FOR X Æ A-12

Stat Analysis
● Null Hypothesis
○ States that there is no relationship between the independent and
dependent variables
● Alternative Hypothesis
○ States that there is a relationship between the independent and
dependent variables
● Control Group
○ Exactly the same as the experimental group
■ Only difference is that it doesn’t contain the thing being tested
○ It is meant to isolate for the independent variable in order to see if
there is any real effect on the experiment
● Experimental group
○ The group that is being tested on
● Independent Variable
○ It is on the X axis
○ It isn’t affected by anything
○ A lot of times it is something like time, or the different groups in an
experiment
● Dependent Variable
○ Has relation (dependent) on the independent variable
○ On the Y axis
○ What you are measuring
● Error Bars
○ If they overlap then the data is not statistically significant
● Chi Square
○ It is going to see if the result is the same as the expected
○ Used to test hypothesis
● Standard deviation
○ Measure of spread
●
Unit One
● Water
○ What special
■ Polar
● Shares electrons unevenly
■ Hydrogen Bonding
● Weak attraction between elements cause of partial charge
○ Properties
■ Adhesion
● Water sticks to other things. Cuase H bonds
■ Cohesion
● Water sticks to itself. Cause H bonds
■ Universal Solvent
 ● The polarity allows for the separation of atoms causing
stuff to dissolve
■ Ice floats
● Solid form less dense than liquid
○ Solid has a crystal atomic structure causing dead
space making it less dense
■ Surface Tension
● Cuase of cohesion the surface of water is hard to break
■ High Specific Heat
● Happens cause it takes a lot of energy to break H Bonds and
then also get the electrons moving fast.
● Macromolecules
○ Basics
■ CHNOP some proteins have S also
■ Hydrolysis break it, and Dehydration synthesis build it
○ Carbohydrate
■ Monomer
● Monosaccharides (e.g. glucose, sucrose)
● 1:2:1 ratio
● Ring structure
■ Polymer
● Disaccharides
○ Two of them
○ E.g. sucrose
● Polysaccharides
○ 3 or more
○ Starch
■ Long and branched
■ Plants storage of energy
○ Cellulose
■ Plant’s cell wall
○ Glycogen
■ More branched than starch
■ Animal storage of energy
■ Stored in the liver
○ Chitin
■ Exoskeleton
■ Strong
○ Lipids
■ Monomer
● Doesn’t really have one. Some say glycerol
■ Important facts
● Hydrophobic and nonpolar
● Mostly Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
■ Triglyceride
● Structure
○ Glycerol and 3 fatty acid tails
 ● Two types
○ Saturated
■ Solid at room temperature
■ No kink in chain
■ Think as saturated with Hydrogen
○ Unsaturated
■ Liquid at room temperature
■ Kink in chain
● Function
○ Energy storage
■ Phospholipid
● Structure
○ Glycerol
○ Phosphorus head
○ 2 fatty acid tails
● Polarity
○ The tails are nonpolar and thus face inward
○ Head is polar and faces out to da water
● Function
○ Cell membrane
■ Selective permeability
■ Wax
● Super hydrophobic
● Structure
○ One glycerol docked to fatty acid
■ Steroids
● Facts
○ Not polymers
○ 4 fused carbon rings
● Important ones
○ Cholesterol
■ In the cell membrane
■ Regulates fluidity of the cell membrane
○ Corticosteroid
■ Cell signal for asthma
● Anabolic steroids
○ Mimics sex hormones
■ Eg testosterone and estrogen
○ Passes through the plasma membrane
○ Signaling
○ Nucleic Acids
■ Function
● Store and move genetic info
■ Structure
● Nitrogenous base (alters the A G T C (U))
● Phosphorous
● Sugar
 ○ DNA = deoxyribose
■ DNA has a negative charge
○ RNA = ribose
● Guanine Adenine = purines
● Pyrimidines = Cytosine Thymine
○ Amino Acids
■ Structure
● Alpha carbon in center
● Amin group to left
● Carboxyl group to right
● Hydrogen bonded above
● And R group on the bottom
■ Function
● Make proteins
■ Proteins
● Folding
○ First step
■ The Amino Acid chain
○ Second Step
■ Forms alpha helix of beta pleated sheet
○ Third Step
■ Big folding happens here
● Ionic bonds
○ Charges form bonds
● Hydrophobic interactions
○ Polar to outside nonpolar to
inside
● Sulfhydryl groups bonds together
○ Fourth Step
■ Third step but with other proteins
● Not all do this
● Function
○ Enzymes
■ Speed up chemical reactions
● Lower the activation energy
■ Used everywhere
● Denaturation?
○ Extreme things hurt the STRUCTURE and that stops
the FUNCTION
■ The protein starts to unfold. Because of
things like…
● pH
● Temperature
● Salinity
● Other extreme environmental changes
● Changes in the subunits of a polymer may lead to changes in structure or
function of the macromolecule.
