Comparative Anatomy of

the Skin & Exoskeleton

BIO4141 Exercise 3

Poblete, 2021
 General Function of the Skin & Exoskeleton
• Integument
- Skin (cutaneous membrane)
- Derivatives (accessory organs of the skin): hairs, nails, glands,
cuticles (earthworm) and chitinous skeleton (insects)
• Epidermis
• Dermis
- Attached to the underlying hypodermis (subcutaneous tissues)
- Mostly of adipose tissue
Hypodermis
- Attached to muscle and bone underneath

Poblete, 2021
 General Function of the Skin & Exoskeleton

• Protection against:
- Dehydration/desiccation - Extreme environment condition
- Foreign bodies - Predation

• Skin: • Exoskeleton:
- Surface covering - External covering derived from the
- Separable from the underlying skin
muscle layer - Hardening processes in epidermis
- Usually attach by the basement or dermis
membrane
Poblete, 2021
 Skin
• Excretion of waste products (released to the skin):
- sweat, lactic acid, urea
• Numerous sensory receptors:
- enable sensations (touch, pain, temperature, pressure, vibration)
• Blood vessel and sweat glands: dilate constrict

- Act in thermoregulation (regulating heat) by removing excess heat or preventing

heat loss
- In response to nerve signals, blood vessels constrict to reduce blood flow and
heat loss through the skin, or dilate to increase heat loss.
• Numerous sensory receptors:
- enable sensations (touch, pain, temperature, pressure, vibration)
• Skin is the site of the initial steps in the synthesis of vitamin D, which is important
for the absorption of calcium.
Poblete, 2021
 Skin
occurs only in vertebrates
• Lower chordates lack a skin
- Urochordates: one-layered epidermis + ‘tunic’ secreted by epidermis
- Amphioxus: one-layered epidermis only
• Lampreys & Hagfishes: thin skin & layers mucous cells (unicellular)
• Fishes to Mammals: presence of epidermis, dermis & hypodermis (attached to the
muscle layer.
Two general layers:
Sea Squirts
Epidermis Dermis
o Outer o Inner
o Epithelial cells o Connective tissue Lancelets
o Derived from ectoderm o Derived from mesoderm
o Special portions of stratum o Consist of bones
corneum
Poblete, 2021
 Skin of Aquatic Vertebrates
• Cyclostomes, fishes, tailed amphibians
• Mucous gland cells  moist & slimy skin

Epidermis Dermis
oThin oLoose layer near epidermis
 Connective tissue
 Blood vessels
 Nerve endings
oCompact inner layer
(collagenous fibers)

Poblete, 2021
 Skin of Land Vertebrates
• Keratinization
• Frog skin
o Distinct epidermal layer; tightly packed with stratified
and several layer of stratum corneum and stratum
germinativum

Epidermis Dermis (corium)

o Stratum corneum: o Stratum laxum: loose connective tissue
 Outermost
o Stratum compactum: dense, parallel wavy
 Thin fibers
 Flattened keratinized
o Contains:
o Stratum germinativum:  Pigment muscles (chromatophores)
 Inner  Multicellular glands
 Columnar  Cutaneous glands: mucous and other secretions
 Actively/ mitotically dividing layer that  Ducts: empties secretion towards the skin
replaces the outer stratum corneum  Smooth muscles
 Blood vessels and nerves Poblete, 2021
 Exoskeleton
• Derived from skin by hardening processes in epidermis or dermis or both

Epidermis
oSpecial portion of stratum
corneum

Dermis
oConsist of bone material

Poblete, 2021
 Exoskeleton of Fishes
Scales; Dermal in origin
vascular bones are lost
Evolution of today fishes: came from lamellar bones of placoderms & ostracoderms (Armor Shields)
Six types: (1) Placoid scales, (2) Cosmoid scales, (3) Paleoniscoid, (4) Ganoid, (5) Cycloid, (6) Ctenoid
3C 2P 1G

Poblete, 2021
 Placoid Scales
• Scales of Cartilaginous fishes NO VASCULAR AND
LAMELLATE BONE
• Shagreen (shark skin): found in
elasmobranchs Sharks, Rays, Skates
• Basal plate attached to the dermal layer
carrying a projecting spine that ruptured
from the epidermis
o Made up of dentine and enamel
• “Denticles” – consist of dentine & enamel
• Spine contains a pulp cavity from which directed backward

dentinal tubules branch

o Connected to nerve endings

diamond shape

Poblete, 2021
Cosmoid Scales
• Occurs in extinct fish of the
groups Crossopterygii and Dipnoi
• Rhomboid shape; has 4 edges
• Their vascular and lamellar one is
also a characteristics of armored
fishes. VASCULAR AND
• 3 layers: LAMELLATE BONE
1 o Cosmine: outer; similar to dentine
o Vascular bone: middle
o Lamellate bone: inner
* Paleoniscoid Scales
Type of Ganoid Scales
• Garpike sturgeons
LAMELLATE BONE
• Found in extinct paleoniscids and
Polypterus
• Arrange in tile-like manner
• Ganoin & Cosmoid: organic
substance/ material that makes it
transparent (shiny)
• Intermediate between cosmoid and
typical ganoid scale
2 o Upper layer: Ganoin FROM GANOID
1 o Middle layer: Cosmine FROM COSMOID
o Lower layer: Lamellate bone
Poblete, 2021
 Ganoid Scales
sturgeon & paddlefish LAMELLATE BONE
• Found in Chondostei and some Holostei
o sturgeons, pikes, allies, lungfishes bowfin & garpike

