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Outline
3

Operating Console High-Voltage Generator

Autotransformer
Adjustment of Kilovolt Peak (kVp)
Control of Milliamperage (mA)
Exposure Timers
Synchronous Timers
Electronic Timers
mAs Timers
Source: Radiologic Science for Technologists, Stewart C. Bushong, 10e-Mosby (2012) Automatic Exposure Control
High-Voltage Transformer
Filament Transformer
Voltage Rectification
Single-Phase Power
Three-Phase Power
High-Frequency Generator
Voltage Ripple
Power Rating
X-ray Circuit

Objectives
2

X-ray Imaging System

At the completion of this chapter, you should be The function of the x-ray imaging
able to do the following:
1. Identify the components of the x-ray imaging system system is to provide a controlled
operating console.
2. Explain the operation of the high-voltage generator.
flow of electrons intense enough to
3. Relate the differences among single-phase, three- produce an x-ray beam appropriate
phase, and high-frequency power.
4. Discuss the importance of voltage ripple to x-ray for imaging.
quantity and quality.
5. Define the power rating of an x-ray imaging system.

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5 7

The three main components of an x-

ray imaging system are
1. Operatingconsole
2. High-voltagegenerator
3. X-raytube

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There are many different types of x-ray imaging
systems, usually identified according to the
energy of the x-rays they produce or the purpose
for which the x-rays are intended.

 Diagnostic x-ray imaging systems come in many

different shapes and sizes, some of which are shown in
Figure 5-1. These systems are usually operated at
voltages of 25 to 150 kVp and at tube currents of 100 to
1200 mA.

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The general purpose x-ray examination room
contains a radiographic imaging system and a
fluoroscopic imaging system.
The fluoroscopic x-ray tube is usually located under the
examining table; the radiographic x-ray tube is attached to an
overhead movable crane assembly that permits easy
positioning of the tube and aiming of the x-ray beam.

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Electric energy is supplied to the x-ray imaging system

in the form of well-controlled electric current. Patient couch (Examination table)
 This examination couch may be flat or
A conversion takes curved but must be uniform in
place in the x-ray tube, thickness and as transparent to x-rays
where most of this as possible.
electric energy is
transformed into heat,
some of it into x-rays.

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Carbon fiber couches are strong The protective barrier

and absorb little x-radiation. This must have a window for
contributes to reduced patient viewing the patient during the
radiation dose. examination.
Most patient couches are floating—
easily unlocked and moved by the
radiologic technologist—or motor
driven.

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Plan drawing of a general-purpose x-ray examination room,
showing locations of the various x-ray apparatus items.

Just under the couch is an

opening to hold a thin tray
(Bucky tray) for a
cassette and grid.

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Operating Console
17 19

Operating Console
▸ The part of x-ray imaging system most familiar to the Provides for control of ff:
radiologic technologists. 1. Autotransformer
▸ The operating console allows radiologic technologists to 2. Line compensator
control the x-ray tube current and voltage so that the
useful x-ray beam is of proper quantity and quality.
3. kVp
4. mA
5. Exposure timer
Note: All of the electric circuits that connect the
meters and controls on the operating console
low voltage to minimize the
are at
possibility of hazardous shock.

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Operating Console Operating Console

▸ Radiation quality refers to the FIGURE 5-6:
number of x-rays or the intensity of Circuit diagram of
the x-ray beam. the operating
▸ Radiation quality refers to the console, with
penetrability of the x-ray beam. controls and
meters identified.

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Operating Console Autotransformer Law

▸ Operating consoles are based on computer technology.
Controls and meters are digital, and techniques are selected
with a touch screen. Numeric technique selection is often
replaced by icons indicating the body part, size, and shape.
▸ Many of the features are automatic, but the radiologic
technologist must know their purpose and proper use.

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1. Autotransformer Autotransformer Law

▸ The power supplied to the x-ray Practice question:
imaging system is delivered first to the 1. If the autotransformer in
autotransformer. Figure 5-7 is supplied with
▸ It has a single winding and is 220 V to the primary
designed to supply a precise voltage connections AA′, which enclose
to the filament circuit and to the high- 500 windings, what is the
voltage circuit of the x-ray imaging secondary voltage across BB′
system. (500 windings), CB′ (700
windings), and DE (200
windings)?

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25 27

Autotransformer Law 3. Adjustment of kilovolt peak (kVp)

Practice question: Equation: ▸ Some older x-ray operating consoles
2. An autotransformer connected to a have adjustment controls labeled major kVp
440-V supply contains 4000 turns, and minor kVp.
all of which are enclosed by the ▸ Selecting a combination of these controls, radiologic
primary connections. If 2300 turns technologists can provide precisely the required
are enclosed by secondary kilovolt peak.
connections, what voltage is
supplied to the high-voltage kVp determines the quality of the x-ray beam.
generator?

