Mechanical

Measurements
Static Calibration
Actual Calibration Practice

• A given true value is not repeated several times.

• True value is varied over a range – measured value, therefore, varies over a range.

Least Squares – Determine the fit

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Least Squares Equation – Straight Line
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶 is the fit and (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 ) are the experimental points (𝑘 = 1 to 𝑁)

&

Error = 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑥# + 𝐶 − 𝑦# "

#$%

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸
Suffix 𝑘 is dropped from 𝑥# and 𝑦# for easiness = = 0 to minimize this error
𝜕𝑚 𝜕𝐶

𝜕𝐸
= 0 ⇒ 2 2 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶 − 𝑦 𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑚

𝜕𝐸
= 0 ⇒ 2 2 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶 − 𝑦 1 = 0
𝜕𝐶

𝑚 2 𝑥 " + 𝐶 2 𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑦 = 0

𝑚 2 𝑥 + 𝐶𝑁 − 2 𝑦 = 0
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 Least Squares Equation – Straight Line
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶 is the fit and (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘 ) are the experimental points (𝑘 = 1 to 𝑁)

𝑁 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
𝑚=
𝑁 ∑ 𝑥" − ∑ 𝑥 "

∑𝑦 − 𝑚∑𝑥
𝐶=
𝑁
&
1
Standard deviation of data 𝜎 " = 2 𝑚𝑥# + 𝐶 − 𝑦# "
N−1
#$%

This standard deviation would possibly be the same if one repeated the “actual point – measured point” calibration over and over again.

Assume same standard deviation would occur even if a particular reading were to be repeated over and over again.

Use 99.7% limits (3s); \ Accurate value = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶 ± 3𝜎

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Esther found how many hours of sunshine vs how many ice creams were sold at the shop from Monday to Friday:

"x" "y"
Hours of Sunshine Ice Creams Sold Let us find the best 𝑚 (slope) and 𝐶 (intercept)
that suits the data with 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶
2 4
3 5
5 7
7 10 𝑁 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
𝑚= = 1.5183
𝑁 ∑ 𝑥" − ∑ 𝑥 "
9 15
∑𝑦 − 𝑚∑𝑥
𝐶= = 0.3049
x y x2 xy 𝑁

2 4 4 8 𝑦 = 1.518𝑥 + 0.305
3 5 9 15
1
5 7 25 35 𝜎" = 2 𝑦'() − 𝑦# " = 0.7973
N−1
7 10 49 70
9 15 81 135
Σx: 26 Σy: 41 Σx2: 168 Σxy: 263

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https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/least-squares-regression.html
Esther found how many hours of sunshine vs how many ice creams were sold at the shop from Monday to Friday:

𝑦 = 1.518𝑥 + 0.305 ± 0.548

Esther hears that the weather forecast which says “we expect 8 hours of sun
tomorrow”, so she uses the above equation to estimate that she will see:

𝑦 = 1.518×8 + 0.305 ± 0.548 = 12.449 ± 0.548

Esther makes fresh waffle cone mixture for 14 ice creams just in case.

Least squares is sensitive to outliers 6

https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/least-squares-regression.html
Coefficient of Determination, 𝑹𝟐

𝑦 = 1.518𝑥 + 0.305

Total sum of squares, 𝑆𝑆)*)+, = 2 𝑦'() − 𝑦Q# "

Sum of squares, 𝑆𝑆-./(01+,/ = 2 𝑦'() − 𝑦# "

= 2 𝑒#"

"
𝑆𝑆-./(01+,/
𝑅 =1− = 0.9595
𝑆𝑆)*)+,

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 Summary of the Uncertainty

Uncertainty = Bias ! + Precision !

8
R.S. Figliola and D.E. Beasley, Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements, Fifth Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2011.
 Sequential Test and Hysteresis

• A sequential test applies a sequential variation

in the input value over the desired input range Hysteresis
(upscale or downscale direction)
Downscale
• Hysteresis error is the difference in the values

Output value
measured in upscale and downscale tests

𝑒U = 𝑦VWXYZ[\ − 𝑦]^_`XYZ[\
Upscale
𝑒U!"#
%𝑒U!"# = ×100 Input value
𝑟a 9
Elements of Instrument Error

Overall Instrument Error

𝒆𝒄 = 𝒆𝟐𝒉 + 𝒆𝟐𝒍 + 𝒆𝟐𝒔 + 𝒆𝟐𝒛 + 𝒆𝟐𝒓

R.S. Figliola and D.E. Beasley, Theory and Design for

Mechanical Measurements, Fifth Edition, John Wiley and
Sons, 2011.
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