Page 1

MACDOWEL
GE 108

GROUP
BASIC
REPORT
ELECTRONICS
A
c dolor ac adipiscing amet bibendum nullam, lacus molestie ut
libero nec, diam et, pharetra sodales, feugiat ullamcorper id
tempor id vitae. Mauris pretium aliquet, lectus tincidunt. Porttitor
mollis imperdiet libero senectus pulvinar. Etiam molestie mauris ligula

LAB
laoreet, vehicula eleifend. Repellat orci erat et, sem cum, ultricies
sollicitudin amet eleifend dolor nullam erat, malesuada est leo ac. Varius
natoque turpis elementum est. Duis montes, tellus lobortis lacus amet
arcu et. In vitae vel, wisi at, id praesent bibendum libero faucibus porta
egestas, quisque praesent
ipsum fermentum tempor.
DR. ABHISHEK SHARMA Curabitur auctor, erat mollis
sed, turpis vivamus a dictumst
congue magnis. Aliquam amet
ullamcorper dignissim molestie, mollis. Tortor vitae tortor eros wisi
facilisis.

SUBMITTED BY :
MAYANK SINGH
EXPERIMENT - 3
2019EEB1170

 PAGE 2

EXPERIMENT 8

STUDY OF DIFFERENTIATOR AND INTEGRATOR

USING OP AMPS

AIM :
1. To explain about di erentiator using op-amps.

2. To explain about integrator using op-amps.

APPARATUS / COMPONENTS :
An input voltage AC source , resistors, capacitor, oscilloscope, operational
ampli ier, connecting wires.

THEORY :

• OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER :
An Operational Ampli ier, or op-amp, is fundamentally a voltage
amplifying device designed to be used with external feedback
components such as resistors and capacitors between its output and
input terminals. These feedback components determine the resulting
function or “operation” of the ampli ier and by virtue of the di erent
feedback con igurations whether resistive, capacitive or both, the
ampli ier can perform a variety of di erent operations, giving rise to its
name of “Operational Ampli ier”.

Fig : Op-amp
f
f

f
-
ff
-
f

f
ff

ff
 PAGE 3

Operational ampli iers can be used as part of a positive or negative

feedback ampli ier or as an adder or subtractor type circuit using just
pure resistances in both the input and the feedback loop.

But what if we were to change the purely resistive ( Rƒ ) feedback element
of an inverting ampli ier with a frequency dependant complex element
that has a reactance, ( X ), such as a Capacitor, C.

By replacing this feedback resistance with a capacitor we now have an RC

Network connected across the operational ampli iers feedback path
producing another type of operational ampli ier circuit commonly called
an Op-amp Integrator circuit as shown below.

• INTEGRATOR USING OP AMP :

Fig : Op-amp integrator circuit

Source : https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/opamp-opamp26.gif

The Op-amp Integrator is an operational ampli ier circuit that performs

the mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause the
output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the op-
amp integrator produces an output voltage which is proportional to the
integral of the input voltage.
f
f
f

f
f

 PAGE 4

In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the

length of time a voltage is present at its input as the current through the
feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor as the required
negative feedback occurs through the capacitor.

When a step voltage, Vin is irstly applied to the input of an integrating

ampli ier, the uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts
like a short circuit allowing maximum current to low via the input resistor,
Rin as potential di erence exists between the two plates. No current lows
into the ampli iers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero
output. As the impedance of the capacitor at this point is very low, the
gain ratio of XC/Rin is also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less
than one, ( voltage follower circuit ).

As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the in luence of

the input voltage, its impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its
rate of charge. The capacitor charges up at a rate determined by the RC
time constant, ( τ ) of the series RC network. Negative feedback forces
the op-amp to produce an output voltage that maintains a virtual earth at
the op-amp’s inverting input.

Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input

(which is at virtual ground potential) and the op-amp’s output (which is
now negative), the potential voltage, Vc developed across the capacitor
slowly increases causing the charging current to decrease as the
impedance of the capacitor increases. This results in the ratio of Xc/Rin
increasing producing a linearly increasing ramp output voltage that
continues to increase until the capacitor is fully charged.

At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more low
of DC current. The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor ( XC/RIN )
is now in inite resulting in in inite gain. The result of this high gain
(similar to the op-amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the ampli ier
goes into saturation as shown below. (Saturation occurs when the output
f
f
f
ff
f
f

f
f
f
f
 PAGE 5

voltage of the ampli ier swings heavily to one voltage supply rail or the
other with little or no control in between).