 ○ Because directionality of the subcomponents influences structure and
function of the polymer
Unit Two
● Da Cell
○ Eukaryotic
■ Nucleus
● Stores DNA
● Nucleolus has some ribosome synthesis going on
■ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Protein synthesis
■ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Lipid synthesis
● Detoxification
■ Golgi Apparatus
● Sort, label, ship proteins
■ Lysosome
● Hydrolytic enzymes break stuff down
■ Cell membrane
● Provides structure
● Selective permeability is good for protecting the cell
○ Passive diffusion
■ Simple
● Small nonpolar things can just pass
right through the cell membrane
● Oxygen & carbon dioxide
■ Facilitated diffusion
● Needs proteins but still no energy
● Large molecules and charged
molecules
○ Water or ions
○ Active Transport
■ This stuff requires energy to pump across the
gradient, NOT with it
● E.g. Sodium potassium pump
● Fluid?
○ Well ya, the fluid mosaic model says the the
membrane is gonna be wavy
■ Cholesterol allows for it to be wavy
● Proteins
○ Ya there are hecka proteins in the membrane.
■ Glycoprotein
● Cell recognition
○ Bind to proteins on other cells
■ Glycolipid
● Cell recognition
○ Identifies other cells
■ Integral protein
 ● transporters
● Channels
● Linkers
● Receptors
● proteins involved in accumulation
energy
● proteins responsible for cell adhesion.
■ Peripheral protein
● Don’t cross the whole membrane
● Help maintain shape
● Help with recognition
■ Ribosomes
● Protein Synthesis
● Explain translation letter in doc
■ Vacuole
● Store stuff lul
○ Get p big in the plant cell doe
■ That cause they wanna store water for
cellular structure
● Compartmentalization
○ Relegate tasks to specific organelles to increase efficiency
○ Endosymbiotic theory
■ Big cell ate small cell
● But then small cell was so good that it decided to just live
● Water stuff
○ Hypotonic = Higher tonicity. Meaning higher solute level. Water moves
into the hypertonic area.
○ Hypertonic = Lower tonicity. Meaning lower solute level. Water moves
out of the Hypertonic environment
○ Isotonic = Everything equal man
○ Water moves from high water percentage to low water percentage &
from low solute concentration to high solute concentration
 ● Cell Size
○ All about Surface area to volume ratio
○ If ratio is too big then nutrients can’t get in and waste can’t get out
Unit Three
● Cell Respiration
○ Glycolysis
■ Reactants
● Glucose (6 carbon molecule)
● 2 ATP used
● 2 NAD+
■ Products
● 2 NADH
 ● 2 Pyruvate (3 carbon molecule each) +2 H20
● 4 ATP, 2 Net ATP (formed by substrate-level
phosphorylation)
■ Two steps
● Investment
○ Here we put in two ATP cause we know we finna make
our money back BILL ACKMAN TYPE BEAT
○ Bunch of reactions taking place
● Pay off
○ So more reactions happen and we get 4 ATP
○ This great cause that means we have 2 Net ATP
○ Also we get pyruvate which is gonna be used next
○ Fermentation
■ Purpose
● Turn NADH back into NAD+
○ Allowing for Glycolysis to continue
■ Types?
● Lactic Acid
● Alcohol
■ Reactants
● 2 Pyruvate (comes from glycolysis)
● 2 NADH (comes from glycolysis)
● NAD+ and NADH is constantly recycled into each other
■ Products
● 2 NAD+ (in both fermentations)
○ Reused in glycolysis
○ Fermentation used if more NAD+ is needed for
glycolysis to occur
● Lactic Acid Fermentation
○ 2 Lactate
● Alcohol Fermentation
○ 2 Ethanol
○ 2 CO2
○ Krebs Cycle
■ Reactants (includes pyruvate oxidation) (2 spins total or 1
glucose)
● 2 Pyruvate
● 2 FAD+
● 8 NAD+ (1 from pyruvate oxidation, 3 from citric, applies to
NADH in the products as well (per spin))
● 2 GDP+P(i)
■ Products (includes pyruvate oxidation) (2 spins total or 1 glucose)
● 6 CO2 (1 from pyruvate oxidation, 2 from citric (per spin)) (is
released)
● 8 NADH
● 2 FADH2
 ● 2 GTP (molecule with functions similar to ATP, can be used
to generate ATP)(generated by substrate-level
phosphorylation
■ Pyruvate Oxidation
● First, pyruvate carboxyl group removed, given off as CO2
● Second, remaining acetate, extracted electrons
transferred to NAD+
● Coenzyme A attaches to the acetate, forming Acetyl CoA,
which is fed into the citric acid cycle
■ Actual Krebs
● NADH and FADH2 contain high-electrons, they shuttle
their electrons into the electron transport chain
● Carbon Dioxide is released during the processes
● GTP produced
■ Location
● Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix (in eukaryotes),
occurs in the cytoplasm (in prokaryotes) (both citric and
pyruvate oxidation)

