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978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia

Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
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Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-02886-8 - A Grammar of Tariana, from Northwest Amazonia
Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald
Frontmatter
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© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

 1

T h e l a n g u a g e a n d its speakers

1.1 L i n g u i s t i c p r o f i l e o f T a r i a n a

T a r i a n a is t h e o n l y A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s p o k e n in t h e linguistic a r e a o f t h e V a u p e s river

b a s i n in t h e territory o f t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o in n o r t h w e s t e r n Brazil. A l l t h e o t h e r

l a n g u a g e s b e l o n g to t h e E a s t T u c a n o s u b g r o u p o f the T u c a n o family. T h e m a i n feature

o f t h e V a u p e s a r e a is its o b l i g a t o r y m u l t i l i n g u a l i s m , dictated b y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f

linguistic e x o g a m y ( o n e h a s to m a r r y s o m e o n e w h o s p e a k s a different l a n g u a g e ) . T h e r e

is a s t r o n g i n h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t ' l a n g u a g e - m i x i n g ' , v i e w e d in t e r m s o f lexical l o a n s . A s t h e

result o f a l o n g - t e r m interaction, T a r i a n a c o m b i n e s a f e w features i n h e r i t e d f r o m P r o t o -

A r a w a k , w i t h t h o s e diffused f r o m E a s t T u c a n o . I n d e p e n d e n t i n n o v a t i o n s in T a r i a n a

i n c l u d e g r a m m a t i c a l p h e n o m e n a d i v e r g e n t f r o m t h o s e f o u n d in c l o s e l y related l a n g u a g e s

a n d n o t e x p l a i n a b l e in t e r m s o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s (see

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b , c).

T a r i a n a is p o l y s y n t h e t i c a n d b a s i c a l l y h e a d - m a r k i n g (in t h e s e n s e o f N i c h o l s 1 9 8 6 ) ,

w i t h e l e m e n t s o f d e p e n d e n t - m a r k i n g - t h e latter d u e to t h e T u c a n o i n f l u e n c e s i n c e m o s t

A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s a r e entirely h e a d - m a r k i n g (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b ) .

T a r i a n a h a s t w e n t y - f i v e c o n s o n a n t s a n d six v o w e l s . A s in m a n y o t h e r A r a w a k

l a n g u a g e s o f t h e area, t h e r e is a series o f a s p i r a t e d stops, p r e a s p i r a t e d n a s a l s a n d a glide.

T h e v o w e l s a, i, e a n d u h a v e l o n g a n d n a s a l c o u n t e r p a r t s , w h i l e o h a s o n l y a n a s a l

c o u n t e r p a r t , a n d i h a s neither. T h e e m e r g e n c e o f i a n d o, t h e t w o v o w e l s w i t h a l i m i t e d

d i s t r i b u t i o n , is m o s t p r o b a b l y d u e to t h e T u c a n o influence. A c c e n t is c o n t r a s t i v e , a n d o f

a p i t c h t y p e , a l s o a result o f T u c a n o influence. A n e x t e n s i v e set o f p h o n o l o g i c a l

p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s a s p i r a t i o n floating, /j-metathesis a n d v o w e l f u s i o n o p e r a t e w i t h i n a

m o r p h e m e a n d a c r o s s affix b o u n d a r i e s . S y l l a b l e structure is ( C ) V ( h ) . A c c e n t ,

t r a n s l a r y n g e a l v o w e l h a r m o n y , a s p i r a t i o n a n d n a s a l i s a t i o n d e l i m i t t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d . S e e C h a p t e r 2.

O p e n w o r d c l a s s e s are v e r b s , n o u n s a n d d e r i v e d adjectives. U n d e r i v e d a d j e c t i v e s

f o r m a c l o s e d class, w i t h a b o u t t w e n t y - n i n e m e m b e r s . T h e y s h a r e s o m e p r o p e r t i e s w i t h

n o u n s , s o m e w i t h stative v e r b s , a n d h a v e s o m e p r o p e r t i e s o f their o w n . A d v e r b s a n d

t i m e w o r d s are s e m i - c l o s e d classes. C l o s e d classes i n c l u d e d e m o n s t r a t i v e s ,

i n t e r r o g a t i v e s / d i s t r i b u t i v e s , quantifiers, o v e r t w e n t y p o s t p o s i t i o n s , o n e p r e p o s i t i o n , a n d

a n u n u s u a l g e s t u r a l deictic khi 'this size', w h i c h i n v o l v e s a n actual d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e

s h a p e o r size o f a n object. A m e m b e r o f a n y o p e n o r s e m i - o p e n w o r d class c a n o c c u p y

t h e p r e d i c a t e slot. V e r b s h a v e m o r e m o r p h o l o g i c a l possibilities t h a n m e m b e r s o f o t h e r

w o r d c l a s s e s u s e d as p r e d i c a t e s : for i n s t a n c e , o n l y v e r b s c a n f o r m i m p e r a t i v e s . S e e

C h a p t e r 3 .

N o u n s in T a r i a n a are b o t h d e r i v a t i o n a l l y a n d inflectionally c o m p l e x . T h e y c a n

c o n t a i n u p t o fifteen structural p o s i t i o n s ( o n e o f w h i c h is a prefix p o s i t i o n ) . N o m i n a l

c a t e g o r i e s i n c l u d e c a s e , g e n d e r , n u m b e r , classifiers, n o m i n a l t e n s e (future a n d past),

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 2 1 The language and its speakers

extralocality, contrastivity, a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r affixes a n d clitics. 1.1 e x e m p l i f i e s a n

inflectionally c o m p l e x n o u n (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 d ) .

1.1 n u - w e - d u - m a - p e = y a n a - p e = t u p e = p e n a = n e = s e = m i s i n i = n u k u

l s g - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - F E M - C L : F E M - P L = P E J - P L = D I M : P L = N O M . F U T = C O M

= C O N T R = A L S O : P A R T . C O N T R = T O P . N O N . A / S

' w i t h m y n a u g h t y future little y o u n g e r sisters, too'

N o u n s h a v e v a r i a b l e o r d e r i n g o f affixes, w h i c h results in m e a n i n g c h a n g e s . C o m p a r e

1.2 a n d 1.3, w h e r e t h e s a m e suffixes -da a n d - m a a p p e a r in a different order.

1.2 n u - k a p i - m a - d a

1 s g - h a n d - C L : S I D E . O F - C L : R O U N D

' o n e p a l m o f m y h a n d '

1.3 n u - k a p i - d a - m a

l s g - h a n d - C L : R O U N D - C L : S I D E . O F

' o n e s i d e o f m y finger'

P l u r a l a n d g e n d e r o n n o u n s c a n b e m a r k e d recursively. 1.4 s h o w s that p l u r a l c a n b e

e x p r e s s e d u p t o five t i m e s w i t h i n o n e n o u n .

:
1.4 n u - w e - d u - m a - p e = y a n a - p e = t u p e = m i k i

l s g - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - F E M - C L : F E M - P L = P E J - P L = D I M : P L - N O M . P A S T : P L

' m y p o o r little d e a d y o u n g e r sisters'

T h e h i g h l y p o l y s y n t h e t i c structure o f T a r i a n a n o u n s is a n i n d e p e n d e n t i n n o v a t i o n o f

t h e l a n g u a g e ( n e i t h e r A r a w a k , n o r T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s h a v e this p r o p e r t y ) - s e e C h a p t e r

4.

T a r i a n a h a s a v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d s y s t e m o f o v e r forty e s t a b l i s h e d classifiers w h i c h a r e

u s e d a s n o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r s , d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes, n u m e r a l classifiers a n d

v e r b a l classifiers (in t e r m s o f A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 a ) . E x a m p l e 1.5 illustrates a classifier

-dapana ' h o u s e , habitat' ( u n d e r l i n e d ) w i t h a n adjective, w i t h a n u m e r a l , o n a

d e m o n s t r a t i v e , in a p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d o n a v e r b .

1.5 h a - d a p a n a p a - d a p a n a pani-si

D E M : I N A N - C L : H A B o n e - C L : H A B h o u s e - N P O S S

n u - v a - d a p a n a h a n u - d a p a n a

l s g - P O S S - C L : H A B b i g - C L : H A B

h e k u n a - n i - n i - d a p a n a - m a h k a

w o o d 3 p l - m a k e - T O P . A D V - C L : H A B - R E C . P . N O N V I S

' T h i s o n e b i g h o u s e o f m i n e is m a d e o f w o o d . '

A n i t e m is o f t e n i n t r o d u c e d w i t h j u s t a n o u n , a n d t h e n referred to w i t h a n a p p r o p r i a t e

classifier t h r o u g h o u t a narrative. In this w a y classifiers are m o r e f r e q u e n t in d i s c o u r s e

t h a n a c t u a l n o u n s . Classifiers are p o t e n t i a l l y a n o p e n class, s i n c e a n y n o u n w i t h a n

i n a n i m a t e referent c a n b e u s e d a s a 'repeater' (or 'self-classifier'). R e p e a t e r s a l s o m a r k

a g r e e m e n t w i t h a t o p i c a l n o u n , w h i l e e s t a b l i s h e d classifiers are u s e d u n d e r o t h e r

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 / . / Linguistic profile of Tariana 3

c i r c u m s t a n c e s . S l i g h t l y different sets o f classifiers are u s e d w i t h m e m b e r s o f c l o s e d

c l a s s e s . T h e t w o - w a y g e n d e r o p p o s i t i o n ( f e m i n i n e vs. n o n f e m i n i n e c o v e r i n g e v e r y t h i n g

else) is u s e d in p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s (just for third s i n g u l a r a n d all t h e plural f o r m s ) a n d

v e r b a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g . W i t h i n a n o u n p h r a s e , a g r e e m e n t c a n b e m a r k e d t w i c e . If a

n o u n p h r a s e c o n t a i n s a n o t h e r n o u n p h r a s e a s a m o d i f i e r , n o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t w o

distinct ' h e a d s ' - t h e h e a d o f t h e e m b e d d e d n o u n p h r a s e , a n d t h e h e a d o f t h e e m b e d d i n g

n o u n p h r a s e - is m a r k e d o n t h e m o d i f i e r . T h u s , T a r i a n a c o n s i s t e n t l y f o l l o w s t h e

p r i n c i p l e o f m u l t i p l e - l a y e r e d m a r k i n g o f syntactic function, b o t h w i t h i n a c l a u s e (see

b e l o w o n d o u b l e c a s e ) , a n d w i t h i n a n o u n p h r a s e - s e e C h a p t e r 5.

T a r i a n a d i s t i n g u i s h e s a l i e n a b l e a n d i n a l i e n a b l e p o s s e s s i o n . I n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d

n o u n s t a k e p e r s o n / g e n d e r / n u m b e r p r e f i x e s . B e s i d e s first, s e c o n d a n d third p e r s o n , t h e s e

h a v e a f o r m for 'fourth p e r s o n ' , o r i m p e r s o n a l , u s e d for m a r k i n g a g e n e r i c referent, e.g.

p a - k a p i ( I M P - h a n d ) ' s o m e o n e ' s hand'. Indefinite p e r s o n m a r k i n g r e p l a c e s a n y o t h e r

p e r s o n m a r k e r o n a n o u n u s e d in a p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n , o r a s a n a r g u m e n t o f a

p o s t p o s i t i o n , e.g. n u - w h i d a ( l s g - h e a d ) ' m y head', d i - w h i d a ( 3 s g n f - h e a d ) 'his head', b u t

ne:ri i - w h i d a ( d e e r i N D F - h e a d ) 'the h e a d o f a deer', nu-pumi ( l s g - a f t e r ) 'after m e ' , ne:ri i-

p u m i ( d e e r INDF-after) 'after t h e deer'. T h e indefinite p e r s o n m a r k e r is n o t u s e d w i t h

v e r b s , w h i l e all t h e o t h e r p e r s o n m a r k e r s are. T h e r e is a p o s s e s s i v e classifier

c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h e m p l o y s t h e g e n e r i c n o u n y a r u p e 'thing, w a y ' - s e e C h a p t e r 6.

T a r i a n a is o n e o f t h e v e r y f e w A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s w i t h c a s e m a r k i n g for c o r e syntactic

f u n c t i o n s . It d e v e l o p e d t h e c a s e m a r k i n g u n d e r T u c a n o i n f l u e n c e (see A i k h e n v a l d

1 9 9 6 a , 1 9 9 9 b , c). P e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s w i t h a n a n i m a t e referent d i s t i n g u i s h s u b j e c t a n d

n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e s . A n y n o n - s u b j e c t t o p i c a l c o n s t i t u e n t is m a r k e d w i t h a n enclitic - n u k u

( a r c h a i c f o r m - n a k u ) . A s u b j e c t in a c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s is m a r k e d w i t h a clitic -ne/-nhe.

O n e c a s e ( s e ) c o v e r s all l o c a t i o n a l m e a n i n g s (locative, directional, elative). A n o t h e r

o b l i q u e c a s e is i n s t r u m e n t a l / c o m i t a t i v e -ne (see D i x o n a n d A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 , for a

d i s c u s s i o n o f c o r e v e r s u s o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t s ) . T h e s e c a s e m a r k e r s are o p t i o n a l a n d c a n

c o m b i n e w i t h t h e m a r k e r - n u k u ' n o n - s u b j e c t topical constituent' if t h e c o n s t i t u e n t is

t o p i c a l ( t h u s y i e l d i n g a p e c u l i a r i n s t a n c e o f m a r k i n g t h e s a m e syntactic f u n c t i o n t w i c e ) .

T a r i a n a a l s o a l l o w s ' d o u b l e case', that is, t w o distinct clausal f u n c t i o n s c a n b e m a r k e d

o n o n e n o u n p h r a s e . N o t e that t h e d o u b l e m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n is distinct f r o m

m a r k i n g t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n t w i c e ; s e e C h a p t e r 7.

T a r i a n a n o u n s d i v i d e into s e v e r a l s u b c l a s s e s b y their n u m b e r m a r k i n g . N u m b e r

a g r e e m e n t i n n o u n p h r a s e s a n d in c l a u s e s is o b l i g a t o r y o n l y w i t h h u m a n referents; s e e

C h a p t e r 8. A m o n g t y p o l o g i c a l l y u n u s u a l n o m i n a l c a t e g o r i e s are n o m i n a l t e n s e ,

e x t r a l o c a l i t y a n d contrast; s e e C h a p t e r 9. T h e r e are c o m p a r a t i v e l y f e w p r o d u c t i v e

d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes, w i t h classifiers f r e q u e n t l y u s e d to f o r m n e w n o u n s ; s e e C h a p t e r

10. C l o s e d c l a s s e s - articles, d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , etc. - differ in their syntactic possibilities

a n d in t h e s u b s e t o f classifiers t h e y r e q u i r e ; see C h a p t e r 1 1 .

T a r i a n a p r e s e r v e s t h e c o m m o n A r a w a k d i v i s i o n o f v e r b s into transitive, intransitive

a c t i v e , w h i c h t a k e p r e f i x e s c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g A / S a , a n d intransitive stative, w h i c h d o n o t

t a k e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r s . T h e p e r s o n , n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r o f A / S a are n e u t r a l i s e d

in n e g a t i v e f o r m s . T h e y are m a r k e d w i t h t h e prefix m a - a n d w i t h t h e suffix -kade ( n o t e

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 4 / The language and its speakers

that t h e r e is o n l y o n e prefix p o s i t i o n p e r verb). A third class o f p r e d i c a t e s , t h o s e

e x p r e s s i n g feelings, p h y s i c a l states, etc., d o e s n o t t a k e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r s . T h e s e

1
p r e d i c a t e s m a r k their s u b j e c t w i t h t h e n o n - s u b j e c t case.

T h e T a r i a n a v e r b is p o l y s y n t h e t i c , w i t h t w e n t y - o n e structural slots (ten o f w h i c h a r e

enclitics). 1.6 illustrates a p r e d i c a t e w i t h n i n e p o s i t i o n s filled; s e e C h a p t e r 12.

:
1.6 m a - s i t e t a - k a k a - k a d e - k a r u = p i d a n a = p i t a = n i k i

m a - s i t a - i - t a - k a k a - k a d e - k a r u = p i d a n a = p i t a = n i k i - u n d e r l y i n g f o r m

N E G - s m o k e - C A U S 1- C A U S 2 - R E C - N E G - P U R P . V I S = R E M . P . R E P = A G A I N =

C O M P L E T E L Y

' ( W e ) d i d n o t m a k e e a c h o t h e r s m o k e (reportedly) a g a i n at all.'

T a r i a n a h a s a r e c i p r o c a l a n d a p a s s i v e d e r i v a t i o n (strikingly s i m i l a r to t h e p a s s i v e in

T u c a n o ) , a n d t h r e e t y p e s o f c a u s a t i v e . M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s are f o r m e d o n

intransitive v e r b s . T h e s a m e m o r p h e m e w i t h a transitive v e r b i n d i c a t e s t h e a d v a n c e m e n t

o f a p e r i p h e r a l a r g u m e n t t o t h e c o r e , a n d / o r c o m p l e t e i n v o l v e m e n t a n d topicality o f t h e

0 a r g u m e n t . P e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s (indirect c a u s a t i o n ) a n d serial c a u s a t i v e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s (direct c a u s a t i o n ) are a p p l i e d to transitive v e r b s . A n a r g u m e n t -

m a n i p u l a t i n g d e r i v a t i o n m a r k e d o n t h e v e r b is e m p l o y e d to p r o m o t e a f o c u s s e d

c o n s t i t u e n t t o s u r f a c e subject. T h e u n d e r l y i n g s u b j e c t retains a n u m b e r o f s u b j e c t

p r o p e r t i e s , i n c l u d i n g v e r b a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e - s e e C h a p t e r 13.

T h e T a r i a n a v e r b h a s a v a s t a r r a y o f c a t e g o r i e s to d o w i t h t e n s e , evidentiality, aspect,

m o o d a n d m o d a l i t y . A c o m p l e x evidentiality (fused w i t h t e n s e ) is, cross-linguistically

s p e a k i n g , o n e o f t h e u n u s u a l features o f T a r i a n a ( d e v e l o p e d u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e f r o m

T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s ) . F o u r o b l i g a t o r y evidentiality specifications i n d i c a t e t h e s o u r c e o f

i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d - visual, n o n - v i s u a l , inferred a n d reported. F o r i n s t a n c e , in

d e s c r i b i n g a n e v e n t s u c h a s T h e j a g u a r killed a m a n ' , u s e o f t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l w o u l d

i m p l y that t h e s p e a k e r s a w this e v e n t h a p p e n i n g . T h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l w o u l d b e

u s e d if t h e s p e a k e r h e a r d t h e n o i s e o f a m a n fighting t h e j a g u a r (or s m e l t t h e b l o o d ) . T h e

r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l w o u l d b e u s e d if s o m e o n e told t h e s p e a k e r o f t h e e v e n t , w h i l e t h e

i n f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l m i g h t b e e m p l o y e d if t h e s p e a k e r h a d e n c o u n t e r e d a j a g u a r c o v e r e d

w i t h h u m a n b l o o d . O n l y visual, n o n - v i s u a l a n d inferred are d i s t i n g u i s h e d in

i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s . T h e four n o n - f u t u r e t e n s e specifications are p r e s e n t , r e c e n t p a s t

( u s e d t o talk a b o u t a c t i o n s o r states that started f r o m t w o m i n u t e s to a f e w d a y s a g o ) ,

a n d r e m o t e p a s t ( u s e d to refer to a c t i o n s o r states that started a l o n g t i m e a g o a n d m a y b e

1
Tariana has lost the P r o t o - A r a w a k morphological split-ergativity (split S system in the sense of D i x o n

1994: 71) m a r k e d through cross-referencing affixes (see further discussion in A i k h e n v a l d 1995b, 1998b

a n d 1999b) in t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y :

• A = S a a n d possessor, expressed with cross-referencing prefixes

• 0 = S 0 expressed with cross-referencing enclitics,

w h e r e A is the subject o f a transitive verb, O is the object of a transitive verb, S a is the subject of an

intransitive active verb, and S 0 is t h e s u b j e c t of an intransitive stative verb (see D i x o n 1994: 70). Similarly

to a n u m b e r o f other A r a w a k languages (for instance, Bare in the area o f the U p p e r Rio N e g r o , or the

X i n g u a n A r a w a k languages: see Aikhenvald 1999b), Tariana has retained the P r o t o - A r a w a k cross-

referencing prefixes but lost the cross-referencing enclitics.

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 1.1 Linguistic profile of Tariana 5

still c o n t i n u i n g ) . O f t h e t w o future m a r k e r s , o n e is u s e d o n l y w i t h first p e r s o n , a n d t h e

o t h e r w i t h a n y p e r s o n . T h e r e is a r e p o r t e d future c o n s t r u c t i o n . N o o t h e r evidentiality

d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e m a d e in t h e future; s e e C h a p t e r 14.

In a d d i t i o n t o o b l i g a t o r y t e n s e , T a r i a n a m a r k s a n u m b e r o f a s p e c t u a l m e a n i n g s t o d o

w i t h c o m p l e t i o n o f a n a c t i o n o r a state, e.g. anterior, o n g o i n g , o n g o i n g p r o x i m a t e ,

a c c o m p l i s h e d , c o m p l e t i v e ; o r to d o w i t h its d u r a t i o n , e.g. h a b i t u a l , repetitive, short

d u r a t i o n . S e v e r a l d o z e n clitics d e s c r i b e v a r y i n g facets o f t h e action, s o m e o f w h i c h h a v e

h i g h l y specific m e a n i n g s . T h e s e i n c l u d e 'do early', 'spill water', ' w a g a tail in a friendly

m a n n e r ' , 'step o n s o m e t h i n g a n d feel s h a r p pain'. M o s t o f t h e s e originate in v e r b a l roots,

a n d w e r e c a l q u e d f r o m T u c a n o . Clitics w h i c h m a r k t h e d e g r e e o f a c t i o n o r state are t h e

d i m i n u t i v e , a u g m e n t a t i v e , a p p r o x i m a t i v e ( ' m o r e o r less') a n d e x c e s s i v e ; s e e C h a p t e r 15.

T a r i a n a h a s a n i n t e r r o g a t i v e m o o d a n d a n u m b e r o f i m p e r a t i v e s : s i m p l e ( u n m a r k e d ) ,

p r o x i m a t e ('do here'), distal ('do there'), b y p r o x y ( o r d e r o n s o m e o n e else's behalf),

p r e c a t i v e ('please do'), c o h o r t a t i v e ('let's do'), a n d d e t r i m e n t a l ('do to y o u r o w n

d e t r i m e n t ' ) . T h e r e a r e o n l y t w o possibilities for t h e n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e in t h e n e g a t i v e :

t h e g e n e r a l p r o h i b i t i v e , a n d t h e i m p e r a t i v e 'by proxy'. M o d a l i t i e s i n c l u d e frustrative ('do

in vain'), a p p r e h e n s i v e ('lest'), d u b i t a t i v e a n d c o n d i t i o n a l ; s e e C h a p t e r 16. N e g a t i o n is

m a r k e d differently for A / S a (transitive a n d a c t i v e intransitive) v e r b s a n d for S 0 (stative

intransitive) v e r b s ; s e e C h a p t e r 17.

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s e x p r e s s a s p e c t u a l , directional, b e n e f a c t i v e , c a u s a t i v e a n d

o t h e r m e a n i n g s . T h e c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are t y p o l o g i c a l l y q u i t e u n u s u a l -

b o t h v e r b s , w h i c h h a v e different a g e n t s , are m a r k e d for t h e s a m e subject. S e e 1.7 a n d

C h a p t e r 18.

1.7 d u - a d u - n h a tfari-nuku

3 s g f - m a k e 3 s g f - e a t m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S

' S h e f e d (lit. m a k e - e a t ) t h e m a n . ' (lit. s h e - m a d e s h e - a t e t h e m a n ) .

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s , u s e d t o e x p r e s s e p i s t e m i c m e a n i n g , p r o l o n g e d c u s t o m a r y action,

a d m i r a t i v e , a p p r e h e n s i v e , irresultative (that is, a n a c t i o n o r state w h i c h d o e s n o t q u i t e

a m o u n t to w h a t it o u g h t to), s m a l l e x t e n t etc., differ f r o m serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h e s a m e s u b j e c t m a r k i n g o n all t h e c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h

c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d b y a n y i n t e r v e n i n g c o n s t i t u e n t s o r a n y m a r k e r s o f syntactic

d e p e n d e n c y ; in contrast, c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s d o n o t h a v e t h e s e restrictions; s e e C h a p t e r

19.

T h e p r e d i c a t e o f a relative c l a u s e is m a r k e d w i t h a participle w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s

t h r e e t e n s e s - past, p r e s e n t a n d future. D e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s are r e g u l a r l y f o r m e d o n

a n y v e r b , a n d e m p l o y e d a s a c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategy; s e e C h a p t e r 2 0 . C l a u s e l i n k i n g

is m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g enclitics, s o m e o f w h i c h are s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e sensitive: t h e

c h o i c e o f a n enclitic d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e subject o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e is

identical w i t h that o f t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e . T h e e m e r g e n c e o f s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e in

T a r i a n a is p r o b a b l y d u e to T u c a n o i n f l u e n c e ; s e e C h a p t e r 2 2 . A n y a r g u m e n t e x c e p t t h e

p o s s e s s o r c a n b e relativised. I n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s are also e m p l o y e d in relative

c l a u s e s , p o s s i b l y u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s ; s e e C h a p t e r 2 3 . C o m p l e m e n t

c l a u s e s c a n o c c u r o n l y in O function. B e s i d e s c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s , T a r i a n a h a s a

n u m b e r o f c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategies, o n e o f w h i c h is a direct s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t u s e d

after t h e v e r b s o f s p e e c h ; s e e C h a p t e r 2 4 .

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 6 1 The language and its speakers

S i m i l a r l y to a n u m b e r o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s o f t h e w o r l d (see M i t h u n 1 9 8 7 ) , T a r i a n a

d o e s n o t h a v e a n y b a s i c c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r . T h e r u l e s for o r d e r i n g c o n s t i t u e n t s w i t h i n a n

N P , a v e r b a l c o m p l e x , a c l a u s e o r a s e n t e n c e d e p e n d o n t y p e s o f c o n s t i t u e n t s , t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n t y p e a n d t h e p r a g m a t i c s - for i n s t a n c e , t h e o r d e r w i t h i n a n o u n - a d j e c t i v e

p h r a s e d e p e n d s o n t h e d e f i n i t e n e s s o f t h e n o u n referent a n d h o w t o p i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d it

is. T h i s is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2 5 , t o g e t h e r w i t h different d i s c o u r s e g e n r e s a n d

p r i n c i p l e s o f c o d e - s w i t c h i n g .

In spite o f a s t r o n g c u l t u r a l i n h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t lexical b o r r o w i n g , T a r i a n a d o e s h a v e a

f e w b o r r o w i n g s f r o m L i n g u a G e r a l (a l i n g u a f r a n c a e m p l o y e d until r e c e n t l y t h r o u g h o u t

t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o a n d t h e V a u p e s a r e a - s e e §1.2), a n d f r o m T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s .

T h e s e b o r r o w i n g s are fully n a t i v i s e d b o u n d m o r p h e m e s , m a n y o f t h e m v e r b s . T a r i a n a

h a s a l s o u n d e r g o n e a n u m b e r o f lexical shifts u n d e r E a s t T u c a n o i n f l u e n c e . T h e striking

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o d i a l e c t s o f T a r i a n a , o f P e r i q u i t o s a n d o f S a n t a R o s a , lies in

t h e d e g r e e o f ' a c c e p t a n c e ' o f l o a n s f r o m T u c a n o . W h i l e l o a n s a r e n o t a c c e p t e d - a n d a r e

r i d i c u l e d - b y t h e S a n t a R o s a s p e a k e r s , a f e w T u c a n o l o a n m o r p h e m e s h a v e m a d e their

w a y i n t o t h e T a r i a n a o f P e r i q u i t o s . T h i s is c o n s p i c u o u s in t h e s p e e c h o f y o u n g e r p e o p l e ;

s e e C h a p t e r 2 6 .

T h i s g r a m m a r is b a s i c a l l y f o c u s s e d o n t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect o f T a r i a n a . T h e m a i n

f e a t u r e s o f t h e o t h e r a c t i v e l y s p o k e n dialect, that o f P e r i q u i t o s a n d o f o t h e r T a r i a n a

d i a l e c t s a r e s u m m a r i s e d in t h e A p p e n d i x . T h e T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e o f S a n t a R o s a is n o t

b e i n g l e a r n t b y c h i l d r e n , a n d s h o w s a d e g r e e o f o b s o l e s c e n c e . T h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n

are still fluent in T a r i a n a , b u t m a n y p r e f e r to u s e T u c a n o w h e n s p e a k i n g a m o n g

t h e m s e l v e s o r to their n o n - T a r i a n a s p o u s e s . T h e y c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e T a r i a n a o n l y w h e n

s p e a k i n g t o s o m e o n e f r o m their father's g e n e r a t i o n . T h e l a n g u a g e s p o k e n b y y o u n g e r

s p e a k e r s is c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y c a i q u e s a n d l o a n t r a n s l a t i o n s f r o m T u c a n o , a n d , rarely, f r o m

P o r t u g u e s e ( A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) .

1.2 T a r i a n a a n d t h e m u l t i l i n g u a l s e t t i n g o f t h e V a u p e s

T h e v a r i e t y o f T a r i a n a d e s c r i b e d h e r e is s p o k e n as t h e first (father's) l a n g u a g e b y f e w e r

t h a n o n e h u n d r e d p e o p l e , c o n s i d e r e d m e m b e r s o f t w o f a m i l i e s in t w o s e t t l e m e n t s o n t h e

V a u p e s river: t h e B r i t o f a m i l y o f t h e S a n t a R o s a v i l l a g e (also k n o w n a s J u k i r a - p o n t a ,

T a r i a n a I w i - t a k u 'point o f salt') a n d t h e M u n i z f a m i l y o f t h e P e r i q u i t o s v i l l a g e (also

k n o w n a s K e r e k e r e - p a n i 'rapid o f a parakeet', o r Tupiyari-numana 'the m o u t h o f a

2
lizard'). A f e w T a r i a n a s p e a k e r s live in I a u a r e t e (Yawhipani ( j a g u a r + C L : R A P I D ) 'the

r a p i d o f a j a g u a r ' ) , a local m i s s i o n c e n t r e , a n d in J i - P o n t a {Episitaku ( s t o n e . a x e -

C L : P O I N T ) 'the p o i n t o f s t o n e axe') - s e e M a p . O v e r 1 5 0 0 p e o p l e in n u m e r o u s s e t t l e m e n t s

a l o n g t h e u p p e r a n d t h e m i d d l e c o u r s e o f t h e V a u p e s river identify t h e m s e l v e s a s e t h n i c

2
T h e old location for this settlement o f the M u n i z family o f the W a m i a r i k u n e w a s Kerekere-pani, 'the

r a p i d o f a p a r a k e e t ' , o f w h i c h P e r i q u i t o s i s a t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o P o r t u g u e s e (periquito is a w o r d f o r parakeet).

