EUKARYOTIC CELLS o ER

o Golgi Apparatus
 HISTORY OF EUKARYOTES o Vacuoles
 The first eukaryotic cells appeared on the earth o Cytoskeleton
approximately 2 billion to 3 billion years ago. o Glycocalyx
 It is believed that bacteria, archaea, and  Found in cells of some eukaryotic
eukaryotes evolved from a precursor groups
called the last common ancestor. (LUCA) o Cell wall
o Neither prokaryotic or eukaryotic o Locomotor appendages
o Gave rise to bacteria, archaea, and o Chloroplast
eukarya separately.  Generalized EC
o Organelles: originated from more o External
primitive cells that became trapped in  Appendages (flagella and cilia)
eukaryotic cells
 Coating (glycocalyx)
 Some fossilized cells that look remarkably like
o Cell Envelope
modern-day algae or protozoa appear in shale
 CM
sediments from China, Russia, and Australia that
date from 850 million to 950 million years ago  CW
 Endosymbiosis o Internal
o Very large prokaryotes engulfed  Cytoskeleton
smaller prokaryotic cells and began  Nucleus
to live and reproduced inside the  ER
larger cell rather than being destroyed  Chloroplast
o Mitochondria and chloroplast is  Flagella (Eukaryotic vs. Bacterial)
believed to be one of those primitive o Eukaryotic flagella are 10x thicker
cells o Structural more complex
 From single celled to multicellular o Covered by an extension of the cell
 first primitive eukaryotes were single membrane
celled and independent o Long sheathed cylinder containing
 became specialized to perform a particular regularly spaced hollow microtubules
function in a colony  9+2 arrangement
 complex, multicellular organisms evolved - 9pairs of closely attached
when cells lost the ability to survive apart microtubules surrounding
from the colony single pair
o tissues o Microtubules in flagella
o organs  Cilium
 Eukaryotic organisms studied in  Doublet
microbiology  Triplet
Always May be Always  Centriole
Unicellular Unicellular or Multicellular  Cilia
Multicellular o Ciliophoran – ciliated protozoan
Protozoa Fungi Helminths o Similar in overall structure to flagella
(Phytoplankton Algae (have o Shorter and more numerous – up to
–plant like) unicellular egg several thousands in some cells
(Zooplankton – or larval forms) o Found only in a single group of
animal like)
protozoa and certain animal cells
 Features of Eukaryotic Cells
o Function as feeding and filtering
 Found in all eukaryotic cells
structures on some cells
o Cytoplasmic membrane
 Glycocalyx
o Nucleus
o Mitochondria
 o An outermost boundary that comes
into direct contact with the
environment
o Also called an extracellular matrix
o Composed of polysaccharides
o Apperance:
 Network of fibers
 Slime Layer
 Capsule
 Cell Wall
o Found in fungi and algae
o Rigid and provides structural support
and shape
o Different chemical composition that
bacterial cell walls
o Chitin or cellulose in fungi
 Cytoplasmic Membrane
o Typical bilayer of phospholipids
embedded with protein molecules
 Contain sterols
o Stabilize eukaryotic membranes
o Selectively permeable barriers
o Sophisticated mechanisms for
transporting nutrients in and waste
and other products out
 Nucleus
o Control center
o Compact sphere, most prominent
organelle
o Separated from the cytoplasm by the
nuclear envelope
o Nucleolus
 Stains more intensely due to its
RNA content
 Site for ribosomal RNA
synthesis
 Mitosis and Meiosis
o Chromatin is the material of
eukaryotic chromosomes
 Units of genetic information in
the cell
 Long, linear DNA molecules
bound to histone protein
 Visible during mitosis
o Meiosis
 Production of sex cells
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
o Microscopic series of tunnels used in
transport and storage
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Ribosomes attached to its
surface
 Proteins held for packaging and
transport
 Cisternae is responsible for
transportation of materials from
the nucleus to ER to cytoplasm
o Origin and structure of the Rough ER
 Originated from the nuclear
envelope
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 Does not contain ribosomes
 Synthesis and storage of
