalgam H
At anode (Graphite)
2Cl– ⟶ Cl2(g) + 2e– & 2Na.Hg + 2 H2O ⟶ 2NaOH + H2 + Hg
❖ Uses
● Manufacture of soap, rayon, dyes, paper and drugs.
● Petroleum refining.
 Sodium Bicarbonate
❖ Preparation : Solvay process (Commercial Scale)
CaCO3 ⟶ CaO + CO2 (In brine saturated with NH3, CO2 is passed)
NH3 + H2O + CO2 ⟶ NH4HCO3
NaCl + NH4HCO3 ⟶ NH4Cl + NaHCO3
2NH4Cl + CaO ⟶ CaCl2 + 2NH3 + H2O

H2O HCl
NaOH
NaOH + H+2CO
H2CO
3 3 NaCl + H2O + CO2↑
Na2Na
COCO +H OO + + CO ↑ T > 100oC
NaHCO3 NaOH
2
3
3
+2H 2 2 Na2CO3 + H2O
CO2↑ Δ
 Sodium Carbonate
❖ Occurrence : Na2CO3 - Soda ash.

❖ Preparation: Solvay process

● Concentrated aq. solution of NaCl is saturated with NH3
● Current of CO2 passed through the solution
● NaHCO3 precipitated
NH3 + CO2 + H3O ⟶ NH4HCO3 ⇋ NH4– +HCO3–
NaCl ⇋ Na+ + Cl–
[Na+] + [HCO3–] > Ksp of NaHCO3 (so ppt forms)
2NaHCO3 ⟶ Na2CO3 + H2O + CO3

❖ Uses
● Making fusion mixture (Na2CO3 + K2CO3)
● Manufacture of glass, caustic soda, soap powders etc.
● Laundries and softening of water.
 Anamalous Behaviour
Anomalous behaviour of lithium Anomalous behaviour of Beryllium

● Due to its small size it exerts the
greatest polarising effect out of all the
alkali metals and ions. consequently
covalent character Is developed.
● Highest IE and EN
● It is hardest of all alkaline earth metal
as maximum metallic bonding is there
due to smallest size.
● The MP & BP of the Be are the highest
● It is least reactive due to highest I.P.

● Not affected by air easily

● Reacts slowly with water to liberate H2.

● When burnt in air or oxygen, it forms

only Li2O while the rest of the alkali
metal give peroxide or superoxides.
 Anamalous Behaviour
Anomalous behaviour of lithium
● Li2O is much less basic oxides of other
alkali metals.
● It is only alkali metal which directly reacts
with N2 to form Li3N.
● LiOH decomposes by red heat to form Li2O
while hydroxides of other alkali metals do
not decompose.
2LiOH → Li2O + H2O
● LiHCO3 is known in solution but not in solid
state while the bicarbonates of other
alkali metals are known in solid state.
Anomalous behaviour of Beryllium
● Due to high charge density its polarizing
effect is highest and it forms covalent
bond.
● It dissolves in alkalies with evolution of H2.
Be + 2NaOH + 2H2O ⟶ Na2BeO2.2H2O + H2
Sodium beryllate
other alkaline earth metals do not react
with alkali
 Anamalous Behaviour
Anomalous behaviour of lithium
● Li2CO3 is less stable, as it decomposes on
heating.
Li2CO3 → Li2O + CO2
● Li2SO4 is the only alkali metal sulphate,
which does not form double salts
Example: Alum.
● Li when heated in NH3 forms imide Li2NH
while other alkali metals form amides.
MNH2
Anomalous behaviour of Beryllium
● Oxides and hydroxides of beryllium are
amphoteric in nature.
BeO + H2SO4 ⟶ BeSO4 + H2O
BeO + 2NaOH ⟶ Na2BeO2 + H2O
The hydroxide is unstable in water and
covalent in nature.
● Like Al, its carbide (Be2C) on hydrolysis
evolves methane.
● Due to its small size it has strong tendency
to form complex
● It shows diagonal relationship with Al.
D and F Block
 Potassium permanganate
(KMnO4)

a) Preparation

H+
MnO2 KOH K2MnO4 MnO4– + MnO2
O2/KNO3

b) Preparation: Commercial
MnO4– MnO42–
KOH Electrolytic
MnO2 MnO42– MnO4–
O2/KNO3 Reduction