It b e c a m e s w a m p y a n d uninhabitable a generation ago, a n d the M u n i z m o v e d to a nearby location called

Tupiyarinumana ' m o u t h o f a lizard'. T h e P o r t u g u e s e n a m e Periquitos, w h i c h h a d a l r e a d y figured in m a p s

and official d o c u m e n t s , has been transferred to this n e w location.

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 1.2 Tariana and the multilingual setting of the Vaupes 7

T a r i a n a b u t n o l o n g e r s p e a k t h e l a n g u a g e (cf. A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 a a n d M o r e i r a a n d

M o r e i r a 1 9 9 4 ) .

T h e N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s a r e s p o k e n o n t h e l 9 a n a a n d its tributary, t h e A i a r i (the

B a n i w a / K u r r i p a k o l a n g u a g e , w i t h H o h o d e n e a n d S i u c i as its m a i n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ) , o n

t h e V a u p e s ( T a r i a n a a n d H o h o d e n e ) a n d o n t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o ( W a r e k e n a a n d ,

f o r m e r l y , B a r e ) ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 a , 1 9 9 9 a - c , a n d f o r t h c o m i n g - c ) . S e v e r a l l a n g u a g e s

o f t h e E a s t T u c a n o s u b g r o u p are s p o k e n o n t h e V a u p e s (see B a r n e s 1 9 9 9 a n d

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 c ) . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s E a s t T u c a n o - s p e a k i n g g r o u p s in

t h e B r a z i l i a n V a u p e s w e r e t h e T u c a n o , t h e G u a n a n o / P i r a t a p u y a a n d t h e D e s a n o (there

a r e a l s o s o m e T u y u c a a n d s o m e C u b e o ) . N o w a d a y s T u c a n o is g r a d u a l l y g a i n i n g g r o u n d

a s t h e l i n g u a f r a n c a o f t h e area.

L i n g u a e f r a n c h e s p o k e n in t h e r e g i o n are L i n g u a G e r a l , o r N h e e n g a t u , a n d T u c a n o .

L i n g u a G e r a l is s p o k e n i n t h e w h o l e r e g i o n o f t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o ( s e e R o d r i g u e s

1 9 8 6 : 1 0 2 , B e s s a F r e i r e 1 9 8 3 , M o o r e et al. 1 9 9 4 ) . O n t h e V a u p e s , it is o n l y u n d e r s t o o d
3
b y o l d e r p e o p l e . L i n g u a G e r a l is a c r e o l i s e d v e r s i o n o f T u p i n a m b a ( T u p i - G u a r a n i

f a m i l y ) s p r e a d f r o m t h e east c o a s t o f B r a z i l b y w h i t e m e r c h a n t s a n d m i s s i o n a r i e s . It w a s

t h e l i n g u a f r a n c a o f t h e w h o l e A m a z o n r e g i o n f r o m t h e late s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y u p t o

t h e m i d d l e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; its i n f l u e n c e c a n still b e s e e n in a f e w l o a n w o r d s

in T a r i a n a a n d o t h e r l a n g u a g e s o f t h e V a u p e s (see C h a p t e r 2 6 ) . In t h e V a u p e s area, it

w a s g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d b y T u c a n o a s a l i n g u a f r a n c a f r o m t h e early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a s

a r e s u l t o f t h e l a n g u a g e p o l i c y o f C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s a n d t h e civil authorities. I n d o -

E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y P o r t u g u e s e a n d S p a n i s h . T h e y are also g a i n i n g

g r o u n d a s l i n g u e f r a n c h e o f t h e r e g i o n , e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g y o u n g e r p e o p l e .

M u l t i l i n g u a l i s m u s e d to b e - a n d to a great e x t e n t still is - a cultural n o r m o v e r t h e

w h o l e V a u p e s . A m o n g t h e E a s t T u c a n o p e o p l e s a n d t h e T a r i a n a , m a r r i a g e is

e x o g a m o u s . T h e r e a r e strict m a r r i a g e rules, w h i c h are g o v e r n e d b y l a n g u a g e affiliation

( s e e S o r e n s e n 1 9 7 2 , A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 a ) . M a r r y i n g s o m e o n e w h o b e l o n g s to t h e s a m e

l a n g u a g e g r o u p is c o n s i d e r e d a k i n to incest. J a c k s o n ( 1 9 7 4 : 6 2 ) , referring to t h e

linguistic attitudes o f t h e B a r a , a n E a s t T u c a n o g r o u p o f t h e V a u p e s b a s i n , r e p o r t s b e i n g

told: ' M y b r o t h e r s a r e t h o s e w h o s h a r e a l a n g u a g e w i t h m e ' , a n d ' W e d o n ' t m a r r y o u r

sisters'. C o n s e q u e n t l y l a n g u a g e - w h i c h is a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h patrilineal d e s c e n t - is a

b a d g e o f identity, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e patrilineal d e s c e n t . A n I n d i a n a l w a y s identifies w i t h

their father's tribe a n d l a n g u a g e .

A n i n d i v i d u a l g e n e r a l l y k n o w s b e t w e e n t h r e e a n d t e n o t h e r l a n g u a g e s o f t h e r e g i o n ,

i n c l u d i n g their o w n m o t h e r ' s l a n g u a g e w h i c h w o u l d f r e q u e n t l y c o i n c i d e w i t h his wife's

l a n g u a g e , a n d in a d d i t i o n P o r t u g u e s e a n d / o r S p a n i s h . S i n c e l a n g u a g e identity is a

s y m b o l o f e t h n i c identity, l a n g u a g e s - e v e n t h e m o s t c l o s e l y related o n e s - are k e p t

strictly a p a r t (cf. S o r e n s e n 1 9 7 2 : 82). T h i s creates a v e r y s t r o n g i m p e d i m e n t to lexical

b o r r o w i n g s - in c o n t r a s t t o o t h e r m u l t i l i n g u a l situations. E a c h tribe, identifiable b y a

distinct l a n g u a g e (e.g. T a r i a n a , P i r a t a p u y a , T u c a n o etc.), is traditionally d i v i d e d into

s e v e r a l s u b t r i b e s , h i e r a r c h i c a l l y o r g a n i s e d d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e y are d e s c e n d a n t s o f

3
T h e T a r i a n a t e r m for L i n g u a Geral i s Bare, w h i c h s u g g e s t s that in t h e e a r l y d a y s t h e B a r e w e r e identified

with speakers o f L i n g u a Geral.

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 8 1 The l a n g u a g e a n d its s p e a k e r s

t h e first, s e c o n d , third etc. s o n o f a n ancestor. T h e l o w e r g r o u p s in t h e h i e r a r c h y are said

t o b e e x - M a k u ( a n d c a l l e d 'underlings', o r 'soldiers') d u e to t h e traditionally l o w status o f

t h e M a k u g r o u p s in t h e V a u p e s society. T h e i r role is to s e r v e t h e m e m b e r s o f s e n i o r

s u b t r i b e s w h o a r e to b e t r e a t e d a s e l d e r b r o t h e r s - for i n s t a n c e , lighting their c i g a r s in

t h e c i g a r - s m o k i n g ritual. E a c h g r o u p - a n d a p p a r e n t l y e a c h s u b t r i b e - h a s its o w n

v e r s i o n o f o r i g i n m y t h s ; t h e r e are dialectal differences b e t w e e n s u b t r i b e s (see

A p p e n d i x ) .

A l l t h e T a r i a n a are c o n s i d e r e d b l o o d relatives ( a n d called di-kesi-ni 'relative'), w h i l e

m e m b e r s o f o t h e r g r o u p s - w h i c h i n c l u d e B a n i w a a n d all t h e E a s t T u c a n o g r o u p s e x c e p t

for t h e D e s a n o - a r e referred to a s ' m a r r i a g e a b l e c o u s i n s ' (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 a ) .

T h e b a s i c r u l e o f l a n g u a g e c h o i c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e V a u p e s a r e a is that o n e s h o u l d

s p e a k t h e interlocutor's o w n l a n g u a g e . A c c o r d i n g to t h e l a n g u a g e 'etiquette' o f t h e area,

o n e is s u p p o s e d t o s p e a k t h e l a n g u a g e o n e identifies w i t h - that is, o n e ' s father's

l a n g u a g e - to o n e ' s siblings, father a n d all his relatives, a n d o n e ' s m o t h e r ' s l a n g u a g e to

o n e ' s m o t h e r a n d all h e r relatives.

H o w e v e r , d u r i n g p a s t d e c a d e s t h e traditional p a t t e r n o f l a n g u a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n in t h e

B r a z i l i a n V a u p e s h a s b e e n affected b y a n u m b e r o f factors. W h e n S a l e s i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s

e s t a b l i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s in t h e a r e a in t h e early 1 9 2 0 s , t h e y i m p o s e d W e s t e r n - s t y l e

s c h o o l i n g o n t h e I n d i a n s , f o r c i n g c h i l d r e n into b o a r d i n g s c h o o l s w h e r e t h e y w e r e m a d e

t o s p e a k j u s t o n e l a n g u a g e , T u c a n o . S a l e s i a n s a i m e d at 'civilising' I n d i a n s . T h i s i m p l i e d

n o t o n l y m a k i n g t h e m into ' g o o d Christians'. S a l e s i a n s also c o n s i d e r e d t h e traditional

m u l t i l i n g u a l i s m o f t h e a r e a a 'pagan' habit, a n d strived to m a k e I n d i a n s m o n o l i n g u a l 'like

o t h e r civilised p e o p l e in t h e world'. T h e T u c a n o l a n g u a g e w a s c h o s e n b e c a u s e it w a s ,

n u m e r i c a l l y , t h e m a j o r i t y l a n g u a g e . S a l e s i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s also p r a c t i s e d forceful

r e l o c a t i o n o f I n d i a n s e t t l e m e n t s c l o s e r to m i s s i o n c e n t r e s - w h e r e t h e I n d i a n s c o u l d b e

m o r e easily c o n t r o l l e d - a n d a m a l g a m a t i o n o f different s e t t l e m e n t s , e l i m i n a t i n g t h e

traditional l o n g h o u s e s y s t e m a n d i n t r o d u c i n g E u r o p e a n - s t y l e n u c l e a r f a m i l y h o u s e s .

A n o t h e r r e a s o n for t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f traditional m u l t i l i n g u a l i s m w a s a b r e a k d o w n o f

traditional f a t h e r - c h i l d interaction: w i t h t h e n e e d for c a s h - f l o w , all t h e a b l e - b o d i e d m e n

w o u l d g o o f f t o w o r k for B r a z i l i a n s - u n d e r t a k i n g s u c h t a s k s a s c o l l e c t i n g r u b b e r a n d

g o l d - m i n i n g - a n d a s a result c h i l d r e n w o u l d h a v e a c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d d e g r e e o f

e x p o s u r e t o their father's l a n g u a g e . T h i s r e s u l t e d in t h e s p r e a d o f T u c a n o , a n d , to a

lesser e x t e n t , o f o t h e r E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , to t h e d e t r i m e n t o f T a r i a n a (see

A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 1 c ) .

T h e m a i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e r e c e n t s p r e a d o f t h e T u c a n o l a n g u a g e in t h e B r a z i l i a n

V a u p e s is t h e g r a d u a l u n d e r m i n i n g o f t h e o n e - t o - o n e identification b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e

a n d e t h n i c g r o u p . L a n g u a g e h a s g r a d u a l l y c e a s e d to b e a n e m b l e m o f e t h n i c identity, a n d

t h e m a j o r i t y o f l a n g u a g e s o t h e r t h a n T u c a n o h a v e b e c o m e e n d a n g e r e d . T h e d i s c r e p a n c y

b e t w e e n t h e n u m b e r o f t h o s e w h o b e l o n g to a tribe a n d t h o s e w h o actually s p e a k t h e

l a n g u a g e is p a r t i c u l a r l y m a r k e d in t h e c a s e o f T a r i a n a . T h e s p r e a d o f T u c a n o is also

l e a d i n g t o t h e g r a d u a l d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f o n e o f t h e m o s t fascinating m u l t i l i n g u a l a r e a s o f

t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e areal p h e n o m e n a a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it.

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 1.3 Historical information about the Tariana 9

A t p r e s e n t , T a r i a n a is a h i g h l y e n d a n g e r e d l a n g u a g e . T h e l a n g u a g e d e s c r i b e d h e r e is

a c t i v e l y s p o k e n in j u s t t w o l o c a t i o n s - S a n t a R o s a a n d P e r i q u i t o s - b y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f

o n e s u b g r o u p , w h o call t h e m s e l v e s Wamia-riku-ne (lpl+float-AFF:PLACE-PL) 'the p e o p l e

4
o f t h e p l a c e w h e r e w e floated'. S e e A p p e n d i x o n t h e m i n o r d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n these.

T h i s d e n o m i n a t i o n reflects t h e o r i g i n m y t h . W h i l e the h i e r a r c h i c a l l y h i g h e r g r o u p s o f

t h e T a r i a n a a p p e a r e d directly f r o m t h e b l o o d o f T h u n d e r , t h e latest arrivals - a m o n g

t h e m t h e W a m i a r i k u n e - a p p e a r e d drifting o n t h e w a t e r o f t h e A p u i falls after t h e

W o m a n - C r e a t o r h a d s m o k e d h e r s a c r e d cigar. S o m e o l d e r p e o p l e - A m e r i c o a n d t h e

e l d e r s f r o m P e r i q u i t o s - p r o n o u n c e t h e n a m e o f t h e g r o u p a s W a m i a r i k i n e . T h e

e x i s t e n c e o f a s a c r e d n a m e W a m i a r i , in t h e P e r i q u i t o s g r o u p , c o u l d b e u s e d a s a p i e c e o f

e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f -ki in W a m i a r i k i n e b e i n g a s e p a r a t e m o r p h e m e ; it c o u l d b e

c o g n a t e to t h e m a s c u l i n e suffix -ki, a s i n nu-dalipa-ki ( l s g - n e a r - M A S C ) 'the o n e w h o is

n e a r m e ; a wife's relative' (see B u n d e r § 1 0 . 2 , for further e x a m p l e s ) . M a r i n o M u n i z , o n e

o f t h e P e r i q u i t o s e l d e r s , u s e d E n u - d a k i n i ' T h u n d e r ' s g r a n d s o n ' a n d E n u - m a k i - n i - s e r i

( t h u n d e r M a k u - M A S C - S I N G L ) , lit. ' t h e M a k u o f T h u n d e r ' , as alternative n a m e s for t h e

s a m e g r o u p .

S y s t e m a t i c efforts to start t e a c h i n g T a r i a n a at s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l level started in 1 9 9 9 ,

w h e n t h e a u t h o r , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e B r i t o f a m i l y a n d t h e t h e n D i r e c t o r o f t h e S e c o n d a r y

S c h o o l in I a u a r e t e , d e c i d e d to i n t r o d u c e T a r i a n a a s a s c h o o l subject. A c o u r s e in T a r i a n a

l a n g u a g e a n d literacy w a s h e l d in I a u a r e t e in J u n e 2 0 0 0 , w i t h o v e r 3 0 0 participants,

m o s t o f w h o m w e r e n o n - s p e a k e r s o r s e m i - s p e a k e r s , j o i n t l y financed b y L a T r o b e

U n i v e r s i t y w i t h t h e Instituto S o c i o a m b i e n t a l in Brasilia. R e g u l a r t e a c h i n g o f T a r i a n a a s

a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e is s c h e d u l e d for 2 0 0 3 at t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l in Iauarete; a n d further

e d u c a t i o n a l activities are b e i n g p l a n n e d a s part o f the a g e n d a for t h e r e c e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d

I n d i g e n o u s A s s o c i a t i o n for t h e L a n g u a g e a n d C u l t u r e o f the T a r i a n a o f t h e I a u a r e t e A r e a

(Associagdo I n d i g e n a da L i n g u a e C u l t u r a Tariana do Distrito I a u a r e t e , AILECTIDI),

u n d e r t h e p r e s i d e n t s h i p o f J o v i n o B r i t o (see A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - f ) .

1.3 H i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e T a r i a n a

T h e first i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e R i o N e g r o a n d V a u p e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e

first m e n t i o n o f T a r i a n a , g o e s b a c k to t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y (also s e e

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 a a n d c). T h e a n a l y s i s o f T a r i a n a p l a c e - n a m e s s h o w s that 'historical'

a n d ' m y t h o l o g i c a l ' p l a c e - n a m e s exist o n l y in T a r i a n a a n d n o t in a n y o f t h e T u c a n o

l a n g u a g e s ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 b ) . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n - u n e x p e c t e d in a n e n v i r o n m e n t o f

o b l i g a t o r y m u l t i l i n g u a l i s m - s u g g e s t s that t h e T a r i a n a m i g h t h a v e a r r i v e d in t h e V a u p e s

f r o m a p r e d o m i n a n t l y m o n o l i n g u a l c o n t e x t , a n d that t h e y h a v e a d o p t e d m u l t i l i n g u a l i s m

fairly recently.

4
T h e T u c a n o - s p e a k i n g Tariana still p r e s e r v e s o m e origin myths. Information from the T u c a n o - s p e a k i n g

Tariana g r o u p s is v a l u a b l e for determining differences in m y t h s and stories b e t w e e n subtribes; h o w e v e r it

cannot be completely relied upon. A n important w o r k based on Kaline tradition (third g r o u p in the

Tariana hierarchy: see §1.4) is Moreira and M o r e i r a (1994); however, one can only rely o n w h a t is

confirmed b y other sources (such as Briizzi 1977; 1994; B i o c c a 1965; A m o r i m 1987; Stradelli 1890).

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 1 0 1 The l a n g u a g e a n d its s p e a k e r s

T h e first s o u r c e w e h a v e w h i c h g i v e s s o m e i n d i c a t i o n a b o u t t h e s p r e a d o f t h e tribes

o f t h e V a u p e s is b y V i g a r i o G e r a l ( D r J o s e M o n t e i r o d e N o r o n h a ; d a t e d 1 7 5 9 : s e e

Briizzi 1 9 7 7 : 2 0 - 3 1 ) . A n o t h e r early s o u r c e is F r a n c i s c o X a v i e r R i b e i r o d a S a m p a i o

( 1 7 7 4 - 5 ) , w h o m e n t i o n e d t h e T a r i a n a , t h e D e s a n o , t h e G u a n a n o a n d t h e U a u p e o n t h e

V a u p e s , a n d o n t h e P a p u r i river. H e w a s a l s o t h e first historian t o h a v e o b s e r v e d t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f social h i e r a r c h i e s in t h e V a u p e s r e g i o n . A l e x a n d r e R o d r i g u e s F e r r e i r a
5
( 1 7 7 5 - 6 ) a l s o n o t e d t h e C a r i a n a ( T a r i a n a ? ) o n t h e P a p u r i , a n d t h e U a u p e o n t h e V a u p e s

river. W a l l a c e ( 1 8 5 3 ) m e n t i o n s t h e T a r i a n a in S a o J o a q u i m o n t h e V a u p e s river; a n d

M a r t i u s ( 1 8 6 7 , vol. 1: 5 6 7 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e T a r i a n a at S a o J e r o n i m o

( n o w I p a n o r e ) o n t h e V a u p e s - c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t h e m a s ' N e h m e r , R a u b e r ' ('takers,

robbers'). S e e Briizzi ( 1 9 7 7 : 2 0 - 3 1 ) .

A d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e s p r e a d a n d early h i s t o r y o f c o n t a c t s o f t h e T a r i a n a is g i v e n

b y K o c h - G r u n b e r g ( 1 9 1 1 : 49ff). H e a l s o p o i n t s o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t w o T a r i a n a g r o u p s
6
o n t h e V a u p e s : o n e in I p a n o r e a n d t h e o t h e r in Iauarete. T h e r e p o r t that t h e T a r i a n a

k n e w o f g o l d a n d p o s s e s s e d it is r e p e a t e d in several s o u r c e s , c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e i d e a that

t h e T a r i a n a in p a r t i c u l a r w e r e h i g h l y civilised a n d c o n s t i t u t e d a k i n d o f elite a m o n g t h e

i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g to C a n d i d o B r i t o ( p . c ) , t h e y i n d e e d u s e d to g e t g o l d

f r o m t h e A n d e s . Incidentally, T a r i a n a h a s a n a t i v e w o r d for g o l d , h i w a r u .

T h e T a r i a n a ( a n d o t h e r tribes o f t h e V a u p e s ) w e r e i n v o l v e d in t h e ' r u b b e r b o o m ' in

t h e late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H e m m i n g ( 1 9 8 7 : 3 1 5 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e d e p o p u l a t i o n a n d

d e p r e s s i o n o f t h e w h o l e r e g i o n o f t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o in t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,

d u e to e p i d e m i c s . W h e n in 1 8 5 0 t h e p r o v i n c e o f A m a z o n a s w a s s e p a r a t e d f r o m P a r a , t h e

a t t e n t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n o r s o f t h e n e w s t a g e t u r n e d to t h e tributaries o f t h e U p p e r R i o

N e g r o , a n d a m o n g t h e m t h e V a u p e s ( w i t h its tributaries, t h e T i q u i e a n d t h e P a p u r i ) ,

w h e r e t h e r e w a s still a c o n s i d e r a b l e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n , a m o n g t h e m t h e T a r i a n a . T h i s

p e r i o d is m a r k e d b y n u m e r o u s attacks b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t o n t h e ' n o m a d i c ' tribes o f t h e

r e g i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e H o h o d e n e ( B a n i w a ) a n d M a k u . A n e w w a v e o f b a p t i s m o f t h e

I n d i a n s started in 1 8 5 2 , w i t h t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f Frei G r e g o r i o J o s e M a r i a d e B e n e , a

m i s s i o n director, w h o r e p o r t e d l y b a p t i s e d a third o f t h e e s t i m a t e d 2 3 0 0 I n d i a n s in t h e

V a u p e s b a s i n . T r a d e r s a n d g o v e r n o r s u s e d t h e rivalries b e t w e e n t h e tribes to c a p t u r e

I n d i a n s l a v e s ; I n d i a n s w e r e u r g e d to l e a v e their villages a n d to m o v e to t h e m a i n rivers.

W a l l a c e ( 1 8 5 3 ) r e p o r t s that t h e T a r i a n a assisted in c a p t u r i n g I n d i a n s o f o t h e r tribes for

t r a d e r s ; it a p p e a r s that t h e T a r i a n a w e r e u s e d for t h e s e p u r p o s e s b e c a u s e o f their h i g h

status a m o n g I n d i a n s o f t h e r e g i o n (also s e e H e m m i n g 1 9 8 7 : 3 1 9 ) .

5
T h e t e r m U a u p e , o r B u o p e s , c o u l d h a v e b e e n a n u m b r e l l a t e r m for i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s o f the V a u p e s

area.

6
H e r e p o r t s that t h e m i s s i o n o f S 3 o J e r o n y m o w a s built in I p a n o r 6 in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f the e i g h t e e n t h

c e n t u r y , b y C a r m e l i t e s . T h i s m i s s i o n w a s v i s i t e d b y J o h a n n N a t t e r e r in July 1 8 3 1 , b y W a l l a c e in 1 8 5 2 a n d

b y S p r u c e in 1 8 5 3 . T h e I p a n o r e m i s s i o n w a s rebuilt b y F r a n c i s c a n s in 1 8 8 0 - 3 ( s e e K o c h - G r i i n b e r g 1 9 1 1 :

3 5 ) . A t that t i m e , t h e r e w e r e 3 3 0 inhabitants ( 6 2 h o u s e s ) , a l m o s t all o f t h e m T a r i a n a . T h e m i s s i o n o f S S o

A n t o n i o in I a u a r e t e t h e n h a d 4 0 2 p e o p l e . T h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e e x p e l l e d from the r e g i o n in 1 8 8 3 , a n d the

I n d i a n s r e t u r n e d t o t h e lifestyle o f their a n c e s t o r s in l o n g h o u s e s . P e r m a n e n t S a l e s i a n m i s s i o n s w e r e

e s t a b l i s h e d in 1 9 2 5 , w h i c h r e s u l t e d in the d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f the V a u p e s culture ( s e e a b o v e ) .

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 1.4 Social organisation 11

A c c o r d i n g t o K o c h - G r i i n b e r g ( 1 9 1 1 : 5 1 ) , t h e T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e started to b e o u s t e d
7
f r o m e v e r y d a y u s e in I a u a r e t e a s early as t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t w e n t i e t h century. T h e

g r a d u a l s p r e a d o f T u c a n o a s a l i n g u a f r a n c a started at t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

( G i a c o n e 1 9 6 2 : 7).

1.4 S o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n

D e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e social o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e V a u p e s a r e a c a n b e f o u n d in

G o l d m a n ( 1 9 7 9 ) , C . H u g h - J o n e s ( 1 9 7 9 ) , S. H u g h - J o n e s ( 1 9 7 9 ) , S o r e n s e n ( 1 9 7 2 ; 1 9 8 5 ) ,

J a c k s o n ( 1 9 7 4 ; 1 9 7 6 ; 1 9 8 3 ) , G a l v a o ( 1 9 7 9 ) , a n d Briizzi ( 1 9 7 7 ) ; a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n

w a s o b t a i n e d f r o m m y T a r i a n a t e a c h e r s a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r p e o p l e o f t h e r e g i o n

( i n c l u d i n g s o m e n o n - T a r i a n a - s p e a k i n g T a r i a n a ) . T h e T a r i a n a a n d T u c a n o classificatory

k i n s h i p s y s t e m s a r e a v a r i a t i o n o f a b a s i c D r a v i d i a n t y p e ( S o r e n s e n 1 9 7 2 : 8 5 ; G o e h n e r ,

W e s t a n d M e r r i f i e l d 1 9 8 5 : 5 9 ) . T h e b a s i c distinction is b e t w e e n c r o s s a n d parallel

c o u s i n s . M e m b e r s o f e g o ' s g e n e r a t i o n a r e either parallel c o u s i n s c o n s i d e r e d

classificatory siblings, o r c r o s s - c o u s i n s ; o n l y c r o s s - c o u s i n s are r e g a r d e d a s

m a r r i a g e a b l e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a n y T a r i a n a is referred to as a parallel c o u s i n , a n d a n y

m e m b e r o f a m a r r i a g e a b l e tribe is referred to as a c r o s s - c o u s i n . T h e ' u n m a r r i a g e a b l e '

M a k u a r e r e f e r r e d to a s 'underlings'. T h e k i n s h i p t e r m i n o l o g y d i s t i n g u i s h e s five

g e n e r a t i o n s , w i t h t h e s e x o f relatives b e i n g m a r k e d for e a c h g e n e r a t i o n (cf. J a c k s o n

1 9 8 3 : 106). A m e m b e r o f a n e x o g a m o u s patrilineal p h r a t r y is eligible to m a r r y a p e r s o n

f r o m a n o t h e r e x o g a m o u s p h r a t r y w h o is identified a s s p e a k i n g a different l a n g u a g e . S e e

A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 9 a ) for a full list o f k i n s h i p t e r m s .

T h e traditional s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n i n v o l v e d m u l t i f a m i l y l o n g h o u s e s e a c h i n c l u d i n g a

p a t r i l i n e a g e . A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e p r o c e s s o f r e p l a c i n g traditional l o n g h o u s e s w i t h

i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l y h o u s e s b e g a n in t h e B r a z i l i a n part o f t h e V a u p e s r e g i o n in t h e 1 9 2 0 s .

T h e r e a r e n o l o n g h o u s e s left in B r a z i l i a n territory; a local d e s c e n t g r o u p is n o w

n e c e s s a r i l y split into W e s t e r n - t y p e n u c l e a r families. T h e p a t t e r n s o f s l a s h - a n d - b u r n

a g r i c u l t u r e r e q u i r e a c c e s s t o e x t e n s i v e territory, a n d t h e fight for r e s o u r c e s m a y e x p l a i n

t h e r a i d i n g a n d f e u d i n g , m e m o r i e s o f w h i c h live o n (e.g., t h e w a r s b e t w e e n t h e G u a n a n o

a n d t h e I t f i r i m h e n e s u b g r o u p o f t h e T a r i a n a ) .

7
'The m a l e Tarianas o f Yauarete" speak only T u c a n o a m o n g themselves, w h i c h is t h e language of their

m o t h e r s a n d daughters, since e x o g a m y is strict in all the tribes of the V a u p e s , i.e. a wife is t a k e n from

another tribe, very often from far a w a y . H o w e v e r , w h e n they g o on a visit to other T a r i a n a villages, at the

reception a n d in conversations, they use Tariana w h i c h is perceived as a m o r e appropriate ceremonial

language, a kind o f 'salon language', w h e r e a s T u c a n o is used in everyday affairs or during trips. T h e

y o u n g e r generation has already forgotten m a n y Tariana words, and t h i s is t h e b e s t p r o o f t h a t t h i s sonorant

language [i.e. T a r i a n a ] is g r a d u a l l y o n its w a y out, w h e r e a s T u c a n o is s p r e a d i n g m o r e a n d m o r e , a n d has

already b e c o m e a k i n d o f "Lingua Geral" in the L o w e r a n d U p p e r Caiary-Vaup6s a n d its t r i b u t a r i e s Tiquie

a n d Papuri, for tribes o f different languages' (Koch-Griinberg 1911: 5 1 , m y translation).

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 12 1 The language and its speakers

H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e T a r i a n a c o n s i s t e d o f t e n s u b g r o u p s . Different s u b t r i b e s u s e d

different sets o f s a c r e d n a m e s ('blessing n a m e s ' : s e e b e l o w a n d §3.1.2); t h e r e are also

8
d i f f e r e n c e s in at least s o m e o r i g i n m y t h s .

T h e f o l l o w i n g t e n s u b g r o u p s o f T a r i a n a are a r r a n g e d in o r d e r o f seniority, f o l l o w i n g

Briizzi ( 1 9 7 7 : 1 0 1 - 3 ) . S o m e are n a m e d after a m y t h o l o g i c a l b e i n g t h e y d e s c e n d f r o m ,

a n d s o m e after a t o t e m i c a n i m a l ; t h e e t y m o l o g y o f s o m e n a m e s is u n k n o w n . N a m e s

e n d i n g in -ne are plural (-ne is t h e T a r i a n a plural a n i m a t e m a r k e r : for i n s t a n c e , t h e

B r i t o s a r e c a l l e d B r i t o - n e \ this m a r k e r is also u s e d in t h e n a m e I/i-ne, the

a u t o d e n o m i n a t i o n o f t h e T a r i a n a : s e e §1.8.1).

