Human Anatomy & Physiology – BIOL 243

Exam 1 Study Guide

Please note – this document serves only as a guide for studying. There may be topics on the exam that are
not explicitly stated in this guide. The best course of action is to study all of the PowerPoints, focusing on
the information listed below.

Exam Format: 50 questions worth 2 points each – 45 multiple choice, 5 matching.

I. Intro to Anatomy & Physiology

● Be able to define and distinguish between the terms anatomy and physiology
● Structural Organization
o Know the levels from atom to organism
● Requirements for Life
o Know and be able to describe the requirements
o Maintaining boundaries
o Movement
o Responsiveness
o Metabolism
o Excretion
o Digestion
growth
o Reproduction
● Survival Needs
o Be able to identify the major survival needs
● Homeostasis
o Know and describe the functions of the parts of the homeostatic control system
▪ Sensor, controller, effector
o Feedback Mechanisms
▪ Negative feedback mechanisms – most common, examples are insulin regulating blood
sugar and kidneys regulating electrolyte balance
▪ Positive feedback mechanisms – very rare in the body, examples are labor through
release of oxytocin and platelet recruitment/clotting after injury
● Planes of the Body
o Sagittal – splits body into right/left sections
o Frontal/coronal – splits body into ventral/dorsal sections
o Transverse – splits body into superior/inferior sections
● Body Cavities
o Know the two major types – dorsal and ventral – and subtypes
▪ Dorsal – cranial and vertebral
▪ Ventral – thoracic and abdominopelvic
o Serous fluid – prevents friction between membranes
o Know which organs are surrounded by pleural, peritoneal, and pericardial membranes (sacs)
o Know which cavities are exposed to the external environment (nasal, oral, etc.)
▪ Nasal, oral, orbital, anal, middle ear
II. Basic Chemistry
● Organic Molecules
o Know the major types of organic molecules and their monomers, functions, and types
▪ Carbohydrates
● Monomer = simple sugars like glucose
● Elements = C, H, O
● Functions = First source of energy, can be stored as glycogen in animals and
starch in plants
● Types = glycogen, starch, cellulose, chitin

▪ Lipids (fats)
● Monomers = fatty acids, glycerols
● Elements = C, H, O…more C-H bonds than carbohydrates means they provide
more energy per gram (9 calories per gram rather than 4 from carbs and protein)
● Functions = long-term energy storage, insulation, cushioning, steroids
● Types = phospholipids, triglycerides (saturated/unsaturated fats), steroids like
cholesterol, hormones
o Saturated fats are solid at room temp because they only contain single
carbon-hydrogen bonds, allowing chains to be more compact (tight)
o Unsaturated are liquid due to double bonds in structure that cause
“kinks” in chains and require more space between molecules (loose)
▪ Proteins
● Monomer = amino acids
● Elements = C, H, O, N, sometimes S
● Functions = movement, structure, transport, hormones, enzymes
● Types = globular and fibrous
o Globular proteins have a 3D structure
▪ Know the levels of structure – primary through quaternary
▪ Alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets for secondary structure
● Interactions between the helices and sheets produce the
tertiary structure
▪ Denaturation occurs when pH or temp is changed
● Permanent if extreme
▪ Enzymes – speed up the rate of chemical reactions by lowering
the activation energy at which reactions occur, require specific
temperature and pH to function (could perhaps expect a
figure/graph related to this)
▪ Nucleic Acids
● Monomer = nucleotides
o Made up of a phosphate, sugar, and nitrogen base (A, T, C, G, or U)
● Elements = C, H, O, N, P
● Functions = store and transmit genetic info
● Types = DNA and RNA
o DNA is double-stranded, has A, T, C, G nitrogen bases
▪ Contains deoxyribose sugar
▪ A-T, C-G complementary base pairing
o RNA is single-stranded, has A, U, C, G nitrogen bases
 ▪ Contains ribose sugar
▪ A-U, C-G complementary base pairing
▪ Know the types and their basic functions
● mRNA = messenger RNA, intermediate between DNA and
protein
● rRNA = ribosomal RNA, part of ribosome complex
● tRNA = transfer RNA, recruit specific amino acids to
ribosome during translation

▪ ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

● Composed of adenine+ribose (adenosine) and 3 (tri) phosphate groups
● Cellular energy
o Energy is released when high energy bond between the last two
phosphate groups is broken – inorganic phosphate is also released (forms
ADP)
o Energy can be “added” back by reforming the bond and reattaching a
phosphate group (reforms ATP)
● Know what forms when one phosphate group is lost (ADP) and when two groups
are lost (AMP)

