Comparative Anatomy of
the Skin & Exoskeleton
BIO4141 Exercise 3
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General Function of the Skin & Exoskeleton
• Integument
- Skin (cutaneous membrane)
- Derivatives (accessory organs of the skin): hairs, nails, glands,
cuticles (earthworm) and chitinous skeleton (insects)
• Epidermis
• Dermis
- Attached to the underlying hypodermis (subcutaneous tissues)
- Mostly of adipose tissue
Hypodermis
- Attached to muscle and bone underneath
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General Function of the Skin & Exoskeleton
• Protection against:
- Dehydration/desiccation - Extreme environment condition
- Foreign bodies - Predation
• Skin: • Exoskeleton:
- Surface covering - External covering derived from the
- Separable from the underlying skin
muscle layer - Hardening processes in epidermis
- Usually attach by the basement or dermis
membrane
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Skin
• Excretion of waste products (released to the skin):
- sweat, lactic acid, urea
• Numerous sensory receptors:
- enable sensations (touch, pain, temperature, pressure, vibration)
• Blood vessel and sweat glands: dilate constrict
- Act in thermoregulation (regulating heat) by removing excess heat or preventing
heat loss
- In response to nerve signals, blood vessels constrict to reduce blood flow and
heat loss through the skin, or dilate to increase heat loss.
• Numerous sensory receptors:
- enable sensations (touch, pain, temperature, pressure, vibration)
• Skin is the site of the initial steps in the synthesis of vitamin D, which is important
for the absorption of calcium.
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Skin
occurs only in vertebrates
• Lower chordates lack a skin
- Urochordates: one-layered epidermis + ‘tunic’ secreted by epidermis
- Amphioxus: one-layered epidermis only
• Lampreys & Hagfishes: thin skin & layers mucous cells (unicellular)
• Fishes to Mammals: presence of epidermis, dermis & hypodermis (attached to the
muscle layer.
Two general layers:
Sea Squirts
Epidermis Dermis
o Outer o Inner
o Epithelial cells o Connective tissue Lancelets
o Derived from ectoderm o Derived from mesoderm
o Special portions of stratum o Consist of bones
corneum
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Skin of Aquatic Vertebrates
• Cyclostomes, fishes, tailed amphibians
• Mucous gland cells moist & slimy skin
Epidermis Dermis
oThin oLoose layer near epidermis
Connective tissue
Blood vessels
Nerve endings
oCompact inner layer
(collagenous fibers)
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Skin of Land Vertebrates
• Keratinization
• Frog skin
o Distinct epidermal layer; tightly packed with stratified
and several layer of stratum corneum and stratum
germinativum
Epidermis Dermis (corium)
o Stratum corneum: o Stratum laxum: loose connective tissue
Outermost
o Stratum compactum: dense, parallel wavy
Thin fibers
Flattened keratinized
o Contains:
o Stratum germinativum: Pigment muscles (chromatophores)
Inner Multicellular glands
Columnar Cutaneous glands: mucous and other secretions
Actively/ mitotically dividing layer that Ducts: empties secretion towards the skin
replaces the outer stratum corneum Smooth muscles
Blood vessels and nerves Poblete, 2021
Exoskeleton
• Derived from skin by hardening processes in epidermis or dermis or both
Epidermis
oSpecial portion of stratum
corneum
Dermis
oConsist of bone material
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Exoskeleton of Fishes
Scales; Dermal in origin
vascular bones are lost
Evolution of today fishes: came from lamellar bones of placoderms & ostracoderms (Armor Shields)
Six types: (1) Placoid scales, (2) Cosmoid scales, (3) Paleoniscoid, (4) Ganoid, (5) Cycloid, (6) Ctenoid
3C 2P 1G
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Placoid Scales
• Scales of Cartilaginous fishes NO VASCULAR AND
LAMELLATE BONE
• Shagreen (shark skin): found in
elasmobranchs Sharks, Rays, Skates
• Basal plate attached to the dermal layer
carrying a projecting spine that ruptured
from the epidermis
o Made up of dentine and enamel
• “Denticles” – consist of dentine & enamel
• Spine contains a pulp cavity from which directed backward
dentinal tubules branch
o Connected to nerve endings
diamond shape
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Cosmoid Scales * Paleoniscoid Scales
Type of Ganoid Scales
• Occurs in extinct fish of the • Garpike sturgeons
LAMELLATE BONE
groups Crossopterygii and Dipnoi • Found in extinct paleoniscids and
• Rhomboid shape; has 4 edges Polypterus
• Their vascular and lamellar one is • Arrange in tile-like manner
also a characteristics of armored • Ganoin & Cosmoid: organic
fishes. VASCULAR AND substance/ material that makes it
transparent (shiny)