1. K w e n a k a ( d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e first s o n ; m e a n i n g u n k n o w n )

2. Itfirimhene ( d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e s e c o n d s o n ; m e a n i n g u n k n o w n )

3. K a l i - n e ( p o s s i b l y , d e s c e n d a n t s o f K a l i , t h e creator: Kali-PLURAL)

4. P a i p h e n e ( m e a n i n g u n k n o w n )

5. K u m a n d e n e ( D u c k s ; p e o p l e o f t h e D u c k )

6. M a l i - n e ( G u a n s )

7. Kunuli~whi (feather o f K u n u l i bird)

8. Phitfi-kawa, Phitfi-kawa-pu ( g r o u p o f a g o u t i s ) ; or Phitfi-ne 'Agoutis'; o r Phitfi-

kawa-pu-pe 'big feet o f agouti'

9. Yawyari ( p e o p l e o f j a g u a r )

10. Wamia-riku-ne (lpl+float-AFF:PLACE-PL) 'the p e o p l e o f the p l a c e w h e r e w e

floated'

T h e e x a c t h i e r a r c h y o f t h e T a r i a n a s u b t r i b e s r e m a i n s to b e d e t e r m i n e d .

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f different g r o u p s g i v e different r e p o r t s c o n c e r n i n g their r e l a t i o n s h i p s

t o o t h e r g r o u p s . A c c o r d i n g to W a m i a r i k u n e lore, t h e T a r i a n a g r o u p s fall into t w o large

c l a s s e s : t h o s e w h o c a m e floating o u t o f t h e w a t e r at I p a n o r e r a p i d s , a n d t h o s e w h o

a p p e a r e d o u t o f t h e s m o k e o f t h e creator's cigar. T h e f o r m e r - w h i c h i n c l u d e K a b a n a ,

K a l i n e , N e r i k w a , P u k u d a n e , K u n u l i w h i a n d Itfirimhene, b e s i d e s t h e o n e s listed a b o v e -

are h i g h e r o n t h e h i e r a r c h y t h a n t h e latter - w h i c h i n c l u d e W a m i a r i k u n e a n d P a i p h e n e ,

in this o r d e r . T h e e x a c t p l a c e o f K u m a d e n e a n d A d a r u n e in the h i e r a r c h y n e e d s to b e

further i n v e s t i g a t e d . A c c o r d i n g to G a l d i n o P i n h e i r o , t h e P a i p h e n e - a g r o u p to w h i c h h e

b e l o n g s - a r e r a n k e d b e l o w t h e W a m i a r i k u n e . ( T h e n a m e s o f s u b t r i b e s Ka/i, K w e n a k a ,

Pitfia (cf. Phitfi-ne) are a l s o q u o t e d b y B i o c c a 1 9 6 5 : 2 5 5 - w h o d o e s n o t p u t t h e m in

a n y order.)

8
For instance, in the story of the origin m y t h b y descendants of a senior subtribe, Kaline, reflected in

M o r e i r a a n d M o r e i r a (1994) and B i o c c a (1965), there w e r e sometimes two, and s o m e t i m e s three Tariana

forefathers, while in t h e v e r s i o n told b y the W a m i a r i k u n e they were always two.

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 1.5 C e r e m o n i e s a n d beliefs 13

1.5 C e r e m o n i e s a n d beliefs

T h e T a r i a n a s h a r e n u m e r o u s beliefs, c e r e m o n i e s a n d superstitions w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e s o f

t h e V a u p e s r e g i o n , a n d a l s o w i t h t h e B a n i w a o f l£ana. H e r e I will n o t a t t e m p t a n

e x h a u s t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f T a r i a n a a n d T u c a n o ritual life; m y i n t e n t i o n is t o h i g h l i g h t t h e

m o s t s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s n e c e s s a r y for u n d e r s t a n d i n g T a r i a n a stories. D e t a i l s are in

A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 9 a ) .

T a r i a n a r e l i g i o n is a n i m i s t i c . D u e to t h e efforts o f t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h traditional

r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t s are n o w i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h Christianity. T h e c r e a t o r o f t h e T a r i a n a a n d

o f t h e w h o l e w o r l d is b e l i e v e d to b e Yapi-riku-ri (papirikuri) (lit. b o n e - L O O R E L ) (cf.

B a n i w a Yapi-riku-ri 'the o n e w h o is o n t h e b o n e ' , T u c a n o O ' a - k i ( b o n e - s o n ) 'son o f t h e

b o n e ' ) . H e is s o m e t i m e s identified w i t h t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d , e.g. Yapi-riku-ri d i - n a m i -

kada ( 3 s g n f - d i e - C L : D A Y ) ' G o o d Friday', lit. t h e d a y w h e n Y a p i r i k u r i died. K a l i is t h e

c r e a t o r a n d t h e m a s t e r o f m a n i o c , a n d K u i ( p o s s i b l y related to B a n i w a K u w a i : Briizzi

1 9 9 4 ) is t h e m a s t e r o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f s n u f f a n d t h e p r o t e c t o r o f s h a m a n s . H e is also t h e

o w n e r o f t h e Y u r u p a r y flute (piri i-mina-ri flute iNDF-master-MASC). T h e r e a s o n w h y it

is f o r b i d d e n for w o m e n to s e e t h e Y u r u p a r y flute is that b o t h Y a p i r i k u r i a n d K u i dislike

w o m e n (ka-duiha k a - n a REL-dislike R E L - w a n t ) , w h o h a d 'sinned' b y h a v i n g a l l o w e d t h e

M o o n (Ke.ri) t o c o p u l a t e w i t h t h e m . A n c i e n t p e o p l e o f t h e ' o l d e n d a y s ' are c a l l e d

Hipada n a w i k i ('stone p e o p l e ' ) s i n c e t h e traces o f their a d v e n t u r e s are still t h e r e , in t h e

f o r m o f s t o n e s o n t h e r a p i d s a r o u n d t h e V a u p e s .

W h i t e p e o p l e (yalana) a p p e a r in t h e o r i g i n m y t h as o n e o f t h e T a r i a n a s u b g r o u p s ; it

s a y s that, d u e to their ' k n o w l e d g e ' , t h e y m a n a g e d to get h o l d o f g u n s a n d c l o t h i n g w h i l e

o t h e r g r o u p s (e.g. T a r i a n a , C u b e o , D e s a n o , P i r a t a p u y a ) w e r e h e l p l e s s , 'like children' (cf.

H u g h - J o n e s 1 9 8 8 , o n h o w w h i t e p e o p l e w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d into t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l c y c l e

o f t h e E a s t T u c a n o g r o u p B a r a s a n o ) . T h e m y t h i c a l 'fish-people' (kuphe-ne), are also

c o n c e i v e d o f a s 'white'. T h e y are 'in c h a r g e ' o f fishing a n d , s o m e t i m e s , h u n t i n g . T h e y

b e l o n g to t h e o t h e r w o r l d (pa:-ehkwapi 'one/other-CL: WORLD') a n d typically a p p e a r

d i s g u i s e d a s b i g h a n d s o m e w h i t e w o m e n o r m e n . T h e y lure u n s u c c e s s f u l h u n t e r s

( h u s a i t e , P o r t u g u e s e p a n e m a ) , o r ' m e n n o t l o v e d b y w o m e n ' (ina m e n i n i t e ) t o live w i t h

t h e m in their h u g e b e a u t i f u l u n d e r w a t e r h o u s e s ; w h e n t h e h u n t e r s c o m e b a c k to t h e e a r t h

t h e y b r i n g n o t h i n g b u t m i s f o r t u n e to their relatives. T h e 'fish p e o p l e ' also t a k e a w a y girls

m e n s t r u a t i n g for t h e first t i m e if t h e y d a r e to r u n a w a y f r o m their s e c l u s i o n in o r d e r to

h a v e a w a s h . T h e 'fish p e o p l e ' c a n b e helpful to a h u m a n b e i n g in t r o u b l e : in o n e story a

s n a k e m a n h e l p e d a destitute w i d o w get fish f r o m a secret s t r e a m , o n c o n d i t i o n that s h e

s h o u l d n o t t a k e t o o m a n y ; b u t o n c e t h e a l l o w e d q u a n t i t y w a s e x c e e d e d , t h e w h o l e

v i l l a g e w a s d e s t r o y e d .

S h a m a n s - s e e T a b l e 9 in A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 9 a ) - are d i v i d e d into six g r o u p s ,

a c c o r d i n g to their s t r e n g t h a n d ability to inflict illnesses (kaiperi d i - a 'illness he-gives')

a n d t o c u r e t h e m (kaiperi d i - s u s u 'illness h e - s u c k s ' ) . T h e y sniff different k i n d s o f s n u f f

( g e n e r i c w h e m , hipatu 'snuff). S h a m a n s o f a 'higher' c a t e g o r y c a n d o a n y t h i n g t h e l o w e r

c a t e g o r y c a n d o ; h o w e v e r , e a c h h a s his specialisation - for i n s t a n c e , t h e 'beginner',

s a k a k a , s p e c i a l i s e s in 'attracting w o m e n ' . T h e h i g h e r castes o f s h a m a n s a r e k n o w n a s

y a w i 'jaguar' b e c a u s e o f their ability to 'turn into j a g u a r s a n d eat p e o p l e ' ( s e e § 1 . 8 . 1 , o n

Yawi a s o n e o f t h e e r r o n e o u s n a m e s for t h e T a r i a n a ) . T h e s e s h a m a n s also h a v e t h e

p o w e r o f o p e n i n g 'the p o t o f fever' s o a s to m a k e their e n e m i e s fall ill a n d die.

O t h e r p e o p l e w i t h s o m e m a g i c p o w e r s ( o u t s i d e t h e h i e r a r c h y o f s h a m a n s ) are ka-

hapa (REL-bless) 'blesser' (i.e. a p e r s o n w i t h t h e p o w e r to bless t h e tar o f certain trees,

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 1 4 / T h e l a n g u a g e a n d its s p e a k e r s

a n d to b l e s s p e o p l e s o t h a t s o m e illnesses g o a w a y ) , y a k u - s i m i n a - r i (iNDF+talk-NPOSS

m a s t e r - M A S C ) ' m a s t e r o f s p e e c h ; a m a g i c i a n w h o d o e s n o t sniff s n u f f b u t c a n f o r e s e e t h e

future', d i - t a p e - k a n i ( 3 s g n f - c u r e - A G E N T l V E . N O M ) 'curer; s o m e o n e w h o c a n c u r e

d i s e a s e s ' , a n d m a : r u 'the m a s t e r o f ritual d a n c e s ' .

W h e n a girl m e n s t r u a t e s for t h e first t i m e (hituka) s h e is p u t i n t o a n e n c l o s u r e for

t h r e e d a y s , w h e r e s h e h a s to e a t c e r t a i n t y p e s o f fruit, b u t n o t fish, g a m e o r p e p p e r , a n d

is f o r b i d d e n to b a t h e . A f t e r t h r e e d a y s s h e is let out, b e a t e n , b a t h e d a n d p a i n t e d b y a n

o l d w o m a n , a n d a n o f f e r i n g feast ( s e e b e l o w ) is o r g a n i s e d . A b o y , o n c e h e r e a c h e s

p u b e r t y , is s u p p o s e d t o s p e n d s o m e t i m e in t h e j u n g l e p r o v i n g h e c a n h u n t a n d fast; after

t h a t h e r e t u r n s to t h e village, g e t s b e a t e n , b a t h e d a n d p a i n t e d b y a n o l d m a n , a n d

p a r t i c i p a t e s in a n o f f e r i n g feast. F e m a l e initiation is still p r a c t i s e d , w h i l e m a l e initiation

w a s a b a n d o n e d s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a g o . T h e s e initiation rites a r e s i m i l a r a c r o s s t h e U p p e r

R i o N e g r o ; cf. t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m a l e initiation o f C a n d e l a r i o d a Silva, t h e last

s p e a k e r o f B a r e , i n A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 5 a : 5 2 - 4 ) , a n d cf. J a c k s o n ( 1 9 8 3 ) a n d S. H u g h -

J o n e s ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

T h e T a r i a n a t e r m for a n o l d m a n o r w o m a n w h o is p e r f o r m i n g t h e initiation ritual is

d i - t u d e - t a - k a s i ( 3 s g n f - h i t + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - A G E N T i V E ) (this t e r m is o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d as

' g o d m o t h e r ' , o r 'godfather'); t h e c h i l d t o w h o m t h e ritual is d o n e is c a l l e d n u r i - d a

( l s g + s o n - C L : R O U N D ) ( n o w u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' g o d c h i l d ' ) .

T h e o f f e r i n g ritual ( k n o w n in P o r t u g u e s e a s D a b u c u r i festival, T a r i a n a n a - w a l i t a -

nipe ( 3 p l - o f f e r - N O M ) ) is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f T a r i a n a culture; t h e m o d e r n T a r i a n a

r e g r e t t h e fact that it is n o t p r a c t i s e d a n y m o r e . A p p a r e n t l y , A m e r i c o B r i t o ( s e e § 1 . 9 ) is

t h e last T a r i a n a to h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d , a s a g u e s t , in a real offering festival. It u s e d to b e

o r g a n i s e d b y o n e v i l l a g e o r l o n g h o u s e if t h e y h a d a s u r p l u s o f p r o d u c e , o r a s a p a r t o f

t h e rite o f initiation. T h e v i l l a g e o r l o n g h o u s e w h e r e t h e feast w a s g o i n g t o t a k e p l a c e

w a s r e s p o n s i b l e for m a k i n g m a n i o c b e e r ( P o r t u g u e s e caxiri), w h i l e t h e o t h e r s p r o v i d e d

t h e f o o d ( s e e R e i c h e l - D o l m a t o f f 1 9 7 1 , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e d e s c r i p t i o n in Brtizzi 1 9 7 7 :

3 0 3 - 4 ) . A f t e r ritual d a n c e s o r g a n i s e d b y m a . r u 'the m a s t e r o f ritual d a n c e s ' , k a h p i (a

s t r o n g i s h v a r i e t y o f m a n i o c b e e r ) w a s d i s t r i b u t e d , a n d d r i n k i n g c a r r i e d o n until t h e n e x t

d a y - t h i s is w h y a n o t h e r t e r m for t h e o f f e r i n g festival is p a - i r a - n i - k a d a ( i M P - d r i n k -

T O P . A D V - C L : D A Y ) ' d a y o f drinking'. D r i n k i n g i n v o l v e d v o m i t i n g ( i n d u c i n g o n e s e l f to

v o m i t ) , t o b e a b l e t o fully e n j o y t h e feast. O n t h e m o r n i n g o f t h e third d a y t h e cigar-

s m o k i n g ritual t o o k p l a c e , t o m a r k t h e e n d o f t h e feast. M a l e m e m b e r s o f a l o w - r a n k i n g

g r o u p u s e d t o light t w o b i g c i g a r s (yema), e a c h o f w h i c h w a s h e l d in a f o r k e d cigar-

h o l d e r (yemapu). T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a l e s (usually, t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l s h a m a n s ) o f t h e

t w o p a r t i c i p a t i n g g r o u p s ( t h e 'host' g r o u p a n d t h e 'guest' g r o u p ) o f f e r e d t h e c i g a r s t o e a c h

o t h e r t o s m o k e { n a - s i t e t a - k a k a ( 3 p l - s m o k e + C A U S - R E C ) ' m a k e e a c h o t h e r s m o k e ' ) ; after

t h a t t h e c i g a r s w e r e p a s s e d f r o m m o r e i m p o r t a n t to less i m p o r t a n t m e n . T h e s h a m a n s

a n d t h e i m p o r t a n t m e n a l t e r n a t e d in r e c i t i n g e p i s o d e s f r o m o r i g i n stories (further details

a r e i n B r i i z z i 1 9 7 7 : 3 1 2 ) . C i g a r - s m o k i n g w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y p u t t i n g s n u f f o n e a c h

other's t o n g u e a n d l i c k i n g it f r o m t h e r e {na-perita-kaka ( 3 p l - l i c k + C A U S - R E C ) ' m a k e e a c h

o t h e r lick') (this is n o t m e n t i o n e d b y Briizzi 1 9 7 7 ) .

A s u b t y p e o f 'offering' feast (offering o f fruit, b u t n o t o f m e a t o r fish) i n v o l v e s t h e

s a c r e d flutes (piri) k n o w n a s Y u r u p a r y flutes ( T u c a n o m i r i , B a n i w a K u w a i ; s e e S. H u g h -

J o n e s 1 9 7 9 ; J a c k s o n 1 9 8 3 : 1 8 8 - 9 1 ; Briizzi 1 9 7 7 : 3 1 3 - 1 5 , o n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l s p r e a d o f

t h e Y u r u p a r y cult a n d its c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n a s a cultural feature o f t h e I s a n a - V a u p e s

r e g i o n ) . W o m e n a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o s e e t h e flutes ( a n d h a v e to r u n a w a y i n s i d e t h e

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 /. 6 N a m i n g p r a c t i c e s 15

l o n g h o u s e a s s o o n a s t h e y h e a r t h e s o u n d o f t h e m ) ; a w o m a n w h o h a s s e e n a Y u r u p a r y

flute m u s t die.

N u m e r o u s t a b o o s c o n c e r n a m a n ' s b e h a v i o u r in t h e j u n g l e . A h u n t e r , if h e w a n t s to b e

s u c c e s s f u l , c a n n o t h a v e s e x , o r e v e n t h i n k a b o u t w o m e n , b e f o r e h e g o e s o n a h u n t i n g

trip. O t h e r w i s e h e m a y fall v i c t i m t o t h e evil s p i r i t fiamu w h o m i g h t a p p e a r to h i m in t h e

i m a g e o f a ' w h i t e w o m a n ' (i.e. a ' f i s h - w o m a n ' : kuphe i-sa-do (fish i N D F - s p o u s e - F E M ) )

a n d d e v o u r h i m , o r 'take h i s h e a r t a w a y ' .

S i m i l a r sets o f t a b o o s a p p l y to w o m e n w h o k n o w t h e secret o f m a k i n g p o t s . F o r t h r e e

d a y s b e f o r e t h e y g o t o a f a r a w a y p l a c e ( u s u a l l y a c l e a r i n g in t h e j u n g l e ) , t h e y a r e n o t

s u p p o s e d t o h a v e s e x , eat, d r i n k , d e f e c a t e o r urinate: o t h e r w i s e t h e p o t s will b r e a k

( O l i v i a B r i t o a n d M a r i a S a n c h e z , p . c ) . N o w a d a y s , v e r y f e w w o m e n k n o w t h e s e secrets,

s o f e m a l e t a b o o s are falling into d i s u s e .

T h e t a b o o s c o n c e r n i n g w o m e n ' s b e h a v i o u r a r e l i n k e d to t h e traditional fear o f

w o m e n ' s m e n s t r u a l b l o o d ( w i d e s p r e a d in n u m e r o u s o t h e r c u l t u r e s a c r o s s t h e w o r l d ) .

M e n s t r u a l b l o o d is b e l i e v e d to b e t h e result o f w o m e n ' s ' m i s b e h a v i o u r ' w i t h t h e M o o n

(ke.ri k a - s a - d o ( m o o n R E L - s p o u s e - F E M ) ' m o o n m a r r i e s [them]'). S i m i l a r to T u c a n o

o r i g i n m y t h s , T a r i a n a o r i g i n m y t h s m e n t i o n a n 'ancestor' w o m a n b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e first

t o u s e t h e Y u r u p a r y flute, w h i c h s h e s u b s e q u e n t l y lost; h o w e v e r , this story is n o t w e l l

r e m e m b e r e d . S i n c e w o m e n c o n t i n u a l l y ' m i s b e h a v e ' a n d c a n n o t e v e n s e e t h e Y u r u p a r y

flute, t h e y a r e o f t e n referred t o a s m a . n i h t a - k a d i t e ( N E G + t h i n k 7 r e a s o n - N E G + N C L : A N l M )

'the o n e s w h o d o n o t r e a s o n ' - s e e § 2 6 . 3 .

V a r i o u s o t h e r t a b o o s a r e l i n k e d to t h e 'likes' a n d 'dislikes' o f evil spirits ( s e e T a b l e 10

in A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 a ) . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e evil s p i r i t s , fiamu, is k n o w n to h a v e a

l i k i n g for t h e b l o o d o f t h e first m e n s t r u a t i o n ; this is t h e r e a s o n w h y girls w h o m e n s t r u a t e

for t h e first t i m e (hitu-kite 'menstruate.for.the.first t i m e - T H E M A T l c + C L : A N i M ' ) h a v e t o b e

k e p t in s e c l u s i o n a n d m a i n t a i n d i e t a r y restrictions - l e s t fiamu c o m e s a n d d e v o u r s t h e m .

T h e evil spirits a r e b e l i e v e d to b e e s p e c i a l l y d a n g e r o u s at n i g h t - t i m e - for i n s t a n c e , o n e

is n o t s u p p o s e d t o m a k e a n y a p p o i n t m e n t s w i t h a n o t h e r p e r s o n after d a r k lest t h e evil

spirit l e a r n a b o u t it a n d c o m e a n d eat a p e r s o n u p , d i s g u i s e d as t h e o t h e r p e r s o n . T h e

fear o f g e t t i n g c l o s e to ' b e i n g s w h o are different f r o m us' is reflected in n u m e r o u s stories

a b o u t p e o p l e l i v i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h evil spirits, o r s n a k e - p e o p l e , a n d striking d e a l s w i t h

spirits o f t h e j u n g l e ; all this i n v o l v e s m o v i n g into 'the o t h e r w o r l d ' (pa:-ehkwapi) w h i c h

is a l w a y s o m i n o u s a n d n o t r e c o m m e n d e d . ( S e e also A i k h e n v a l d a n d D i x o n 1 9 9 8 a : 2 5 5 ,

for s o m e p u t a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s t a b o o s a n d restrictions, a n d linguistic

p h e n o m e n a , in T a r i a n a . )

1.6 N a m i n g p r a c t i c e s

A l l t h e T a r i a n a h a v e a P o r t u g u e s e g i v e n n a m e a n d a P o r t u g u e s e f a m i l y n a m e ; t h e g i v e n

n a m e is u s e d t o refer to p e o p l e w h e n t h e y are a b s e n t ; k i n s h i p t e r m s are o f t e n u s e d for

a d d r e s s . S i m i l a r l y to o t h e r p e o p l e s o f t h e V a u p e s r e g i o n , t h e T a r i a n a h a v e a c l o s e d set

o f traditional p e r s o n a l s a c r e d n a m e s c a l l e d ' n a m e s o f blessing' ( T a r i a n a p a - h a p a - n i p e i-

p i t a n a ( i M P - b l e s s - N O M i N D F - n a m e ) 'blessing n a m e ' , T u c a n o base'ke w a m e 'spirit n a m e ' ) .

' N a m e s o f b l e s s i n g ' a r e g i v e n to c h i l d r e n ( n o t to b a b i e s ) ; t h e y u s e d to b e e m p l o y e d in

'spells' a n d 'blessings', e s p e c i a l l y w h e n c h i l d r e n w e r e sick. P e r s o n a l n a m e s are a s e p a r a t e

s u b c l a s s o f n o u n s ( t h e y h a v e v o c a t i v e f o r m s , a n d n o plurals).

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 16 / The language and its speakers

T h e list o f n a m e s o f t h e B r i t o family, a s far b a c k a s m y c o n s u l t a n t s c o u l d r e m e m b e r ,

is g i v e n u n d e r D in § 3 . 1 . 2 . C h i l d r e n o f T a r i a n a w o m e n are n o t ' n a m e d ' in T a r i a n a ,

b e c a u s e t h e y b e l o n g to a different l a n g u a g e g r o u p a n d d o n o t c o u n t a s T a r i a n a . O n l y

s o m e o f t h e s a c r e d n a m e s h a v e a translation: K u m a t h a r o m e a n s ' f e m a l e duck', Tuiri

m e a n s 'japu bird', S e r e w h a d m e a n s 'lilac-tailed parrotlet', a n d K u m a d a m e a n s ' m a l e

duck'. It is u n c l e a r o n w h a t p r i n c i p l e p e o p l e are g i v e n n a m e s (the b l e s s i n g n a m e s o f m y

9
c o n s u l t a n t s a r e listed in A i k h e n v a l d 1999a).

P o r t u g u e s e n a m e s a l s o d i s t i n g u i s h r e f e r e n c e f o r m s f r o m v o c a t i v e f o r m s ; a n d t h e y are

o f t e n a b b r e v i a t e d . O l i v i a is a d d r e s s e d as OH a n d referred to as OH, a n d L e o n a r d o is

r e f e r r e d t o as Led a n d a d d r e s s e d as L e o n d , w h i l e I s m a e l is b o t h referred to a n d

a d d r e s s e d a s Maye. In a d d i t i o n , e a c h m a n h a s a n i c k n a m e , u s u a l l y t h e n a m e o f a n

a n i m a l , o r a n insect, o r o f a part o f it, e.g. N a m u d t u 'wild p e c c a r y ' for R i c a r d o , N e w i

'otter' for J o s e M a n o e l , Hema 'tapir' for R a f a e l , Hi:ri isipi 'rat's tail' for J a c i n t o , Paitfi

'type o f frog' for I s m a e l , K u m a d a 'duck' for J o s e L u i z , D u m e 'aracu fish' for L e o n a r d o , o r

Widkaru 'flycatcher', P o r t u g u e s e 'bem-ti-vi', for E m i l i o (I h a v e n o s u c h d a t a for w o m e n ) .

S o m e o f t h e s e n a m e s are c o n s i d e r e d slightly c o m i c a l a n d s o m e slightly o f f e n s i v e , a n d

p e o p l e d o n o t like their o w n n i c k n a m e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , C a n d i d o B r i t o h a s n e v e r r e v e a l e d

h i s n i c k n a m e to m e , a n d J o v i n o w a s v e r y reluctant in r e v e a l i n g , to t h e satisfaction o f

o t h e r s , h i s n i c k n a m e Kapatu 'bodo-fish' (a fish that sticks u n d e r n e a t h t h e c a n o e ) . I w a s

s t r o n g l y d i s c o u r a g e d f r o m u s i n g Cristiano's n i c k n a m e Naki 'evil spirit', R a i m u n d o ' s

M a k i n i 'a M a k u m a n ' , J u v e n a l ' s K a : s i d 'crocodile', a n d M a r i n o M u n i z ' s n i c k n a m e I n a d

' m u c u r a rat', w h i c h t h e y w e r e said to dislike. W h i t e p e o p l e are also g i v e n n i c k n a m e s -

for i n s t a n c e , G i a c o n e ( § 1 . 8 . 2 ) w a s k n o w n as Maliapa ' w h i t e - h a i r e d m o n k e y '

( P o r t u g u e s e m a c a c o loiro), b e c a u s e o f his w h i t e hair.

T h e b l e s s i n g n a m e s are h a r d l y e v e r u s e d in d a y - t o - d a y life. W h e n a d d r e s s i n g o n e

a n o t h e r , s p e a k e r s m o s t l y u s e a p p r o p r i a t e k i n s h i p t e r m s or a b b r e v i a t e d v e r s i o n s o f their

P o r t u g u e s e n a m e s . A l l t h e o l d e r s p e a k e r s - e x c e p t L e o n a r d o , w h o o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e s

P o r t u g u e s e n a m e s - u s e k i n s h i p t e r m s to a d d r e s s their relatives, k e e p i n g T a r i a n a a n d

T u c a n o f o r m s strictly apart. S e e § 2 5 . 4 . 3 , o n t h e u s e o f T u c a n o a n d P o r t u g u e s e k i n s h i p

t e r m s in T a r i a n a .

1.7 N o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n

T h e p a t t e r n s o f n o n v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n are s i m i l a r a c r o s s t h e V a u p e s area. A m o n g

t h e p e o p l e , t h e r e is a lot o f b o d i l y c o n t a c t as a s i g n o f affection: i n d i g e n o u s w o m e n

o f t e n w a l k a r o u n d h o l d i n g e a c h o t h e r b y t h e h a n d . F e m a l e relatives h u g e a c h other.

L a u g h t e r o f t e n s i g n a l s that t h e p e o p l e are a m u s e d , b u t t h e s o u r c e o f this a m u s e m e n t is

m o s t o f t e n t h e cultural i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f s o m e t h i n g , f r e q u e n t l y o f l a n g u a g e

b e h a v i o u r : w h e n o n e u n e x p e c t e d l y s w i t c h e s l a n g u a g e s or u s e s a T u c a n o o r a P i r a t a p u y a

9
1 w a s given a n a m e , Kumatharo 'female duck', only during the fourth field trip, a n d m y son w a s n a m e d

Tuiri 'japu-bird; pied crested oropendola'. T h e s e n a m e s w e r e said to b e given 'to k e e p us safe during our

trips because w e fly a lot'.

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 1.8 What w e k n o w a b o u t t h e T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e 17

w o r d w h i l e s p e a k i n g T a r i a n a , this is a c c o m p a n i e d b y r o a r s o f laughter. A d i s c o u r s e

o r g a n i s i n g p h r a s e 'I a m s a y i n g this', f r e q u e n t l y e m p l o y e d b y n a r r a t o r s a s a h e d g e in

telling a story, a l s o p r o v o k e s o u t b u r s t s o f l a u g h t e r b e c a u s e it is c o n s i d e r e d s o m e w h a t

i n a p p r o p r i a t e (cf. § 2 5 . 5 . 3 ) . P e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y w o m e n , u s e d to l a u g h w h e n I first started

s p e a k i n g T a r i a n a ( s i n c e it is u n u s u a l for a w h i t e w o m a n to d o so).

G e s t u r e s are i m p o r t a n t in story-telling. A story-teller will a c c o m p a n y their talk w i t h

g e s t u r e s i n d i c a t i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f m o v e m e n t o f p e o p l e o r o f a n i m a l s , a n d a l s o t h e

d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s u n (as a w a y o f s h o w i n g w h a t t i m e it is).

I n d a y - t o - d a y c o m m u n i c a t i o n , lips are e m p l o y e d for p o i n t i n g at t h i n g s w h i c h are

c l o s e a n d c a n b e seen. L i p - p o i n t i n g is a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h a head-tilt t o p o i n t at t h i n g s

w h i c h are further a w a y b u t still w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f vision. F i n g e r p o i n t i n g is e m p l o y e d

for m o r e d i s t a n t t h i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e w h i c h are t o o far a w a y to b e seen. A full p a l m

is u s e d t o i n d i c a t e d i r e c t i o n s ( w h i c h is i m p o r t a n t d u r i n g trips o n b o a t s ) a n d t h e p o s i t i o n

o f t h e s u n (that is, t i m e o f t h e d a y ) .

1.8 W h a t w e k n o w a b o u t t h e T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e

1.8.1 D e n o m i n a t i o n s of the l a n g u a g e

T h e T a r i a n a refer t o t h e m s e l v e s a s T a n a , T a r i a n a o r T a r i a n a ; -na is a suffix u s e d in

n a m e s o f p e o p l e (see § 1 0 . 2 ) . T h i s t e r m also c o m b i n e s w i t h t h e s i n g u l a t i v e - s e n : Tafia-

s e n 'a T a r i a n a m a n ' , o r w i t h - s a - d o ( s p o u s e - F E M ) , a s in Taria-sa-do T a r i a n a w o m a n ' .

