Chirimuta Tendai Joseph

R185359V
HMETE222

1 (a) Gravity concentration is the separation of minerals based upon the difference in density.
Techniques of gravity concentration have been around for millennia. Some believe that the
legend of the Golden Fleece from Homer’s Odyssey was based upon a method of gold
recovery, which was to place an animal hide in a stream containing alluvial gold; the dense
gold particles would become trapped and be recovered. In the various gold rushes of the
nineteenth century, many prospectors used gold panning as a means to make their fortune—
another ancient method of gravity concentration. Gravity concentration, or density-based
separation methods, declined in importance in the first half of the twentieth century due to the
development of froth flotation, which allowed for the selective treatment of low-grade
complex ores. They remain, however, the main concentrating methods for iron and tungsten
ores and are used extensively for treating tin ores, coal, gold, beach sands, and many
industrial minerals. There must exist somewhat of a density difference between the mineral
and the waste. A concentration criterion is used to estimate the ease of separation, Dh-Df/Dl-
Df, where Dh is the specific gravity of the heavy mineral, Df is the specific gravity of the
fluid medium, Dl is the specific gravity of the light mineral. The efficiency of gravity
processes increases with particle size for the movement is controlled by surface friction. The
proper water balance throughout the plant is essential. The settling velocity of the particle can
be calculated by three different formulas Stokes law, Newton's law, and Transitional. Stoke's
law is used for quartz particles < 125 micron, gold particles < 53 microns, cassiterite particles
< 70 microns. Newton's law is used for quartz particles > than 3mm, Cassiterite > 2mm, gold
> 1.5mm
Essentially, a gravity James table is a mechanized gold pan, that operates with a high degree
of efficiency and continuously. The table is comprised of a deck, in somewhat of a
rectangular shape, covered with riffles (raised bars running perpendicular to the feed side of
the table), mounted in a near flat position, on a supporting frame that allows the table to slide
along the long axis of the table.

The mechanism is attached to the table, and it moves the table along the long axis a distance
adjustable between ½" and 1" and then back to the starting position between 200 and 300
times per minute. This reciprocal movement is faster on the reverse stroke than it is on the
forward stroke. This shaking movement helps transport the concentrates or heavy material to
the concentrate end of the table. A very important operating variable of a shaking table is the
tilt adjustment. Normally, the feed side is lower, and the concentrate end is higher on the
table, which creates an upward slope where the heavy material will ascend, while the light
density material will not, and consequently, flow over the riffles. The tailing (low density)
side is usually near level to lower than the feed side.

Feed is introduced to the feed box in a slurry at 25% solids, and is distributed along the feed
side of the table by the feed trough. Additional wash water is added ad the end of the feed
trough, and distributed along the remainder of the length of the table by a wash water launder.
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About 75% of the water is added to the feed and the remaining 25% added in the wash water
launder. This will normally maintain a good water balance. The amount of wash water is
another important variable in operating concentrating tables. Too much will wash the
concentrates over the riffles and into the tailings.

The gravity concentrating tables remove the high density material from the low density
material, since the high density material will reside behind the riffles and allow the low
density material to flow over the top of the riffles with the wash water, to the tailings
discharge. A comment on the art of operating gravity tables, is that the optimum operating
settings must be obtained experimentally, by making minor adjustments to the air flow, end
tilt, stroke length and frequency and the side tilt of the table. Generally speaking, the
frequency and stroke relationship are similar to screens, short stroke, high frequency is better
for fines (-80 mesh), while a shorter stroke and lower frequency is better for coarse material
(1/8" to 80 mesh).

The riffle is always taller on the feed side of the table, and decreases in height as they
progress towards the tailings side of the table. This allows for the quick separation of the
larger high density material, and allows more residence time for the more difficult finer high
density particles to separate from the finer low density material.

Gravity James tables are Flowing Film Concentrators. Flowing film concentrators have a thin
"blanket" of water flowing across them, into which particles of differing density are
subjected. The primary physical interactions are when the particles initially penetrate the
flowing film of water. Smaller particles of the same specific gravity (SG) will travel further
than large particles.

The film of water has various velocities based on the distance from the water's surface. The
highest velocity is the layer of water just below the surface of the water, and the lowest
velocity layer, next to the deck surface, is not moving at all. In between these layers are
differing velocities, based upon the distance from the water's surface.