○ Electron Transport Chain [Oxidative Phosphoralation]

■ Reactants
● 10 NADH
● 2 FADH
● X amount of O2
■ Products
● 6 H20
● 34 ATP
● 10 NAD+ (gets reused)
● 2 FAD+ (gets reused)
■ Process
 ● Electrons move through the chain
○ Complex to complex
● Oxygen is final acceptor
● Chemiosmosis
○ Smashing adp + P together to creat ATP
● Gradient formed by the H+ on going outside the membrane
● Photosynthesis
○ Reactants
○ Products
○ Light Reactions
■ Location
● Thylakoid Membrane
■ Non-Cyclic
● Water splits
● Electrons are excited
● They move through the ETC with proteins
● Their energy is used to pump the protons into the cell
creating gradient
● Photosystem I (the second one) is gonna do the same but the
electron ends up turning the NAD+ into NADH at NADP+
Reductase
● The gradient makes ATP also
■ Cyclic
● It works pretty similari but there is a big difference when
you get to photosystem one
 ○ At photsystem one NADH clogs NADP+ Reductase and
that means the electrons aren’t going to be going to
Reductase that much anymore
■ There is a protein (FD) that creates the shunt
pathway that allows for the recycling of
electrons back to an earlier part of the ETC
○ Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle) (carbon fixation)
■ Location
● Stroma
■ Reactants (3 turns) (1 CO2 goes in at a time)
● 6 NADPH
● 9 ATP
● 3 CO2
■ Products (3 turns)
● 1 G3P
● 9 ADP
● 6 NADP + P(i)
■ Process
● Carbon dioxide gets attached to ribulose bisphosphate and
that makes a 6 carbon molecule
○ That 6 carbon molecule breaks into two three
molecules
■ Then a bunch of reactions happen and they
eventually u get Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
after 3 turns
● U do that twice and u can get a
GLUCOSE
○ YUMMY