A c c o r d i n g t o Briizzi ( 1 9 7 7 : 100), t h e suffix -na c o u l d b e a l o a n f r o m L i n g u a G e r a l .

A n o t h e r a u t o d e n o m i n a t i o n o f t h e T a r i a n a is I n - n e ( b l o o d - P L ) 'the o n e s o f t h e blood'.

In T a r i a n a , t h e T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e is referred to a s w a k u 'our speech', o r w a - y a m p e 'our

thing', o r t a n a y a r u p e T a r i a n a ' s thing' (cf. § 2 6 . 2 . 2 ) . T h e T u c a n o - s p e a k i n g T a r i a n a d o

n o t u s e t h e t e r m I n - n e ; t h e y refer to t h e T a r i a n a w i t h t h e T u c a n o w o r d D i r o a ('blood')

( s e e M o r e i r a a n d M o r e i r a 1 9 9 4 ) .

T w o o t h e r n a m e s are u s e d to d e s c r i b e t h e T a r i a n a in the literature:

• T h e d e n o m i n a t i o n I n e n e (ine-ne (evil spirit-PL) ' d e m o n s ' ) is a p e j o r a t i v e n a m e

for t h e W a m i a r i k u n e s u b g r o u p o f t h e T a r i a n a , g i v e n to t h e W a m i a r i k u n e

a n c e s t o r s b y their e n v i o u s 'elder b r o t h e r s ' b e c a u s e o f their ' i m p e r t i n e n c e ' . K o c h -

G r i i n b e r g ( 1 9 1 1 ) r e p o r t e d that t h e Y u r u p a r y - t a p u y a ('people o f t h e evil spirit', in

N h e e n g a t u ) - a l s o k n o w n a s Iyaine, o r iyemi 'evil spirits' - u s e d to b e a 'subtribe'

o f T a r i a n a w h i c h w a s v e r y l o w o n t h e tribal h i e r a r c h y (see also C o u d r e a u 1 8 8 6 -

7, vol. 2: 1 6 0 , 163). L o u k o t k a ( 1 9 6 8 : 1 3 4 ) e r r o n e o u s l y lists Iyaine, Y u r u p a r y -

t a p u y a a n d K u m a n d e n e (sic) a s o n e a n d t h e s a m e tribe, distinct f r o m t h e actual

T a r i a n a ( w h o m h e also calls Y a v i , f o l l o w i n g C o u d r e a u ) .

• T h e n a m e Yawi, o r Yavi, 'jaguar' w a s m e n t i o n e d b y C o u d r e a u ( 1 8 8 6 - 7 , vol. 2:

4 7 4 - 6 ) , a n d w a s correctly refuted b y K o c h - G r u n b e r g ( 1 9 1 1 : 5 0 ) ; this t e r m is o n l y

u s e d t o refer to a t y p e o f s h a m a n .

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 1 8 1 The l a n g u a g e a n d its s p e a k e r s

1.8.2 P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s of the l a n g u a g e

T h e first s h o r t w o r d - l i s t in T a r i a n a w a s c o l l e c t e d b y J o h a n n e s N a t t e r e r ( 2 0 J u l y 1 8 3 1 ) ,

in S a o G e r o n i m o ( n o w I p a n o r e ) . T h i s list w a s b e l i e v e d to b e lost (cf. H e m m i n g 1 9 8 7 :

4 8 9 - 9 0 ; a n d K o c h - G r i i n b e r g 1 9 1 1 : 5 0 , fn.3); b u t h a s b e e n j u s t r e c e n t l y r e d i s c o v e r e d .

F u r t h e r lists in T a r i a n a w e r e c o l l e c t e d b y W a l l a c e ( 1 8 5 3 ) a n d M a r t i n s ( 1 8 6 7 , vol. 1:

5 3 7 ) . K o c h - G r i i n b e r g ( 1 9 1 1 ) p u b l i s h e d a l o n g i s h word-list, a c c o m p a n i e d b y a f e w

p h r a s e s a n d a list o f T a r i a n a tribes - t h e s e d a t a are interesting, b u t full o f m i s t a k e s .

B r u z z i ( 1 9 6 1 ) p u b l i s h e d a reliable list o f o v e r o n e h u n d r e d w o r d s in T a r i a n a . Briizzi

( 1 9 7 7 ) c o n t a i n s a list o f T a r i a n a s u b t r i b e s , their location, a n d a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f

T a r i a n a - T u c a n o cultural characteristics.

A s h o r t g r a m m a r o f T a r i a n a w i t h a list o f p h r a s e s a n d a short d i c t i o n a r y w a s

p u b l i s h e d b y G i a c o n e ( 1 9 6 2 ) . H e started w o r k i n g o n t h e T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e in 1 9 4 6 - 7

w i t h t h e s p e a k e r s o f t h e T a r i a n a dialects o f t w o h i g h - c l a s s T a r i a n a g r o u p s : P h i t f i k a w a p e ,

s p o k e n in t h e v i l l a g e o f D o m B o s c o , a n d K a b a n a ( K w e n a k a ) , s p o k e n in Itaiasu. B o t h

d i a l e c t s a r e n o w e x t i n c t ( s e e A p p e n d i x ) . In 1 9 5 9 , G i a c o n e started r e v i s i n g h i s m a t e r i a l s ,

w i t h t h e h e l p o f A n i b a l M u n i z , a fluent s p e a k e r o f t h e dialect o f P e r i q u i t o s a n d a

classificatory y o u n g e r b r o t h e r o f t h e e l d e r s o f t h e P e r i q u i t o s c o m m u n i t y - M a r i n o a n d

M a x i m i l i a n o M u n i z . A s a result, G i a c o n e ' s g r a m m a r is a p e c u l i a r m i x t u r e o f different

d i a l e c t s o f T a r i a n a a n d is n o t a reliable s o u r c e .

A l o n g i s h w o r d - l i s t in T a r i a n a w a s c o l l e c t e d b y A l v a W h e e l e r in t h e early 1 9 6 0 s

(parts o f it w e r e p u b l i s h e d in H u b e r a n d R e e d 1 9 9 2 ) , f r o m a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e

A d a r u n e s u b t r i b e ; this dialect is v e r y different to t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect d e s c r i b e d h e r e

( s e e A p p e n d i x ) . G o n z a l e z - N a n e z c o l l e c t e d a 1 0 0 - w o r d list f r o m R o b e r t o B r i t o (the e l d e r

b r o t h e r o f C a n d i d o B r i t o ) w h o lives in M a r o a , V e n e z u e l a ; this list is d e e p l y f l a w e d . A

t y p i c a l e x a m p l e is t h e S p a n i s h g l o s s p o r q u e ( a f i r m a t i v o ) , i.e. 'because', t r a n s l a t e d into

T a r i a n a z s j a i d a (in G o n z a l e z - N a n e z ' s transcription). T h e w o r d haida in T a r i a n a m e a n s

'I d o n ' t k n o w ' . A p p a r e n t l y , w h e n t h e r e s e a r c h e r a s k e d t h e I n d i a n ' h o w d o y o u s a y

" b e c a u s e " ? ' , t h e I n d i a n h o n e s t l y said 'I d o n ' t k n o w ' , a n d t h e r e s e a r c h e r m i s t o o k it f o r t h e

r e q u i r e d w o r d .

S o m e e t h n o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l s o n t h e T a r i a n a w e r e c o l l e c t e d b y E t t o r e B i o c c a

( 1 9 6 5 ) ; h e a l s o m a d e a f e w r e c o r d i n g s o f s h a m a n i c s o n g s s u n g b y a n o l d m a n f r o m

I p a n o r e . B r u z z i a l s o r e c o r d e d a n u m b e r o f s o n g s (see B r u z z i 1 9 6 1 ) . T h e s e s o n g s are

o n l y p a r t l y intelligible to y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s . O l d e r p e o p l e , s u c h a s C a n d i d o B r i t o a n d

J o s e M a n o e l , s e e m t o u n d e r s t a n d m o r e . H o w e v e r , n o n e o f t h e s p e a k e r s w a s a b l e to

translate a n y o f t h e s e t h o u g h t h e y h a d n o d o u b t as to their a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d h a v e e v e n

m a d e a n a t t e m p t to l e a r n t h e m 'back'.

V a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f T a r i a n a g r a m m a r h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d in m y p u b l i c a t i o n s , f r o m a

t y p o l o g i c a l , areal a n d historical p e r s p e c t i v e (see R e f e r e n c e s ) . F e a t u r e s o f T a r i a n a

c u l t u r e a r e d i s c u s s e d i n A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 9 a ) , w h i c h c o n t a i n s a s a m p l e o f texts.

1.9 M a t e r i a l s a n d s p e a k e r s

T h i s g r a m m a r is b a s e d o n t h e m a t e r i a l s c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g five field trips b e t w e e n 1 9 9 1

a n d 2 0 0 0 . T h e m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e o v e r 1 7 0 0 p a g e s o f texts, a n d also w o r d lists a n d

c o n v e r s a t i o n s .

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 1.9 Materials and speakers 19

I h a v e w o r k e d , o r b e e n i n c o n t a c t , w i t h 9 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e e s t i m a t e d thirty s p e a k e r s o f

t h e S a n t a R o s a v a r i e t y in S a n t a R o s a a n d in Iauarete. In a d d i t i o n , I w o r k e d w i t h M a r i n o ,

J o r g e , Batista, D a r i o , G u s t a v o a n d D o m i n g o M u n i z , o f t h e P e r i q u i t o s v a r i e t y ( a n d

c o n t a c t e d a f e w m o r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e M u n i z f a m i l y in Iauarete), a n d w i t h R o n i

L o p e s , o n e o f t h e r e m a i n i n g t w e n t y o r s o fluent s p e a k e r s o f t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a dialect.

T h i s g r a m m a r is f o l l o w e d b y f o u r stories in t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect, a n d a story f r o m

P e r i q u i t o s .

S p e a k e r s o f t h e S a n t a R o s a v a r i e t y v a r y in their p r o f i c i e n c y , d e p e n d i n g o n g e n e r a t i o n

a n d u p b r i n g i n g . T h e r e a r e o n l y e i g h t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n ( 6 0 - 8 0 y e a r s

o f a g e ) . O f t h e s e , o n l y J o s e M a n o e l B r i t o a n d R i c a r d o B r i t o live in S a n t a R o s a ;

C a n d i d o , L e o n a r d o , A m e r i c o a n d B a t i s t a B r i t o live in Iauarete, E d u a r d o B r i t o lives in

S a o P e d r o ( o n t h e M i d d l e V a u p e s ) , w h i l e R o b e r t o B r i t o lives in M a r o a (in V e n e z u e l a ) .

C A N D I D O B R I T O , m y m a i n c o n s u l t a n t ( a b o u t 7 0 - 8 0 y e a r s o l d ) is p e r h a p s t h e b e s t a n d

t h e m o s t traditional s p e a k e r o f T a r i a n a . T o m y k n o w l e d g e , h e is t h e o n l y p e r s o n n e v e r to

v i o l a t e t h e r u l e s for l a n g u a g e c h o i c e . T h o u g h perfectly fluent in T u c a n o a n d in a n u m b e r

o f o t h e r E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s (as w e l l a s in L i n g u a G e r a l ) , h e n e v e r u s e s T u c a n o w h e n

s p e a k i n g t o h i s c h i l d r e n , h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r L e o n a r d o o r h i s classificatory b r o t h e r s ,

a d d r e s s i n g t h e m in T a r i a n a a n d d e m a n d i n g t h e s a m e f r o m t h e m . H i s w i f e , M a r i a , a

P i r a t a p u y a herself, is p r o f i c i e n t in T a r i a n a ( h e r m o t h e r ' s l a n g u a g e ) . S h e rarely u s e s

T a r i a n a : m o s t o f h e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h h e r h u s b a n d a n d c h i l d r e n is in P i r a t a p u y a ,

w h i l e s h e s p e a k s T u c a n o a n d r e g i o n a l P o r t u g u e s e t o h e r g r a n d c h i l d r e n . T h i s m a y

e x p l a i n w h y h e r T a r i a n a r e m a i n s a r c h a i c . C a n d i d o B r i t o is a n e l a b o r a t e story-teller, a n d

h a s a v a s t k n o w l e d g e o f T a r i a n a p l a c e - n a m e s , c u l t u r e a n d lore. H i s l a n g u a g e is a r c h a i c :

h e n e v e r s u b s t i t u t e s t h e indefinite p e r s o n m a r k e r w i t h o t h e r m a r k e r s , h e u s e s a r c h a i c

g e n d e r f o r m s o f d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , a n d d o e s n o t a p p l y v o w e l h a r m o n y t o enclitics - n a k u

'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' a n d -pidana ' r e m o t e p a s t reported' (realised as - n u k u a n d -pidena b y

y o u n g e r p e o p l e ) . H e , h i s w i f e a n d h i s eldest d a u g h t e r O l i v i a are e q u a l l y p r o f i c i e n t in

T a r i a n a k i n s h i p t e r m s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

L E O N A R D O B R I T O , C a n d i d o ' s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r ( b o r n in 1 9 4 9 ) , is a fine story-teller,

v e r y p r o f i c i e n t in T a r i a n a . L e o n a r d o ' s w i f e , Cecilia, a C u b e o , c a n s p e a k a n d u n d e r s t a n d

s o m e T a r i a n a . L e o n a r d o s p e a k s T a r i a n a a n d T u c a n o to his t w o s o n s ( R a f a e l a n d

G a b r i e l ) , a n d j u s t T u c a n o to all h i s d a u g h t e r s . G a b r i e l ( n o w 15) u n d e r s t a n d s T a r i a n a ,

b u t a n s w e r s in T u c a n o ; s o d o e s V a n i l d e , h i s eldest d a u g h t e r ( n o w a b o u t 2 0 ) . T h e

y o u n g e r d a u g h t e r s , C l a r i s s e , F a t i m a a n d M a r i a Esther, s p e a k a n d u n d e r s t a n d o n l y

T u c a n o . R a f a e l ( b o r n in 1 9 7 3 ) , a fluent s p e a k e r o f T a r i a n a , s p e a k s to his father m o s t l y

in T u c a n o , b u t n o w a n d a g a i n also in T a r i a n a . A g e w i s e , L e o n a r d o is c l o s e r to C a n d i d o ' s

c h i l d r e n ( h e is j u s t a y e a r o l d e r t h a n I s m a e l Brito), a n d s o h i s s p e e c h is m o r e s i m i l a r to

that o f t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n s in that it l a c k s s o m e a r c h a i s m s f o u n d w i t h C a n d i d o : h e

d o e s n o t u s e a r c h a i c d e m o n s t r a t i v e s ; but, like C a n d i d o , h e u s e s t h e f o r m s - n a k u 'topical

n o n - s u b j e c t ' a n d -pidana ' r e m o t e p a s t reported'. H i s k n o w l e d g e o f c u l t u r e a n d lore is

g o o d , b u t s o m e w h a t m o r e restricted t h a n that o f C a n d i d o .

J O S E M A N O E L B R I T O ( p r o b a b l y o v e r 7 0 ) is a fluent s p e a k e r , a n d a r e a s o n a b l e story-

teller. H e is a w i d o w e r , a n d n o w lives w i t h o n e o f his e i g h t c h i l d r e n (see b e l o w ) . H e

s p e a k s T a r i a n a t o his s o n a n d T u c a n o to h i s d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w . H i s g r a n d c h i l d r e n a p p e a r

t o b e t h e o n l y c h i l d r e n in t h e village ( b e s i d e s Ireni: s e e b e l o w ) to u n d e r s t a n d s o m e

c o m m a n d s in T a r i a n a - h e p r o b a b l y d o e s s p e a k T a r i a n a to t h e m n o w a n d a g a i n . H e

k n o w s s o m e t h i n g s ( b u t n o w h e r e n e a r a s m u c h a s C a n d i d o ) a b o u t traditions. H i s T a r i a n a

is l o o k e d u p o n a s s o m e w h a t 'faulty'. H i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n is b l u r r e d , a n d h e r e d u c e s all

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 2 0 / The language and its speakers

v o w e l s . A c c o r d i n g to s o m e , h e g r e w u p a m o n g t h e s p e a k e r s o f H o h o d e n e , a n d

c o n s e q u e n t l y h a s n e v e r c o m p l e t e l y learnt h o w to u s e t h e e v i d e n t i a l s y s t e m ; h e

c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e s p r e s e n t r e p o r t e d -pida instead o f r e m o t e p a s t a n d r e c e n t p a s t r e p o r t e d .

S o m e o f t h e f o r m s h e u s e s a r e a r c h a i c ; h e s a y s -naku a n d n o t - n u k u .

R l C A R D O B R I T O ( D i k a ) ( y o u n g e r b r o t h e r o f J o s e M a n o e l , also o v e r 7 0 ) is a m i d d l i n g

s p e a k e r , a n d a n e a g e r - b u t n o t a v e r y articulate - story-teller. H i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n is

s o m e w h a t b l u r r e d , a n d t h e r e d u c t i o n o f u n s t r e s s e d syllables m a k e s his s p e e c h difficult

t o u n d e r s t a n d , e v e n for n a t i v e s p e a k e r s . H e s p e a k s T a r i a n a a n d T u c a n o to h i s c h i l d r e n ,

a n d T u c a n o t o h i s d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w . L i k e J o s e M a n o e l , h e g r e w u p a m o n g t h e s p e a k e r s o f

H o h o d e n e , a n d for this r e a s o n is said n o t to h a v e m a s t e r e d t h e s y s t e m o f e v i d e n t i a l s .

T h e f o r m s h e u s e s are a r c h a i c in o t h e r respects.

B A T I S T A B R I T O (Bati, p r o b a b l y 6 0 ) is fluent in T a r i a n a . H e is t h e o n l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

o f t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n o f W a m i a r i k u n e in Brazil to h a v e a g o o d c o m m a n d o f

P o r t u g u e s e , w h i c h h e freely m i x e s w i t h S p a n i s h . H e s p e n t a n u m b e r o f y e a r s w o r k i n g in

C o l o m b i a a n d V e n e z u e l a , a n d is k n o w n to s h o w o f f his p r o f i c i e n c y in 'the w h i t e m a n ' s

l a n g u a g e ' . H e is t h e o n l y p e r s o n t o b e m o c k e d for inserting S p a n i s h o r P o r t u g u e s e w o r d s

into h i s T u c a n o o r T a r i a n a , b e c a u s e h e is c o n s i d e r e d a ' s h o w off. H e s p e a k s o n l y

T u c a n o t o h i s c h i l d r e n , a n d P o r t u g u e s e t o h i s g r a n d c h i l d r e n . H i s w i f e T e r e s a ( a T u c a n o )

d o e s n o t s p e a k o r u n d e r s t a n d T a r i a n a , a n d n e i t h e r d o his children. H i s s o n Feli, a m a l e

n u r s e w h o lives in S a n t a R o s a a n d w h o is r e s p o n s i b l e for d i s t r i b u t i n g g o v e r n m e n t

m e d i c i n e , w a s t h e o n l y m a l e in t h e village n e v e r to participate in t h e l a n g u a g e w o r k , for

t h e s i m p l e r e a s o n that h e h a d n o k n o w l e d g e w h a t s o e v e r o f t h e l a n g u a g e . B a t i is a g o o d

a n d w i t t y story-teller; h o w e v e r , h e d o e s n o t k n o w as m u c h a s C a n d i d o a b o u t tradition

a n d lore. H e t o l d m e that h e o n l y started l e a r n i n g T a r i a n a w h e n h e w a s a b o u t eight. H i s

T a r i a n a is i n n o v a t i v e a n d full o f c a i q u e s f r o m T u c a n o , a n d h e t e n d s to e m p l o y t h e f o r m s

y o u n g e r p e o p l e u s e . T h i s c o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d b y h i s late a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e l a n g u a g e .

A M E R I C O B R I T O ( A m e , w e l l o v e r 8 0 ) is t h e o l d e s t s p e a k e r o f T a r i a n a in B r a z i l ( h e is

a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e a g e g r o u p a s R o b e r t o B r i t o , C a n d i d o ' s e l d e r b r o t h e r , n o w in

M a r o a ) . H e is e x t r e m e l y proficient in t h e l a n g u a g e , a n d a m a r v e l l o u s story-teller; his

k n o w l e d g e o f t r a d i t i o n e q u a l s that o f C a n d i d o . U n l i k e C a n d i d o , h e s p e a k s o n l y T u c a n o

w i t h his w i f e M a r i a (a T u c a n o ) a n d w i t h h i s children. C o n s e q u e n t l y , n o n e o f his

c h i l d r e n s p e a k s T a r i a n a . H i s l a n g u a g e is v e r y a r c h a i c a n d his w a y s o f e x p r e s s i o n

e l a b o r a t e .

I h a v e n o t w o r k e d w i t h R o b e r t o Brito, w h o n o w lives in M a r o a in V e n e z u e l a a n d is

m a r r i e d to a G u a n a n o w o m a n . N o n e o f his c h i l d r e n s p e a k s T a r i a n a ; his eldest d a u g h t e r

C e l e s t i n a ( C e l e s t e ) w h o lives in t h e S a o P a u l o c o m m u n i t y o n t h e V a u p e s c a n

u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a n g u a g e b u t l a c k s t h e c o n f i d e n c e to s p e a k it.

M y m a i n c o n s u l t a n t s a m o n g t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n ( 3 0 - 5 0 y e a r s o f a g e ) are t h e

c h i l d r e n o f C a n d i d o Brito. T h e i r p r o f i c i e n c y in T a r i a n a varies. N o n e o f their c h i l d r e n

s p e a k s T a r i a n a ; C a n d i d o ' s g r a n d s o n F r a n c i s m a r , t h e s o n o f his late s o n F r a n c i s c o

('Chico'), u n d e r s t a n d s s o m e T a r i a n a ( h e lives in the s a m e h o u s e as C a n d i d o a n d gets

s o m e e x p o s u r e to t h e l a n g u a g e ) .

C a n d i d o ' s e l d e s t son, I S M A E L ( M a y e , b o r n in 1 9 5 0 ) is p r o b a b l y the b e s t s p e a k e r o f his

g e n e r a t i o n . H e is a n e l a b o r a t e story-teller, a n d h a s a v a s t k n o w l e d g e o f traditional

stories a n d o f t h e l e x i c o n ; his s p e e c h is m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o m p l e x . H e alternates

b e t w e e n a r c h a i c a n d i n n o v a t i v e f o r m s (e.g. -naku a n d -nuku), a n d is s o m e t i m e s

i n n o v a t i v e h i m s e l f ( o n e o f t h e peculiarities o f his s p e e c h is o v e r u s i n g v o w e l h a r m o n y :

for i n s t a n c e , h e r e g u l a r l y p r o n o u n c e s n e g a t i v e m a r k e r -kade- as -kede-). H e a l m o s t n e v e r

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 1.9 M a t e r i a l s a n d s p e a k e r s 2 1

d i s p l a y s a n y s i g n s o f t h e loss o f t h e indefinite prefix. H e s p e a k s T u c a n o to his w i f e

M a r g a r i d a (a T u c a n o herself), a n d o n l y r e c e n t l y started s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g T a r i a n a

to h i s e l d e r s o n O s m a r ( w h o s e e m s to u n d e r s t a n d it). I s m a e l a l s o s p e a k s g o o d

P o r t u g u e s e - h e is a t r a i n e d m e c h a n i c a n d a g e n e r a l h a n d y m a n ; h o w e v e r , h i s a d d i c t i o n

t o c a n e w h i s k e y ('cachaca') h i n d e r s h i m f r o m s e c u r i n g a g o o d j o b .

C a n d i d o ' s e l d e s t d a u g h t e r O L I V I A ( b o r n in 1 9 5 3 ) is a fluent s p e a k e r , v e r y c a r i n g a n d

m o t h e r l y t o h e r s i b l i n g s ( i n c l u d i n g m e , a s a classificatory sibling). S h e h a s a n a m a z i n g

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e k i n s h i p s y s t e m ; s h e s p e a k s m a i n l y T u c a n o w i t h h e r d a u g h t e r L a u r a

a n d h e r n e p h e w F r a n c i s m a r (in h e r care, after h e r y o u n g e r b r o t h e r C h i c o ' s d e a t h ) . H e r

P o r t u g u e s e is r e a s o n a b l e ( b u t n o t a s g o o d a s that o f h e r brothers). H e r T a r i a n a is typical

o f a y o u n g e r s p e a k e r a n d is full o f c a i q u e s f r o m T u c a n o a n d - if s h e d o e s n o t c o n t r o l

h e r s e l f - T u c a n o w o r d s c r e e p into h e r n a r r a t i v e s a n d e s p e c i a l l y s p o n t a n e o u s

c o n v e r s a t i o n s . I h a d to r e c h e c k e v e r y p i e c e o f d a t a s h e v o l u n t e e r e d , a n d w h a t s h e said

w a s o f t e n c o r r e c t e d b y I s m a e l , L e o n a r d o a n d C a n d i d o .

H e r y o u n g e r b r o t h e r G R A C I L I A N O ( G a r a , b o r n in 1 9 5 4 ) w a s trained a s a n u r s e in

M a n a u s (the capital o f t h e state o f A m a z o n a s ) a n d is n o w in c h a r g e o f t h e p u r c h a s i n g

d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e h o s p i t a l at lauarete. H e w a s m y first t e a c h e r o f T a r i a n a . H e is fluent in

T a r i a n a a n d s p e a k s e x c e l l e n t , n a t i v e - l i k e P o r t u g u e s e . H e is a g o o d a n d w i t t y story-teller;

h o w e v e r , h i s T a r i a n a is m a r k e d b y n u m e r o u s c a i q u e s f r o m T u c a n o , a n d q u i t e a f e w

t h i n g s h e s a y s are later c o r r e c t e d b y I s m a e l , L e o n a r d o a n d C a n d i d o . F o r i n s t a n c e , h e is

t h e o n l y p e r s o n to insert a n o b j e c t N P b e t w e e n t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial v e r b : o n c e ,

w h e n I r e p e a t e d s u c h a c o n s t r u c t i o n , I w a s t o l d n o t t o u s e it a g a i n b e c a u s e 'it w a s G a r a

w h o s a i d it, it's G a r a ' s stuff. S i n c e h e is t h e o n l y o n e in t h e f a m i l y w h o p r o v e d

s u c c e s s f u l in t h e w h i t e m a n ' s w o r l d , h i s b r o t h e r s d o n o t d a r e criticise h i m , e v e n b e h i n d

his b a c k ; b u t h e is n o t c o n s i d e r e d a n a u t h o r i t y o n l a n g u a g e a n d culture.

H i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r J O V I N O ( b o r n in 1 9 6 0 ) is fluent in T a r i a n a . H e is t h e o n e w h o , in

spite o f h a v i n g c o m p l e t e d j u s t six y e a r s o f s c h o o l , aspires to b e t h e political l e a d e r o f

t h e T a r i a n a p e o p l e . H e is a v e r y g o o d story-teller, a n d k n o w s a lot a b o u t h u n t i n g a n d

fishing, b u t n o t s o m u c h a b o u t t h e traditional culture. H i s T a r i a n a is a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f

y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s l a n g u a g e , w i t h T u c a n o c a i q u e s a n d c o o r d i n a t i n g t e c h n i q u e s . H e often

c o m e s u p w i t h h y p e r c o r r e c t i o n s , a n d d o e s n o t u s e t h e indefinite p e r s o n m a r k e r . H e is

o f t e n n o t q u i t e s u r e o f h i s T a r i a n a a n d s e e k s o l d e r p e o p l e ' s a d v i c e . H i s w i f e , G l o r i a (a

P i r a t a p u y a ) , d o e s h e r b e s t to c o m m u n i c a t e in r e g i o n a l P o r t u g u e s e - rather t h a n in

T u c a n o - w i t h h e r c h i l d r e n ; J o v i n o rarely d o e s this. H e s p e a k s T u c a n o w i t h h i s w i f e ,

c h i l d r e n a n d y o u n g e r siblings, P i r a t a p u y a w i t h his m o t h e r a n d T a r i a n a w i t h his father

a n d e l d e r b r o t h e r s . H e h a s r e c e n t l y started u s i n g s o m e T a r i a n a w h e n s p e a k i n g to his

e l d e s t s o n , H e l i o .

C a n d i d o ' s y o u n g e s t s o n J O S E L u i z ( b o r n in 1 9 6 9 ) is a t r a i n e d s c h o o l t e a c h e r . H e h a s a

j o b as t h e librarian at t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l in l a u a r e t e ( a n d h a s b e e n c h o s e n b y t h e

s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l t o t e a c h T a r i a n a ) . H e is fluent in T a r i a n a ; h o w e v e r , h e d o e s n o t k n o w

m u c h a b o u t t h e traditional life a n d practices, b u t is e a g e r to learn: t h e r e are a f e w

a r c h a i c f o r m s u s e d b y C a n d i d o that h e is n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h . H e is a v e r y g o o d story-

teller. B u t t h e stories h e tells are m o s t l y ' w h i t e m a n stories' - s u c h a s Little R e d R i d i n g

H o o d a n d n u m e r o u s stories a b o u t a m a n ( u s u a l l y n o t l o v e d b y w o m e n ) w h o m a n a g e d to

m a r r y a k i n g ' s d a u g h t e r after a series o f trials. H e s p e a k s t h e y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s variety,

s i m i l a r t o J o v i n o ( e x c e p t for h y p e r c o r r e c t i o n s ) ; h e often a p p e a l s to C a n d i d o for a d v i c e

a b o u t ' h o w to s a y it c o r r e c t l y ' . H e is p r o b a b l y t h e greatest z e a l o t o f the l a n g u a g e ' n o r m '

o f all t h e T a r i a n a .

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 2 2 / The l a n g u a g e a n d its s p e a k e r s

T h e y o u n g e s t sibling, M A R I A L O U R D E S s p e n t a l o n g t i m e w o r k i n g a s a m a i d in

C u r i t i b a , in s o u t h e r n Brazil. S h e s p e n t t h e b e s t part o f h e r early c h i l d h o o d living w i t h

n u n s . A s a result, s h e c a n u n d e r s t a n d T a r i a n a b u t is t o o s h y to s p e a k it ( s e e § 1 . 2 , o n t h e

h i g h level o f l a n g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y r e q u i r e d for p e o p l e to b e a b l e t o ' o p e n their m o u t h ' in

a l a n g u a g e ) . S h e h a s o n l y j u s t c o m e b a c k f r o m s o u t h e r n B r a z i l to live w i t h h e r p a r e n t s

a n d e l d e r sister in Iauarete.