2 • Lamellae of Ganoin deposited on a layer

of lamellate bone
o Made up of dentin and enamel
• Lepidosteus: Hard, shiny, rhomboid plates
• Acipenser: Bony rhombic crested plates

Poblete, 2021
 Cycloid Scales modern bony fishes
Ctenoid Scales
• Occurs in modern fishes poorly defined in some fishes

o Some Holostei, Dipnor, Telostei • Occurs in about half of

Osteichthyes (most teleost)
• Thin, flexible, rounded scales with
• Similar to cycloid but the free part
concentric ridges
is covered with small teeth
• Set in pockets of skin in overlapping row (Cteni)
• Inner layer: fibrous connective tissue
• Outer layer: hard bony layer
• Age and growth rate of a fish can be
determined using the scale

LAMELLATE BONE
Poblete, 2021
Cycloid and Ctenoid Scales

Poblete, 2021
 Exoskeleton of Fishes
Dermal Fin Rays
o Rods that support the fins
o Supported through ligamentous connection
with endoskeletal fin rays

FOUR TYPES OF FIN RAYS

(1) Ceratotrichia type of hair

(2) Actinotrichia
(3) Lepidotrichia
(4) Camptotrichia
CALC

Poblete, 2021
 Ceratrotrichia
horn, horn-like
Pectoral girdle
• Slender, flexible, unjointed
• Keratinized dermal rods
• Elasmobranchs
• Cartilaginous fishes
• Dogfish Shark: common species used
as laboratory specimen

Made up of
Cartilage material

Dogfish Shark

Unjointed

Poblete, 2021
* Actinotrichia
ray

• Occur only during development of bony fish

• Similar to ceratotrichia but is replaced by lepidotrichia

Lepidotrichia
flakes or scales

• Branched, jointed rays made up of bone material

o Jointed rays projecting outward Jointed Rays
o Acts like a flap material that is used for swimming; location also
crucial based on what type of fish can do (lateral, pectoral, ventral)
o Helps in locomotion & floating device
• Characteristic of Osteichthyes (bony fishes) in general

Poblete, 2021
 * Camptotrichia
*More elongated, bigger,
muscles (obvious)

• Limited to present Dipnoi, Lungfishes

• Intermediate between Ceratotrichia and
Lepidotrichia
• Dermal rays, scale-covered
o Composed of muscle layer
o More muscle component compared to
lepidotrichia
o *They can control this by getting food item
which they can directly put into their mouth

Poblete, 2021
 Integument of Frog SCALES = Dermal

• Have naked skin (without exoskeleton) with dermal scales found in Caecilians
• Frog skin is smooth and slippery due to the presence of mucus secreted by
the numerous mucus gland in its dermis
• The skin is always maintained in a moist condition.

Poblete, 2021
 Exoskeleton of Reptiles
• With scales and scale-like areas of epidermal origin (thickened areas of Stratum Corneum)
• Continuous horny layer
• Some also have dermal bony plates beneath epidermal scales (dermal layer)
• Scales or scutes (outward): epidermal thickenings SCALES / SCUTES = Epidermis
PLATES = Dermis
o Its arrangement is crucial for determining the type of species of reptiles
• Plates: dermal thickenings
• Crocodiles: Presence of grastralia
o Splint-like bones that are supposed to be dermal in origin that arises as part of the exoskeleton (until the tail)

Poblete, 2021
 Exoskeleton of Turtles
• Scales in the head, limbs and tail Outer covering
• Entire body protected by the
CARAPACE and PLASTRON
(epidermal in origin)
• Horny Beaks EPIDERMAL
• Claws EPIDERMAL
• Outer covering: made up of Horny Beaks
thickening derived from the
epidermis
plates

• Inside the plastron is a dermal layer

• Body is attached Claws
- Some have enlarged head shields

Poblete, 2021
Exoskeleton of Turtles
DORSAL

Anterior narrow median unpaired marginal scute

CARAPACE scutes
• Outer, dorsal side
• 1 nuchal scute
• 5 neural/ vertebral scutes
• 4 pairs costal/ pleural
scutes
• Marginal scutes
• 1 pair pygal scutes Behind the 5th vertebral scute

- Large, thin, horny epidermal scutes

- Boundaries are marked by grooves
- Arranged in 3 groups
1. Median - 5 vertebral scutes
2. Lateral = 4 pairs of pleural scutes
3. Marginal