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2. Line Compensator Adjustment of kilovolt peak (kVp)

▸ The line compensator measures the
voltage provided to the x-ray imaging system
and adjusts that voltage to precisely 220 V.
▸ Older units required technologists to adjust
the supply voltage while observing a line
voltage meter.
▸ Today’s x-ray imaging systems have
automatic line compensation and hence have
no meter.
▸ On most operating consoles, the kVp meter
registers, even though no exposure is being
made and the circuit has no current. This type
of meter is known as a pre-reading kVp meter. It
allows the voltage to be monitored before an
exposure.
▸ The kVp meter is placed across the output
terminals of the autotransformer.

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4. Control of milliamperage (mA) Exposure timers

▸ Thermionic emission is the release of electrons
from a heated filament.
▸ Thex-raytubecurrent,crossing from cathodetoanode,is measured
in milliamperes (mA).
▸ Thenumber of electrons emitted by the filamentis determined by
the temperature of the filament.
▸ Filaments normally operate at currents of 3 to 6A.
1. Synchronous timer
▸ A special type of electronic motor.
▸ It a precision device designed to drive a shaft precisely
60 revolutions per second (rps).
▸ Synchronous timers are recognizable because the
minimum exposure time possible is 1/60 s (17ms).
▸ Synchronous timers cannot be used for serial
exposures because they must be reset after each
exposure.

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5. Exposure timers Exposure timers

▸ For any given radiographic examination, the 2. Electronic timer
number of x-rays that reach the image
receptor is directly related to both the x-ray ▸ The most sophisticated, most complicated, and
tube current and the time that the x-ray most accurate.
tube is energized. ▸ Allow a wide range of time intervals to be
selected and are accurate to intervals as
Types of exposure timers:
1. Synchronous timer
small as 1 ms.
2. Electronic timer ▸ Used for rapid serial exposures, particularly
3. mAs timer suitable for interventional radiology
4. Automatic Exposure Control (AEC)
procedures.

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Exposure timers Automatic Exposure Control (AEC)

3. mAs timer
▸ A special kind of electronic timer, that
monitors the product of mA and time and
terminates the exposure when desired
mAs value is attained.
▸ This timer is designed to provide the highest
safe tube current (mA) for the shortest
FIGURE 5-10 Automatic exposure
exposure for any mAs selected. control terminates the x-ray exposure
FIGURE 5-11 Solid-state radiation
at the desired film optical density. This detectors are used to check timer
accuracy.
is done with an ionization chamber or
a photodiode detector assembly.

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Exposure timers
36
High-voltage generator
4. Automatic Exposure Control (AEC)
▸ AEC requires a special understanding on the
part of the radiologic technologist.
▸ AEC is a device that measures the quantity of FIGURE 5-12:
radiation that reaches the image receptor. Cutaway view of a
▸ It automatically terminates the exposure typical high-voltage
when the image receptor has received the generator showing
required radiation intensity. oil-immersed diodes
and transformers.
▸ It must be calibrated regularly.

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High-voltage generator High-voltage transformer

37 39

 Responsible for increasing the output voltage

from the autotransformer to the kVp
necessary for x-ray production.

(3) Parts of high-voltage generator  The voltage increase is proportional

1.High-voltage transformer to the turns ratio, according to the
2.Filament transformer transformer law.
3.Voltage rectification FIGURE 5-13: Voltage induced in the
secondary winding of a high-voltage
step-up transformer is alternating like
the primary voltage but has a higher
value.

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1. High-voltage transformer
 It is a step-up transformer, that is, the secondary voltage
is higher than the primary voltage because the number of Practice question:
secondary windings is greater than the number of primary
windings. 1. The secondary side of a transformer has 300,000
turns; the primary side has 600 turns. What is the
 The ratio of the number of secondary windings to the number of turns ratio?
primary windings is called the turns ratio.

 The turns ratio of a high-voltage transformer is usually between

500:1 and 1000:1.