L e o n a r d o ' s e l d e s t s o n R A F A E L ( b o r n in 1 9 7 3 ) , a t e a c h e r at t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l at S a n t a

R o s a , is r a p i d l y d e v e l o p i n g h i s skills in T a r i a n a , b e c o m i n g m o r e a n d m o r e fluent ( w i t h

t h e h e l p o f h i s father). H e c a n tell a c o h e r e n t albeit s i m p l e story in T a r i a n a , a n d c a r r y a

g o o d c o n v e r s a t i o n . H e w a s i n s t r u m e n t a l in c o - t e a c h i n g a c o u r s e in T a r i a n a for n o n -

s p e a k e r s a n d s e m i - s p e a k e r s , a n d t r a n s l a t i n g n u m e r o u s B r a z i l i a n s o n g s a n d C a t h o l i c

h y m n s i n t o T a r i a n a . H i s T a r i a n a is full o f T u c a n o c a i q u e s . H e s p e a k s T u c a n o w i t h his

w i f e , E d n a l u c i a , a n d T u c a n o , P o r t u g u e s e a n d T a r i a n a (in that o r d e r ) w i t h his y o u n g

c h i l d r e n . H e a n d J o s e L u i z w e r e i n s t r u m e n t a l in t e a c h i n g t h e T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e c o u r s e in

J u n e 2 0 0 0 .

J o s e M a n o e l ' s c h i l d r e n w h o live in S a n t a R o s a , S E B A S T I A O ( S a b a ) , a n d C R I S T I A N O

(Kiri) ( b o t h a b o u t 3 0 ) , a r e r e a s o n a b l y fluent in T a r i a n a . S a b a - w i t h w h o m J o s e M a n o e l

u s e d to live - s p e a k s better T a r i a n a t h a n Kiri; h e h a s a g o o d k n o w l e d g e o f h u n t i n g a n d

f i s h i n g p r a c t i c e s a n d is a r e a s o n a b l e story-teller. D u e to h i s father's i n f l u e n c e , h e

d i s p l a y s a significant d e g r e e o f v o w e l r e d u c t i o n , a n d d o e s n o t u s e 'the right evidentials'.

I n a d d i t i o n , h i s stories a r e full o f T u c a n o c a i q u e s ; h e t e n d s n o t to e m p l o y t h e indefinite

p e r s o n m a r k e r a n d p r e f e r s analytic p o s s e s s i o n to synthetic (see C h a p t e r 6). Kiri - w i t h

w h o m J o s e M a n o e l lives n o w - is a n a v e r a g e story-teller. H e s e e m s to h a v e difficulties

in c o m m u n i c a t i n g i n T a r i a n a , a n d s p e a k s o n l y T u c a n o w i t h h i s p e e r s . H e e n j o y s great

r e s p e c t in t h e v i l l a g e , h a v i n g b e e n e l e c t e d its c h i e f ('capitao'). J o s e M a n o e l ' s d a u g h t e r s

C L E M E N T I N A a n d J O A N I N H A w h o live in I a u a r e t e a n d are m a r r i e d to T u c a n o m e n t h e r e ,

are g o o d s p e a k e r s ; b o t h c o m p l a i n o f getting a bit 'rusty' for w a n t o f p e o p l e w i t h w h o m

t o s p e a k T a r i a n a . J o s e M a n o e l ' s y o u n g e s t s o n N u (short for J o a o ) lives w i t h h i s t w o

o t h e r sisters ( w h o m I h a v e n ' t m e t ) in B a l a i o , a T u c a n o settlement. H e is a c o m p e t e n t

s p e a k e r a n d s e e m s t o h a v e a c q u i r e d a taste for w r i t i n g in T a r i a n a d u r i n g t h e T a r i a n a

l a n g u a g e c o u r s e a n d p e d a g o g i c a l w o r k s h o p in J u n e 2 0 0 0 .

R i c a r d o Brito's t w o s o n s ( b o t h a b o u t 3 0 ) live in S a n t a R o s a w h i l e his o t h e r f o u r

c h i l d r e n a r e s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e V a u p e s area. E M I L I O is o n e o f t h e b e s t story-tellers in t h e

v i l l a g e ; h e is fluent a n d witty. H e h a s a v a s t k n o w l e d g e o f t h e local flora a n d fauna. H i s

T a r i a n a is s a i d to 'be i n f l u e n c e d b y H o h o d e n e ' (a dialect o f B a n i w a o f l £ a n a ) , o f w h i c h

h e s e e m s t o h a v e s o m e k n o w l e d g e : h e c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e s -pida ('present reported') i n s t e a d

o f r e c e n t p a s t a n d r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d , o m i t s t h e indefinite p e r s o n m a r k e r a n d u s e s a

r e d u c e d s y s t e m o f classifiers. S i m i l a r l y to t h e s p e a k e r s o f t h e P e r i q u i t o s variety, h e

d i s t i n g u i s h e s a g e n e r a l a n i m a t e n u m e r a l classifier (e.g. p a i t e ' o n e ( a n i m a t e ) ' ) f r o m a

g e n e r a l i n a n i m a t e o n e (e.g. p a i t a ' o n e ( i n a n i m a t e ) m a n - m a d e object'), u n l i k e t h e

m a i n s t r e a m s p e a k e r s o f t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect w h o u s e t h e g e n e r a l i n a n i m a t e f o r m to

c o v e r a n i m a t e s a n d i n a n i m a t e m a n - m a d e o b j e c t s (paita 'one ( a n i m a t e o r m a n - m a d e

object)'). H i s w i f e , S i l v a n a , u n d e r s t a n d s b a s i c T a r i a n a ( s h e is T u c a n o , b u t h e r m o t h e r

w a s T a r i a n a ) . H i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r R A I M U N D O is a v e r y g o o d s p e a k e r , b u t h e d o e s n o t

feel c o n f i d e n t e n o u g h t o tell a full story in T a r i a n a . H i s T a r i a n a is v e r y s i m i l a r to that o f

E m i l i o ; t h e y b o t h s p e a k T a r i a n a a n d a l s o T u c a n o w i t h D i k a , their father, a n d n o t h i n g

b u t T u c a n o w i t h their w i v e s a n d c h i l d r e n .

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 1.9 Materials and speakers 2 3

J U V E N A L ( J u v e n a ) , like h i s e l d e r b r o t h e r A B E L A R D O ( A v e ) , h a d b e e n t h o u g h t b y

e v e r y o n e n o t t o s p e a k a n y T a r i a n a at all. T h e i r father J u m ( A m e r i c o Brito's y o u n g e r

b r o t h e r ) h a d d i e d w h e n t h e y w e r e little, a n d their m o t h e r A m e l i a b r o u g h t t h e m u p all o n

h e r o w n . A m e l i a ( a G u a n a n o herself) - w h o n o w lives w i t h A v e - s p e a k s g o o d T a r i a n a .

H o w e v e r , a c o u p l e o f w e e k s after I h a d arrived, J u v e n a v o l u n t e e r e d t o tell a story in

T a r i a n a , a n d d i d it v e r y w e l l , to t h e s u r p r i s e d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f all t h e o t h e r s . J u v e n a ' s

level o f c o m p e t e n c e is s i m i l a r to that o f R a f a e l , a n d his lexical k n o w l e d g e s e e m s to b e

g o o d ; h e is n o w v e r y k e e n t o s p e a k t h e l a n g u a g e . H i s eldest d a u g h t e r , A n a s t a s i a , is a l s o

k e e n t o l e a r n t h e l a n g u a g e , a n d w h i l e I w a s in t h e village, m a d e a n a t t e m p t to s p e a k it.

J u v e n a ' s e l d e r b r o t h e r A v e , t h e d e p u t y - c h i e f o f t h e village, d o e s n o t s p e a k T a r i a n a , b u t

d o e s u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a n g u a g e ; h e w a s b e g i n n i n g to s p e a k it w h e n I h a d to l e a v e .

A b e l a r d o ' s w i f e , C R I S T I N A (Kiri), is t h e d a u g h t e r o f C a n d i d o ' s late s e c o n d c o u s i n

J u l i a m a r r i e d t o A l b i n o (a H o h o d e n e ; s e e b e l o w ) . T h e y u s e d to live c l o s e to S a n t a

T e r e z i n h a o n t h e Iauari river. C r i s t i n a is fluent in T a r i a n a a n d in H o h o d e n e , a s w e l l a s in

T u c a n o , b u t s h e is n o t a g o o d story-teller. H e r T a r i a n a is a m i x t u r e o f t h e S a n t a R o s a

a n d S a n t a T e r e z i n h a varieties, w i t h a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e f r o m H o h o d e n e : s h e u s e s S a n t a

T e r e z i n h a 3 s g n f p r e f i x ri- i n s t e a d o f T a r i a n a di-, a n d S a n t a T e r e z i n h a -peta i n s t e a d o f

S a n t a R o s a -pita 'again'. C l e a r l y s h e w a s h a v i n g difficulty k e e p i n g h e r B a n i w a

H o h o d e n e a n d h e r T a r i a n a apart. S h e s p e a k s H o h o d e n e to h e r father, A l b i n o ( n o w a b o u t

1 0 0 y e a r s o l d ) . A L B I N O is a fluent s p e a k e r o f t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a dialect o f T a r i a n a , a n d

o f B a n i w a H o h o d e n e ; h e is still v e r y active, b u t w o u l d n o t tell a story in T a r i a n a

b e c a u s e 'it i s n o t h i s l a n g u a g e ' . Cristina's eldest d a u g h t e r , I R E N I ( a b o u t t w e l v e y e a r s old),

is t h e o n l y c h i l d in t h e v i l l a g e w h o c a n u n d e r s t a n d a n d s a y s i m p l e t h i n g s in T a r i a n a . S h e

w a s b o r n b e f o r e C r i s t i n a m a r r i e d A v e , a n d h e r father is u n k n o w n , so, a c c o r d i n g to

O l i v i a , A l b i n o t o o k t h e p l a c e o f h e r father: h e t r e a t e d h e r a s a n e t h n i c T a r i a n a a n d s p o k e

T a r i a n a to h e r ( a n d c o n t i n u e s to d o so); this e x p l a i n s h e r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e l a n g u a g e .

J A C I N T O - w h o lives in t h e s a m e h o u s e a s Cristina, A v e , A m e l i a a n d A l b i n o - is t h e

s o n o f E d u a r d o B r i t o ( C a n d i d o ' s s e c o n d c o u s i n ) a n d his w i f e A n t o n i a ( H o h o d e n e ) . H e

s p e a k s fluent H o h o d e n e a n d T u c a n o , a n d also p a s s a b l e T a r i a n a : h e is c o n s i d e r e d a

c o m p e t e n t s p e a k e r . J a c i n t o is v e r y s h y ( w h i c h is w h y w h e n e v e r u r g e d to tell a story h e

w o u l d s i m p l y g o a w a y ) , but, in spite o f h i s y o u n g a g e ( h e is n o m o r e t h a n 2 0 ) , h e is a

v e r y e x p e r i e n c e d h u n t e r a n d fisherman. H i s T a r i a n a is t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a , a n d n o t t h e

S a n t a R o s a , variety.

I briefly m e t E d u a r d o B r i t o , h i s w i f e A n t o n i a ( w h o live in t h e c o m m u n i t y o f S a o

P e d r o o n t h e V a u p e s ) , a n d h i s c h i l d r e n M a r t a a n d L a u r e a n o . E d u a r d o B r i t o is a fluent

s p e a k e r . H i s w i f e a n d c h i l d r e n a r e fluent in T a r i a n a ; their T a r i a n a is a n interesting

m i x t u r e w i t h H o h o d e n e .

T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f P e r i q u i t o s ( a b o u t fifty p e o p l e , i n c l u d i n g s m a l l

c h i l d r e n a n d w o m e n ) a r e fluent in T a r i a n a . T h e t h r e e e l d e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , all in

their mid-fifties - M a r i n o , J o r g e a n d M a x i m i l i a n o M u n i z - m a k e it a p o i n t to s p e a k

n o t h i n g b u t T a r i a n a w i t h their c h i l d r e n , a n d s o d o their c h i l d r e n w i t h their o w n c h i l d r e n .

In particular, all M a r i n o ' s c h i l d r e n - f r o m 2 7 - y e a r o l d D o m i n g o , t h e v i c e - c h i e f o f t h e

village, t o 1 0 - y e a r o l d B o s c o - a r e v e r y fluent. L a u r o M u n i z , a local s c h o o l teacher,

r e c e n t l y c o m p i l e d a n a l p h a b e t b o o k in t h e T a r i a n a o f P e r i q u i t o s ( w h i c h I w a s a s k e d to

c h e c k for 'spelling m i s t a k e s ' ) . T h e P e r i q u i t o s e l d e r s are less e l o q u e n t story-tellers t h a n

t h e B r i t o s a n d k n o w less a b o u t their origins. F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e y h a d difficulty

r e m e m b e r i n g t h e n a m e o f their g r a n d f a t h e r a n d e v e n s o m e o f their o w n s a c r e d n a m e s .

H o w e v e r , t h e y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n - in p a r t i c u l a r t h e village c h i e f I s m a e l , t h e v i c e - c h i e f

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 2 4 7 The l a n g u a g e a n d its s p e a k e r s

D o m i n g o , a n d B a t i s t a M u n i z , all in their t w e n t i e s - a p p e a r to b e m u c h m o r e l a n g u a g e -

c o n s c i o u s t h a n their p e e r s a m o n g t h e S a n t a R o s a T a r i a n a , w h o d o n o t s p e a k t h e

l a n g u a g e . T h e y a r e m o s t e a g e r to m a i n t a i n t h e l a n g u a g e in their h o m e s a n d to c r e a t e

their o w n p r o g r a m o f l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g .

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 2

P h o n o l o g y

T a r i a n a h a s a l a r g e i n v e n t o r y o f p h o n e m e s , c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e closely related B a n i w a o f

I c a n a a n d w i t h n e i g h b o u r i n g E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s . T a r i a n a p h o n o l o g y h a s u n d e r g o n e

a s t r o n g areal i m p a c t f r o m T u c a n o (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 a a n d 1 9 9 9 c ) .

2.1 S e g m e n t a l p h o n o l o g y

T h e b a s i c syllable p a t t e r n in T a r i a n a is ( C i ) V ( C 2 ) w h e r e C2 c a n b e h, y a n d rarely n , a n d

C i c a n b e a n y c o n s o n a n t (see d i s c u s s i o n in §2.2.1). A n o t a b l e feature o f T a r i a n a is that

p h o n o t a c t i c restrictions o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c o n s o n a n t s a n d o f v o w e l s d e p e n d o n t h e

t y p e o f m o r p h e m e s (roots, affixes a n d clitic) s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e s 2.2 a n d 2.4.'

2.7.7 C o n s o n a n t s

T h e p h o n o l o g i c a l s y s t e m o f T a r i a n a c o n s o n a n t s is s h o w n in T a b l e 2 . 1 . C o n s o n a n t s

differ in f r e q u e n c y a n d in p h o n o t a c t i c restrictions ( s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 2.2 at t h e e n d o f

this s e c t i o n ) .

T a r i a n a h a s labial, a p i c o - d e n t a l a n d v e l a r stops, w i t h v o i c i n g d i s t i n c t i o n s o n l y in t h e

labial a n d d e n t a l series. V o i c e l e s s s t o p s c a n b e a s p i r a t e d o r u n a s p i r a t e d . In t h e

r e m a i n d e r o f this s e c t i o n I d i s c u s s t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c o n s o n a n t s .

A . S T O P S . V o i c e l e s s bilabial s t o p s - u n a s p i r a t e d a n d a s p i r a t e d - o c c u r in r o o t s in initial

a n d in m e d i a l p o s i t i o n , e.g. p u . w e ' c a p u c h i n m o n k e y ' , p u m e n i p e r i 'sugar', dipe 'his m e a t ' ;

k u . p h e 'fish'; phirimitfi 'cotton', p h i r i p a n a k w d r i 'nightingale', ydphini 'thing'. T h e

u n a s p i r a t e d p o c c u r s in t h e initial p o s i t i o n in suffixes, e.g. -pi 'classifier: l o n g t h i n

things', w h i l e p h o c c u r s in b o t h initial a n d m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s , e.g. -phe 'classifier:

leaflike1, - m a p h a 'classifier: c o m p l e t e l y covered'. In enclitics, t h e p h o n e m e p is f o u n d

2
o n l y in t h e enclitic-initial p o s i t i o n , e.g. =pidd 'present reported', =padd 'contrast', w h i l e

its a s p i r a t e d c o u n t e r p a r t o c c u r s o n l y m e d i a l l y in o n e A k t i o n s a r t enclitic, =Uphe 'hold

firmly'.

1
A l o n g similar lines, m a n y Afroasiatic languages, for instance, H e b r e w , distinguish b e t w e e n consonants

w h i c h occur in r o o t s , a n d those w h i c h occur in affixes (called 'servile', b y medieval H e b r e w g r a m m a r i a n s

(see e.g. G e s e n i u s 1984: 83)). That is, p h o n o l o g i c a l restrictions on occurrence of consonants d e p e n d on

the type o f m o r p h e m e .
2
In the enclitic =tiipe 'diminutive plural', w h o s e singular counterpart i s =titki> p e is a p l u r a l suffix, and not

part of the enclitic.

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 2 6 2 Phonology

T A B L E 2.1 C O N S O N A N T S

A P I C O - A P I C O - A L V E O - L A M I N O - D O R S O -
B I L A B I A L G L O T T A L
D E N T A L P A L A T A L P A L A T A L V E L A R

V O I C E L E S S S T O P t *
P
A S P I R A T E D V O I C E L E S S S T O P
P h th k h

V O I C E D S T O P b d
(g)
A S P I R A T E D V O I C E D S T O P dh

V O I C E L E S S F R I C A T I V E S h

V O I C E L E S S A F F R I C A T E
tf
N A S A L m n h

A S P I R A T E D N A S A L m h n h n h

F L A P f

L A T E R A L I

S E M I - V O W E L w y
A S P I R A T E D S E M I - V O W E L w h

T h e v o i c e d bilabial s t o p b is f o u n d in a f e w n o u n r o o t s in t h e root-initial a n d root-

m e d i a l p o s i t i o n , e.g. b a m u n a 'jungle m a n g o (Calophyllum brasiliensis, f a m .

Guttiferae)\ b i b i . k h a 'a t y p e o f c u r v e d vine', a n d in a f e w v e r b a l r o o t s in root-initial

p o s i t i o n . M o s t o f t h e s e r o o t s are T u c a n o l o a n s (see § 2 6 . 1 . 3 ) , e.g. T a r i a n a -besitd

' c h o o s e , revise', T u c a n o bese 'choose', T a r i a n a -boletd 'defeather', T u c a n o bure

'defeather, h u s k ' ; T a r i a n a - b u e t a 'teach, learn', T u c a n o bu'e 'teach, learn'; T a r i a n a -buetd

' b l o w fire', T u c a n o bue ' b l o w fire, s m o k e - d r y ' ; T a r i a n a -batd 'swing', T a r i a n a -batutd

' s w i n g w i t h force'. T h i s p h o n e m e is a l s o f o u n d in t h e initial p o s i t i o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n a l

enclitic = b u h t a , =bohtd ( w h i c h m i g h t also b e a l o a n f r o m T u c a n o : s e e § 2 6 . 1 . 3 ) , in t h e

e p i s t e m i c b a , a l o a n f r o m T u c a n o (see § 2 5 . 5 . 3 ) a n d in t h e f o l l o w i n g A k t i o n s a r t enclitics

( w h i c h p r o b a b l y g o b a c k t o g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d v e r b a l roots: s e e § 1 5 . 2 . 2 a n d T a b l e 1 5 . 3 ;

a n d A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 b ) : =bosa ' b r e a k b y s m a s h i n g , split', =bili 'inside', =bala 'in e v e r y

d i r e c t i o n , e v e r y w h e r e ' a n d =bisi 'into fire'.

T h e p h o n e m e b is rare in t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e a r e a (see

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , in B a n i w a o f l9ana, b is restricted to a f e w lexical

i t e m s , at least s o m e o f w h i c h c o u l d b e o n o m a t o p o e i c , e.g. b u k u k u r i 'owl'; it n e v e r

a p p e a r s in a n y g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e s .

V o i c e l e s s a p i c o - d e n t a l stops, u n a s p i r a t e d a n d aspirated, are f o u n d in roots, in affixes

a n d in enclitics, b o t h in initial a n d in m e d i a l position, e.g. t a r i w a 'traditional flute',

turdpa 'cone', d i - t u d a 'he breaks', Ate ' a n i m a t e n o u n class m a r k e r ' , =ta 'again'; t h d . r o

'butterfly', t h u i m e 'all', p e t h e ' m a n i o c b r e a d , beiju', -kuthe 'classifier for m a n i o c bread',

- t h d 'frustrative', =thard 'precative'.

T h e v o i c e d u n a s p i r a t e d d e n t a l s t o p o c c u r s in initial a n d in m e d i a l p o s i t i o n in roots, in

affixes a n d i n enclitics, e.g. de.fi 'banana', d o l o 'a fly', n u - d i a 'I g o back', n u - a w a d a 'I

t h i n k , I r e m e m b e r ' , -du 'feminine', =dd ' a p p r e h e n s i v e ' , =dakd 'yet ( a s p e c t enclitic)'. In

i n f o r m a l s p e e c h , d alternates w i t h / b e f o r e o r after a front v o w e l . T h u s , =pidana ' r e m o t e

p a s t r e p o r t e d ' is o p t i o n a l l y r e a l i s e d a s =pirand, n e g a t i o n - k a d e , -de (see B u n d e r § 2 . 5 . 3 )

a s - k a r e , o r -re, a n d k i d a , kayda 'ready, finished' (see A u n d e r § 2 . 5 . 3 o n v a r i a t i o n

b e t w e e n ai/ay a n d /) a s kira a n d kaira. T h i s alternation is the result o f a T u c a n o

i n f l u e n c e : in T u c a n o a n d m o s t o t h e r E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s t h e i n t e r v o c a l i c d s u r f a c e s

a s r a f t e r a front v o w e l ( R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1 : 3 1 ) .

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 2.1 Segmental phonology 2 7

T h e d e n t a l v o i c e d a s p i r a t e d s t o p dh h a s a l i m i t e d distribution. M o s t often, it o c c u r s as

t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s dV- + - h o n a p r e f i x - r o o t b o u n d a r y in w o r d -

initial p o s i t i o n , e.g. dhipa <— di-hipa ( 3 s g n f - g r a b ) 'he grabs', dhupa «— du-hipa (3sgf-

g r a b ) 'she g r a b s ' (see §2.5.1). T h e A k t i o n s a r t enclitic =dhala 'unstick' w i t h t h e

c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b - d h a l a 'get u n s t u c k ' , a n d t h e enclitic =dhuli 'be f o l d e d into t w o '

( w h i c h d o e s n o t h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b ) are t h e o n l y i n s t a n c e s o f a m o r p h e m e - i n i t i a l

dh t h a t d o e s n o t c o m e f r o m a s e q u e n c e d a n d h. T h e i r e t y m o l o g y is u n k n o w n .

T h e v o i c e d v e l a r g o c c u r s o n l y in l o a n s f r o m P o r t u g u e s e , e.g. G r a c i l i a n o , Gara
3
( s h o r t for G r a c i l i a n o ) , G a b r i e l ' S a o G a b r i e l d a Cachoeira'.

V o i c e l e s s v e l a r s t o p s - a s p i r a t e d a n d u n a s p i r a t e d - are f o u n d in roots, affixes a n d

enclitics, in initial p o s i t i o n a n d in r o o t - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n , e.g. k u h e n i 'crab', kali-si 'story',

n u - k a w d - n a ' m y leg', -ku 'classifier: f o l d e d cloth', - m a k a 'classifier: e x t e n d e d cloth', =kd

' s e q u e n t i a l m a r k e r ' , =sika 'present inferred', khewdka 'deep', k u l e k h a 'fishing line', -khi

'classifier: t h i n c u r v e d objects', =khuli ' w a g o n e ' s tail' ( A k t i o n s a r t enclitic). K h is n o t

f o u n d i n affix- o r e n c l i t i c - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n .

B . F R I C A T I V E S A N D A F F R I C A T E S . T h e v o i c e l e s s a p i c o - a l v e o - p a l a t a l fricative s o c c u r s in

initial a n d m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s in r o o t s , suffixes a n d enclitics, e.g. sipi ' b l o w g u n ' , isa

' s m o k e ' , p u s i t d 'clearing in j u n g l e ' , -satd 'ask', -si ' n o n - p o s s e s s e d n o u n form', -se

'locative', =sa ' t i g h t l y ' , =bisi 'into fire'.

T h e v o i c e l e s s l a m i n o - p a l a t a l affricate $f o c c u r s in root-initial a n d - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s ,

e.g. itfida 'turtle', itfa 'hair', tfari 'man', atfa 'men', mdtfa 'good', tfa 'Oh!', b u t n o t in

affixes o r enclitics.

T h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n s a n d tf t e n d s to b e n e u t r a l i s e d b e f o r e h i g h v o w e l s in

p o l y s y l l a b i c w o r d s , e.g. nuketfipe, nukesipe ' m y b l o o d relatives', k u i 0 , k u i s i ' m u t u m

bird', tftpdre, sipdre 'urine'. In s o m e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d w o r d s , 0 is n e v e r p r o n o u n c e d as

[si], e.g. 0 n u 'dog' o r i 0 d ' g a m e ' . T h e p h o n e m e s ^ a n d s c o n t r a s t b e f o r e / in a f e w

e x a m p l e s , e.g. 1 0 ' h o w l e r m o n k e y ' , isi 'oil, fat', k a r u 0 'a s m a l l e r k i n d o f a r a c u fish',

k a r u s i 'a b i g g e r k i n d o f a r a c u fish', kutfiru 'a k i n d o f evil spirit', k u s i r u 'drum', a n d b e f o r e

a, e.g. isa ' s m o k e , w o u n d ' , itfa 'hair'; t h e y t e n d to b e n e u t r a l i s e d w h e n t h e r e is n o

4
m i n i m a l pair. T h e p h o n e m e s h a s a n a l l o p h o n e [ts] b e f o r e u a n d o, e.g. sui-te, tsu-ite

' s m a l l ( a n i m a t e ) ' , s u p e , tsupe 'type o f fish', s u d e r i , tsuderi 'edible caterpillar', s o m e , tsome

'a lot', a n d b e f o r e a s e q u e n c e o f front v o w e l s , e.g. sie, tsie 'firewood'. T h e p h o n e m e §fcan

b e p r o n o u n c e d a s [ts] b e f o r e u a n d /, e . g . m a 0 : t e , matsi:te ' g o o d ( a n i m a t e ) ' , 0 n u , tsinu

'dog', p a - 0 m d i i , p a - t s i m d r i 'one's s o n - i n - l a w ' , p d : 0 , pa.tsi 'other ( o f different kind)',

tfuniri, tsuniri 'real one'. T h e o n l y e x a m p l e o f tf b e f o r e o is t h e interjection tfol ' O h !

3
Just a few other N o r t h A r a w a k languages h a v e g as a p h o n e m e . Its origin in W a r e k e n a o f X i e is

u n k n o w n ( A i k h e n v a l d 1998a), while in R e s i g a r o g corresponds to r or r in o t h e r A r a w a k languages (see

A i k h e n v a l d forthcoming-b).
4
This variation o f sibilant p h o n e m e s in Tariana can be accounted for by areal pressure from T u c a n o

languages, m o s t o f w h i c h h a v e just o n e sibilant p h o n e m e (s), and also by language obsolescence, which

typically results in excessive variability of segments (see C a m p b e l l and M u n t z e l 1989). T h o s e w h o

usually s p e a k only T u c a n o at h o m e tend to h a v e m o r e free variation b e t w e e n tfand s; for instance, Batista

Brito, an older s p e a k e r w h o does not h a v e m u c h opportunity for using the language, replaces $f w i t h s

e v e n in itftii 'game'. E v e n L e o n a r d o Brito, o n e o f the m o s t fluent speakers and a sophisticated story-teller

1
w h o speaks T a r i a n a at h o m e about half the time, occasionally p r o n o u n c e d -sini 'also as -tfini.

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 2 8 2 Phonology

(surprise)'; this interjection is n e v e r p r o n o u n c e d as * tso! T h e r e is n o c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n s

5
a n d £fin t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect (see A p p e n d i x ) .

T h e glottal fricative h o c c u r s in root-, affix- a n d enclitic-initial p o s i t i o n , e.g. h e k i i n a

'tree', h a n u i t e 'big ( a n i m a t e ) ' , -hipa 'grab', -hupa 'wash', -hyu ' n o n - v i s u a l p u r p o s i v e ' ,

=hala 'be o p e n ' ( A k t i o n s a r t enclitic), =hu 'away'. It a p p e a r s in m e d i a l p o s i t i o n in

p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s , e.g. d i h a 'he' ( s e e T a b l e s 2.6 a n d 8.1), in p r e f i x e d v e r b s in a s l o w

s p e e c h register, e.g. di-hilitu (3sgnf-fish) 'he fishes' ( n o r m a l s p e e c h register f o r m is

dhilitu), a n d in a f e w isolated l e x e m e s , e.g. -duiha 'dislike', k e h u r i 'a t y p e o f ant' a n d

k u h e n i ' c r a b ' ; it c a n a l s o o c c u r in c o d a p o s i t i o n (see §2.2.1). T h e r e a r e n o r o o t s w i t h t w o

h p h o n e m e s . T h e root-initial h is often n o t p r o n o u n c e d in r a p i d i n f o r m a l s p e e c h ; t h u s ,

he m a 'tapir' a n d halite 'early in t h e m o r n i n g ' often s u r f a c e a s [ema] a n d [alite]. T h e

c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n h a n d o w o r d - i n i t i a l l y c a n b e illustrated w i t h a f e w p a i r s like halite

'early in t h e m o r n i n g ' a n d alite (a v a r i a n t o f ali:te) 'the e x i s t i n g one'.

C . N A S A L S . U n a s p i r a t e d bilabial a n d d e n t a l n a s a l s o c c u r in all p o s i t i o n s in r o o t s a n d

affixes, e.g. m: m d w a r i ' a n a c o n d a snake', - m u k h u a 'rinse ( m o u t h ) ' , a m a k u ' h a m m o c k ' ,

- m a 'classifier: f e m i n i n e ' , -yami 'classifier: p i e c e o f c l o t h ' ; n: u:ni 'water', n a w i k i 'person',

i n a r u ' w o m a n ' , -nd 'want', -ni ' t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g derivation', - k w a n a 'classifier: p l a i n

objects', =yand 'pejorative', =na ' r e m o t e p a s t visual'. T h e p h o n e m e m o c c u r s o n l y in

initial p o s i t i o n in enclitics, e.g. =mdha 'while', =miki/i ' n o m i n a l p a s t s i n g u l a r n o n -

f e m i n i n e ' ; n o c c u r s in all p o s i t i o n s in all t y p e s o f m o r p h e m e s .