c) Action of heat

Δ
KMnO4 K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
 Potassium permanganate
(KMnO4)
d) Rxn with H2SO4
H2SO4 ∆
KMnO4 cold Mn O2 7
MnO2 + O2
Explosive
H2SO4
Mn+2 + O2
hot

e) Action of heat in presence of H2 gas

∆
KMnO4 MnO + KOH + H2O

f) Oxidising nature

In Acidic medium (HCl should not be used) 5e– + Mn+7 → Mn+2 n-factor = 5
In weak basic or neutral medium 3e– + Mn+7 → Mn+4 n-factor = 3
In strongly basic 1e– + Mn+7 → Mn+6 n-factor = 1
 Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
a) Preparation of K2Cr2O7

Step 1: preparation of Na2CrO4

Step 2: Na2CrO4 → Na2Cr2O7

Step 3: Na2Cr2O7 → K2Cr2O7

FeCr2O4 (FeO.Cr2O3) Na2CO3 + O2 Na2CrO4 + Fe2O3↓ + CO2↑

(yellow)
H2SO4

Na2Cr2O7 (orange)

KCl

K2Cr2O7 (orange)
 Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
b) Interconversion of CrO42- to Cr2O72-

c) Action of conc. H2SO4

Cold
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 CrO3 + KHSO4 + H2O
conc.

Hot
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + O2 + H2O
conc.

d) Oxidising property

acidic medium Cr2O72– + 6e– → 2Cr+3 (n factor = 6)

Chemical Bonding
 VBT

Following overlappings are not allowed.

(A) Zero overlapping:
● Internuclear distance(x) ↓ repulsion ↑ P.E.↑ stability ↓

● Also in an s-orbital, ψ is positive throughout but in

p-orbital it is positive and negative
∴ Total overlapping will zero

● This type of overlapping is not allowed. Because it is

neither along the molecular axis nor ⊥ to it.
 VBT

Following overlappings are not allowed.

(B) Negative overlapping:

Not allowed Not allowed Not allowed

 Sigma σ

● When orbitals overlap along their internuclear axis, σ - bnd is formed

Example : The bond formed by overlapping of s - s , s - p, s p - p (axia), sp3
- s, sp2 - s, sp3 - sp3, sp3 - sp2 and sp - sp atomic orbitals
Sigma bond

s-s overlapping

Sigma bond

s-p overlapping
 pi(𝞹) bond and Delta(𝝳) Bond
● When two p-orbitals overlap along the lateral axis(side way),
𝞹-bond is formed

● It is special type of lateral overlapping in which all four lobes of d-orbital

are overlap laterally with other similar d-orbital produce delta(δ) - bond.
 VSEPR theory
● This theory predicts the shape of the molecule by considering the most stable
configuration of the bond angles in the molecule. This theory states :
● Electron pairs in the valence shell of the central atom of a
molecule, whether bonding or lone pairs are regarded as
occupying localised orbitals. These orbitals arrange
themselves in so as to minimize the mutual electronic
repulsions.
LP – LP repulsion

LP – BP repulsion

BP – BP repulsion
Lone pair-lone pair > lone pair - bonded pair > bonded pair - bonded pair
 VSEPR theory

● The electronic repulsion between two pairs of

electrons will be minimum if they are as far apart as
possible.

● The actual shape of the molecules containing lone pairs is a little distorted from
the basic shape as in the NH3 and H2O molecules. The bond angles are not
109028’ but 1070 and 104.50 respectively due to presence of one lone pair in NH3

..
and two lone pairs in H2O.

N
..O
o H 104.5o H
H 107 H
 Hybridisation
● Intermixing of the orbitals of slightly different energies, so as to redistribute their
energies resulting in the formation of new set of orbitals of equivalent energies
and shape.

s + p (Atomic orbitals) = Hybrid orbitals

● The phenomenon is called hybridisation.

 Salient Features of hybridisation
● Only orbitals of almost similar energies and belonging to the same atom or ion
undergo hybridization.
● The number of hybrid orbitals produced is equal to the number of pure orbitals
mixed during hybridization.

● In the excited state, the number of unpaired electrons must correspond to the
oxidation state of the central atom in the molecule.

● Most of the hybrid orbitals are similar in shape, size and energy.