nonprotein molecules
 Golgi Apparatus (Golgi bodies)
o Packaging machine
o Site of protein modifications and
transport
 Consists of a stack of flattened,
disc-shaped sacs
 Closely connected to the
endoplasmic reticulum
o Where it is close to the Golgi
apparatus, the ER forms transitional
vesicles that are picked up by the
Golgi apparatus
o Golgi apparatus adds polysaccharides
and lipids to the proteins in the
transitional vesicles and pinches off
condensing vesicles
 Conveyed to lysosomes or
transported as secretory vesicle
 Nucleus, ER, and Golgi Apparatus:
Nature’s Assembly Line
o Genetic information originates from
the nucleus
o Proteins are synthesized on
ribosomes and deposited into the
RER
o Protein are then transported to the
Golgi apparatus to be chemically
modified and packaged into vesicles
 The transport process
o Nucleus produces genetic info then
synthesized by ribosomes and deposit
on the RER then transported to Golgi
app thru transitional vesicles and
chemically modified in the Golgi app
 and released with help of transport 
Primary producers of oxygen
vesicles gas
o Exocytosis – release of waste product  Ribosomes: Protein Synthesizers
of protein synthesis o Distributed throughout the cell
 Cellular Vesicles  Scattered freely in the cytoplasm
o Lysosomes and cytoskeleton
 Originate from the Golgi  Attached to RER
apparatus and contain a variety  Inside mitochondria and
of enzymes chloroplast
 Involved in intracellular o Polyribosomes
digestion of food and protection  Short chains of ribosomes
against invading o Eukaryotic ribosomes are similar to
microorganisms bacterial ribosomes in structure
o Vacuoles  Large and small subunits of
 Membrane-bound sacs ribonucleoprotein
 Contain fluids or solid particles o Full size of Ribosome is 80S
to be digested, excreted, or  Combination of 60S and 20S
stored subunits
 Mitochondria: Energy Generators of  Cytoskeleton
the Cell o Functions
o Supply bulk of the energy of a cell  Anchoring organelles
o Structure  Moving RNA and vesicles
 Cristae  Permitting shape changes and
- Folds on the inner movement
membrane that holds the o 3 Main types
enzymes and electrons
 Actin filaments
carrier of aerobic
 Intermediate filaments
respiration
 Microtubules
 Matrix
 MAJOR ELEMENTS OF LIFE IN EACH
- Holds ribosomes, DNA,
ORGANISM TYPE
and enzymes and other
compounds used in FUNC CHARACTE BACTERIAL/AR EUKARY VIRUS
TION RISTICS CHAEAL OTIC ES
metabolism Geneti *Nucleic + + +
o Unique characteristics of cs Acids + + −
*Chromosom − + −
mitochondria es − + −
 Divide independently of the cell *True
Nucleus
 Contain circular strands of DNA *Nuclear
 Have a bacteria-size 70S Envelope
Repro *Mitosis - + -
ribosomes ductio *Production +/− + −
 These characteristics provide n of sex cells
*Binary + + −
evidence that mitochondria were fission
cells engulfed by other cells and Biosyn *Independent + + -
thesis *Golgi − + -
became organelles apparatus
 Chloroplasts: Photosynthesis Machines *Endoplasmic − + -
reticulum
o Capable of converting the energy of *Ribosomes +*** + -
sunlight into chemical energy thru Respir Mitochondria - + -
ation
photosynthesis
o Photosynthetic role of chloroplasts:
 Primary producers of all organic
nutrients
 Photos *Pigments +/- +/- -  Dimorphic
ynthes *Chloroplasts - +/- -
is o Exist in a changing temp
o Form between yeast and hypha
Motilit *Flagella +/-*** +/- - o Depends on growth condition
y *Cilia - +/- -  Fungal Nutrition
 Heterotrophic
o Acquire nutrient from a wide variety
Shape *Membrane + + +/-
/ *CW +*** +/- - (capsid) of substrates
protec *Capsule +/- +/- - o Substrates can be wood, rocks, and
tion -
etc. as long as they can absorb
Compl + + +/- nutrients
exity
of
 Saprobes
functio o Obtain substrate from dead plants and
n
animals
Size 0. .5−3 μm**** 2-100 μm < 0.2
(in μm  Parasites
genera o On bodies of living animals and
l)
plants
 Nutritional Sources
LEGEND: o Acquire nutrient from a wide variety
*+ means most members of the group exhibit this characteristic; − means most of substrates
lack it; +/− means some members have it and some do not.