Unit Four
● Cell Signal
○ Juxtacrine
■ Communication with a cell right next the original cell
○ Endocrine
■ Secrete stuff into blood stream to communicate long distance
○ Paracrine
■ Communication with cells close buy
○ Autocrine
■ Cell communication with itself
● Signal Transduction
○ Basic Pathway
■ Reception
● Ligand binds to receptor
● Small nonpolar molecules float right into to activate stuff
■ Signal Transduction
● Amplification of signal
 ○ Cascades
■ Response
● DNA replication
● Protein synthesis
● Apoptosis
○ G-protein coupled receptor
■ It receives a signal as the ligand binds to the receptor
● This activates a protein that goes and binds to another
protein
○ This then causes release of Cyclic AMP
■ Big phosphorylation cascade
● Which results in the cell having some
kind of response
● Cell Cycle
○ Interphase
■ G1
● Cell grows
○ Organelles Doubel
● Checkpoint
■ S
● Replicate DNA
■ G2
● Grow more
○ Prep for Division
● Checkpoint
○ Prophase
■ Super coil DNA
■ Nuclear Envelope Disappear
■ Centriole produce spindle fibers that go to the poles
○ Metaphase
■ Move em to the middle!
■ Spindles are attached to the Chromosomes
○ Anaphase
■ Chromatids are pulled apart
○ Telophase
■ Spindle fibers disappear
■ 2 nuclei develop
■ DNA starts turning back into chromatin
○ Cytokinesis
■ Cell completely divides
● DNA replication
Unit Five
● Transcription
○ Initiation
■ Regulatory Sequence
■ Gene Regulation, Explained LAtEr
○ Elongation
■ RNA Polymerase copies template strand
○ Termination
■ Terminator
● RNA processing
○ Cut out introns
○ Poly A tail
■ 3 prime
○ G cap
■ 5 prime
○ Alternative splicing
■ Same mRNA transcript that is getting spliced in different ways
● Yielding different proteins from the same strand
● Translation
○ Initiation
■ Fits in between the large and small subunit
■ Reads the start Codon
○ Elongation
■ Reading codons and having tRNA bringing the pairs
○ Termination
■ Reads the stop codon
● Mutations
○ Errors in copying the DNa
○ Doesn’t always result in change in phenotype
■ Causes multiple things code for the same one
 ○ Increase genetic diversity
● Gene Regulation
○ Prokaryotes
■ Regulatory Sequence
■ Then regulatory protein binds to that
■ Allowing for Polymerase binds
■ LAC OPERON
● Three genes, Z & Y & A
● The regulatory sequence (promoter) is in front of it
● Operator is in between the two
● Repressor can be in the operator
● Positive control because when the lactose shows up then it
starts making the proteins
■ Tryptophan
● Negative control
● As long as it is present they don’t want to make it
● When it is present then it block it
● When it isn’t there then they make it
○ Eukaryotes
■ Regulatory Sequence
● TATA Box
■ Then regulatory protein binds to that
■ Polymerase binds
■ NO OPERONS
● Transcription factors
○ They allow for the attachment of RNA Polymerase
and other stuff
○ Transcription factors bind upstream
■ Then they fold back on each other activating
the genes
● Biotechnology
○ Electrophoresis
■ Line up and shock them
● The lengths of the DNA are seen cause shorter move faster
and farther
○ Compare results with controls
○ Polymerase chain reaction
■ Starts with small DNA sequence
● Put in TAC polymerase, DNA nucleotides, primers
○ Primers = starter for polymerase
■ HEat it up to break the bonds
● Cool it to allow for the primers to be
added and polymerase then synthesizes
○ Lowering and heating
Unit Six
● Meiosis
 ○ Interphase
○ Prophase 1
■ Crossing over
○ Metaphase 1
■ Independent assortment
■ Spindle attaches to homologous chromosomes
○ Anaphase 1
○ Telophase 1
○ Cytokinesis 1
○ Prophase 2
○ Metaphase 2
○ Anaphase 2
○ Telophase2
○ Cytokinesis 2
● Inheritance

● Genetics
○ Mendelian
■ Law one: Segregation
● Parents give allele at an equal rate. 50/50
■ Law two: Independent Assortment
● Basically just says that one trait doesn’t affect another
○ Non-mendelian
■ Linked Genes
● On specific chromosomes so they will travel together
 ■ Multiple Genes
● One gene can code for multiple traits
○ pleiotropy
● Multiple genes can code for one trait
○ Polygenic
■ Sex Linked Chromosomes
● Thomas Hunt Morgan crosses fruit flies
● Found gendered results
● Can increase probability for specific gender
■ Nonnuclear inheritance
● Not in the nucleus
● Mitocondria e.g.
● No changes
● Can trace it that way

Chapter By Chapter Unit Reviews

One (basically intro and stat)

● THE CORE THEME: Evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life
● STAT!! In studying nature, scientists make observations and then form and test
hypothesis
○ Scientists take data, and then
○ Controlled experiments test the effect of a single variable by testing
control groups vs experimental groups that are only differing by that
single variable
Three (Drip)
● Water has emergent properties
○ Cohesion
■ H Bonds
■ Causes the surface tension
○ Specific Heat
■ Takes a lot of energy to break the H bonds
■ Evaporative cooling is based off the heat of vaporization
○ Ice Floats
■ Ice Form is lens dense
○ Solvent
■ Breaks stuff down really easily cause it can isolate the charged
areas
■ Hydrophobic = hates water
■ Hydrophilic = loves water
Four
● Carbon loves to make them four bonds
● Carbon is the backbone of EVERYTHING
○ So we end up getting alot of hydrocarbons
● Isomers = same compounds with the same molecular formula but they have
different structure and properties
○ Structural isomers
○ Cis-trans isomers
○ Enantiomers
● The few Chemical groups that are SUPER important
○ Functional Groups
○ ATP
■ It has adenosine attached to three phosphate groups
■ It interacts with water forming ADP (hydrolysis of ATP → ADP +P)
● This releases the Energy that is super important
Five (Molecules)