4 sets of sp3 orbitals

 Types of hybridisation

s+p s+p+d

sp dsp2
sp2 sp3d
sp3 dsp3
sp3d2
To predict hybridisation following formulae may be used:
- d2sp3
No. of hybrid orbital = 1/2 [Total number of valence e in the central atom + total
number of monovalent atoms - charge on cation + charge on anion]
 sp hybrid orbitals
● One s & one p orbital of an atom are mixed to give two new hybrid orbitals which
are equivalent in shape and energy known as sp hybrid orbitals.

● They are collinear with an angle of 180º.

● Each orbital has 50% s–character and 50% p–character.
Example :– C2H2, BeCl2, CO2, CS2, HgCl2, NO2+ etc.
 sp2 hybrid orbitals

● One s and two p–orbitals are mixed together to give three new sp2 hybrid
orbitals which all are in same shape and equivalent energies.

s px py pz sp2 sp2 sp2 pz

● All the three hybrid orbitals remain in the same plane making
an angle of 120º
● Each sp2 hybrid orbitals formed has 33% s character and 67%
120º

p–character.
● Example : C2H4, BX3, BeF3–, SnCl2, CO3–2, AlCl3
 sp3 hybrid orbitals
● One s and three p–orbitals of an atom of a molecule or ion, are mixed to give four
new hybrid orbitals called as sp3 hybrid orbitals.

● These are directed towards the four corners of a regular tetrahedron and make an
angle of 109º28' with one another
● Each sp3 hybrid orbital has 25% s–character and 75% p–character.
● Example : H2O, NH3, CH4, OF2, Cl2O, BF4– , SO4–2 etc.
 sp3d hybrid orbitals
● There are five orbitals : One s, three p(px, py, pz) and one
( dz2 – orbital) which are singly filled.
● The resultant shape of trigonal bipyramidal.

● There are two sets of equivalent hybrid orbitals :

Three coplanar (120º) equivalent

Two equivalent axial 'a'
equatorial 'e' orbitals orbitals
 sp3d hybrid orbitals
● It involve the intermixing and redistribution of six atomic orbitals namely one s,
three p and two d orbitals forming sp3d2 hybridized orbitals.

Formation of SF6
S (Ground state) –

S (Excited state) –

SF6

F
sp3d2 hybridisation F
F
Octahedral geometry of SF6 molecule S
F F
F
Geometry in which the central atom has no lp of e-

Number of electron Arrangement of

Molecular Geometry Examples
pairs electron pairs

2 BeCl2, HgCl2

3 BF3

4 CH4, NH4+
Geometry in which the central atom has no lp of e-

Number of Arrangement of electron

Molecular Geometry Examples
electron pairs pairs

5 PCl5

6 SF6
 Geometry in which central atom has one or more lp of e-

No. of
Molecule No. of lone Arrangement of
Bonding Shapes and Examples
Type pairs electron pairs
Pairs

AB2E 2 1 Bent, SO2, O3

AB3E 3 1 Trigonal Pyramidal, NH3

AB2E2 2 2 Bent, H2O

 Geometry in which central atom has one or more lp of e-

No. of
Molecule No. of lone Arrangement of
Bonding Shapes and Examples
Type pairs electron pairs
Pairs

AB4E 4 1 See saw, SF4

AB3E2 3 2 T- Shape, ClF3

 Geometry in which central atom has one or more lp of e-

No. of
Molecule No. of lone Arrangement of electron
Bonding Shapes and Examples
Type pairs pairs
Pairs

AB5E 5 1 Square Pyramidal, BrF5

AB4E2 4 2 Square Pyramidal, XeF4

 Hybridisation

Molecule Structure Hybridisation

BeCl2 Cl−Be−Cl

BF3

SO2

PCl5

NH3
 Hybridisation

Molecule Structure Type B+L Hybridisation

BeCl2 Cl−Be−Cl AB2 2 sp

BF3 AB3 3 sp3

SO2 AB2L 3 sp3

PCl5 AB3 5 sp3d

NH3 AB3L 4 sp3

 MOT
Given by hund and Mulliken

● Two atomic orbital come nearer and then overlap each other to form two molecular
orbitals (MO)
● Combination of two atomic orbital (AO) forms two molecular, orbital (MO):

ABMO (antibonding molecular orbital)

AO + AO
BMO (bonding molecular orbital)

● Like atomic orbitals, the filling of electrons in molecular orbitals is governed by the
three principles such as aufbau principle, hund’s rule and Pauli’s exclusion
principle
● Energy of BMO < Energy of ABMO.
 Conditions for atomic orbitals

