Justin Jannati – Biology 2015 (Dental Medicine)

Phylum Sporozoa, Genus Plasmodium – Exercise No 4

Malaria – the rupture of erythrocytes and release of pyrogens are accompanied

by fever and the consequent chills,, fever, high temperature and sweating.

Malaria is a mosquito borne infection caused by protozoa of the genus

Plasmodium. Malaria is normally restricted to tropical and subtropical regions.
It is the female mosquito who injects and takes blood from humans and so they
are the parasite carrying vectors.

Humans are infected by four species of the parasite:

1. P. falciparum (MAIN AGENT OF MALARIA) – the most extreme condition
is cerebral malaria where severe neurological complications are caused.
2. P. vivax (MAIN AGENT OF MALARIA)
3. P. ovale
4. P. malariae

Mosquito – Spogonia (Sexual) Life Cycle

1. Male and Female Gametocytes fuse together to form gametes called
Oocyst.
2. In the Oocyst, pathogenic Sporozoites begin to develop and multiply
rupturing the Oocyst
3. The sporozoites moved into the salivary gland of the mosquito ready to be
injected into another host.

Plasmodium vivax - Schizgonia (asexual) Life Cycle (Malaria)

1. Sporozoites are injected into the bloodstream by an infected female
mosquito.
2. Sporozoites travel via the blood stream to the Hepatocyte Cells (Liver
cells).
3. Sporozoites will multiply asexually to form many Merozoites (many
Merozoites called a Shizont)
4. Hepatocyte ruptures and Merozoites released into blood stream. (about 7
days later)
5. Merezoites attack and invade erythrocytes (red blood cells). Attachment
of the merezoites to the erythrocyte membrane involved interaction with
specific receptor sites. Thereafter, the erythrocytes undergo rapid
deformation.
6. Merezoites multiply again forming Schizont (many merezoites) and the
erythrocyte cells rupture. This usually happens within 48 hours.
7. After several asexual cycles, the merezoites can infect a red blood cell and
develop in SEXUAL forms of the parasite. Plasmodium gametocytes
(female and male).
8. An uninfected mosquito bites the infected human and digests the male
and female gametocytes and develop into mature sex cells called gametes.

1
 Justin Jannati – Biology 2015 (Dental Medicine)

Morphology
Plasmodium vivax (also called benign tertian) – red blood cells infected are
enlarged and when properly stained with Giemsa show stippling (dots) o the
erythrocyte membrane known as Schuffner’s dots. – when it divides asexually in
human, Sporozoites produce about 10,000 daughter parasites. The most
distinctive features of P. vivax are the enlarged infected erythrocytes and the
appearance of granules, called 'Schü ffner's dots', over the erythrocyte cytoplasm.
These granules are manifestation of caveola-vesicle complexes that form on the
erythrocyte membrane. The growing trophozoites of P. vivax often have an
ameboid appearance and the schizonts can have more than 20 merezoites.
=
Some Sporozoites fail to initiate immediate development in the liver and remain
latent capable of a delayed development. These are called Hypnozoites.
P.falciparum and P.malaria do not develop Hypnozoites.

Plasmodium falciparum – 40,000 daughter parasites - P. falciparum blood

smears are characterized by the presence of young trophozoites (i.e. rings) in the
absence of mature trophozoites and schizonts. The ring stages of P. falciparum
tend to be slightly smaller than the other species and are generally more
numerous. Multiply infected erythrocytes and appliqué forms are seen more
often in P. falciparum than in the other species. The crescent-shaped gametocytes
of P. falciparum are very distinctive, but tend to only appear late in the infection.

Plasmodium malaria – 2000 daughter parasites. P. malariae is characterized by

a compact parasite (all stages) and does not alter the host erythrocyte or cause
enlargement. Elongated trophozoites stretching across the erythrocyte, called
band forms, are sometimes observed. Schizonts will typically have 8-10
merozoites that are often arranged in a rosette pattern with a clump of pigment
in the center.

Plasmodium Ovale – distribution is limited to tropical Africa and to discrete

areas of the Western Pacific. P. ovale also exhibits Schü ffner's dots and an
enlarged erythrocyte, making it difficult to distinguish from P. vivax. In general,
P. ovale is a more compact parasite than P. vivax. This compactness is most
evident in the growing trophozite stage and fewer merozoites are found per
schizonts. P. ovale also has more of a tendency to form elongated host
erythrocytes.

Cerebral malaria caused by Plasmodoium falciparum is caused by blockage of the

cerebral capillaries with infected erythrocytes which adhere to the endothelium.

Key Morphological Differences Between Human Plasmodium Species in Blood Smears

falciparum vivax ovale malariae
• numerous rings • enlarged • similar to P. vivax • compact parasite
• smaller rings erythrocyte • compact trophozoite • merozoites in rosette
• no trophozoites or • Schü ffner's dots • fewer merozoites in
schizonts • 'ameboid' schizont
• cresent-shaped trophozoite • elongated erythrocyte

2
 Justin Jannati – Biology 2015 (Dental Medicine)

gametocytes

Toxoplasma gondii

T.gondii was first found in the African rodent Clenadactylus gondii in 1903.
T.gondii actively multiplies asexually. It is pyriform in shape and approximately
3 to 6 micro metres. Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the parasite
Toxoplasma gondii. This single-celled parasite is capable of living in a wide
range of birds and mammals, but only produces eggs in the lining of the
intestines of cats. In humans it usually causes no symptoms. On average, 20% to
40% of the population in North America is infected - the infection rate is even
higher in other parts of the world.

The parasite is called tachyzoite, it has a cell membrane, nucleus and various
organelles. A collection of tachyzoites can fill up a host cell, develop a parasite
membrane around themselves and become a cyst. The cyst contains anything
from 50 to several thousand organisms and can measure from 10 to 100 micro
meters long.

Sexual Phase
The development of the enter epithelial (sexual) cycle in a cats intestine is
brought about by the ingestion of oocysts of a mouse with cysts either by
ingesting oocysts or brain tissues of an intermediate host, usually a rodent.

The pseudocyst wall is digested in the cats stomach. It ruptures in the small
intestine and the bradyzoites are released in its lumen. They infect epithelial
cells and transform into merozoites, divide many times and rupture the cell and
enter the lumen. This can continue repeatedly and other epithelial cells become
ruptured. Some however develop into gametocytes and these sexual forms fuse
to form the oocysts which remain in the intestine until they pass out with the
stool. The oocysts contain the infectious Sporozoites. The Oocyst wall has 2
layers and contains undifferentiated material but the contents develop into 2
sporocysts, each of which contain four Sporozoites.

Asexual Phase
When an oocyst is ingested by a mammalian intermediate host, its wall is
digested in the intestine and the parasites are released. They rapidly penetrate
the intestinal wall and are phagocytised by macrophages. Which then carry them
throughout the body by the haematogenous route.

Once in the macrophages, the organisms are referred to as tachyzoites. The

macrophages are unable to kill or digest the tachyzoites. Once within the cell, the
tachyzoite multiplies by binary fission.

Humans can acquire infection by:

 Accidental ingestion of the oocyst shed in the cats feces

 Ingestion of the tachyzoite in infected milk or transplacentally

3
Justin Jannati – Biology 2015 (Dental Medicine)

 Ingestion of the tissue cyst in undercooked or raw meat.

 Transplant of an infected organ in a seronegative recipient.