T h e l a m i n o - p a l a t a l n a s a l h o c c u r s in root-initial a n d in r o o t - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s , e.g.

ndpi 'bone', h d m u ' m i n o r evil spirit', h e w i 'otter,' ihe ' m a j o r evil spirit', sahdpe 'sweat',
6
- 'hare 'disappear', -ken(w)a 'begin', a n d in j u s t t w o e n c l i t i c s , =hu 'step o n s o m e t h i n g a n d

feel pain' a n d =maha ' w h i l e ' . It n e v e r o c c u r s in affixes. T h i s p h o n e m e is in free v a r i a t i o n

w i t h y if f o l l o w e d o r p r e c e d e d b y a labial c o n s o n a n t , e.g. y d p i , ndpi 'bone', y d p u , hdpu

'stream', y a m a , h a m a 'two' a n d p a m u y a , p a m u n a 'middle'. T h e r e is n o v a r i a t i o n if a w o r d

c o n t a i n s t w o Pi, e.g. n a n a ' m a d i fish'.

E a c h n a s a l in T a r i a n a h a s a n a s p i r a t e d c o u n t e r p a r t - m h , n h a n d nh.1 O f t h e s e , m h

o c c u r s in root-initial a n d r o o t - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n in a b o u t a d o z e n m o r p h e m e s , e.g. mhdida

'few, p r o h i b i t i v e ' , k d . m h e r u ' c u c u r a fruit', w a d e m h e 'later on', kemhdni 'the o n e w h o

w a l k s ' . T h i s p h o n e m e also o c c u r s in initial p o s i t i o n in j u s t t w o enclitics: =mha 'present

n o n - v i s u a l ' a n d =mhe 'admirative'.

T h e a s p i r a t e d n a s a l n h o c c u r s in t h e initial a n d m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s o f a f e w roots, e.g.

nhdri 'cacuri' (a t y p e o f fish net), nhesiri ' l i k e ' , -dnhi ' u n d e r s t a n d , feel', a n d in t h e initial

p o s i t i o n o f a f e w v e r b a l enclitics, e.g. =nhi 'anterior', =nhd 'visual p r e s e n t interrogative',

= n h i n a ' n o n - v i s u a l a p p r e h e n s i v e ' . It d o e s n o t o c c u r in a n y affixes.

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This pronunciation difference w a s the object of j o k e s b y the speakers of the Santa R o s a variety, w h o

maintained that the Periquitos variety u n d e r w e n t a stronger T u c a n o influence than their o w n .

6
T h e sign ' indicates that the stress falls on the syllable preceding that o f the root, e.g. nu-nare '1

disappear'.
7
A characteristic feature of N o r t h A r a w a k languages of the I c a n a - V a u p e s is t h e presence of aspirated

nasals.

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 2.1 Segmental phonology 2 9

T h e a s p i r a t e d l a m i n o - p a l a t a l n a s a l h h is v e r y rare: it a p p e a r s in j u s t t h r e e r o o t s - t w o
8 9
h o m o p h o n e s - n h a 'eat' a n d its derivatives, - n h a ' p o i n t at', a n d kuphihheda 'tumour'.

T h e a s p i r a t e d n a s a l s o f t e n arise a s a result o f t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s o f h -

m e t a t h e s i s o n t h e p r e f i x - r o o t b o u n d a r y , e.g. ma-hema-kdde ( N E G - h e a r - N E G ) —> m h e m a -

kdde ' d o e s n o t hear', n u - h u m a ( l s g - h e a r ) —• n h u m a ' I h e a r ' , nama-hipa ( t w o - C L : H U M A N )

—• n h a m e p a ' t w o ( p e o p l e ) ' (see §2.5.1).

D . L I Q U I D S . T a r i a n a h a s t w o liquid p h o n e m e s : lateral / a n d f l a p p e d r. T h e a p i c o - a l v e o -

palatal lateral / a p p e a r s in a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f lexical r o o t s w i t h u n k n o w n e t y m o l o g y , in

w o r d - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n a n d w o r d - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n , e.g. leka 'break', l e s a 'boil', lape 'mud',

d o l o 'fly', k e s o l e ' b r o w n , m u d d y ' , -pdla 'put', -sole 'carry', y a k d s o l o 'necklace', taldma

'flute', a n d i n a f e w A k t i o n s a r t enclitics in m e d i a l position, e.g. =hala 'be open', =bala

'in e v e r y direction', =hold 'spill water', =khuli 'rub a g a i n s t s o m e o n e in a friendly w a y ,

e.g. a cat; slip o u t o f h a n d ' , =llphe 'hold firmly', b u t n o t in o t h e r g r a m m a t i c a l

m o r p h e m e s . T h i s p h o n e m e also o c c u r s in rare l o a n w o r d s f r o m I n d o - E u r o p e a n

l a n g u a g e s , e.g. l a m a 'be a f l a m e ' (possibly, f r o m S p a n i s h l l a m a 'flame') a n d lapi 'pencil'

( f r o m P o r t u g u e s e lapis).

T h e f l a p p e d r o c c u r s in initial a n d m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s o f roots, suffixes a n d enclitics,

e.g. - k u d s a ' g n a w ' , t h a w 'butterfly', ke:ru 'angry', - d 'son'; - d 'relativiser', - k a d 'past

participle', = w e d 'crush b y c o m p r e s s i n g ( w i t h a hit, o r a bite)' ( a n A k t i o n s a r t enclitic:

§ 1 5 . 2 . 2 a n d T a b l e 15.3).

T h e f l a p p e d r d o e s n o t o c c u r in w o r d - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n , t h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n s b e i n g d k i

'pus' ( w h i c h h a s a v a r i a n t diki) a n d d t e n a 'more', also realised a s d i t e n a o r as litena (see

§ 1 8 . 5 ) . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that t h e P r o t o - A r a w a k third p e r s o n s i n g u l a r c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g

p r e f i x e s *ru- 'third p e r s o n s i n g u l a r f e m i n i n e ' a n d *d- 'third p e r s o n s i n g u l a r n o n -

f e m i n i n e ' (cf. P a y n e 1 9 9 1 ; a l s o cf. B a n i w a o f I c a n a ru-, d - ) result in du- a n d di-

r e s p e c t i v e l y in T a r i a n a . W o r d - i n i t i a l r is realised a s d e v e n in p e r s o n a l n a m e s o f a

P o r t u g u e s e origin. O n e o f t h e s p e a k e r s w h o s e full n a m e is R i c a r d o is u s u a l l y referred to

a s Dikd. ( S e e u n d e r D in § 3 . 1 . 2 . o n t h e s y n c o p e o f t h e last syllable a n d t h e c o d a o f t h e

s e c o n d s y l l a b l e characteristic for t h e f o r m a t i o n o f v o c a t i v e f o r m s in T a r i a n a . ) Similarly,

in T u c a n o , t h e initial r o r / o f P o r t u g u e s e l o a n s is u s u a l l y realised a s [n]d

( p r e n a s a l i s a t i o n is o p t i o n a l ) , e.g. D o s a , f r o m P o r t u g u e s e R o s a , o r D u i , f r o m P o r t u g u e s e

L u i z ( s e e R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 3 2 ) . ( P o r t u g u e s e p e c a d o 'sin' w a s b o r r o w e d into T a r i a n a

a s - p e k d m 'joke, play, m e s s a r o u n d ' : s e e §26.1.3.)

I m e n t i o n e d i n ( A ) a b o v e that d c a n b e realised as [r] b e f o r e o r after a front v o w e l .

Y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y p r o n o u n c e r a s d b e t w e e n t w o h i g h front v o w e l s ,

e s p e c i a l l y in P o r t u g u e s e p e r s o n a l n a m e s , e.g. E m i l i o is p r o n o u n c e d a s [ E m i r i o ] o r a s

[ E m i d i o ] . T h e p h o n e m e r o p t i o n a l l y alternates w i t h [d] in r o o t - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n if t h e

p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e c o n t a i n s a d e n t a l s t o p ; for i n s t a n c e , n u - m a t d r a 'I l e a v e , I stop' c a n b e

p r o n o u n c e d a s [ n u m a t a d a ] a n d = t h a r a 'precative' a s [ = t h a d a ] ; o r if t h e p r e c e d i n g syllable

8
This is o n e o f the m o s t stable roots in all the A r a w a k languages; it g o e s back to P r o t o - A r a w a k *nika

( P a y n e 1991). S e e §26.1.1.
9
T h e p h o n e m e hh is a l s o comparatively rare in B a n i w a of Icana (cf. Taylor 1 9 9 1 ) . Its c o m p a r a t i v e rarity

in Tariana m a y b e accounted for by language obsolescence p h e n o m e n a and areal pressure of T u c a n o a n

languages, w h i c h results in partial substitution of cognates with Baniwa, and subsequent 'loss' o f items

w h i c h contain 'original' Icana-Vaupes p h o n e m e s .

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 3 0 2 Phonology

c o n t a i n s a flap; taradd 'alive' c a n b e p r o n o u n c e d a s [tarara] a n d n u - k u d r a 'I paint' a s

[ n u - k u r i d a ] . T h e s e p h o n e t i c p r o c e s s e s a p p l y m o r e f r e q u e n t l y w i t h t h e s p e a k e r s w h o

h a v e little, o r n o o p p o r t u n i t y o f s p e a k i n g T a r i a n a at h o m e .

T h e flapped r is o f t e n realised a s a v i b r a n t r b e f o r e a h i g h v o w e l , e.g. [inaru]

' w o m a n ' , [ k a r u ] ' d a n g e r o u s ' , [hiparu] 'toad', [keiri] ' m o o n ' , [itfiri] 'animal', [ke:ru] 'angry',

[ k u r u n a ] ' q u e e n bee', [yapirikuri] 'traditional G o d ' (lit. t h e o n e o f t h e b o n e ) . E l s e w h e r e r

is t h e o n l y realisation, e.g. [tarada] 'alive', [ k a m a r a ] 'termite', [ m a r e d a p e ] 'large (plural)',

[ y a p u r a t u ] ' l o n g flute', [ y u r e m a ] 'cobra', [yaraki] 'caxiri o r m a n i o c beer' (the latter t w o

1 0
w o r d s a r e p r o b a b l y b o r r o w e d f r o m N h e e n g a t u ) .

If a w o r d c o n t a i n s t w o flaps, t h e first t e n d s to b e p r o n o u n c e d a s [1], e.g. w a d k i d

' y o u n g m a n ' o f t e n s u r f a c e s a s [walikiri].

E . G L I D E S . T a r i a n a h a s t h r e e glides: bilabial u n a s p i r a t e d w , a s p i r a t e d bilabial w h a n d

l a m i n o - p a l a t a l y . T h e u n a s p i r a t e d bilabial w o c c u r s in root-, affix- a n d enclitic-initial

a n d - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s , e.g. y d w i 'jaguar', m a w i n a 'pineapple', -dawa 'escape', w a - ' l p l

prefix', - y a w a 'classifier: hole', =wd ' p o s t p o n e d i m p e r a t i v e ' , =we/i 'smash'. T h i s

p h o n e m e is o p t i o n a l l y r e a l i s e d a s a l a b i o - d e n t a l fricative v b e f o r e front v o w e l s , e.g.

[ y a w i ] , [yavi] 'jaguar'; [ w i k a ] , [vika] 'on t o p of; [ p a : w e ] , [pa:ve] 'together'.

T h e a s p i r a t e d bilabial g l i d e w h is f o u n d in initial a n d m e d i a l p o s i t i o n in a f e w roots,

e.g. w h y u m e ' l a s t ' , tdwhi-pi ' m a c a i i b a , A c r o c o m i a a c u l e a t a . f a m . Palmae'; w h e a t 'type o f

s n u f f , k d . w h i ' w a k e u p , b e early in t h e m o r n i n g ' , k a w h i ' m a n i o c flour', a n d in affix-

initial p o s i t i o n i n a f e w affixes, -whya 'classifier: c a n o e s ' , - w h i 'classifier: particles'; it is

f o u n d in j u s t o n e enclitic in m e d i a l p o s i t i o n =kawhi 'do early in t h e m o r n i n g ' .

In w o r d - m e d i a l a n d w o r d - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n w h is t h e result o f t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s

o f ' h - m e t a t h e s i s ' o n a m o r p h o l o g i c a l b o u n d a r y , e.g. Yawi-hipani (jaguar-waterfall) —*

Yawhipani 'Iauarete, lit. J a g u a r ' s waterfall' (see u n d e r B in §2.5.1).

T h e p a l a t a l g l i d e y o c c u r s in root-, affix- a n d enclitic-initial a n d - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s ,

e.g. y e : 'armadillo', y d k a 'shrimp', p i d y a ' a v o c a d o ' , hawdya 'inga-fruit', e y a w a 'firm

g r o u n d ' , - y a w a 'classifier for holes', -kuya 'classifier: river s h o r e , straight stretch o f

river', =ya ' e m p h a t i c ' . In w o r d - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n ^ c a n b e realised a s dy o r ^ b e f o r e a n o n -

l o w v o w e l , e.g. y u m , d y u a t , c^uai 'larva', n u - y e n a , nu-d$ena 'I e x c e e d ' ; y m a y b e

p r o n o u n c e d a s $f b e f o r e e in nu-tjena.

10
Emilio Brito, a fluent y o u n g speaker w h o w a s brought u p in close contact with B a n i w a o f Icana a n d

with the Santa T e r e z i n h a dialect o f Tariana, occasionally p r o n o u n c e s ca% a voiced alveopalatal fricative j

before i, e . g . di-mina-ri 'his m a s t e r ' c o m e s out as [di-mfna-3i], a pronunciation typical for B a n i w a of Icana

a n d for the Santa Terezinha dialect.

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T A B L E 2.2 P H O N O T A C T I C R E S T R I C T I O N S O N T H E O C C U R R E N C E O F C O N S O N A N T S

R O O T - A F F I X - E N C L I T I C - R O O T - A F F I X - E N C L I T I C -

I N I T I A L I N I T I A L I N I T I A L M E D I A L M E D I A L M E D I A L

+ + + + - -
p
ph + + - + + +

b + - + (+) o n l y n o u n r o o t s - -

t + + + + + +

t h + + + + + +

d + + + + + +

d h (+) o n e root - (+) t w o enclitics - - -

k + + + + + +

k h + + + + - -

s + + + + + +

+ - - + - -
$
h + + 4- restricted - -

m + + + + + -

m h + (+) t w o enclitics + - -
(+)

n + + + + + +

n h + - + + - -

n + - (+) enclitic + - + o n e enclitic

n h + ( t w o roots) - - + o n e r o o t - -

r + + + + + +

1 + - - + - +

w + + + + + +

w h + + - + - (+) o n e enclitic

+ + + + + +
_y
 3 2 2 P h o n o l o g y

T h e glottal s t o p , a p h o n e m e in a n u m b e r o f E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s w h i c h is a b s e n t

f r o m N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o , s p o r a d i c a l l y a p p e a r s w o r d -

finally after a, e.g. d i - p d l a , d i - p d l a ? 'he put'. T h i s is typical o f s o m e y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s

w h o n o r m a l l y s p e a k T u c a n o in their h o m e s .

P h o n o t a c t i c restrictions o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c o n s o n a n t s in root-, affix- a n d enclitic-

initial a n d - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s are s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 2.2. I d i d n o t i n c l u d e a n y

i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e p h o n e m e s in proclitics, s i n c e t h e s e are a v e r y s m a l l

c l a s s in T a r i a n a (see §2.6). T h e s y m b o l (+) in T a b l e 2.2 indicates that t h e p h o n e m e

o c c u r s in a l i m i t e d set o f i t e m s .

T a b l e 2 . 2 s h o w s that all t h e a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e a s p i r a t e d v o i c e d

stop, a s p i r a t e d n a s a l s a n d t h e a s p i r a t e d bilabial glide, h a v e a restricted distribution.

S i n c e m o s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s h a v e n o a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t s , this m a y b e d u e to t h e areal

i n f l u e n c e f r o m T u c a n o .

2.1.2 Vowels

T h e T a r i a n a v o w e l p h o n e m e s are s h o w n in T a b l e 2 . 3 .

T A B L E 2.3 V O W E L S

F R O N T C E N T R A L B A C K

S H O R T N A S A L I S E D L O N G S H O R T N A S A L I S E D L O N G S H O R T N A S A L I S E D L O N G

C L O S E - H I G H i T i: i u u u:

M I D - C L O S E e e e: o 6

O P E N a a a:

E v e r y v o w e l , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f i, h a s a n a s a l c o u n t e r p a r t ; n e i t h e r / n o r o h a s a

l o n g c o u n t e r p a r t . M i d - c e n t r a l o a n d o a n d h i g h b a c k w, u a n d u: are r o u n d e d .

H i g h front s h o r t v o w e l i o c c u r s in root-, affix- a n d enclitic-initial, - m e d i a l a n d -final

p o s i t i o n s , e.g. i d 'blood', ira 'need', inaru ' w o m a n ' , hiparu 'toad', n u - i r a 'I d r i n k ' , mariye

'knife', keri 'sun, m o o n ' , -ita ' i n a n i m a t e classifier', - n i k i 'completed', =khdni 'straight

a w a y ' . Its l o n g c o u n t e r p a r t , i:, is f o u n d o n l y in r o o t s in a n o n - f i n a l p o s i t i o n , e.g. i:-peri

'stinking', hi:ri 'rat'. N a s a l T is f o u n d o n l y in r o o t - m e d i a l a n d in root-final p o s i t i o n s , e.g.

sipi ' b l o w g u n ' , hi ' d e m o n s t r a t i v e a n i m a t e ' , a f ' h e r e ' .

M i d - f r o n t s h o r t e is f o u n d in root-initial position, a n d in root-, affix - a n d enclitic-

m e d i a l a n d -final p o s i t i o n s , e.g. episi 'iron, s t o n e axe', eyawa 'firm land', kepiria 'bird',

kuphe 'fish', -ne 'plural'; -se 'locative', =thepi 'in(to) water', =ne 'instrumental'. In root-

final p o s i t i o n it h a s a n a l l o p h o n e e, a s in s i e 'firewood' a n d t e 'until'. Its l o n g c o u n t e r p a r t

is f o u n d o n l y in r o o t s in n o n - f i n a l position, e.g. e : n u 'thunder', d e . p i 'night', ne:ri 'deer'.

N a s a l e is f o u n d o n l y r o o t - m e d i a l l y a n d root-finally, e.g. y e d a 'mortar', -weya 'buy',

meda 'in v a i n , c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n ' , nuhepore ' m y navel', ate 'big anteater', iheda 'blind

s n a k e ' .

H i g h central / is e x t r e m e l y rare; it is f o u n d j u s t in the a u g m e n t a t i v e enclitic =pi

( p o s s i b l y a T u c a n o b o r r o w i n g a n d a v a r i a n t o f =pu\ s e e §9.6) a n d in o n o m a t o p o e i c

i h m e n i ' m o a n ' ( s e e a l s o § 2 . 7 o n h o w this s o u n d o c c u r s in p a u s a l f o r m s ) . It a p p e a r s as a n

o c c a s i o n a l a l l o p h o n e o f / in m a m w a t i , m a r a w a t i 'a t y p e o f s n u f f , hitisi, hitisi 'tear', a n d

-piti, -pit! ' c h a s e a w a y , kick'. Its e m e r g e n c e in T a r i a n a is p r o b a b l y d u e to areal diffusion

f r o m T u c a n o ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 a ) .

M i d - c e n t r a l s h o r t o is rare; it o c c u r s in r o o t - m e d i a l a n d root-final p o s i t i o n s , e.g. d o l o

'fly', -boletd 'defeather', - k h o r e n a 'servant', a n d in t h e e n c l i t i c - m e d i a l a n d enclitic-final

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 2 . 1 S e g m e n t a l p h o n o l o g y 3 3

p o s i t i o n s , =bdsa ' b r e a k b y s m a s h i n g , split', =hold 'spill (water)', =kholo 'roll over'. T h e

dialect o f S a n t a R o s a s h o w s free v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n o a n d u in t h e f e m i n i n e d e r i v a t i o n a l

suffix - d o , -du in n u - k e f l - d o , nu-ketfi-du ' m y f e m i n i n e relative' (see §2.3.5). Its n a s a l

c o u n t e r p a r t 6 is q u i t e rare; it is f o u n d in m e d i a l a n d final p o s i t i o n s in t h e f o l l o w i n g

r o o t s : toke 'firefly', s i w i r i k d r e n a 'tapiriri, Tapirira g u i a n e n s i s , f a m . A n a c a r d i a c e a e \

n u i t o ' d a u g h t e r ! ( v o c a t i v e f o r m ) ' (a m i n i m a l pair w i t h n u - i t u ' m y d a u g h t e r ' ) , a n d -toreta

'roll i n t o a t h i n roll, like a cigarette'. It a p p e a r s in w o r d - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n in p l a c e - n a m e s o f

T u c a n o origin, e.g. O r o r e a n a .

T A B L E 2.4 P H O N O T A C T I C R E S T R I C T I O N S O N T H E O C C U R R E N C E O F V O W E L S

A F F I X - O R
R O O T - A F F I X - E N C L I T I C - R O O T - A F F I X - E N C L I T I C - R O O T -
E N C L I T I C -
I N I T I A L I N I T I A L I N I T I A L M E D I A L M E D I A L M E D I A L F I N A L
F I N A L

i + + + + + + + +

i: + - - + - - - -

T - - - + - - + -

e + - - + + + + +

e: + - - + - - - -

e - - - + - - + -

*i + - - - - - - +

+ o n e
0 - - - + - + +
enclitic

* 0 - - - + - - + -

u + - - + + + + +

u: + - - + - - + -

u + - - + - - - -

a + + + + + + + +

a: + - - + - - + -

a + - - + - - + -

T h e h i g h b a c k s h o r t u c a n o c c u r in a n y p o s i t i o n , e x c e p t for t h e b e g i n n i n g o f suffixes

a n d enclitics, e.g. p u p u 'a t y p e o f m o s q u i t o ' , k u w h e ' w o o d p e c k e r ' , uritu ' b l u e - w i n g e d

parrot', -ukd 'arrive', =tupe ' d i m i n u t i v e plural', =pii ' a u g m e n t a t i v e ' . Its l o n g c o u n t e r p a r t

u: o c c u r s in root-initial a n d r o o t - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s , e.g. u:ni 'water', y u i p i a 'spider w e b ' ,

p u . w e ' m o n k e y ( m a c a c o p r e g o ) ' ; this p h o n e m e n e v e r o c c u r s in affixes o r in enclitics.

L o n g u: is o p t i o n a l l y d i p h t h o n g i s e d , e.g. h u . s i t e , huisite ' u n l u c k y in hunting'. T h e n a s a l

u is f o u n d in j u s t a f e w roots, e.g. wf'port', u h u - n a w i k i ' H o h o d e n e ( s u b g r o u p o f B a n i w a

o f I^ana)', -yu 'go u p ( s t r e a m ) ' , -yuta 'put u p w a r d s ' .

T h e l o w b a c k s h o r t a is f o u n d in all p o s i t i o n s , e.g. inaru ' w o m a n ' , - a 'go, say, give',

awakdda 'jungle', -apa 'classifier: largish a n d long', =pidana ' r e m o t e p a s t reported'. Its

l o n g c o u n t e r p a r t is f o u n d o n l y in roots, m o s t l y in t h e n o n - f i n a l p o s i t i o n , e.g. d:pi

' a n a c o n d a s n a k e ' , m a w d . r i 'snake', -dd:na ' s h a d o w ' , k d . w h i 'be a w a k e ' , -pita: 'paint',

p d . p e ' m a y b e ' . N a s a l a is also restricted to roots, e.g. dsi 'pepper', dpa 'basket', t/ari

'man', dda 'grater', ate 'big anteater', m h a i d a 'few, prohibitive', -yd 'live, stay, wear', -whd

'bite'.

T h e f o l l o w i n g m i n i m a l pairs c o n f i r m t h e p h o n e m i c status o f l o n g v o w e l s : d i n u 'he

c o m e s ' , d i : n u 'he kills'; whepa ' w e w a s h ' , w h e . p a ' w e a n s w e r ' ; eni 'spider', e:ni 'chief;

n d m a 'they p o i s o n fish', n a : m a 'they l o o k for ( s o m e t h i n g ) ' ; duma 'she sleeps', d u : m a 'she

l o o k s for ( s o m e t h i n g ) ' . H o w e v e r , in i n f o r m a l s p e e c h l o n g v o w e l s are often realised as

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 3 4 2 P h o n o l o g y

short, a n d t h e r e is a significant d e g r e e o f v a r i a t i o n (e.g. u:ni, uni 'water', a:pi, api

' a n a c o n d a snake'). T h i s c o u l d b e t h e result o f t h e areal i n f l u e n c e o f T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s

( w h i c h d o n o t h a v e p h o n o l o g i c a l l e n g t h ) a n d o f l a n g u a g e o b s o l e s c e n c e .

L e n g t h d i s t i n c t i o n s t e n d to b e m a i n t a i n e d in t h e f e w c a s e s o f m i n i m a l pairs, e.g.

n u m a 'I s l e e p ' a n d n u i m a 'I s e e k ' . A n a m u s i n g illustration o f h o w v o w e l l e n g t h is b e i n g

lost in T a r i a n a c o m e s f r o m t h e t r e a t m e n t o f a n original m i n i m a l pair for l o n g v o w e l s :

k d . w h i 'be a w a k e ' (cf. B a n i w a o f I c a n a k a . w h i 'be a w a k e ' ) a n d kdwhi ' m a n i o c flour'.

A c c o r d i n g t o m y t e a c h e r s , T a r i a n a s p e a k e r s u s e d to playfully w a k e u p their friends b y

k n o c k i n g o n a w a l l a n d s a y i n g in T u c a n o : p o ' k a , p o ' k a ! P o ' k a m e a n s ' m a n i o c flour', a n d

s o t h e w o r d p l a y is b a s e d u p o n t h e loss o f v o w e l length. A l l l o n g v o w e l s are stressed,

a n d h a v e h i g h pitch, t h o u g h n o t all stressed v o w e l s are l o n g (see §2.3).

P h o n o t a c t i c restrictions o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f v o w e l s in root-, affix- a n d enclitic-

initial, - m e d i a l a n d -final p o s i t i o n s a r e s u m m a r i s e d i n T a b l e 2.4. L o n g v o w e l s a n d n a s a l

v o w e l s d o n o t o c c u r in affixes a n d enclitics. O n l y short v o w e l s a, i a n d u o c c u r in

p r e f i x e s .

T h e l a r g e i n v e n t o r y o f n a s a l v o w e l s in T a r i a n a is a n i n n o v a t i o n , s i n c e this is n o t

f o u n d in o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e r e g i o n , w h i c h u s u a l l y h a v e j u s t f o u r v o w e l s , a,

/, e a n d u. I n a n u m b e r o f c a s e s a n a s a l v o w e l in T a r i a n a c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s e q u e n c e o f a

v o w e l a n d a n a s a l c o n s o n a n t in B a n i w a , e.g. T a r i a n a -weya (variant: -wand), B a n i w a

- w e n - t a , r a p i d register - w e t a , W a r e k e n a - w e n i t a 'buy'; T a r i a n a uf, B a n i w a u h a i 'port'.

2 . 2 S y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e , v o w e l s e q u e n c e s a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f d i p h t h o n g s

2.2.1 Syllable s t r u c t u r e

T h e b a s i c syllable p a t t e r n in T a r i a n a , a s in m o s t A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s , is ( C ) V . S y l l a b l e s

c o n s i s t i n g o f V are m o s t f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d in w o r d - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n . T h e r e are n o

restrictions a s to t h e o n s e t o f syllables. O n l y y a n d h c a n a p p e a r in t h e c o d a p o s i t i o n .

T h e o n l y i n s t a n c e o f t h e ( C ) V N ( a s a l ) syllable structure is a n i d e o p h o n e tfin ' s o u n d o f a

t i n k l i n g m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t ' . T h e p r o b l e m o f glides in syllable o n s e t s is c o n s i d e r e d

u n d e r B in § 2 . 2 . 2 .

T h e palatal y o c c u r s syllable-initially, - m e d i a l l y a n d -finally in roots, e.g. y e k a

'rubber', a y n i 'striped c u c k o o ' , dyni 'wasp', kdyni ' m a n i o c ' , thuyme 'all', day 'be asleep',

a n d in o n e enclitic =thuy 'all'. T h e glottal fricative h a p p e a r s in t h e c o d a p o s i t i o n w o r d -

m e d i a l l y in r o o t s , w h e r e t h e o n s e t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g syllable is a v o i c e l e s s s t o p t o r k, e.g.

- a n i h - t d 'to t h i n k , t o reason', m a - r a - t a h - k d 'quick w a v e ' , ka-rah-td 'lung', a n d in o n e

enclitic = b u h - t a 'conditional' (see 16.6). S y l l a b l e s o f C V / j - s t r u c t u r e c a n arise a s a result

o f t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t w o enclitics, o n e o f w h i c h c o n t a i n s a n a s p i r a t e d s t o p o r n a s a l

(see § 2 . 4 . 3 ) , e.g. =-mah-kd 'recent p a s t n o n - v i s u a l ' ( f r o m =mhd 'present n o n - v i s u a l ' a n d

=-ka 'recent past'), o r =tah-ka 'frustrative r e c e n t p a s t visual' ( f r o m =thd 'frustrative' a n d

=kd 'recent p a s t visual').

T h e fricative h in a n u n s t r e s s e d w o r d - i n i t i a l o r m o r p h e m e - i n i t i a l syllable c a n a p p e a r

i n p r e v o c a l i c o r i n p o s t v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n , r e s u l t i n g in free v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n hV a n d V/z

syllables, e.g. ehkwdpi, hekwdpi 'day, w o r l d ' , tardda-ehkwapi, tardda-hekwapi 'day o f

life, life' (cf. B a n i w a o f I c a n a hekwapi 'day'), - h y u m e , -yuhme 'after:SS', hiporite,

ihporite ' g r e e n ( a n i m a t e ) ' , h i p e r i w i , ihperiwi 'type o f h e d g e ' (see u n d e r B in §2.4.3).

T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f C V h syllables in T a r i a n a ( n o t f o u n d in B a n i w a ) c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d

t h e result o f t h e i m p a c t o f T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , w h e r e C V h a n d / o r C V ? a r e t h e o n l y

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 2 . 2 S y l l a b l e s t r u c t u r e , v o w e l s e q u e n c e s a n d t h e p r o b l e m of d i p h t h o n g s 3 5

i n s t a n c e s o f a c o n s o n a n t a l syllable c o d a (see d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 2 o f A i k h e n v a l d

f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) .