● Combining A.O. should be of a comparable energy

● Combining atomic orbitals must overlap to a large extent, greater the overlap,
stable is the molecule formed.
● The combining atomic orbitals must have the same symmetry about the molecular
axis (Z by convention).
 Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)

- Combination by addition (Constructive interference) :

When the two e- waves are in-phase i.e., they have the same sign, they will add up
to give a new wave function expressed as 𝝍b

(shows high amplitude)

Wave function for bonding molecular orbitals is 𝝍b = 𝝍A + 𝝍B

𝝍A = wave function of atom A 𝝍B = wave function of atom B
 Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)

- Combination by subtraction (Destructive interference) :

When the two e- waves are out-of-phase i.e., they have opposite sign of the wave
functions, then they will combine by subtraction.
The resulting wave function is expressed as 𝝍a

(shows much less amplitude)

Wave function for antibonding molecular orbital is 𝝍a = 𝝍A – 𝝍B

 Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)

● Homonuclear diatomic hydrogen molecule, consisting of A and B atoms

Each hydrogen atom in ground state has one electron in 1s orbital

Atomic orbitals
Bonding
molecular orbital

Antibonding
molecular orbital
Linear combination
Of atomic orbitals
Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
Energy level diagram for molecular orbitals

Two 1s atomic orbitals combine to form two molecular orbitals :

Bonding Mo: σ1s Antibonding Mo: σ1s

2s and 2p atomic orbitals give rise to the following eight

molecular orbitals:

Bonding Mo: Antibonding Mos:

σ2s σ2pz π2px π2py σ*2s σ*2pz π*2px π*2py
Energy level diagram for 1s atomic orbitals
Energy level diagram for 2pz atomic orbitals

σ*2px

σ2px
Energy level diagram for 2px atomic orbitals
 MOT

❖ Order of energy in molecular orbitals of diatomic molecules.

● From H2 to N2

σ 1s < σ *1s < σ 2s < σ *2s < 𝜋 2px = 𝜋 2py < σ 2pz < 𝜋 *2px = 𝜋 *2py < σ *2pz

● For O2 and F2:

σ 1s < σ *1s ; < σ 2s < σ *2s < σ 2pz < 𝜋 2px = 𝜋 2py < 𝜋 *2px = 𝜋 *2py < σ *2pz
σ *, 𝜋 * = antibonding molecular orbital
σ, 𝜋 = bonding molecular orbital

Nb - Na
Bond order =
2
Nb = No. of electron in bonding MO’s
Na = No. of electron in antibonding MO’s
 MOT
● If bond order = 0, it means species does not exist.

● Bond order of 1, 2 and 3 corresponds to a single bond, double and triple bond

respectively.

● Bond order ↑ stability of molecule ↑ bond length ↓

Magnetic property

- One or more e- in MOs

All e in MOs are paired
are unpaired

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic
 MOT

Nitrogen molecule N2
 MOT

Boron molecule B2
 MOT

Molecule or Bond order

MO configuration Magnetic
ion behaviour

H2 (σ 1 s)2 1 Diamagnetic

H2+ (σ 1 s)1 0.5 Paramagnetic

H2 (σ 1s)2. (σ * 1s)1 0.5 Paramagnetic

KK(σ 2s)2, (σ * 2s)2 (σ 2pz)2

O22- (𝜋 2px)2, (𝜋 2py)2 1 Diamagnetic
(𝜋 *2px)2, (𝜋 *2py)2

KK(σ 2s)2, (σ * 2s)2 (σ 2pz)2

F2 (𝜋 2px)2, (𝜋 2py)2 1 Diamagnetic
(𝜋 *2px)2, (𝜋 *2py)2
Coordination compounds
 Crystal Field Splitting
The metal-ligand bond to
be ionic arising purely
from electrostatic
interaction
Ligands are treated as
point charges in case of
anions or dipoles in case
of neutral molecules.
Five d orbitals in an
isolated gaseous metal
atom/ion have same
energy. ( degenerate )
Because of
unsymmetrical field of
ligands the degeneracy
of the d orbitals is lost
and cause splitting of the
d orbitals.
Postulates
The pattern of splitting
depends upon the nature
of the crystals field.
 Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination entities