Six (The CELL)

● Cells are bound by the plasma membrane
● Prokaryotic cells don’t have nuclei and membrane bound organelles
● Surface to volume ratio is really important

Seven (The membrane structure & Function)

● Cell Membrane = Fluid with Lipids and Proteins
○ Fluid Mosaic Model = amphipathic proteins are embedded in the
phospholipid bilayer
■ The unsaturated hydrocarbon tails keep membranes fluid at low
temperatures
■ Cholesterol and other proteins help keep it more stable
 ■ Evolutionary
● Membrane structure → Selective permeability
○ Must be small and nonpolar to cross
■ If it isn’t then it needs a special protein
● Passive transport is diffusion across membrane without the use of energy
○ Diffusion = spontaneous movement of a substance with the concentration
gradient (from high to low)
■ When water diffuses it is called osmosis
■ PHOTO
■ Passive transport = no energy
● Facilitated diffusion
○ Uses proteins but goes with gradient
■ Osmosis
■ Ion channels
■ Active transport = energy
● Uses the lysing of ATP → ADP + P in order to power proteins that
move things against the concentration gradient (from low to high)
○ Sodium Potassium Pump
■ Can form electrochemical gradient
● Electrogenic pump
● Proton Pump
○ Cotransport of two solutes can take one with the
gradient and the other against the gradient
● Big transport = Endo & Exocytosis
○ The cell membrane is going to pinch in on itself in order to form vesicles
that are going to move very large substances
■ Exocytosis
● Releases things
■ Endocytosis
● Takes things in
● Phagocytosis
● Pinocytosis
● Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Eight (Metabolism)
● Metabolism transforms matter and energy & is subject to thermodynamic laws
(LUL remember failing thermo frosh year, what a time)
○ Metabolism = chemical reactions that happen in organisms
○ Enzymes catalyze reactions
■ They can create metabolic pathways that are very long and
layered
■ Catabolic = breaking down
■ Anabolic = building up
○ First law of thermo = energy can’t be created or destroyed
○ Second law of thermo = spontaneous process increase the entropy of a
system
● Free energy can dictate whether something is spontaneously happening
 ● ATP is the real power house
● Enzymes speed it up, lowering activation energy
○ Each enzyme has a unique active site
■ The substrate that matches the enzyme bind at this active site
● Lock and Key
○ Some enzymes = induced fit
○ Active can lower the activation energy by straining bonds
○ ALL ENZYMES HAVE optimal temp and pH
○ Inhibitors reduced the enzyme functionality
■ A competitive inhibitor binds to the active site, blocking it
■ A noncompetitive inhibitor binds the allosteric site and changes
the shape of the protein. (since structure = function, it stops
function)
○ Enzymes are subject to the effects of mutations (cause the DNA codes for
it) and that means there are some different enzymes that are sometimes
very beneficial for the cell which is where natural selection results in
some organisms surviving more often and passing on this new Genetic
sequence to the next generation
● Regulation of enzyme activity helps control
○ Lots of enzymes get regulated through Allosteric regulation
■ Regulatory molecules, EITHER !!! activators or inhibitors, bind to
the allosteric site and regulate according to which one they are
■ Cooperativity is when we got the binding of one substrate
molecule stimulating the binding / activity of other active sites
■ Feedback inhibition is when you have the product binding to the
allosteric site and function accordingly
Nine (Cellular Respiration)
● Catabolic Pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels
○ Break down glucose to create ATP
○ The cell gets the energy stored in food through redox reactions where
we get the electrons from the food
○ Oxidation = the loss of electrons from one substance to the other
○ Reduction = the addition of electrons from one substance to the other
○ Glucose oxidized → CO2 and O2.
■ O2 reduced → H2O
○ Electrons are losing their energy as they are being transferre
○ NADH and FADH2 are electron carriers. Oxidized from NAD+ and FAD+
● Glycolysis harvest chemical energy by oxidizing glucose into pyruvate
○ Glucose → 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH
● After pyruvate is fully oxidized the citric acid cycle completes the energy
yielding oxidation of organic molecules
○ First, 2 pyruvate → Acetyl CoA
■ Which is then imputed with 8NADH and 2FADH
■ Output == 2 ATP 8NADH 6CO2 and 2FADH2
● During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport
to ATP synthesis
 ○ FADH2 and NADH pass their electrons to the Electron Transport Chain
■ These electrons go through proteins progressively losing energy
● Oxygen is the terminal acceptor of this and it reduces O2
into H20
■ As FADH2 and NADH are going through the ETC, electron
transfer is used to pump H+ from the mitochondrial matrix into
the intermembrane space
■ Storing energy as a proton-motive force
● Eventually because there is a gradient they are going to
use facilitated diffusion and the protein that facilitates
this is ATP synthase
○ When they go through it that motion is used to
phosphorylate ADP into ATP
■ The process is called Chemiosmosis
● Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enables cells to produce ATP without
the use of oxygen
○ Allows for the production of energy in anaerobic conditions as it
recycles the NAD+ from the NADH that is needed as a reactant in
glycolysis
○ There is lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation
● Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic
pathways
○ Essentially a lot of other things can contribute
○ Beta oxidation is a process where two carbons fragments on fatty acids
enter the citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA

Ten (Photosynthesis)
● Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food
○ Autotrophic eukaryotes
○ In the chloroplasts
○ Photosynthesis equation
■ 6CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6H2O
○ Chloroplasts split water into hydrogen and oxygen
● The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and
NADPH
○ Light is electromagnetic energy. We see the visible light. They have
different wavelengths.
○ A pigment is going to absorb wavelengths; chlorophyll a is the MAIN
photosynthetic pigment in plants.
○ A pigment goes from ground, to excited state when a photon of light hits
ROCKS of the pigments electrons into a higher energy state
■ Since this excited state is often unstable it will fall back down
giving off energy
○ A photosystem has reaction-center complex with light-harvesting
complexes that take the energy of photons to the reaction center
complex
 ■ Primary electron acceptor gets ROCKED into a higher state
● It got that LINEAR electron glow
○ Essentaion MAIN IDEA: the higher state electrons
are going to move through the chain, losing energy
which is used to pump in protons to form the
gradient which creates ATP through ATP synthase.
This happens again at photosystem one which then
instead of being used to pump is passed off to the
electron carrier of NADPH though NADP+
reductase
○ PHOTO CLUTCH
■ Cyclic vs noncyclic
● Cyclic electron flow uses only photosystem 1, producing
ATP but no NADPH or O2
● The calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce Co2 to
sugar
○ Happens in the stroma
○ One molecule of G3P exists per cycle per three Co2
■ Then converted to glucose/other organic molecules
● Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates
○ C3 plants close stomata conserving water
■ Oxygen from the light reactions starts building up
● Then substitutes in the calvin cycle for what is normally
CO2
○ Makes a useless molecule
■ C4 plants minimize the cost of photorespiration by incorporation
CO2
■ CAM plants open stomata at night
■ Organic compounds produced by photosynthesis provide the
energy and building material for ecosystems
Eleven (Cell Communication)
● External Signals are converted to respond within the cell
○ Signal transduction pathways are crucial for lots of processes
○ In local signaling, animal cells may communicate by contact directly,
or secreting local regulators.
○ For long distance we got them hormones
○ Basic steps = Signal, Transduction, response
● Reception: A signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein, causing it to
change shape
○ Ligand = signal molecule
○ G-protein coupled receptors
■ Ligand binds which activates the receptor, which then activates
another protein which then amplifies the signal
○ Receptor tyrosine Kinase
■ Cringe
○ Ligand gated ion channels
 ■ When it binds it opens them channels
● Or it could close em too
○ We need function of all of these things, or it goes into disease
○ Intracellular receptors are cytoplasmic or nuclear proteins
● Transduction: Cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from
receptors to target molecules in the cell
○ It amplifies the signal
○ Lots of phosphorylation cascades where a series of protein kinases each
add a phosphate group to the next one
■ Enzymes called protein phosphatase from phosphate groups
○ Second messengers
■ Such as cyclic AMP (camp) & Ca+ pass into cytosol meaning they
can broadcast signals quickly
● Response: Cell signaling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic
activities
○ Some lead to nuclear response where specific genes are turned on or off
by activation of transcription factors
○ We also have cytoplasmic response where stoff can happen with
cytoskeletal rearrangements
○ The aren’t simple on and off
■ They have a big metabolic pathways
■ Scaffolding proteins can increase signal transduction efficiency
● Apoptosis integrates multiple cell-signaling pathways
○ Takes alot of stuff obvi lul
Fourteen (Mendel)
● Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance
○ Law of segregation
■ The two alleles of the parent separate
■ Independent assortment
● The pair of alleles for a given gene segregates into gametes
independently of the pair of alleles for any other gene
● The laws of probability govern Mendelian inheritance