III. The Cell

● Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
o Know the major differences between the two (nucleus vs. no nucleus, etc.)
● Organelles
o Know the basic functions for the organelles listed in the chart in the PowerPoint (focus on those
in bold - most of these relate to protein synthesis or cell transport)
● Cell Membrane
o Know and be able to describe the parts
▪ Phospholipids
● Polar heads that are hydrophilic
● Nonpolar tails that are hydrophobic
● Form a phospholipid bilayer
▪ Proteins
● Integral (transmembrane) – embedded in membrane and span all the way across
from inside cell to outside
● Peripheral – attached to the outside or inside of the cell
▪ Cholesterol
● Form steroid hormones
● Regulate fluidity of cell membrane – more cholesterol = more rigid
o Fluid Mosaic Model
▪ Parts of the membrane are freely moving (front/back, side to side, can rotate but cannot
flip without flippase/floppase/scramblase enzymes)
● Cell Transport
o Passive Transport – does NOT require ATP (energy)
 ▪ Simple Diffusion – movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an
area of lower concentration down a concentration gradient
▪ Osmosis – movement of WATER molecules from an area of high concentration to an
area of lower concentration down a concentration gradient
● Isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic solutions (you could perhaps expect a
figure/picture related to these)
▪ Facilitated Diffusion – Proteins (channel or carrier) are used to move molecules from an
area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration down a concentration
gradient

o Active Transport – requires ATP (energy)

▪ Transport proteins – use of proteins to move molecules from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration against a concentration gradient
▪ Endocytosis – movement of large materials into the cell
▪ Exocytosis – movement of large materials out of the cell
● Cell Adhesion
o Know types, what they attach to, and how they attach (elastic, tight, gap, etc.)
▪ Hemidesmosome – Attches cell to basal lamina of ECM
▪ Desmosome – Cell to cell, provides elasticity
▪ Gap – Cell to cell, provides a passageway
▪ Tight – Cell to cell, prevents paracellular diffusion
▪ Adherins – Cell to cell, provides a stable anchoring point
● The Cell Cycle/Cell Fate
o Interphase
▪ Know the basics of what occurs during each phase (G0, G1, S, G2)
o Mitotic Phase
▪ Know the basics of what occurs during each phase (P,M,A,T)
▪ Cytokinesis – parent cell separates completely into two daughter cells
● Protein Synthesis
o Central Dogma – DNA to mRNA to proteins
o Relate functions of organelles from above to protein synthesis (know the role of the nucleus,
nucleolus, ribosomes, rough ER, Golgi apparatus, and vesicles in protein synthesis)
o Transcription = converting DNA into mRNA
▪ DNA is trapped in nucleus – must be transcribed into single-stranded mRNA
▪ Pre-mRNA must be processed into mRNA by splicing out introns and adding 5’ caps and
poly-A tails
● Know that exons are coding regions, introns are non-coding and are spliced out
o Translation = converting mRNA into proteins
▪ mRNA attaches to ribosome (made of rRNA and proteins)
▪ tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation

IV. Tissues
● Histology
o Know definition
o Know steps for preparation
▪ Fixation and embedding
● Fixation stops cellular processes
 ● Tissues are embedded in wax or plastic
▪ Sectioning
● With a microtome
▪ Staining
● Usually H&E (hematoxylin and eosin)
● Epithelial tissue
o Surfaces and Membranes
▪ Apical – exposed to surface or lumen
▪ Basolateral – between cell-to-cell or cell-to-basement membrane
▪ Basement membrane – separates epithelium and connective tissue underneath
o Layers
▪ One layer = simple
▪ Multiple layers = stratified
o Cell types
▪ Squamous – flat
▪ Cuboid – cube-shaped
▪ Columnar – column-shaped
o Tissue types
▪ Simple squamous – thin, single layer of cells, found in alveolar sacs, capillaries, etc.
● Functions in absorption and secretion because molecules can pass easily through
the thin layer
▪ Pseudostratified columnar – single layer that appears as 2 layers
● Often ciliated and contains goblet cells that secrete mucus
▪ Transitional – cells flatten/thin out to allow for stretch, commonly found in bladder
o Glands
▪ Endocrine glands
● Ductless, secrete hormones into capillaries
▪ Exocrine glands
● Have ducts in which products are secreted
● Types:
o Merocrine – secrete through exocytosis (salivary)
o Apocrine – secrete by pinching off portions of membrane (mammary)
o Holocrine – secrete by rupturing the cell (sebaceous/oil)
● Connective tissue
o Know 5 functions
▪ Protection
▪ Structural support
▪ Energy storage
▪ Insulation
▪ Transport substances within the body
o Fibers
▪ Collagen – bundles, resist tension
▪ Elastin – branched, stretch and recoil
▪ Reticulin – mesh-like, support in basement membrane
o Cells and structures – know major functions
▪ Fibroblasts
 ● Spindle-shaped cell responsible for secretion of collagen fibers and ground
substance
▪ Chondrocytes
● Cells that secrete a cartilaginous matrix and become embedded within it
▪ Macrophages
● Immunological cells that engulf particles such as bacteria
▪ Mast cells
● Cells found close to capillaries in loose connective tissues that secrete heparin
proteoglycan (anticoagulant) and histamine (inflammatory response/allergic
reaction)
▪ ECM (extracellular matrix)
● Non-cellular component found in all tissues/organs
● Provides scaffolding and is the site of many biochemical reactions
● Composed of water, proteins, and polysaccharides
▪ Ground substance
● Space-filling material between the cells of connective tissue with fibers
embedded within it
● Composed of interstitial fluid (fluid surrounding cells), cell adhesion proteins, and
proteoglycans
o Cell adhesion proteins tether cells to the fibrous matrix
o Proteoglycans are large, negatively charged polysaccharides attached to a
protein core that trap water and provide cushioning
● The number of fibers and the amount of water trapped determine how fluid the
matrix is
o A more fluid matrix enables nutrients and gasses to diffuse more freely
whereas a more fibrous, ordered matrix prohibits diffusion
o Know major types (connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood)
o Specific types of connective tissue to focus on:
▪ Areolar – most common type of connective tissue in the body, forms subcutaneous layer
▪ Adipose (fat) – stores excess lipids
▪ Blood – transports oxygen (red blood cells), immune response (white blood cells)
▪ Hyaline cartilage – makes up embryonic skeleton, contains lacunae which hold
chondrocytes that secrete gel matrix
● Muscle tissue types
o Skeletal – striated, (mostly) voluntary
o Smooth – not striated, involuntary
o Cardiac – striated, involuntary, has junctions called intercalated discs
● Nervous tissue cell types
o Neurons – major cell of the nervous system, conducts signals
o Glial cells – support cells, nourish neurons
● Apoptosis = programmed cell death of unnecessary or damaged cells
o 2 Pathways
▪ Intrinsic- Stimulated internally and causes cytochrome c to be released from the
mitochondrial membrane
● Cytochrome c release instigates a cascade effect to construct an apoptosome
complex containing caspase-9, which initiates the caspase cascade
 o Extrinsic- Stimulated by external signaling events beginning with activation of the death
receptor which causes cleavage of the caspase-8 pro-domain and subsequent activation of the
caspase cascade
▪ Signal comes from the outside which activates the death receptor and causes cleavage
of caspase 8 which leads to subsequent activation of the caspase cascade
● Autophagy = cell “self-eating” unnecessary organelles to conserve energy

V. Integumentary System
● Know major functions
o Protection
o Vitamin D Production
o Sensation
o Regulating body temperature
o Immunity
o Excretion
● Epidermis – avascular, waterproof
o Cell types
▪ Keratinocytes – produce keratin, most common type in epidermis, waterproof skin
▪ Melanocytes – produce melanin which determines skin color
o Functions
▪ UV radiation
● Protected against by presence of melanin (UV stimulates melanocytes)
● Important for synthesis of vitamin D3
o Skin, liver, kidneys, and parathyroid gland play a role in this
o Layers (strata) – know order from basale (bottom) to corneum (top) layer
▪ Stratum basale – deepest layer, cell division occurs here due to proximity to vascular
dermis
▪ Stratum spinosum – thickest layer, lamellar bodies accumulate in cells
▪ Stratum granulosum – granulated appearance, cells die as they move through this layer
▪ Stratum lucidum – only present in areas with thick skin (ex. soles of feet)
▪ Stratum corneum – most superficial (top) layer, all cells are dead
● Desquamation is the gradual sloughing off of the stratum corneum
● Dermis
o Papillary layer – top layer of dermis, contains papillae
▪ Regulates body temperature by regulating blood flow through the vessels
o Reticular layer – bottom layer of dermis, tough connective tissue
● Hypodermis – not a true layer, subcutaneous, contains many fat cells and large blood vessels
● Glands
o Sebaceous – secrete sebum (oil)
o Sudoriferous – secrete sweat
▪ Apocrine – pubic/armpits
▪ Eccrine – everywhere on the body except palms/soles of feet
● Hair
o Know where growth takes place – hair papilla
o Arrector pili muscle raises hair to conserve heat
VI. Aging and Skin Disorders
● Know the factors influencing aging
o Weight, time, genetics, UV exposure, cigarette smoking
o UV exposure
▪ Know types of UV (A&B), what they cause, and their wavelengths
● UVA – Aging and wrinkles, long wavelengths
● UVB – Burning, short wavelengths
● Know general info about diseases
o Cellulite = fat within connective tissue causes it to appear lumpy under skin
o Acne = follicles clogged with oil/debris/dead skin cells
o Dermatitis = inflammation of skin (don’t need to know specific types)
o Eczema = inflammation of skin that causes redness/rashes on cheeks, arms, and backs of knees
o Psoriasis - autoimmune disease, T-cells attack healthy skin cells and cause formation of plaques
o Skin cancer
▪ Basal cell carcinoma (least fatal)
▪ Squamous cell carcinoma (usually not fatal, but may spread)
▪ Melanoma (most fatal, often spreads to other tissues)
● ABCDE (know what each letter stands for)