Energy dz2 dx2- y2

eg
3/5Δ0
Δ0
dxy dyz dzx dz2 dx2 - y2 2/5Δ0
Metal atom
dxy dyz dzx dz dx t2g
2 2 - y2 surrounded by
d d d
Free metal atom spherical crystal field xy yz zx
Splitting of d-orbital in
Crystal Field Splitting -
octahedral crystal field
Δ0 e orbitals increased by 3/5Δ
g 0
t2g orbitals decreased by 2/5Δ0
Weak Ligand field Less attraction Less repulsion Less rise in energy of
e & less CFT
Strong Ligand field More attraction More repulsion More grise in energy of
eg & more CFT
 Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination entities

Spectrochemical series

● ligands can be arranged in a series in the orders of increasing field strength.

I-< Br-< SCN-< Cl-< S2-< F-< OH-< C2O42-< H2O < NCS-< edta4-< NH3 < en< CN-< CO
Halide donors < O donors < N donors < C donors

● It is an experimentally determined series based on the absorption of light

by complexes with different ligands.

● Strong field ligand absorb high energy (smaller wavelength)

● Weak field ligand absorb low energy (greater wavelength)

Splitting energy ∝ Δabs 1
∝
λabs
 Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination entities

Pairing Energy (P) – Energy required for electron pairing in single orbital
Ligands

Weak Field Ligands Strong Field Ligands

Creates less crystal field splitting Creates more crystal field splitting

Δo < P, e_ will enter in eg orbital Δo > P, e_ will enter in t2g orbital

High Spin Low Spin

Complex Complex
d4 configuration d4 configuration
CFSE = [- 0.4 (n) t2g + 0.6 (n’) eg ] Δo + *nP
Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination entities
 Isomerism
Isomers are two or more compounds that have the same chemical formula but a
different arrangement of atoms. they differ in one or more physical or chemical
properties.
Types of Isomerism

Structural isomerism Stereoisomerism

Ionisation
Geometrical
Hydration

Coordination Optical
Linkage

Ligand

Coordination position
 Structural isomerism

● Ionisation isomerism : when the counter ion in a complex salt is itself a potential ligand
and can displace a ligand which can then become the counter ion. Example:
[Co(NH3)5SO4]NO3 and [Co(NH3)5NO3]SO4
● Hydration isomerism : Due to presence of different number of water molecule inside a
coordination sphere.Example :[Co(NH3)4Cl2]Cl.H2O and [Co(NH3)4(H2O)Cl]Cl2
● Coordination isomerism : Arises from the interchange of ligands between cationic and
anionic entities of different metal ions present in a complex.Example: [Cu(NH3)4][PtCl4]
and [Pt(NH3)4][CuCl4]
● Linkage isomerism : isomerism arises in a coordination compound containing
ambidentate ligands like NO2-, CN- , SCN- Example: [Co(NH3)4(NO2)Cl]+ and
[Co(NH3)4(ONO)Cl]+
 Structural isomerism
● Ligand isomerism : Coordination compound which have same stoichiometric
composition and same molecular formula but connectivities with the ligands are
different.Example [Co(tn)2Cl2]+ and [Co(pn)2Cl2]+
1, 3-diaminopropane(tn), 1, 2-diaminopropane(pn)

● Coordination position : In polynuclear complexes an interchange of ligands

between the different metal nuclei gives rise to positional isomerism.
 Stereoisomerism

CN=4

Tetrahedral Square Planar

No GI No OI
Stereoisomerism
CN=4
 Stereoisomerism
CN=4
4. Mabcd (2 cis form & 1 trans form)
a d a b

M M

c b d c
I II
a b a c

M M

c d b d
III IV
Both are identical
The three isomeric structures of the complex Mabcd.
 Stereoisomerism

CN=6
a
Ma6 a a
No GI
M
No OI
a a
a
Ma4b2 b b
a b a a

M M No OI

a a a a
a b
Cis Trans
 Stereoisomerism
a CN=6 a
Ma3b3
b a b a

M M No OI

b a b b
b a
Cis Trans
Facial isomer (fac) Meridional isomer (mer)
[M (AA)3]n+ [Co(en)3]3+
A A
A A A A
M M No GI
A
A A A
A A
Mirror
 Stereoisomerism

[M(AB)3] [Cr(gly)3] CN=6

A A
B B B B
M M
A A
B A B
A
Cis form Mirror
A A
B B B B
M M
B A
A B
A A
Trans form Mirror
 Stereoisomerism