V o w e l r e d u c t i o n a n d elision (see §2.3.5) in r a p i d s p e e c h c a n result in V C o r C V C

syllables. T h e p r e - t o n i c i in t h e v e r b -dusitd 'go b a c k , s w i n g o n o n e ' s feet' is r e d u c e d to Q

o r t o 0 in r a p i d s p e e c h . A s a result o f s u b s e q u e n t resyllabification, a C V C syllable

arises:

di-dusitd ( 3 s g n f - g o . b a c k ) 'he g o e s b a c k '

n o r m a l s p e e c h : d i - d u - s i - t a

r a p i d s p e e c h d i - d u s - t a

W h e n t h e p r e - t o n i c / in t h e v e r b a l clitic =sitd ' a c c o m p l i s h e d ' ( § 1 5 . 1 . 8 ) is r e d u c e d to

0, a Q is i n s e r t e d o n t h e clitic b o u n d a r y ; this results in t h e c r e a t i o n o f a p h o n e t i c V C

syllable:

d i - p i t d = k d = s i t a ( 3 s g n f - b a t h e = R E C . P . V l S = P E R F ) 'he b a t h e s '

n o r m a l s p e e c h : di-pi-ta-ka-si-ta

r a p i d s p e e c h d i - p i - t a - k a - s s - t a

A s t e r i s k e d v o w e l s h a v e restricted o c c u r r e n c e .

2 . 2 . 2 Vowel s e q u e n c e s a n d diphthongs

In ( A ) w e c o n s i d e r v o w e l s e q u e n c e s a n d their realisations. T h e p r o b l e m o f w h e t h e r t h e r e

a r e d i p h t h o n g s in T a r i a n a will b e d i s c u s s e d in (B).

A . V O W E L S E Q U E N C E S A N D T H E I R R E A L I S A T I O N S . V o w e l s e q u e n c e s in T a r i a n a c a n n o t

i n v o l v e l o n g o r identical v o w e l s . T h e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l s e q u e n c e s i n v o l v e all s h o r t oral

v o w e l s , e x c e p t for /:

• ai, e.g. p a i 'father!' ( v o c a t i v e ) ' , kdi 'ache';

• ia , e.g. did 'he said, h e went', -pia 'classifier: times';

• iu, e.g. diukd 'he arrived', -piu 'classifier: t i m e s ' (variant o f -pia);

• ie, e.g. d i e m a 'he stood';

• u a , e.g. dud 'she said, s h e w e n t ' , kuripua '(there is) n o t h i n g ' ;

• ui9 e.g. M i 'like (food)', n u i t u ' m y daughter', h a n u i t e 'big ( a n i m a t e ) ' ;

• u e , e.g. d u e m a 'she s t a n d s ' , dhuepa 'she a n s w e r s ' .

T h e r e is j u s t o n e i n s t a n c e o f t h e s e q u e n c e a o - k a o k u t h e 'a t y p e o f m a n i o c bread'. N o

o t h e r v o w e l s e q u e n c e s i n v o l v e o. S e q u e n c e s ei a n d ea are n o t attested; a u is f o u n d o n l y

in h d u 'yes' a n d e u o c c u r s o n l y in t w o i d e o p h o n e s w e u 'the s o u n d o f a r o p e w i n d i n g ' , a n d

k o l e u ' i m i t a t i o n o f a bird's voice'. S e q u e n c e s w h i c h i n v o l v e n a s a l v o w e l s are: a-i, a s in

h a i d a 'I d o n ' t k n o w ' , m h d i d a 'prohibitive, f e w ' a n d m h a i s i k i ' h u n g e r , b e h u n g r y ' , a n d m

f o u n d o n l y in uT 'port', a n d e u f o u n d in - m h e u (a free v a r i a n t o f - m h e 'admirative'; s e e

§ 1 9 . 6 ) .

T h e s e v o w e l s e q u e n c e s f o r m t w o s e p a r a t e syllable nuclei. In a v e r y s l o w s p e e c h

register e a c h v o w e l is p r o n o u n c e d separately, a n d e a c h o f t h e v o w e l s in t h e s e q u e n c e

c a n b e stressed, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e stress p a t t e r n for e a c h i n d i v i d u a l w o r d , e.g. p a i

'father!', b u t kdi 'ache' (distinct f r o m kay 'thus', a m o n o s y l l a b i c w o r d o f C V C structure).

T h e first o r t h e s e c o n d v o w e l in a s e q u e n c e c a n b e r e d u c e d (u —• u, i —• i if u n s t r e s s e d ,

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 3 6 2 Phonology

e.g. did, did 'he said, h e w e n t ' ; id, id ' y o u (pi) go', diukd, diukd 'he arrived', h a n u i t e ,

h a n u i t e 'big: a n i m a t e ' , p a i k d , p a i k d 'father ( v o c a t i v e o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n ) ' ( b u t cf. p a i ' D a d

n
(vocative)', n o t *pdy), h d u , h a u o r h a w ' y e s ' , kuripua, kuripua '(there is) n o t h i n g ' .

T h e r e is a n a d d i t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a v o w e l s e q u e n c e a-i a n d a d i p h t h o n g ay.

In r a p i d i n f o r m a l s p e e c h a syllable ay b e c o m e s ey o r e(:), e.g. hdyku, he(:)ku 'tree',

ddykina, d e y k i n a , de(:)kina 'in t h e afternoon', hd-nay, hdney, hdne: 'this lake', h u n a y ,

h u n e y , hune(:) 'a t y p e o f potato', hipay, hipey, hipe(:) 'land' (see also A u n d e r §2.5.3).

T h i s p r o c e s s d o e s n o t a p p l y to t h e v o w e l s e q u e n c e a-i.

T h e v o w e l s e q u e n c e ai u n d e r g o e s m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n a n d b e c o m e s e w i t h y o u n g e r

s p e a k e r s , t h a t is, m h a i d a 'prohibitive' is p r o n o u n c e d as mheda a n d m h d i s i k i ' h u n g e r , b e

h u n g r y ' a s m h e s i k i .

T h e r e a r e n o v o w e l s e q u e n c e s w h i c h c o n t a i n l o n g v o w e l s . O n e w o u l d e x p e c t t h e s e

s e q u e n c e s o n a m o r p h e m e b o u n d a r y w h e n t h e r e is a prefix w h i c h e n d s in a s h o r t v o w e l ,

if t h e r o o t starts w i t h a l o n g v o w e l (see §2.5.1); n o t e that in this c a s e t h e rules for v o w e l

f u s i o n d o n o t a p p l y . In fact, t h e s e c o n d v o w e l gets s h o r t e n e d , a n d a V j + V 2 : s e q u e n c e

b e c o m e s V j + V 2 , e.g. ai in nd-itu ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : na-i:tu) (3pl-steal) 'they steal' o r

n d - i n u ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : n a - i : n u ) (3pl-kill) 'they kill', ui in d u - i n u ( f r o m du-i:nu) (3sgf-

kill) 'she kills'. In r a p i d i n f o r m a l s p e e c h , t h e v o w e l s e q u e n c e a i is p r o n o u n c e d a s a i o r

ef, a s in n a i t u , n e i t u 'they stole'.

B. D I P H T H O N G S A N D T H E P R O B L E M O F G L I D E S IN S Y L L A B L E O N S E T S . W e s a w in §2.2.1

that y c a n o c c u p y t h e syllable o n s e t a n d t h e c o d a p o s i t i o n s , w h i l e w a n d w h o n l y o c c u r

in syllable o n s e t , e.g. y d w i 'jaguar', n u - k a w d n a ' m y leg', w h a 'we'. O n l y in h a w ' O K , yes'

d o e s w o c c u r in t h e c o d a position. H o w e v e r , if a syllable c o n t a i n s a g l i d e in t h e o n s e t

p o s i t i o n , it c a n c o n t a i n a p r e c e d i n g c o n s o n a n t , t h u s c r e a t i n g a syllable structure:

C - y / w - V . T h e r e are a n u m b e r o f restrictions o n t h e o n s e t c o n s o n a n t , a n d o n t h e v o w e l . If

t h e o n s e t g l i d e is y , t h e attested s e q u e n c e s are listed b e l o w ( C - g l i d e - V s e q u e n c e s are

u n d e r l i n e d ) .

(i) p - y - a , o r p h - y - a , e.g. na-pyd ( 3 p l - h i d e ) 'they hide', na-phyd ( 3 p l - b r e a t h e ) 'they

b r e a t h e ' ;

(ii) k-y-a, e.g. sikydmi ' s w a m p ' , di-ddkya ( 3 p l - b o d y + E M P H ) 'his b o d y i n d e e d ' (there

is n o s e q u e n c e *khyV);

(iii) s-y-a, s-y-, e.g. sydwa 'fire', p a - k a s y a - n i p e ( i M P - s c r a t c h - N O M ) 'itching', di~

w e s y a ' h e g r i n d s ' , asydpi 'pepperpot'; syere 'striped c u c k o o ' ;

(iv) h - y - a , e.g. hydpa ' m o u n t a i n ' ;

(v) h - y - u , e.g. -hyu 'purposive', -hyume ' a f t e n S S ' , -hyuna 'habitual', hyukade 'not

appear';

(vi) m - y - a , e.g. =mya 'only', Wamyadkune 'the T a r i a n a s u b t r i b e o f S a n t a R o s a a n d

P e r i q u i t o s ' , Myakaddpana 'Ipanore'.

I n a d d i t i o n , if t h e r e a r e t w o g l i d e s in t h e o n s e t p o s i t i o n , t h e o n l y possibility is for t h e

bilabials w a n d w h to p r e c e d e t h e l a m i n o - p a l a t a l y ; t h e syllables c a n c o n t a i n either a or

u, e.g. wydka 'far', -wya 'extralocality m a r k e r o n n o u n s ' , wyurina 'a t y p e o f tree', p a -

whya-nipe ( i M P - b r e a t h e - N O M ) 'breath, s o r c e r y ' , whyume 'last'.

11
T h e s y m b o l u refers to an ultrashort phonetic realisation of the vowel.

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 2 . 3 S t r e s s 3 7

If t h e o n s e t g l i d e is w , t h e p o s s i b l e s e q u e n c e s are k - w - a , e.g. kwdka 'what', d i - e k w a

'his face', d i - k w a 'he is t o a s t i n g ( m a n i o c flour)', di-kwd 'he h a n g s (in a h a m m o c k ) ' ,

y a k o r e k w a ' d o o r o p e n i n g ' , - k w a n a 'classifier: plain'; k - w - e , e.g. kwe-peri ' w h a t e v e r , all

(things)', - k w e m a 'classifier: r o u n d things', a n d k-w-i, e.g. di-kwisd 'he scolds', kwifl

' c u r r a s s o w ' a n d -pukwi 'classifier: r o u n d a n d h o l l o w ' .

T h e s e C-y-V a n d C - w - V s e q u e n c e s a l l o w t w o alternative interpretations. W e c o u l d

c o n s i d e r t h e m i n s t a n c e s o f C C V syllables t h u s n e c e s s i t a t i n g a m o r e c o m p l e x syllable

s t r u c t u r e t h a n t h e o n e p r e s e n t e d in § 2 . 2 . 1 . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , w e c o u l d c o n s i d e r ^ , y u , y e ,

w e , w a a n d w i a s c o n s t i t u t i n g c o m p l e x syllable nuclei, i.e. d i p h t h o n g s ( a n d u n d e r this

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n y s h o u l d b e w r i t t e n a s / a n d w as u) t h u s n e c e s s i t a t i n g a m o r e c o m p l e x

p a r a d i g m a t i c a r r a y o f v o w e l s . T h e r e are n o c o m p e l l i n g r e a s o n s for c h o o s i n g either o f

t h e s e . T h e r e is p o s s i b l y j u s t o n e a r g u m e n t in f a v o u r o f t h e d i p h t h o n g interpretation. A s I

s h o w in § 2 . 4 . 1 , t h e r e are n o i n d e p e n d e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s o f C V structure w i t h a

s h o r t v o w e l ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a f e w i d e o p h o n e s ) . T h e proclitic kwe 'what' (see

§2.4.1 a n d § 2 . 6 ) c a n b e u s e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d . T h i s s u g g e s t s that

t h e s e q u e n c e w e in kwe s h o u l d b e treated o n a p a r w i t h a l o n g v o w e l , that is, as o n e

v o w e l n u c l e u s . T h e r e is a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s s i m p l i f y i n g kw to k T h e n o u n y a k o r e k w a

' d o o r o p e n i n g ' is p r o n o u n c e d a s y a k o r e k a b y all t h e S a n t a R o s a s p e a k e r s , e x c e p t for

L e o n a r d o B r i t o w h o h a s b o t h p r o n u n c i a t i o n s in free variation; t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n

y a k o r e k w a is t h e o n e u s e d in t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a dialect. T h e o n l y i n s t a n c e o f

s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f a s e q u e n c e c o n t a i n i n g y a s its o n s e t is y e —» e in -kyere 'classifier:

island'.

I h a v e c h o s e n to w r i t e t h e glides as y a n d w for t w o r e a s o n s : firstly, to a l l o w for a

u n i f o r m r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e g l i d e s in t h e o n s e t a n d in t h e c o d a p o s i t i o n s , a n d s e c o n d l y ,

to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n glides in t h e o n s e t p o s i t i o n a n d a v o w e l s e q u e n c e in c a s e s s u c h
1
a s t h e f o l l o w i n g m i n i m a l pair: -pukwi 'classifier: r o u n d a n d hollow , w i t h a s e q u e n c e

k - w - i w h i c h c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d either a s a syllable o f C C V structure, o r a s a syllable o f

C V s t r u c t u r e w i t h a d i p h t h o n g w i a s its n u c l e u s , a n d -kapuku-i ( t u r n - C A U S ) , w h i c h

c o n t a i n s a v o w e l s e q u e n c e u-i, a n d c a n n o t b e p r o n o u n c e d as [wi].

2 . 3 S t r e s s

2.3.1 P r i m a r y s t r e s s

T a r i a n a d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y stress. P r i m a r y stress is

c o n t r a s t i v e w h i l e s e c o n d a r y stress is not. A v o w e l w i t h p r i m a r y stress is c h a r a c t e r i s e d

b y h i g h e r p i t c h a n d g r e a t e r intensity. S i n c e t h e stressed syllable is realised w i t h a h i g h

pitch, a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m a n y w o r d s lies in the p o s i t i o n i n g o f this pitch,

T a r i a n a c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a p i t c h - a c c e n t l a n g u a g e . V o w e l s w h i c h b e a r s e c o n d a r y stress

d o n o t differ in their p i t c h f r o m n o n - s t r e s s e d v o w e l s (they differ f r o m u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l s

o n l y in intensity). P i t c h a c c e n t is a p r o p e r t y o f t h e tyana-Vaupes a r e a ( A i k h e n v a l d

1 9 9 9 b , c).

L o n g v o w e l s are a l w a y s stressed. P r i m a r y stress c a n fall o n t h e a n t e p e n u l t i m a t e ,

p e n u l t i m a t e o r final syllable. T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s illustrate m i n i m a l p a i r s

d i s t i n g u i s h e d j u s t b y t h e p l a c e m e n t o f stress: p i k a 'you laugh' - p i k d ' y o u look'; p i w a

' y o u play' - p i w a 'your belly', p i k w a ' y o u toast ( m a n i o c flour)' - p i k w d ' y o u h a n g (in a

h a m m o c k ) ' ; K a y a r i 'old n a m e for t h e V a u p e s ' - kdyari ' b u o y ( m o l o g o ) ' ; p i w e t a 'you

m a k e enter' - p i - w e t d ' y o u m a k e a trap'; d i d i e t a 'he r e t u r n s ( s o m e t h i n g ) ' - didietd 'it (the

w i n d ) b l o w s ' ; dipe 'his m e a t ' - dipe 'he leaves'; mdwi 'hook' - m a w i : 'pari ( t y p e o f

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 3 8 2 Phonology

w o o d ) ' ; dyni ' w a s p ' - a y n i 'striped c u c k o o ' , nuya 'I stay, I w e a r ' - nuyd 'I hit'. T h e

f o l l o w i n g i t e m s a r e differentiated b y stress p l a c e m e n t , a n d b y v o w e l length: matfvAe

'good' (its v a r i a n t i s matfdite; s e e u n d e r D l 1 in §2.5.2) - md:tfite 'bad'; k u i s i r u 'a d a n c i n g

stick' - k u s i r u 'cutivaia (a m a m m a l ) ' . U n s t r e s s e d n a s a l v o w e l s are rare; o n e e x a m p l e is

u i 'port'. S t r e s s shift i n d i c a t e s a c h a n g e in g r a m m a t i c a l m e a n i n g in t h e v o c a t i v e f o r m s o f

s o m e k i n s h i p n o u n s ( s e e C h a p t e r 3), e.g. n u r i ' m y son', v o c a t i v e n u r i ' m y son!'

2 . 3 . 2 S t r e s s in m o n o m o r p h e m i c words

In d i s y l l a b i c m o n o m o r p h e m i c w o r d s t h e first syllable is m o s t f r e q u e n t l y stressed, e.g.

d o l o ' a f l y ' , dupu 'a lizard', n a n a 'a t y p e offish', e m u 'thunder', y d w i 'jaguar'.

P o l y s y l l a b i c m o n o m o r p h e m i c w o r d s a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y rare; their p r i m a r y stress m o s t

f r e q u e n t l y falls o n t h e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable, e.g. k u s i w a 'a t y p e o f basket', turdpa 'cone',

m a w i n a 'pineapple', hanupe ' m u c h , m a n y ' (see § 8 . 1 . 5 o n its structure), kanapiri 'grass',

k a t a n a p i d ' w o r m ' , m a t a m d t a ' f r e s h w a t e r fish ( P i m e l o t u s ornatus)'. It c a n also fall o n t h e

a n t e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable, e.g. kepira 'bird', iniri 'traira-fish', p u s a r u 'sloth', i m a m

' w o m a n ' (this n o u n , h o w e v e r , c o n t a i n s a fossilised suffix -ru 'feminine'), dapdtaru

' c o c k r o a c h ' , y a k d s o l o 'traditional a p r o n - l i k e clothing'. T h e r e are a f e w e x a m p l e s o f

p o l y s y l l a b i c w o r d s w i t h their stress o n t h e last syllable, e.g. y a p u r a t u 'long flute u s e d at

ritual offering', n a m u r i t u 'wild caititii pig'.

I n irregular d i s y l l a b i c plural f o r m s (see C h a p t e r 7) t h e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable is

stressed, e.g. i:na, i n a ' w o m e n ' (plural o f i m a m ' w o m a n ' ) , atfa 'men', p l u r a l o f tfdfi

'man'. H o w e v e r , t h e s e f o r m s are b i m o r p h e m i c .

2.3.3 S t r e s s in p o l y m o r p h e m i c w o r d s

A l l r o o t s h a v e u n d e r l y i n g stress, e.g. h a n u ' b i g ' , md.tfi 'bad', matfd 'good'. M o n o s y l l a b i c

p r e f i x e d v e r b a l r o o t s c a n b e stressed o n t h e root, e.g. -ka ' t o s e e ' , -a ' g o ' , -yd 'hit', o r o n a

p r e - r o o t v o w e l , e.g. - ' k a 'laugh', -'ya 'stay, wear', -'pa ' c o m b o n e ' s hair'. T h i s is n o t

p r e d i c t a b l e ; t h a t is, in a d i c t i o n a r y all m o r p h e m e s are m a r k e d for their stress.

A l l p r e f i x e s a r e lexically u n s t r e s s e d . A prefix c a n a c q u i r e stress o n l y i f it is a t t a c h e d

to a r o o t w i t h t h e stress o n t h e p r e - r o o t v o w e l , e.g. - ' k a 'laugh': di-ka 'he laughs', - n u 'to

c o m e ' : d i - n u 'he c o m e s ' ; ~'wa 'to try, to play': d i - w a 'he tries, plays'. E x a m p l e s w i t h

u n s t r e s s e d p r e f i x e s a r e nu-d ( l s g - g o ) 'I go', di-kd ( 3 s g n f - s e e ) 'he sees', wa-hd ( l p l -

E M P H ) 'we', w a - n d ( l p l - O B J ) 'us'.

S u f f i x e s c a n b e either lexically s t r e s s e d o r u n s t r e s s e d . If a disyllabic w o r d c o n s i s t s o f

t w o o r m o r e m o r p h e m e s , t h e stress p l a c e m e n t d e p e n d s o n a c c e n t u a l p r o p e r t i e s o f

m o r p h e m e s .

W h e n a n u n s t r e s s e d suffix c o m b i n e s w i t h a root, t h e stress p l a c e m e n t is u n a f f e c t e d ,

e.g. matfd 'good' + -ite ' n o u n class a n i m a t e ' —• matfi:te\ md:tfi 'bad' + -ite ' n o u n class

a n i m a t e ' —» md:tfite\ episi 'iron, s t o n e a x e , m e t a l ' + -da 'classifier: r o u n d ' —• episi-da

( m e t a l - C L : R O U N D ) 'motor'. If a r e s u l t i n g w o r d c o n t a i n s four syllables o r m o r e , stress

shifts to t h e a n t e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable, e.g. p i m a 'sound' + -peri 'collective' —> p i m d p e r i

'voice'. T h e r e d u c t i o n o f e x t r a p r o s o d i c (ie. lexically u n s t r e s s e d ) p r e f i x e s o f V structure

m a y g o b a c k t o P r e - T a r i a n a . ( T h i s e x p l a i n s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , s u c h a s T a r i a n a p a : - ,

B a n i w a a-pa: 'one', T a r i a n a tfdri, B a n i w a a-tfiari 'man'.)

W h e n a n u n d e r l y i n g l y s t r e s s e d m o n o s y l l a b i c suffix, o r a disyllabic suffix s t r e s s e d o n

t h e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable, c o m b i n e s w i t h a root, t h e stress m o v e s o n t o t h e p e n u l t i m a t e

syllable, e.g. m d w i 'hook', mawipi ' b l o w g u n ' ; kunuri 'a t y p e o f fruit', k u n u r i n a 'a

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 2 . 3 S t r e s s 3 9

c o r r e s p o n d i n g tree'; he(:)ku ' w o o d ' , h e k u - k e n a ' b r a n c h o f a tree'; n u - k d w a + - n a —> n u -

k a w d - n a ( l s g - l e g - C L : V E R T ) ' m y leg'; i:ta ' c a n o e (as a class)', i:td-whya ( c a n o e -

C L : C A N O E ) 'an ( i n d i v i d u a l ) c a n o e ' ; h a n u - m d k a ( b i g - C L : E X T E N D E D . C L O T H ) 'a b i g p i e c e

o f e x t e n d e d cloth', hanupe ' m u c h ' + -ite ' n o u n class a n i m a t e ' — > hanupite 'the o n e w h o

h a s a lot ( o f s o m e t h i n g ) ' . O n e m o n o s y l l a b i c suffix, -si ' n o n - p o s s e s s e d ' ( d i s c u s s e d in

C h a p t e r 6), is a l w a y s s t r e s s e d w h e n it f o l l o w s a root, e.g. p a n i - s i 'house', h e r e n a - s i

'illness', h i n i - s i 'breast milk'.

If a w o r d c o n t a i n s a r o o t a n d m o r e t h a n o n e stressed suffix ( n o n e o f w h i c h is a

d i s y l l a b i c suffix s t r e s s e d o n t h e last syllable), stress falls o n t h e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable,

e.g. y a m 'thing' + -mdka 'classifier for cloth-like objects' + -si ' n o n - p o s s e s s e d ' —>

y a r u m a k d s i 'article o f clothing'; kd:ra (REL+fly) 'flying' + -ka 'thematic' + -whya

'classifier for c a n o e s ' + -puna 'classifier for stretch o f r o a d s ' —• karakawhyapuna

'airport'.

W h e n a d i s y l l a b i c suffix s t r e s s e d o n t h e last syllable c o m b i n e s w i t h a root, t h e

p r i m a r y stress falls o n t h e last syllable o f t h e w o r d , w h i l e t h e stressed syllable o f t h e

r o o t n o w t a k e s t h e s e c o n d a r y stress, e.g. h a n u 'big' + -yawd 'classifienhole' —> hanii-

y a w d 'big (hole)'. A d i s y l l a b i c suffix s t r e s s e d o n t h e last syllable a l w a y s retains its stress

a s t h e p r i m a r y stress in t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d ; t h u s , h a n u (big) + - k e n a ( C L i B R A N C H ) +

-padd (CL:PIECE) results in hanu-kena-padd 'piece o f a branch'. T h e s t r e s s e d syllable o f

t h e p r e c e d i n g f o r m a t i v e (as it w a s b e f o r e t h e affix w a s a d d e d ) t a k e s o n t h e s e c o n d a r y

stress ( a s d o e s - k e n a in this e x a m p l e ) .

2 . 3 . 4 S e c o n d a r y s t r e s s

S e c o n d a r y stress is a characteristic o f p o l y m o r p h e m i c w o r d s , a n d o f p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s

c o n t a i n i n g enclitics. Enclitics, b u t n o t proclitics, obligatorily b e a r a s e c o n d a r y stress (see

§2.4). In a d d i t i o n , if a p o l y m o r p h e m i c p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d c o n t a i n s f o u r syllables o r

m o r e a n d is c o m p o s e d o f s t r e s s e d roots, t h e s e c o n d a r y stress falls o n t h e syllable o f the

p r i m a r y stress o f t h e first c o m p o n e n t , e.g. matja-makara ( g o o d - d r y ) 'really dry, g o o d a n d

dry'. M o n o m o r p h e m i c w o r d s w i t h f o u r syllables o r m o r e (see e x a m p l e s in §2.3.2) d o n o t

h a v e s e c o n d a r y stress.

2.3.5 Vowel r e d u c t i o n

T a r i a n a h a s v o w e l r e d u c t i o n in p r e - t o n i c a n d p o s t - t o n i c syllables w h i c h h a v e n o

s e c o n d a r y stress w h e r e b y e, /, a g o to a V o w e l r e d u c t i o n o c c u r s in n o r m a l a n d r a p i d

s p e e c h registers, a n d n o t in s l o w , d e l i b e r a t e s p e e c h . N a s a l v o w e l s , a n d oral v o w e l s u, o

a n d i a r e n e v e r r e d u c e d .

P r e - t o n i c v o w e l r e d u c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e in t h e third syllable f r o m t h e stress ( c o u n t i n g

left f r o m t h e s t r e s s e d syllable); o r in t h e w o r d - i n i t i a l syllable. C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g

e x a m p l e s o f p r e - t o n i c v o w e l r e d u c t i o n : y a k o r e k a 'door' is r e a l i s e d a s y o k o r e k a ,

y a r u m a k d s i 'clothing' is realised a s y a r u m a k d s i ( h e r e v o w e l h a r m o n y m a y a p p l y , a n d t h e

w o r d is r e a l i s e d a s y u r u m a k d s i - s e e §2.4.4), a n d K u p h e - m e n a n e 'Piratapuya' a s Kuphe-

m o n a n e .

P r e - t o n i c v o w e l r e d u c t i o n also o p e r a t e s in syllables w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e t h o s e

w i t h a s e c o n d a r y stress; this c a n b e illustrated w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a u s a l enclitics

( w h i c h t a k e s e c o n d a r y stress: s e e §2.4): =makha 'recent p a s t n o n - v i s u a l ' realised a s

^ m o k h a ; = t a h k a 'frustrative+recent p a s t visual' a s = t o h k a .

P o s t - t o n i c v o w e l r e d u c t i o n o c c u r s in w o r d - f i n a l syllables, e.g. y d s e n e —> y d s e n o 'the

T u c a n o ' , m a t d m a t a —•> m a t d m a t o ' f r e s h w a t e r fish', hemdsiere —• h e m d s i e r o 'capybara'.

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In n o r m a l a n d r a p i d s p e e c h t h e p o s t - t o n i c v o w e l s e q u e n c e -ua is realised a s either -u

o r - o , e.g. - h a - d u a ( - p a r e n t - F E M ) 'mother' a n d - s a - d u a ( - s p o u s e - F E M ) 'wife' are

p r o n o u n c e d a s - h a - d u , - h a - d o a n d - s a - d u , -sa-do (see § 1 0 . 2 ) .

I n p o l y m o r p h e m i c w o r d s w i t h t h e p r i m a r y stress o n t h e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable, a w o r d

initial a, a o r / m a y d i s a p p e a r , e.g. ddaru 'parrot', daru-phema (parrot-

C L : L E A F . L I K E + P A I R ) 'a h e a d c o v e r m a d e o f parrots' feathers', f r o m adaru-phe-ima

(parrot-CL:LEAF.LIKE-CL:PAlR), daru-dri ' R i v e r o f a p a r r o t ( p l a c e - n a m e ) ' (cf. §2.3.3).

2 . 4 P h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d

T h e m a i n criterion for a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d in T a r i a n a is p r i m a r y stress. D i f f e r e n t

p r o s o d i c c l a s s e s o f m o r p h e m e s h a v e different rules w i t h r e s p e c t to stress - s e e § 2 . 4 . 1 .

F u r t h e r p r o s o d i c p r o c e s s e s related to d e l i m i t i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d

are n a s a l i s a t i o n ( § 2 . 4 . 2 ) , a s p i r a t i o n ( § 2 . 4 . 3 ) a n d v o w e l h a r m o n y (§2.4.4). P r o s o d i c

p a r a m e t e r s r e l e v a n t for d e l i m i t i n g a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d are s u m m a r i s e d in § 2 . 4 . 5 .

C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d a n d a g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d are o u t l i n e d in § 2 . 6

( s e e a l s o A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 2 b ) .

2.4.1 P r i m a r y s t r e s s a n d p r o s o d i c c l a s s e s of morphemes

A p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d c o n t a i n s o n e p r i m a r y stress; it m a y also c o n t a i n o n e o r m o r e

s e c o n d a r y stresses. P r o s o d i c c l a s s e s o f m o r p h e m e s are roots, affixes, proclitics a n d

enclitics. R o o t s a n d proclitics c a n f o r m a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d o n their o w n , w h i l e affixes

a n d enclitics c a n n o t (see T a b l e 2.5 a n d §2.6). Enclitics a l w a y s t a k e a s e c o n d a r y stress.

S i m i l a r l y t o m o s t A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s , T a r i a n a is p r e d o m i n a n t l y suffixing. A s m a l l set

o f p r e f i x e s exists, c o n s i s t i n g o f A / S a a n d p o s s e s s o r c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s

( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b a n d §6.2), m a - 'privative' a n d ka- 'attributive, relative'. P r e f i x e s c a n

o c c u r o n l y w i t h i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s (see C h a p t e r 6) a n d w i t h transitive a n d

a c t i v e intransitive v e r b s (see C h a p t e r 12). P r e f i x e s a n d suffixes differ in their a c c e n t u a l

p r o p e r t i e s - s e e § 2 . 3 . 3 .

M o n o s y l l a b i c p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s o f C V structure m u s t c o n t a i n a l o n g v o w e l , e.g. ta:

'a large w a s p ' , j / e ; 'armadillo', ka: 'just like that', m a : 'let's g o ' (see § 2 . 2 . 2 o n kwe 'what').

T h e r e a r e j u s t a f e w s u c h m o n o s y l l a b i c p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s . A f e w m o n o s y l l a b i c

interjections c o n t a i n s h o r t v o w e l s , e.g. tfo, tfu 'oh, w o w ' , be ' w o w ' (a l o a n f r o m T u c a n o ) ,

ne 'Hey!' ( p o s s i b l y , a l o a n f r o m T u c a n o ) . If t h e c o n n e c t i v e proclitic ne= (see §2.6) o r t h e

h o m o p h o n o u s n e g a t i v e proclitic ne ( u s e d a s a o n e - w o r d n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e ) f o r m a

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d o f their o w n t h e y are p r o n o u n c e d w i t h a l o n g v o w e l [ne:].