○ Multiplication
■ The probability of two or more events occurring together is
equal to the product of individual probabilities of the single
event
○ Addition
■ The probability of an even that can occur in two or more
independent, mutually exclusive ways is the sum of the individual
probabilities
● Inheritance Patterns are often more complex than what Mendel said
○ PHOTO CLUTCH
● Many human traits follow mendelian patterns of inheritance
○ Pedigree used to deduce the possible genotypes of individuals
The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
● Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes
 ○ Chromosome theory of inheritance states that genes are located on
chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis
accounts for mendel's law of segregation
● Sex-linked genes exhibt unique patterns of inheritance
○ When a gene is encoded on a certain chromosome if sex chromsomes it can
increase chances for the mixed ones. (humans got xy and males get
screwed a lot of times e.g. color blind)
● Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located near each
other on the same chromosome
○ Recombinant types exhibit new combinations of traits
○ When they are close on the same gene that means recombinants
● Alteration of chromosome number of structure causes some genetic disorder
○ Nondisjunction
○ Trisomy
○ Monosomy
○ Polyploidy
● Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to standard mendelian inheritance
The Molecular Basis of Inheritance
● Many proteines work together to replicate and repair
○ DNA replication is semiconservative
○ Use PHOTO
○ Telomere postpone the inevitable shortening of DNA from countless
replications
● A chromosome consists of DNA molecules packed tight
○ lose Less compacted = euchromatin
○ Highly condensed = heterochromatin
From Gene to Protein
● Genes specify proteins via transcription and translation
● Transcription is the DNA directed synthesis of RNA
○ RNA polymerase is the main man
○ Thre stages
■ A promoter establishes where the RNA synthesis is initiated
■ Transcription factors help eukaryotic RNA polymerase recognize
promoter sequences forming a Transcription initiation complex
○ Photo
● Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription
○ RNA processing
■ Add the poly a tail and G cap
■ Cut out the introns
● Called RNA splicing
○ Done with spliceosomes
■ Alternative splicing is when we are creating
new RNA sequences with different splicing
meaning different proteins
● Translation is the RNA directed synthesis of a polypeptide
○ PHOTO
 ○ Tran brings the amino acids
● Mutations of one or a few nucleotides can affect protein structure and
function
○ Small scale mutations include point mutations (changes in a single
nucleotide pair) which maid lead to production of nonfunctional
proteins
○ Nucleotide pair substitutions can cause missense or nonsense mutations
○ Nucleotides pair insertion or deletion may produce frameshift
mutations
● Genes are universal
Regulation of Gene Expression
● A program of differential gene expression leads to the differnt cell types in a
multicellular organism
○ Differentiation = becoming special
○ Morphogenesis is the process that vies the shape to the organism and its
various parts
● Cancer results from genetic changes that affect cell cycle control
○ Essential things that regulate the cell cycle end up not regulating the
cell cycle and then growth goes crazy
Bio Technology
● DNA cloning yields multiple copies of a gene or other DNA segments
○ Genetic engineering uses restriction enzymes to cut DNA and the ends
that stick off are called sticky ends
○ The stick ends on restriction fragments are joined with the other
genetic material and bonded together using ligase to produce the
recombinant DNA
○ Cloning vectors are things like plasmids
■ We use plasmids cause the replicate fast and they aren’t actually
the dna
○ Polymerase chain reaction can produce many copies of the DNA
■ Explained thoroughly in the upper parts
● DNA technology allows us to study the sequence, expression and function of a
gene
○ Gel electrophoresis is used to separate parts ofDNA and then compete
with a base results
■ These fragments are called restriction fragment length
polymorphisms