**Viruses cannot participate in metabolic or genetic activity outside their host  Organization of microscopic fungi
cells.  Most microscopic fungi grow in loose
***The bacterial/archaeal type is functionally similar to the eukaryotic type,
but it is structurally unique. association or colonies
****Much smaller and much larger bacteria do exist, but they are not  Mycelium
common.
o Woven, intertwining mass of hypha
 THE KINGDOM FUNGI that makes up the body or colony of
Originally classified with the green plants mold
along with the algae and bacteria  Septa
 Separated and placed in a group with the algae o Cross walls dividing hypha into
and protozoa because of the discovery of segments
nucleic acid in the 21st century  Spores
 Approximately 3 to 4 million species of fungi o Fungal reproductive body
can be divided into two groups:  Functional types of hypha using mold
 Macroscopic Fungi Rhizopus as an example
o Mushrooms (multicellular)  Vegetative
o Puffballs’ (multicellular) o Mycelia
o Gill fungi (multicellular)  Reproductive
 Microscopic Fungi o Fertile hyphae and branch off
o Molds (filamentous fungi) vegetative hyphae
(multicellular)  Reproductive strategies and spore formation
o Yeasts (unicellular)  Fungi have many complex and successful
 Microscopic Morphology repro strats
 Yeast Cell: o Simple outward growth of existing
o Round to oval shape hypha
o Uses asexual reproduction o Fragmentations
o Grows buds on surface  Separated piece of mycelium
 Hyphae can generate a whole new
o Long, threadlike cells found in colony
filamentous fungi or molds o Primary repro mode: spore formation
o Responsible for growth of fungi
o Pseudo hypha: chain of yeast
  Fungal spores are diff from o Community-acquired by
resistant, nonrepro bacterial environmental pathogens
endospores o Hospital-associated infection by
 Asexual spore formation fungal pathogens in clinical settings
o Sporangiospores o Opportunistic infection caused by
 Formed by successive cleavages pathogens infecting already
w/in a sporangium weakened individuals
o Conidospores or Conidia o Allergies
 Free spores not enclosed by a o Neurologic conditions
spore-bearing sac  THE KINGDOM PROTISTA (PROTIST)
 Sexual spore formation  algae and protozoa have been traditionally
o Important variation occurs when combined into the Kingdom Protista.
fungi of diff genetic makeup combine  The two major taxonomic categories of this
their genetic material kingdom are:
o Slight variations form and function  Subkingdom Algae
are potentially advantageous to the  Subkingdom Protozoa
adaptation and survival of species  Protist: any eukaryotic unicellular or colonial
o Thru meiosis organism that lacks true tissues.
 Fungal ID and Cultivation  The Algae: Photosynthetic Protists
 ID in med specimens  group of photosynthetic organisms
 Isolation o recognized by their larger members,
 Observation on both micro and macro such as seaweeds and kelps
 Asexual spore forming structures and  Algae exhibits all of the eukaryotic
spores used to ID genus and species organelles
 Hyphal type o Chloroplast
 Colony texture o Other pigments create yellow, red,
 Pigmentation and brown coloration
 Physiologic characteristic  Widespread inhabitants of fresh and
 Genetic makeup marine water
o Plankton
Fungal media Description
Malt extract agar Gold standard medium  Floating community
(MEA) for isolation and  Essential in aquatic food web
speciation in mold  Produce most of the Earth’s
contaminated buildings oxygen
Potato dextrose agar General purpose medium  Primary medical threat is
(PDA) for isolation of mold ingestion of toxins during red
Sabouraud dextrose Medium for isolation of tide
agar (SDA) dermatophytes.
Recommended combined
w/ yeast and mold counts
in USP <61>
Dichloran-Glycerol Containing 18% glycerol
Agar 18 (DG-18) used for recovery of
xerophilic yeast and mold
Corn Meal Agar (CMA) High cellulose content for
and V8 Agar isolation of Stachybotys
chartarum

 Med conditions caused by fungi

 Most human fungal infection thru
accidental contact w/ soil, water, dust
 Pathogenic