If we apply a constantly changing input signal such as a square wave to

the input of an Integrator Ampli ier then the capacitor will charge and
discharge in response to changes in the input signal. This results in the
output signal being that of a sawtooth waveform whose output is a ected
by the RC time constant of the resistor/capacitor combination because at
higher frequencies, the capacitor has less time to fully charge. This type
of circuit is also known as a Ramp Generator as shown :

We know from irst principals that the voltage on the plates of a capacitor
is equal to the charge on the capacitor divided by its capacitance giving
Q/C. Then the voltage across the capacitor is output Vout therefore:
-Vout = Q/C. If the capacitor is charging and discharging, the rate of
charge of voltage across the capacitor is given as:
f
f
f

ff
 PAGE 6

But dQ/dt is electric current and

since the node voltage of the
integrating op-amp at its
inverting input terminal is zero, X
= 0, the input current I(in) lowing
through the input resistor, Rin is
given as:

The current lowing through the feedback capacitor C is given as:

Assuming that the input impedance of the op-amp is in inite (ideal op-
amp), no current lows into the op-amp terminal. Therefore, the nodal
equation at the inverting input terminal is given as:

f
f
f

 PAGE 7

From which we derive an ideal voltage output for the Op-amp Integrator
as:

Or,

ω = 2πƒ and the output voltage Vout is a constant 1/RC times the integral
of the input voltage Vin with respect to time.

Thus the circuit has the transfer function of an inverting integrator with
the gain constant of -1/RC. The minus sign (  –  ) indicates a 180 degree
phase shift because the input signal is connected directly to the inverting
input terminal of the operational ampli ier.

• DIFFERENTIATOR USING OP AMP :

In this, the position of the capacitor and resistor have been reversed and
now the reactance, Xc is connected to the input terminal of the inverting
ampli ier while the resistor, Rƒ forms the negative feedback element
across the operational ampli ier.

This operational ampli ier circuit performs the mathematical operation of

Di erentiation, that is it “produces a voltage output which is directly
proportional to the input voltage’s rate-of-change with respect to time“. In
other words the faster or larger the change to the input voltage signal, the

ff

f
f
f
-

 PAGE 8

greater the input current, the greater will be the output voltage change in
response, becoming more of a “spike” in shape.

• Op-amp Di erentiator Circuit :

Since the node voltage of the operational ampli ier at its inverting input
terminal is zero, the current, i lowing through the capacitor will be given
as :

The charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance times Voltage across the
capacitor :

Thus the rate of change of this charge is:

ff

 PAGE 9

but dQ/dt is the capacitor current, I :

from which we have an ideal voltage output for the op-amp di erentiator
is given as:

Therefore, the output voltage Vout is a constant –Rƒ*C times the

derivative of the input voltage Vin with respect to time. The minus sign (–)
indicates a 180 degrees phase shift because the input signal is connected
to the inverting input terminal of the operational ampli ier.

Fig : Op-amp Di erentiator Waveforms

ff

ff
 PAGE 10

PROCEDURE :

• INTEGRATOR USING OP AMP :

• Connect the components as mentioned below:
• L1 L7 or L1 L3, L3 L7, L4 L5, L11 L8, L12 L6, L8 L9, L4 L10. Click on
'Check Connection' button to check the connections.

• Set the resistance(R) and the capacitance (C) (Initially set R=10 kΩ and
C=0.1 µF).

• Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.

• Click on 'Square Wave' button or the ‘Sine Wave’ button to generate
input waveform.

• Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the output waveform.

• Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
• Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
• Channel 1 shows the input square waveform, Channel 2 shows the
output waveform.

• DIFFERENTIATOR USING OP AMP :

• Connect the components as mentioned below:
• L1 L7 or L1 L3, L3 L7, L4 L5, L11 L8, L12 L6, L8 L9, L4 L10. Click on
'Check Connection' button to check the connections.

• Set the resistance(R) and the capacitance (C) (Initially set R=1 kΩ and
C=0.1 µF).

• Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-
-
-
-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

 PAGE 11

• Click on 'Square Wave' button or the ‘Sine wave’ button to generate

input waveform.

• Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the output waveform.

• Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
• Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
• Channel 1 shows the input square waveform, Channel 2 shows the
output waveform.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS :

• INTEGRATOR USING OP AMP :

• Input signal — Square wave :

 PAGE 12

• Input signal — Sine wave :

• DIFFERENTIATOR USING OP AMP :

• Input signal — Square wave :

 PAGE 13

• Input signal — Sine wave :

 PAGE 14

• Conclusion :
We have studied the integrator and the di erentiator circuits using op
amps and successfully obtained the correct output waveforms provided
the input signals (as square wave and sine wave).

ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS

ff

PAGE 15
PAGE 16
PAGE 17