• 3 layers: LAMELLATE BONE
• Intermediate between cosmoid and
1 o Cosmine: outer; similar to dentine typical ganoid scale
o Vascular bone: middle 2 o Upper layer: Ganoin FROM GANOID
o Lamellate bone: inner 1 o Middle layer: Cosmine FROM COSMOID
o Lower layer: Lamellate bone
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Ganoid Scales
sturgeon & paddlefish LAMELLATE BONE
• Found in Chondostei and some Holostei
o sturgeons, pikes, allies, lungfishes bowfin & garpike
2 • Lamellae of Ganoin deposited on a layer
of lamellate bone
o Made up of dentin and enamel
• Lepidosteus: Hard, shiny, rhomboid plates
• Acipenser: Bony rhombic crested plates
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Cycloid Scales modern bony fishes
Ctenoid Scales
• Occurs in modern fishes poorly defined in some fishes
o Some Holostei, Dipnor, Telostei • Occurs in about half of
Osteichthyes (most teleost)
• Thin, flexible, rounded scales with
• Similar to cycloid but the free part
concentric ridges
is covered with small teeth
• Set in pockets of skin in overlapping row (Cteni)
• Inner layer: fibrous connective tissue
• Outer layer: hard bony layer
• Age and growth rate of a fish can be
determined using the scale
LAMELLATE BONE
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Cycloid and Ctenoid Scales
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Exoskeleton of Fishes
Dermal Fin Rays
o Rods that support the fins
o Supported through ligamentous connection
with endoskeletal fin rays
FOUR TYPES OF FIN RAYS
(1) Ceratotrichia type of hair
(2) Actinotrichia
(3) Lepidotrichia
(4) Camptotrichia
CALC
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Ceratrotrichia
horn, horn-like
Pectoral girdle
• Slender, flexible, unjointed
• Keratinized dermal rods
• Elasmobranchs
• Cartilaginous fishes
• Dogfish Shark: common species used
as laboratory specimen
Made up of
Cartilage material
Dogfish Shark
Unjointed
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* Actinotrichia
ray
• Occur only during development of bony fish
• Similar to ceratotrichia but is replaced by lepidotrichia
Lepidotrichia
flakes or scales
• Branched, jointed rays made up of bone material
o Jointed rays projecting outward Jointed Rays
o Acts like a flap material that is used for swimming; location also
crucial based on what type of fish can do (lateral, pectoral, ventral)
o Helps in locomotion & floating device
• Characteristic of Osteichthyes (bony fishes) in general
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* Camptotrichia
*More elongated, bigger,
muscles (obvious)
• Limited to present Dipnoi, Lungfishes
• Intermediate between Ceratotrichia and
Lepidotrichia
• Dermal rays, scale-covered
o Composed of muscle layer
o More muscle component compared to
lepidotrichia
o *They can control this by getting food item
which they can directly put into their mouth
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Integument of Frog SCALES = Dermal
• Have naked skin (without exoskeleton) with dermal scales found in Caecilians
• Frog skin is smooth and slippery due to the presence of mucus secreted by
the numerous mucus gland in its dermis
• The skin is always maintained in a moist condition.
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Exoskeleton of Reptiles
• With scales and scale-like areas of epidermal origin (thickened areas of Stratum Corneum)
• Continuous horny layer
• Some also have dermal bony plates beneath epidermal scales (dermal layer)
• Scales or scutes (outward): epidermal thickenings SCALES / SCUTES = Epidermis
PLATES = Dermis
o Its arrangement is crucial for determining the type of species of reptiles
• Plates: dermal thickenings
• Crocodiles: Presence of grastralia
o Splint-like bones that are supposed to be dermal in origin that arises as part of the exoskeleton (until the tail)
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Exoskeleton of Turtles
• Scales in the head, limbs and tail Outer covering
• Entire body protected by the
CARAPACE and PLASTRON
(epidermal in origin)
• Horny Beaks EPIDERMAL
• Claws EPIDERMAL
• Outer covering: made up of Horny Beaks
thickening derived from the
epidermis
plates
• Inside the plastron is a dermal layer
• Body is attached Claws
- Some have enlarged head shields
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Exoskeleton of Turtles
DORSAL
Anterior narrow median unpaired marginal scute
CARAPACE scutes
• Outer, dorsal side
• 1 nuchal scute
• 5 neural/ vertebral scutes
• 4 pairs costal/ pleural
scutes
• Marginal scutes
• 1 pair pygal scutes Behind the 5th vertebral scute
- Large, thin, horny epidermal scutes
- Boundaries are marked by grooves
- Arranged in 3 groups
1. Median - 5 vertebral scutes
2. Lateral = 4 pairs of pleural scutes
3. Marginal
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Exoskeleton of Turtles