On a table, with particles of mixed densities, layers of material form, a particle in suspension
will be subjected to a greater force the nearer it is to the surface of the water, and will cause it
to tumble over those at greater distances from the surface. The combination of the particles
tumbling and sliding, the flowing stream with differing velocities, will cause the bed of solids
to dilate, and will allow high SG particles to find their way down through the bed of light SG
particles, and eventually the low SG particles will work their way to the top, where they will
be carried along by the swifter flowing water. In all gravity separations, a difference in
specific gravity of the materials needs to be significant, at 1 or greater. I.e., a 2.2 SG material
will usually separate from a 3.2 SG material. Now introduce the pattern of raised ridges
(riffles) across the length of the table to the flowing film separator, and the higher density
particles will stay behind the ridge, since they are closest to the bottom, and will follow the
ridge down the slope to the discharge, with the residence time giving the water flowing across
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the ridge more time to remove any low SG particles trapped in the high SG particle bed
behind the ridge of the table.

Since the water is flowing perpendicular to the ridges or riffles of the table, the low SG
material will be washed over the top of the ridges and off the tailings discharge side of the
table. Also, particles of the same SG, the large particles will descend faster, due to the force
of the water affecting the vertical movement of a large particle less than it would a small
particle. This is compounded by the lower amounts of force acting in the horizontal direction
as the particle sinks in the water, creating an accelerating rate of descent for the larger
particle.

2(a) Thickening is a process where a slurry or solid-liquid mixture is separated to a dense

slurry containing most of the solids and an overflow of essentially clear water (or liquor in
leaching processes). The driving force for the separation is gravitational, where the
differences in phase densities drive the separation of the solids and liquid. In mining
applications, thickening through sedimentation is applied to both the product and tailings
streams to recover water. This water is recycled in the process. Particle properties affect the
degree of separation that can be achieved with sedimentation. Size, shape, surface chemistry,
and solids density all influence this process. These properties must be considered when
selecting a rise rate, solids loading, and bed depth for a thickener. Rise rate parameterizes the
area required to recover the design flow or solids loading, the design dry tonnage. In high rate
thickener (HRT) designs the rise rate or solids loading will dictate the required tank diameter
for any given throughput. In high compression (HCT) and paste (PT) applications the bed
depth or the mass of solids in the thickener must also be selected to ensure the desired
underflow density from the thickener is achieved.

By adding flocculants and increasing the depth of the solids bed in thickeners, higher degrees
of separation can be achieved. At low concentrations solid-liquid mixtures behave like a
liquid (described primarily by a viscosity) and at high concentrations they can be better
described as a paste or plastic with yield stress the best descriptor. In a small region of the
transition from liquid to paste the pulp displays a rapid increase in yield stress. At high levels
of separation the increase in yield stress may reach the limit of pump ability or greatly
increase the rake torque, which in-practice limits the degree of separation achievable.

Despite the simple structure of a thickener it is quite difficult to see or measure what is
happening inside. Many thickener installations operate with water recovery below design
limits largely through conservative control and low prioritization of thickener optimization.
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The operation of the thickener must accommodate fluctuations – control for disturbances – in
the process feed stream to deliver a clear overflow and thickened underflow. This control is
achieved by manipulating both the flocculant addition and the rate of underflow withdrawal
(typically pumping).The flocculant addition should be adjusted to suit the solids input and is
mostly affected by the processing rate. Simple systems with constant feed can use flocculant
pump speed control, more advanced control systems utilize a ratio controller to maintain a
constant “grams per ton” dose rate. Unfortunately, fluctuations in ore type can significantly
change the dosage of flocculant required and require a feedback to the “grams per ton”
constant.

The discharge rate of underflow slurry is manipulated to maintain a steady solids inventory in
the thickener. It should be remembered that both the thickener rakes and the underflow
pumps (or valves) transport the thickened underflow. The size of the solids inventory
determines the bed depth and the residence time that solids will experience in the thickener.
This, in turn, determines the underflow slurry rheology and the water recovery to overflow.
Generally, operators directly manipulate the underflow pump speed to maintain a constant
solids inventory; site process engineers determine the inventory set-point.