Poblete, 2021
 Exoskeleton of Turtles
CARAPACE
VENTRAL

Fused to vertebrates & ribs

plates
CARAPACE plastron (dermal part)
• Inner ventral side
• 1 nuchal plate
• 8 neural/ vertebral plates
• 8 pairs costal/pleural plates
• Marginal plates
expanded rib
• 1 pair precaudal plates
• 1 pygal plate

VENTRAL
BONY PLATES
Bounded by sutures

Poblete, 2021
 Exoskeleton
Horny epidermal scutes
of Turtles Internal
• Inner, dorsal side
PLASTRON • Epiplastron (paired)
External
• Entoplastron (median)
Outer, ventral side • Hypoplastron (paired)
(ectodermal in origin)
• Xiphiplastron (paired)

Large bony plates

EPIPLASTRON

ENTOPLASTRON

HYPOPLASTRON

HYPOPLASTRON

XIPHIPLASTRA

6 PAIRS OF SCUTES United by jagged structures

Poblete, 2021
Exoskeleton of Birds
- No dermal exoskeleton ALL EPIDERMAL IN ORIGIN
Clothed with feathers
Scales and claws on the feet
Horny beaks
Lacks teeth (Extinct group [Superorder Odontognathae]: has teeth)
Lacks dermal skeleton
Epidermal derivatives: feather
- believed to be homologous to reptilian scales
- resembles them only in the earliest stages of formation
Poblete, 2021
 Feathers

Pterylae: areas of skin which bears feathers

Apterylae: featherless tracts

Poblete, 2021
 define the body outline
aerodynamic devices Feathers
Contour feathers parts
• Quill  central axis
• Inferior and Superior umbilicus
• Vane (web-like expansion): outer & inner
• Calamus (lower part of the quill)
• Shaft or rachis (part of quill that supports
the vane)
• Umbilical groove (ventral of rachis)
• Barbs and barbules
• present on feather tact (slide 26)
oRemiges (wings)
oRectrices (tail/anal part)
oCoverts (body covering)
Poblete, 2021
 Feathers
Contour Feather

supports the vane

central axis

Poblete, 2021
 Feathers
Down feather parts/ plumule
• Fluffy covering, in between the bases of contour
feathers
• Short quill
• Barbs: soft rays
• Barbules: minute side rays
• No distinct vane
Both for insulation
• Used for insulation
Hair feather/ Filoplume
• Consists of a main axis with few terminal barbs
• Under microscope: barbules and hooklets are present
to prevent air to pass through and effectively use for
insulation
• Hairs visible from a plucked bird (dress chicken)
Poblete, 2021
 Exoskeleton of Mammals
Sweat, sebaceous, and mammary glands
Accessory organs Hair (Strand: cortex, medulla, hair follicles)
of the
Mammalian Skin Scales (Armadillos)
Types of Digits: Claws, Nails, Hooves and Horns
(Compressed layers of stratum corneum)

Marine mammals (hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephants)

- few scanty hair

Poblete, 2021
 Hair of Mammals
• Found in no other vertebrates
• Types
o Facial Vibrissae cats and dogs
o Bristles/ spine-like hairs: spiny anteaters
o Guard hairs: fur
o Aristate hairs: smaller and fairly numerous
o Wool: fine, short, wavy (thermal regulation;
more insulation)
• Parts
o Hair follicles: mitotic division A pit in the skin where the hair emerges
o Shaft: exposed parts that tears through the part of
the skin
o Root: found beneath the epidermal layer
o Cuticle: outermost layer; adds coating material to
prevent drying irregular wavy lines
o Medulla: middle layer central strand Cuticle
Cortex
o Cortez Medulla
 Inner part: coloration; decrease in pigment cells (medulla)
results to white hair Poblete, 2021
 Scales of Mammals
• Epidermal, horny (keratinized), usually interspersed
with scanty hair
oTails of rats, mice or beavers
oScaly anteaters
• Epidermal scutes and dermal scales
oarmadillos PLATES

SCALES = Dermis
PLATES = Epidermis

Poblete, 2021
 Claws Nails Hooves
covers the last phalanx of the digit

• Curved horny sheath • Reduced sole • Enlarged and thickened

covering the last joint of sole
the digit and enclose
terminal skeletal joint • Present in ungulates
• Ventral side: sole
• Compressed layer of
stratum corneum
Reptiles, birds, and mammals

Poblete, 2021
Rhinoceros - horns are made of bundles of hairs attached to the bony bosses of the skull bones

Horns
Giraffe - consist of bony cores covered by skin

Antlers dermal

• True horns • “FalseHorns”

oHollow (compressed layers of oFamily Cervidae (deer family)
stratum corneum), epidermal
in origin oSolid bony outgrowths of the
oCovers hollow bony cores frontal bone
oCattle, sheep, goats, antelopes oCovered with velvet in the
oOccur in both sexes young
oNever shed (it coils) oLimited to males
oIt could determine juvenile oShed annually
from adult

Poblete, 2021