[M(AA)2ab]n+ [Co(en)2(NH3)Cl]2+ CN=6

A n+ b n+
b A A A
M Co
c A A A
A c
Cis form Trans form

A 2+ A 2+
b A A b
M Co
c A A c
A A
Mirror
Cis form
Metallurgy
 List of ores

Oxide Ore

ZnO Zincite

Fe2O3 Hematite

Fe3O4 Magnetite

Al2O3. 2H2O Bauxite

Fe2O3.3H2O Limonite

Cu2O cuprite or ruler copper

MnO2 pyrolusite

SnO2 Tinstone or cassiterite

TiO2 Rutile
 List of ores

Oxide Ore

FeCr2O4(FeO ➝ Cr2O3) Chromite

Na2B4O7 . 10H2O Borax or Tincal

Ca2B4O11.5H2O Colemanite

U3O8 Pitchblende

FeO.TiO2 Ilmenite
 List of ores

Sulphide ore

PbS Galena

HgS cinnabar

ZnS zinc blende or sphalerite

Cu2S Copper glance or chalcocite

CuFeS2 Copper pyrite or Chalcopyrite

FeS2 Iron pyrite or fool's gold

Ag2S Acanthite/Argentite
 List of ores

Halide ores

NaCl Rock Salt

KCl Sylvine

CaF2 Fluorspar

Na3AlF6 cryolite

AgCl Horn silver

KCl.MgCl2.6H2O Carnallite

Cu2Cl(OH)3 Atacamite
 List of ores

Carbonate ores

CaCO3 Limestone

MgCO3 Magnesite

CaCo3.MgCo3 Dolomite

FeCO3 Siderite

ZnCO3 Calamine

Cu(OH)2.CuCO3/Cu2(OH)2CO3 Malachite

Cu(OH)2.2CuCO3 Azurite

PbCO3 Cerussite
 List of ores

Sulphate ores

CaSO4.2H2O Gypsum

MgSO4.7H2O epsom salt

PbSO4 Anglesite

BaSO4 Anglesite

Na2SO4. 10H2O Baryte

CuSO4.5H2O Glauber’s salt

Cu(OH)2.2CuCO3 Chalcanthite

PbCO3 Cerussite
 List of ores

Nitrate ores

KNO3 Indian saltpeter

NaNO3 Chile saltpetre

Ca(NO3)2 Norweigan Saltpetre

Hydrogen
 Isotopes of hydrogen

Isotopes

Protium Deuterium Tritium

1 2 2 3 3
1 H 1 H or 1 D 1 H or 1 T
● Mostly deuterium is found as H–D.

● Concentration of tritium = 1 atom per 1018 atom of protium.

● Tritium is radioactive and emits low energy β particle.

● H2 is more reactive than D2 due to lower Bond dissociation energy

 Ortho and para hydrogen

● Ortho hydrogen - The molecular form of hydrogen having same spin of proton is called ortho
hydrogen.
● Para hydrogen - The molecular form of hydrogen having opposite spin of proton is called para
hydrogen. In ortho hydrogen spin of proton is same, so they will repel each other and because
of this repulsion, internal energy of ortho hydrogen increases. So ortho hydrogen has more
internal energy.
● Stability of ortho and para hydrogen
Stability of ortho and para hydrogen depends upon temperature condition. At low temp: para
hydrogen is more stable than ortho hydrogen while at high temperature ortho hydrogen is more
stable than para hydrogen.
T↑
PH2 OH2 Ortho and Para hydrogen
T↓ differs only in physical
Para ortho
properties but have same
At 25°C 25% 75% chemical properties.
AT 0k 100% 0
Preparation of Hydrogen
Preparation of Hydrogen
Reaction of metal with water :
Preparation of Hydrogen
Preparation of Hydrogen
Preparation of Hydrogen
Preparation of Hydrogen
Preparation of Hydrogen
Chemical properties of Hydrogen
 Structure of ice
● The crystalline form of water is ice.
● At atmospheric pressure it forms hexagonal crystal structure.

● Ice is less dense than liquid H2O

● It is highly ordered three dimensional hydrogen bonded structure
● Each oxygen atom is surrounded tetrahedrally by four other oxygen atoms at a
distance of 276 pm
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Math Kundan Sir Mon- Sat 4PM - 6PM

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