Good control systems should be able to monitor the rate limiting variable and apply control
strategies to maintain optimum conditions. Often this rate limiting step is defined by pumping
capacity. Simple density control strategies using PID feedback loops do not allow for the
dead time inherent in the system and may lead to cyclic loading and emptying with the
consequent underflow variability. Better strategies keep the thickener inventory constant
through feedback from either bed level or pressure, and utilize flow control to ensure that
pipeline disturbances are never seen by the thickener. By controlling flocculation and solids
inventory, the thickening process is stabilized and consistent, optimum; underflow density
can be achieved through manual optimization. An advantage of inventory control is that
inventory responds much faster than density to changes in underflow withdrawal and simple
PID feedback can be effective. More advanced systems can use measurements of the solids
feed rate to further improve the control system dynamics. Inventory can be indicated by a
simple pressure transmitter located on the floor of the thickener, under the feed well. Dorr
thickener parts and functions.
The invention of the Dorr thickener made possible the continuous dewatering of a dilute pulp
whereby a regular discharge of a thick pulp of uniform density took place concurrently with
an overflow of clarified solution.
Scraper blades or rakes, driven by a suitable mechanism, rotating slowly over the bottom of
the tank, which usually slopes gently toward the center, move the material settled on the
bottom to a central opening or discharge. The rakes revolve at a speed sufficient to move the
material as fast as it settles without enough agitation to interfere with settlement.
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Dorr thickeners are used in the metallurgical field to thicken prior to agitation and filtration,
in the counter current washing of cyanide slime, for thickening ahead of flotation, for
thickening concentrates, and for dewatering tailing to recover the water for reuse in the mill.
The standard construction of Dorr thickener mechanisms is of iron and steel. The tanks are
usually made of steel or wood for medium-sized machines, but in the larger sizes they are
often constructed of concrete or earth or a combination of these materials. Various types of
Dorr thickeners, which it is unnecessary to describe here, are available for specific uses,
including constructions to resist corrosion. Power requirements are low, about ½ hp. for
thickeners less than 50 ft. in diameter. Attendance and repairs are also low. The development
of the original central-shaft type of thickener from one using superstructure to the present
beam type of support whereby headroom is saved and an improved mechanism running in oil
is made conveniently accessible to the operator.

The Dorr tray thickener has been developed to meet the definite demand for large settling
area in limited space. Each compartment increases the capacity approximately to the same
degree as an additional thickener unit, of the same size, without increasing the floor space
required. The tanks are divided into two or more settling compartments by means of steel
trays or diaphragms suspended from the sides. The mechanism is made up of a central
vertical shaft, driven by worm gear and with radial arms attached above each try. These arms
carry plow blades set at an angle, and as the mechanism slowly revolves, they move the
settled material to a discharge opening at or near center.

Several types of tray thickeners have been developed, classified according to the arrangement
of feed and discharge in the various compartments. Probably the most generally applicable is
the balanced-type tray thickener. In this each compartment has a separate feed and overflow,
but the settled solids from all compartments are brought together and are discharged through
a central outlet from the bottom compartment.

The Dorr traction thickener is the type most frequently used for heavy- duty work with large
tonnages. The machine is so called because the thickening mechanism is driven by means of
a traction wheel which travels around the periphery of the tank on a rail. The mechanism,
which is slowly carried around the tank as the traction wheel travels, consists of a truss to
which are attached the raking blades which sweep the floor of the tank. This truss is
supported at the center of the tank by a column. Power is brought in through a conduit which
comes up through this column and is carried out along the truss to the drive unit which
operates the traction wheel. The Dorr torq thickener is a new development in the unit
thickener field. The raking mechanism is supported from a stationary central pier on which
the driving motor and gear reduction are mounted. The feed may be introduced at the center
through a launder suspended above the top of the liquid leave or by means of a siphon feed
through the hollow central pier. In addition to compact strength provided with the central pier
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construction, the machine is characterized by a new rake-lifting feature whereby when
overloaded the rakes raise backward and upward at an angle to clear the overload and at the
same time maintain a full raking load until the overload is removed and the rakes assume
their normal position.
The Dorr washing thickener is of the multiple-tray type and is, in effect, a complete counter
current decantation plant in a single compact unit. It is adapted to the needs of the small
chemical and metallurgical plants where a relatively small tonnage of finely divided solids
must be washed free from a solution in a minimum space. Four to five stages of washing are
usually provided in separate tray compartments.

Multiple-stage washing is effected by operating the tray compartments in series rather than in
parallel. Feed enters, and strong solution leaves the uppermost compartment. Washed solids
are discharged from the bottom compartment. Solids, after each successive settlement,
gravitate from one compartment to another through sludge seals in each tray. Wash water,
introduced in the bottom compartment, rises successively through the compartments in a
direction counter current to that of the sludge. One tall thickener thus does the work of
several relatively shallow thickeners of the same diameter. Floor space is conserved, heat
insulation is simple and effective, and power is reduced. Furthermore, all control of the
washing operation is centered at a single point.

2(b)
Chirimuta Tendai Joseph
R185359V
HMETE222
Chirimuta Tendai Joseph
R185359V
HMETE222
Chirimuta Tendai Joseph
R185359V
HMETE222
Reference
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/gravity-concentration#:~:text=Gravity
%20concentration%20is%20the%20separation,have%20been%20around%20for
%20millennia.
https://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/author/david
https://www.911metallurgist.com/blog/how-to-operate-thickener