CARAPACE
VENTRAL
Fused to vertebrates & ribs
plates
CARAPACE plastron (dermal part)
• Inner ventral side
• 1 nuchal plate
• 8 neural/ vertebral plates
• 8 pairs costal/pleural plates
• Marginal plates
expanded rib
• 1 pair precaudal plates
• 1 pygal plate
VENTRAL
BONY PLATES
Bounded by sutures
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Exoskeleton
Horny epidermal scutes
of Turtles Internal
• Inner, dorsal side
PLASTRON • Epiplastron (paired)
External
• Entoplastron (median)
Outer, ventral side • Hypoplastron (paired)
(ectodermal in origin)
• Xiphiplastron (paired)
Large bony plates
EPIPLASTRON
ENTOPLASTRON
HYPOPLASTRON
HYPOPLASTRON
XIPHIPLASTRA
6 PAIRS OF SCUTES United by jagged structures
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Exoskeleton of Birds
- No dermal exoskeleton ALL EPIDERMAL IN ORIGIN
Clothed with feathers
Scales and claws on the feet
Horny beaks
Lacks teeth (Extinct group [Superorder Odontognathae]: has teeth)
Lacks dermal skeleton
Epidermal derivatives: feather
- believed to be homologous to reptilian scales
- resembles them only in the earliest stages of formation
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Feathers
Pterylae: areas of skin which bears feathers
Apterylae: featherless tracts
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define the body outline
aerodynamic devices Feathers
Contour feathers parts
• Quill central axis
• Inferior and Superior umbilicus
• Vane (web-like expansion): outer & inner
• Calamus (lower part of the quill)
• Shaft or rachis (part of quill that supports
the vane)
• Umbilical groove (ventral of rachis)
• Barbs and barbules
• present on feather tact (slide 26)
oRemiges (wings)
oRectrices (tail/anal part)
oCoverts (body covering)
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Feathers
Contour Feather
supports the vane
central axis
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Feathers
Down feather parts/ plumule
• Fluffy covering, in between the bases of contour
feathers
• Short quill
• Barbs: soft rays
• Barbules: minute side rays
• No distinct vane
Both for insulation
• Used for insulation
Hair feather/ Filoplume
• Consists of a main axis with few terminal barbs
• Under microscope: barbules and hooklets are present
to prevent air to pass through and effectively use for
insulation
• Hairs visible from a plucked bird (dress chicken)
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Exoskeleton of Mammals
Sweat, sebaceous, and mammary glands
Accessory organs Hair (Strand: cortex, medulla, hair follicles)
of the
Mammalian Skin Scales (Armadillos)
Types of Digits: Claws, Nails, Hooves and Horns
(Compressed layers of stratum corneum)
Marine mammals (hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephants)
- few scanty hair
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Hair of Mammals
• Found in no other vertebrates
• Types
o Facial Vibrissae cats and dogs
o Bristles/ spine-like hairs: spiny anteaters
o Guard hairs: fur
o Aristate hairs: smaller and fairly numerous
o Wool: fine, short, wavy (thermal regulation;
more insulation)
• Parts
o Hair follicles: mitotic division A pit in the skin where the hair emerges
o Shaft: exposed parts that tears through the part of
the skin
o Root: found beneath the epidermal layer
o Cuticle: outermost layer; adds coating material to
prevent drying irregular wavy lines
o Medulla: middle layer central strand Cuticle
Cortex
o Cortez Medulla
Inner part: coloration; decrease in pigment cells (medulla)
results to white hair Poblete, 2021
Scales of Mammals
• Epidermal, horny (keratinized), usually interspersed
with scanty hair
oTails of rats, mice or beavers
oScaly anteaters
• Epidermal scutes and dermal scales
oarmadillos PLATES
SCALES = Dermis
PLATES = Epidermis
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Claws Nails Hooves
covers the last phalanx of the digit
• Curved horny sheath • Reduced sole • Enlarged and thickened
covering the last joint of sole
the digit and enclose
terminal skeletal joint • Present in ungulates
• Ventral side: sole
• Compressed layer of
stratum corneum
Reptiles, birds, and mammals
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Rhinoceros - horns are made of bundles of hairs attached to the bony bosses of the skull bones
Horns
Giraffe - consist of bony cores covered by skin
Antlers dermal
• True horns • “FalseHorns”
oHollow (compressed layers of oFamily Cervidae (deer family)
stratum corneum), epidermal
in origin oSolid bony outgrowths of the
oCovers hollow bony cores frontal bone
oCattle, sheep, goats, antelopes oCovered with velvet in the
oOccur in both sexes young
oNever shed (it coils) oLimited to males
oIt could determine juvenile oShed annually
from adult
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