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Practice question:
2. The turns ratio of a high-voltage transformer is
700:1, and the supply voltage is peaked at 120 V.
What is the secondary voltage supplied to the x-
ray tube?
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2. Filament transformer
 The full title for this transformer is the filament
heating isolation step-down transformer.
 In a step-down transformer, the secondary
current is larger than the primary current.
 The primary windings are of thin copper and carry a
current of 0.5 to 1 A and approximately 150 V.
 The secondary windings are thick and at approximately
12 V electric potential and carry a current of 5 to 8 A.
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Practice question:
1. The turns ratio of a filament transformer is 0.125.
What is the filament current if the current through
the primary winding is 0.8 A?
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3. Voltage rectification
 The current in a common wall plug is 60 Hz
alternating current (AC) that changes direction 120
times each second.
 Transformers operate with alternating current, x-ray
tubes must be provided with direct current.
 The electronic device that allows current flow in only
one direction is a rectifier.
 Voltage rectification is required to ensure that
electrons flow from x-ray tube cathode to anode only.
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Voltage rectification
 Rectification is accomplished
with diodes, an electronic
device that contains two
electrodes.
 Originally, all diode rectifiers
were vacuum tubes called
valve tubes; these have
been replaced by solid-state
rectifiers made of silicon.
 Semiconductors are classed
into two types: n-type and
p-type.
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Voltage rectification
 N-type semiconductors
have loosely bound
electrons that are
relatively free to move.
 P-type semiconductors
have spaces, called holes
(as mobile as electrons),
where there are no
electrons.
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Voltage rectification
Rectification is essential
for the safe and efficient
operation of the x-ray tube.
(3) Types of rectification:
1. Unrectified voltage
2. Half-wave rectification
3. Full-wave rectification
FIGURE 5-14: Rectifiers in most modern x-ray
generators are the silicon, semiconductor type.
The multiple black components on this 75-kVp
FIGURE 5-15: A p-n junction semiconductor
high-voltage multiplier board are rectifiers.
shown as a solid-state diode.
1. Unrectified voltage
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 The current that passes
through the x-ray tube,
however, exists only
during the positive half
of the cycle when the
anode is positive and the
cathode is negative. FIGURE 5-17: Unrectified voltage
and current waveforms on the
secondary side.
FIGURE 5-15: A p-n junction semiconductor
shown as a solid-state diode.
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2. Half-wave rectification 3. Full-wave rectification

49 51

 A condition in which the

voltage is not allowed to
swing negatively during the
negative half of its cycle.

FIGURE 5-19: A half-wave–

rectified circuit contains one or FIGURE 5-20: A full-wave–rectified circuit contains at least four
FIGURE 5-16: The
electronic symbol for a more diodes. diodes. Current is passed through the tube at 120 pulses per
solid-state diode. second.

3. Full-wave rectification
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Types of Generator
 The negative half-
cycle corresponding to 1. Single-phase
the inverse voltage is power
2. Three-phase power
reversed so that the
anode is always  6-pulse
positive. FIGURE 5-21: Voltage  12-pulse
across a full-wave–rectified 3. High-frequency
circuit is always positive. generator

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1. Single-Phase Power 3. High-Frequency Generator

53 55

 All of the voltage waveforms discussed so far are produced  Produce a nearly constant potential voltage
by single-phase electric power. Single-phase waveform thus improving image quality at
power results in a pulsating x-ray beam. This is caused by lower patient radiation dose.
the alternate swing in voltage from zero to maximum
potential 120 times each second under full-wave
rectification.
 Increasing application for many x-ray
imaging systems.
 The x-rays produced when the single-phase voltage
waveform has a value near zero are of little  Full-wave rectification or high-frequency
diagnostic value because of their low voltage generation is used in almost all
energy; such x-rays have low penetrability. stationary x-ray imaging systems.

2. Three-Phase Power Voltage Ripple

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 Another way to characterize voltage waveforms.

 With three-phase power, multiple voltage 1. Single-phase power has
waveforms are superimposed on one 100% voltage ripple; the
another, resulting in a waveform that voltage varies from zero to
its maximum value.
maintains a nearly constant high voltage.
2. Three-phase, six-pulse
 Voltage applied across the x-ray tube is nearly power produces voltage with
constant, never dropping to zero during only approximately 14%
ripple; the voltage supplied to
exposure. the x-ray tube never falls to
below 86% of the maximum
value.

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Voltage Ripple
3. Three-phase, 12-pulse
power results in only 4%
ripple; therefore, the voltage
supplied to the x-ray tube
does not fall to below 96%
of the maximum value.
Practice question:
1. When a system with low-voltage ripple is energized at 100 kVp,
4. High-frequency generators 100 ms, the maximum possible tube current is 800 mA. What is
have approximately 1% ripple the power rating?
and therefore greater x-ray
quantity and quality. 2. An interventional radiology system is capable of 1200 mA when
operated in 100 kVp, 100 ms. What is the power rating?
Less voltage ripple results in greater radiation quantity and quality.

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Power Rating
60
X-ray circuit
 Transformers and high-voltage generators
usually are identified by their power rating
in kilowatts (kW).
FIGURE 5-32:
The schematic
circuit of an
x-ray imaging
system.

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