A f f i x e s a t t a c h t o a r o o t a c c o r d i n g to t h e n a t u r e o f the root: for i n s t a n c e , v e r b a l affixes

a t t a c h t o s i m p l e v e r b s o r serial v e r b s (see C h a p t e r 18), a n d n o m i n a l affixes, s u c h as

classifiers ( s e e C h a p t e r 5) a n d t h e l o c a t i v e s e (see §7.3.1), a t t a c h to n o u n s , o r to n o u n

p h r a s e s . A n u m b e r o f p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s o c c u r o n the affixal b o u n d a r i e s (see §2.5).

S o m e specific affixes, s u c h a s - d u a , -du 'feminine' o r -niri ' m a s c u l i n e ' o c c u r o n l y w i t h

k i n s h i p n o u n s ; o t h e r affixes o c c u r o n l y w i t h s o m e s u b g r o u p s o f v e r b s , s o m e n o u n s a n d

s o m e a d j e c t i v e s , e.g. -ita 'causative', o r classifiers.

T a r i a n a h a s a f e w proclitics a n d a large n u m b e r o f enclitics. Proclitics c a n f o r m a

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d o n their o w n a n d n e v e r t a k e a s e c o n d a r y stress. T h e y c a n cliticise to

t h e w o r d w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w s t h e m if t h e y are n o t contrastive. Proclitics are n e =

'then ( c o n n e c t i v e ) ' , n e = 'negative', kay= 'thus' a n d kwa/kwe 'interrogative-distributive

w h i c h , h o w , e v e r y ' (see C h a p t e r 11). I n contrast, enclitics c a n n o t f o r m a p h o n o l o g i c a l

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 2 . 4 P h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d 4 1

w o r d o n t h e i r o w n , a n d a l w a y s h a v e a s e c o n d a r y stress. N o p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s ,

e x c e p t for t h e f u s i o n o f h o m o r g a n i c v o w e l s , o c c u r o n clitic b o u n d a r i e s (see §2.5).

E n c l i t i c s fall into t w o t y p e s : (a) fixed p o s i t i o n p h r a s a l enclitics w h i c h a t t a c h to

c e r t a i n m o r p h o l o g i c a l c l a s s e s o f w o r d s o r t y p e s o f p h r a s e s ( n o u n s , n o u n p h r a s e s , v e r b s ) ,

a n d (b) floating c l a u s a l enclitics. T h e s e are c a l l e d floating b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t h a v e a n y

fixed p o s i t i o n a n d c a n a t t a c h to a n y c o n s t i t u e n t in a c l a u s e , p r o v i d e d this c o n s t i t u e n t is

in c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s .

P h r a s a l enclitics i n c l u d e =nukii 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' (also p r o n o u n c e d a s = n a k u ,

= n u k u o r as=wafcw, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s p e a k e r ' s g e n e r a t i o n : s e e u n d e r C in §2.4.4),

= n e / = n h e ' f o c u s s e d subject', =ne ' i n s t r u m e n t a l / c o m i t a t i v e ' , =tuki 'diminutive', =pii

' a u g m e n t a t i v e , really', =ya 'really, e m p h a t i c ' , A k t i o n s a r t enclitics, e.g. =we/i 'smash',

=holo 'spill w a t e r ' ( s e e § 1 5 . 2 ) , m o o d enclitics, e.g. =da 'apprehensive', a n d others.

C l a u s a l enclitics i n c l u d e tense-evidentiality, a s p e c t a n d m o o d m a r k e r s , e.g. =pidana

' r e m o t e p a s t reported', =tha 'frustrative', =tupe 'third p e r s o n i m p e r a t i v e ' , a n d a n u m b e r

o f o t h e r m i s c e l l a n e o u s enclitics, e.g. =wanl 'emphatic'.

If a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d c o n t a i n s m o r e t h a n o n e enclitic, e a c h o f t h e m h a s a s e c o n d a r y

stress, e.g. d i - r u k u = p i d a n a ( 3 s g n f - f a l l = R E M . P . R E P ) 'he fell', di-ruku=pidana=pitd

( 3 s g n f - f a l l = R E M . P . R E P = A G A I N ) 'he fell again'.

T h e f o l l o w i n g m i n i m a l p a i r illustrates t h e difference b e t w e e n a suffix a n d a n enclitic:

iii-ne ( b l o o d - P L ) 'those o f b l o o d , t h e T a r i a n a ' (see §1.4, §1.8.1) c o n s i s t s o f a r o o t a n d a

suffix, a n d is a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d w i t h o n e p r i m a r y stress, w h i l e iri=ne

( b l o o d = c o m i t a t i v e ) 'with b l o o d ' c o n s i s t s o f a r o o t a n d a n enclitic, a n d is a p h o n o l o g i c a l

w o r d w i t h o n e p r i m a r y a n d o n e s e c o n d a r y stress. A n o t h e r m i n i m a l pair is - w a n i

'classifier for a b s t r a c t n o u n s a n d p l a c e s ' a n d =wanl ' e m p h a t i c clitic'. F u r t h e r p r o p e r t i e s

o f clitics a r e d i s c u s s e d in §2.6. A v o w e l w h i c h b e a r s a s e c o n d a r y stress d o e s n o t

u n d e r g o v o w e l r e d u c t i o n (§2.3.5).

Interjections ( m o s t o f t h e m i d e o p h o n i c ) h a v e a p r i m a r y stress b u t n o t t h e h i g h p i t c h

w h i c h g e n e r a l l y a c c o m p a n i e s it. T h i s p r o p e r t y is s h a r e d w i t h T u c a n o (see R a m i r e z

1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 3 4 8 ) . M o s t i d e o p h o n e s are m o n o s y l l a b i c , e.g. tfin ' s o u n d o f a t i n k l i n g

m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t ' , w e u ' s o u n d o f b r u s q u e m o v e m e n t ' , h u 'away', tfu, tfo ' a s t o n i s h m e n t ,

u n p l e a s a n t surprise', p u a ' w o w ! ( p l e a s a n t surprise)', kui, kwe 'excitement'. I d e o p h o n e s

a r e u n d e r l i n e d :

2 . 1 . p i m a - p i d a n a t g n t f i n d i h a inari

s o u n d - R E M . P . R E P ( s o u n d s ) A R T m u c u r a . r a t

i-thi-da l e k a - k a p i m a - p i d a n a t h o t h o

I N D F - e y e - C L : R O U N D b u r s t - S U B s o u n d - R E M . P . R E P ( s o u n d s )

' T h e r e w a s a s o u n d tfin! tjin! (a t i n k l i n g s o u n d o f a flute); w h e n t h e e y e s o f t h e

m u c u r a - r a t burst, t h e r e w a s a s o u n d t h o ! tho!'

2.2 tju! p h i a m a : t j i - p u - m h a n u - n a pi-ni

O h y o u b a d - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S l s g - O B J 2 s g - d o

' O h , y o u a r e d o i n g evil t h i n g s to m e . '

Classifiers o f t h e 'repeater' t y p e (i.e. t h o s e classifiers w h i c h 'coincide' w i t h t h e h e a d

n o u n : s e e § 5 . 3 ) h a v e n o p r i m a r y stress a n d n o h i g h pitch. T h e i r s e c o n d a r y stress falls o n

t h e s a m e s y l l a b l e a s t h e p r i m a r y stress in a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n d e p e n d e n t n o u n . T h u s ,

w h e n a n o u n p a n i s i 'house' is u s e d a s a r e p e a t e r to m a r k a g r e e m e n t o n a n adjective

matfa 'good', its p r i m a r y stress is r e p l a c e d b y s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s , e . g . p a n i s i matfd-panisi 'a

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 4 2 2 P h o n o l o g y

g o o d h o u s e ' . T h i s p r o p e r t y o f classifiers-repeaters is also s h a r e d w i t h T u c a n o ( R a m i r e z

1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 1 0 3 ) .

T h e p r o p e r t i e s o f affixes, proclitics a n d enclitics are s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 2.5. S e e

further d i s c u s s i o n in §2.6.

T A B L E 2.5 P R O P E R T I E S O F A F F I X E S , P R O C L I T I C S A N D E N C L I T I C S

P H R A S A L C L A U S A L
P R O P E R T I E S A F F I X E S P R O C L I T I C S
E N C L I T I C S E N C L I T I C S

I N D E P E N D E N T P H O N O L O G I C A L W O R D n o y e s n o n o

S E C O N D A R Y S T R E S S n o n o y e s y e s

P H O N O L O G I C A L P R O C E S S E S O N T H E
y e s n o n o n o
B O U N D A R I E S

R E S T R I C T I O N S O N C O M B I N A T I O N W I T H
y e s n o y e s n o
A C O N S T I T U E N T T Y P E

M O B I L I T Y W I T H I N A P H R A S E O R A
n o y e s y e s y e s
C L A U S E - S E E § 2 . 6

2 . 4 . 2 N a s a l i s a t i o n

T h e d o m a i n o f n a s a l i s a t i o n in T a r i a n a is a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d . If a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d

c o n t a i n s a n a s a l v o w e l o r a n a s a l c o n s o n a n t , all v o w e l s ( e x c e p t /), t h e v o i c e d d e n t a l s t o p

d, t h e lateral /, t h e flap / a n d t h e a l v e o p a l a t a l glide y w i t h i n the w o r d b o u n d a r i e s are

r e p l a c e d w i t h a h o m o r g a n i c n a s a l in n o r m a l a n d in r a p i d s p e e c h registers: [r] —• [n], [y]

—• [ n ] , [d] —• [n], e.g. -toreta 'roll d o u g h ' is r e a l i s e d a s [toneta]; k e n o w a - n a 'a tree-like

p l a n t ( u n i d e n t i f i e d ) ' a s [ k e n o w a - n a ] ; di-ya, d i - n a 'he lives' a s [ n T - n a ] ; di-yu 'he g o e s u p '

a s [ n i - n u ] ; d i - w h a 'he bites' a s [ n i - w h a ] . In v e r y r a p i d i n f o r m a l s p e e c h , n a s a l i s a t i o n m a y

e x t e n d to p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e s , e.g. d i - n u = n i k i y e d a - s e ( 3 s g n f - c o m e - C O M P L

d o w n s t r e a m - L O C ) 'he c a m e c o m p l e t e l y d o w n s t r e a m ' is realised a s [ n i - n u = n i k i n e d e a - s e ] .

T h i s n a s a l i s a t i o n s p r e a d in T a r i a n a is t h e result o f a ' T u c a n o accent' in T a r i a n a , s i n c e

n a s a l i s a t i o n a s a w o r d p r o s o d y is a p r o p e r t y o f E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s (see A i k h e n v a l d

1 9 9 6 a ) ; it is n o t f o u n d in o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e area.

2 . 4 . 3 A s p i r a t i o n

T a r i a n a h a s a set o f a s p i r a t e d s t o p s a n d n a s a l s a n d a n a s p i r a t e d bilabial glide. T a b l e 2.2

s h o w s that t h e r e a r e m o r e restrictions o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f aspirated c o n s o n a n t s t h a n o f

u n a s p i r a t e d o n e s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h i n affixes a n d clitics. N o roots, affixes o r clitics c o n t a i n

t w o a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t s . H e r e I first c o n s i d e r the loss o f a s p i r a t i o n w i t h i n a

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d a c r o s s clitic a n d prefix b o u n d a r i e s , a n d t h e n d i s c u s s a s p i r a t i o n

f l o a t i n g a n d t h e v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n p r e - a s p i r a t i o n a n d post-aspiration.

A . L O S S O F A S P I R A T I O N W I T H I N A P H O N O L O G I C A L W O R D . If a d j a c e n t syllables a c r o s s a

clitic b o u n d a r y c o n t a i n a s p i r a t e d s t o p s , n a s a l s o r t h e bilabial glide w h , either o f t h e s e ,

b u t n o t b o t h at o n c e , is r e a l i s e d a s aspirated. F o r i n s t a n c e , a s e q u e n c e o f a p r e f i x a n d a

r o o t d i - p h a (3sgnf-fall) a n d a c l i t i c =kha 'away' s h o u l d h a v e r e s u l t e d in d i - p h a = k h a \ this

s e q u e n c e is r e a l i s e d as either [ d i - p h a = k a ] o r [ d i - p a = k h a ] . Similarly, a p h o n o l o g i c a l

w o r d c o n s i s t i n g o f a s e q u e n c e o f a r o o t wyaka 'far', a n enclitic =tha Trustrative' a n d t h e

enclitic = m h a n a ' r e m o t e p a s t n o n - v i s u a l ' s h o u l d h a v e r e s u l t e d in w y a k a = t h a = m h a n a ('it

is ( p e r c e i v e d n o n - v i s u a l l y ) a s b e i n g far in vain') b u t is realised as either

[ w y a k a = t a = m h a n a ] o r [ w y a k a = t h a = m a n a ] .

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 2 . 4 P h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d 4 3

If a r o o t c o n t a i n s t h e fricative h a n d a clitic c o n t a i n s a n a s p i r a t e d stop, this m a y result

in t h e l o s s o f a s p i r a t i o n w i t h i n a clitic, w i t h s o m e s p e a k e r s . F o r i n s t a n c e , J o s e M a n o e l

B r i t o , a v e r y fluent e l d e r l y s p e a k e r o f T a r i a n a , c o n s i s t e n t l y p r o n o u n c e s w o r d s like di-

ayahya ( 3 s g n f - s w i m ) = £ / z a ( a w a y ) 'he s w a m a w a y ' as [ d i - a y a h y a - k a ] . T h i s p r o c e s s is

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f clitic b o u n d a r i e s (see d i s c u s s i o n in A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 2 b ) .

A s p i r a t e d v o i c e d s t o p s a n d a s p i r a t e d n a s a l s m a y lose their a s p i r a t i o n in a n o n - w o r d -

initial p o s i t i o n , e.g. d i - n u - m h a ( 3 s g n f - c o m e - P R E S . N O N V I S ) 'he is c o m i n g ' c a n b e

p r o n o u n c e d a s [ d i - n u - m a ] . I n contrast, m h e m a - k a d e ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : m a - h i m a - k a d e

( N E G - h e a r - N E G ) ) 'he d o e s n o t hear' c a n n o t b e p r o n o u n c e d a s [ m e m a - k a d e ] ( n o t e that

m e m a - k a d e ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : m a - i m a - k a d e ( N E G - s t a n d - N E G ) ) m e a n s 'he d o e s n o t

s t a n d ) ; m h a m i t a - k a d e ( N E G + b u r n - N E G ) 'he d o e s n o t b u r n ' c a n n o t b e p r o n o u n c e d a s

[ m a m i t a - k a d e ] , a n d d h i m a ( 3 s g n f + h e a r ) 'he h e a r s ' c a n n o t b e [ d i m a ] w h i c h w o u l d m e a n

'he stands'.

F r e e v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n a s p i r a t e d dh a n d u n a s p i r a t e d d in t h e t w o enclitics a n d t h e

o n l y r o o t w h e r e dh o c c u r s w a s o b s e r v e d w i t h y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s , e.g. d i - y a = d h u / i (3sgnf-

h i t = F O L D ) 'he hit (the tree) s o that it f o l d e d ' is p r o n o u n c e d as [ d i - y a = d u r i ] , w h i l e =dala,

a n A k t i o n s a r t clitic m e a n i n g 'get u n s t u c k ' , is o f t e n h e a r d a s [ = d a l a ] , a n d d i - d h a l a (3sgnf-

u n s t i c k ) 'he u n s t u c k ' c a n b e p r o n o u n c e d a s [di-dala]. T h e a s p i r a t e d bilabial glide c a n b e

p r o n o u n c e d a s u n a s p i r a t e d w in a n y p o s i t i o n , e.g. [ w h y u m e ] , [ w y u m e ] 'be last',

[ k e w h e d o n i t e ] , [ k e w e d o n i t e ] 'pregnant'.

B . A S P I R A T I O N F L O A T I N G . A s p i r a t i o n i n T a r i a n a is a p r o s o d i c p h e n o m e n o n w h o s e

d o m a i n is less t h a n a w h o l e p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 c for a s i m i l a r

a c c o u n t o f a s p i r a t i o n in B a r e , a n o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e p r e v i o u s l y s p o k e n in t h e U p p e r

R i o N e g r o r e g i o n ) . T h e d o m a i n o f a s p i r a t i o n a s a p r o s o d i c p h e n o m e n o n is d e t e r m i n e d

b y t h e f o l l o w i n g rule w h i c h I call a s p i r a t i o n floating.

I n a s e q u e n c e o f t w o syllables ( o n a p r e f i x - r o o t b o u n d a r y o r w i t h i n a n enclitic), o n e

o f w h i c h c o n t a i n s a n a s p i r a t e d s t o p , n a s a l o r bilabial glide a n d t h e o t h e r c o n t a i n s a n

u n a s p i r a t e d v o i c e l e s s s t o p , t h e a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t m a y lose its a s p i r a t i o n ; t h e n t h e c o d a

o f t h e first s y l l a b l e is h. T h e p r o c e s s d o e s n o t a p p l y if (a) t h e first syllable is n o t

stressed, o r (b) it d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a l o n g v o w e l . A s p i r a t i o n floating d o e s n o t a p p l y

w i t h i n a root, cf. m a r a t a h k a , n o t [ m a r a t a k h a ] ' q u i c k w a v e ' , k a r a h t a , n o t [ k a r a t h a ] 'lung',

- a n i h t a , n o t [-anitha] 'think, u n d e r s t a n d , reason'. A n a s p i r a t e d s t o p o r n a s a l o r w h o n t h e

p r e f i x - r o o t b o u n d a r y is m o s t o f t e n t h e result o f / z - m e t a t h e s i s (see §2.5.1).

F o l l o w i n g this rule, kephunipe ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : ka-iphu-nipe: R E L - f o l l o w - N O M )

'four' is o f t e n p r o n o u n c e d a s [ k e h p u n i p e ] , a n d mhepakdde ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m ma-hipa-

kade N E G - w a s h - N E G ) is p r o n o u n c e d a s [ m e h p a k a d e ] 'he/she d i d n o t w a s h ' , a n d

dhipdkaru ( f r o m di-hipa-karu 3 s g n f - c a t c h - P U R P . V I S ) is p r o n o u n c e d a s [ d i h p a k a r u ] 'in

o r d e r for h i m to catch'.

In c o n t r a s t , dhipakasu ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m di-hipa-kasu 3 s g n f - c a t c h - I N T ) 'he is g o i n g to

1
catch c a n n o t b e p r o n o u n c e d as [ d i h p a k a s u ] , s i n c e t h e first syllable o f this w o r d is

s t r e s s e d a n d t h u s c o n d i t i o n (a) is n o t fulfilled. Similarly, m h e . p a k a d e ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m

m a - h e p a - k a d e N E G - a n s w e r - N E G ) 'he d i d n o t a n s w e r ' is n o t p r o n o u n c e d a s [ m e : h p a k a d e ]

b e c a u s e t h e first syllable c o n t a i n s a l o n g v o w e l a n d t h u s c o n d i t i o n (b) d o e s n o t h o l d .

T h e f o r m m h e . p a k a d e c a n b e p r o n o u n c e d w i t h a s h o r t v o w e l (see a b o v e , § 2 . 1 . 2 , o n t h e

loss o f v o w e l l e n g t h ) a s mhepakade; s p e a k e r s w h o d o this c a n p r o n o u n c e this w o r d a s

[ m e h p a k a d e ] , t h u s a p p l y i n g t h e a s p i r a t i o n floating.

A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, t h e s e q u e n c e o f clitics =thaka ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : =tha=ka)

' f r u s t r a t i v e = r e c e n t p a s t visual' c a n b e p r o n o u n c e d a s [ ^ t a h k a ] , a n d t h e s e q u e n c e

= m h a = k a 'recent p a s t n o n - v i s u a l ' c a n b e p r o n o u n c e d a s [ = m a h k a ] . T h e r e is j u s t o n e

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 4 4 2 Phonology

c a s e in w h i c h a s p i r a t i o n floating t a k e s p l a c e w i t h i n w h a t a p p e a r s to b e o n e m o r p h e m e :

t h e enclitic = b o t h a , =butha 'conditional' is often p r o n o u n c e d a s =bohta or = b u h t a .

H o w e v e r , it is likely that this clitic is actually a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t w o clitics =bo

'counterfactual' ( a l o a n f r o m T u c a n o b o o 'counterfactual, potential') a n d =tha 'frustrative'

( s e e C h a p t e r 5 o f A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a s p i r a t i o n floating

w i t h i n = b o t h a m a y c o n s t i t u t e a n a d d i t i o n a l p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f its

b i m o r p h e m i c origin: s e e § 1 6 . 6 .

I n a n u n s t r e s s e d syllable, w o r d - i n i t i a l h a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g h i g h o r central v o w e l c a n

b e m e t a t h e s i s e d , e.g. [hiporite], [ihporite] ' g r e e n ( a n i m a t e ) ' , [ h i p e r i w i ] , [ i h p e r i w i ] 'type

o f h e d g e ' , [ h i e r i k u ] , [iheriku] ' ( s o m e o n e ' s ) a n u s ' (see further e x a m p l e s in §2.2.1). T h i s

d o e s n o t h a p p e n if t h e w o r d - i n i t i a l syllable is stressed, e.g. [ h i m a ] 'you (plural) sleep'

( n o t [ i h m a ] ) , [hipa] ' y o u (plural) grab' (not [ihpa]).

T h e a s p i r a t i o n floating is t h u s indicative o f a clitic b o u n d a r y w i t h i n a p h o n o l o g i c a l

w o r d , a n d o f a p r e f i x - r o o t b o u n d a r y . T h i s p r o s o d i c p a r a m e t e r c a n b e u s e d for

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d ; s e e § 2 . 4 . 5 .

T h e /^-metathesis ( s e e § 2 . 5 . 1 ) m o s t f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s o n a prefix + r o o t b o u n d a r y , s o

that m o s t a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e a s p i r a t e d v o i c e d stops, o c c u r in the w o r d -

initial p o s i t i o n . A s p i r a t i o n floating in this f o r m is n o t attested in o t h e r N o r t h A r a w a k , o r

in E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s . W a l t z a n d W a l t z ( 1 9 6 7 : 3 0 ) n o t e that G u a n a n o ( E a s t T u c a n o )

s o m e t i m e s h a s 'fluctuation' o f aspiration; this r e q u i r e s further analysis. N o r t h A r a w a k

l a n g u a g e s B a n i w a o f I ^ a n a a n d B a r e h a v e a s p i r a t i o n as a p r o s o d i c feature, a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h /^-metathesis. In B a r e , b u t p o s s i b l y n o t in B a n i w a , a s p i r a t i o n is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d . In W a r e k e n a o f X i e /^-insertion is a w o r d a n d p h r a s e

b o u n d a r y m a r k e r . S e e A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 6 c , 1 9 9 5 b a n d 1 9 9 8 b ) for further d i s c u s s i o n .

2 . 4 . 4 Vowel h a r m o n y

V o w e l h a r m o n y o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e limits o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d , a n d is i n d i c a t i v e o f its

b o u n d a r i e s . T a r i a n a h a s t h r e e t y p e s o f v o w e l h a r m o n y , all o f w h i c h o c c u r in n o r m a l a n d

r a p i d s p e e c h .

A. R E G R E S S I V E T R A N S L A R Y N G E A L V O W E L H A R M O N Y I N I N D E P E N D E N T P E R S O N A L

P R O N O U N S . I n d e p e n d e n t p r o n o u n s c o n s i s t o f a c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefix a n d a deictic

e l e m e n t -hd ( s e e C h a p t e r 11). T h e i r u n d e r l y i n g f o r m is s h o w n in t h e s e c o n d c o l u m n o f

T a b l e 2.6. T h e w a y p r o n o u n s are p r o n o u n c e d in s l o w register is s h o w n in t h e n e x t

c o l u m n . T h e s u b s e q u e n t c o l u m n s s h o w h o w , in n o r m a l a n d in r a p i d s p e e c h register, a

v o w e l identical to t h e v o w e l o f t h e first syllable, i.e. to that o f t h e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g

prefix, is i n s e r t e d after h. In t h e r a p i d s p e e c h register t h e v o w e l o f t h e first syllable

1 2
elides, a n d a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t s e m e r g e as a result; this is s h o w n in t h e last c o l u m n .

T h e m o r p h e m e -hd triggers n a s a l i s a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l ; this p r o c e s s is

w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g t h e N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e a r e a (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 d ) .

W h e n p r o n o u n s g e t cliticised to t h e v e r b in t h e ' p r o n o u n d o u b l i n g ' c o n s t r u c t i o n

d e s c r i b e d in § 2 5 . 1 . 4 , t h e shorter, r a p i d s p e e c h register f o r m o c c u r s .

12
Biocca's ( 1 9 6 5 ) recordings o f Tariana s h a m a n i c songs contain instances of a slow register realisation of

third person singular non-feminine p r o n o u n diha.

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 2 . 4 P h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d 4 5

B . W O R D - I N I T I A L V O W E L H A R M O N Y . If t h e r o o t b e g i n s w i t h h a n d is p r e c e d e d b y a

prefix, a v o w e l identical to that o f t h e prefix is inserted after h , e.g. s l o w register: [du-

u
h e n i ] ; n o r m a l t o r a p i d [ d u - h e n i ] o r [ d h u e n i ] (3sgf-ear) 'her ear'. T h i s c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d

a s a n i n s t a n c e o f t r a n s l a r y n g e a l v o w e l h a r m o n y .

T w o u n s t r e s s e d v o w e l s at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d m a y b e p r o n o u n c e d

i d e n t i c a l l y to t h e s e c o n d v o w e l , e.g. [ y a r u m a k a s i ] , [ y o r u m a k a s i ] , m a y b e p r o n o u n c e d a s

[ y u r u m a k a s i ] 'clothing'; a n d [di-sepata] a s [di-sapata] 'he suffers'.

T A B L E 2 . 6 P H O N E T I C R E A L I S A T I O N S O F I N D E P E N D E N T P R O N O U N S

U N D E R L Y I N G F O R M S L O W R E G I S T E R N O R M A L R E G I S T E R R A P I D R E G I S T E R

l s g n u - h a nuhd nuhud n h u d , n h u a

2 s g p i - h a p i h d p i h y d p h i d , p h i a

3 s g n f d i - h a dihd dihyd, dihid dihyd, dhya

3 s g f d u - h a duhd d u h u d , duhwd d u h w d , dhua

lpl w a - h a w a h d wahd w h d , w h a

2 p l i-ha ihd ihyd ihyd, hya

n a - h a nahd nahd n h a
3pl

C. W O R D - F I N A L V O W E L H A R M O N Y W I T H I N E N C L I T I C S . In normal to rapid speech,

enclitics w h i c h h a v e their s e c o n d a r y stress o n t h e last syllable a s s i m i l a t e t h e v o w e l in

t h e p r e - t o n i c syllable t o t h e o n e in t h e stressed syllable, e.g. - n a k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t '

b e c o m e s - n u k u , -pidend ' r e m o t e p a s t inferred' b e c o m e s -pidand. T h i s o n l y h a p p e n s

w h e n t h e s e enclitics o c c u r w o r d - f i n a l l y . V o w e l h a r m o n y o f this t y p e is t h u s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h t h e e n d o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d .

Y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s t e n d to u s e t h e f o r m w i t h a s s i m i l a t e d v o w e l s a s t h e o n l y o n e , w h i l e

o l d e r p e o p l e h a v e b o t h . A m e r i c o B r i t o , t h e o l d e s t living s p e a k e r o f t h e S a n t a R o s a

variety, p r o n o u n c e s - n a k u a s - n o k u . T h e r e is a certain a m o u n t o f i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n in

h o w t h e v o w e l h a r m o n y o f this t y p e a p p l i e s a m o n g o t h e r proficient s p e a k e r s . I s m a e l

B r i t o a n d o t h e r y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s e x t e n d e d v o w e l h a r m o n y to t h e n e g a t i v e suffix, b o t h

w o r d - f i n a l l y a n d b e f o r e a clitic, e.g. ma-nu-kdde ( N E G - c o m e - N E G ) 'he/she d i d n o t c o m e '

w a s p r o n o u n c e d a s [ m a n u k e d e ] , a n d to all t h e disyllabic w o r d s w i t h a in t h e first

syllable a n d e in t h e s e c o n d , e.g. tydre ' i n d i g e n o u s c u p ' w a s p r o n o u n c e d a s [tyere].

2 . 4 . 5 Word d e l i m i t i n g p r o s o d i c p a r a m e t e r s in Tariana: a summary

T h e f o l l o w i n g p r o s o d i c p a r a m e t e r s in T a r i a n a d e l i m i t the b o u n d a r i e s o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l

w o r d . N o t e that o n l y t h e p r i m a r y stress is w o r d - d e f i n i n g ; o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s c a n b e

c o n s i d e r e d s u b s i d i a r y .

1. P r i m a r y stress: d e t e r m i n e s t h e n u m b e r o f p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s (§2.4.1).

2. S e c o n d a r y stress: i n d i c a t i v e o f clitic b o u n d a r i e s ; indicative o f t h e structure o f a

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d (§2.4.1 a n d §2.3.4).

3. N a s a l i s a t i o n : o p e r a t e s w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d (§2.4.2).

4. A s p i r a t i o n floating: i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d , a n d o f

clitic b o u n d a r i e s w i t h i n it ( i . e . , o f its i n t e r n a l structure) (§2.4.3).

5. A s p i r a t i o n : i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e w o r d - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n (§2.4.3).

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 4 6 2 P h o n o l o g y

6. V o w e l h a r m o n y : i n d i c a t i v e o f w o r d - f i n a l , a n d o f w o r d - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n s ( § 2 . 4 . 4 :

A , B , C ) .

7. P o s t - t o n i c v o w e l r e d u c t i o n : i n d i c a t i v e o f w o r d - f i n a l p o s i t i o n (§2.3.5).

P h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d b o u n d a r i e s h a v e a d d i t i o n a l s e g m e n t a l p r o p e r t i e s . P h o n o l o g i c a l

w o r d s h a r d l y e v e r start w i t h r. R e s t r i c t i o n s o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f v o w e l s a n d c o n s o n a n t s

in t h e root-, affix- a n d enclitic-initial a n d - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n s are g i v e n in T a b l e s 2.2 a n d

2.4.

2.5 P h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s

P h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f t w o k i n d s - A - m e t a t h e s i s (§2.5.1), a n d v o w e l f u s i o n s ( § 2 . 5 . 2 )

- o c c u r o n t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n a p r e f i x a n d a root, a r o o t a n d a suffix, a n d b e t w e e n

t w o suffixes. T h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n p a r t s o f n o m i n a l c o m p o u n d s are treated in t h e

s a m e w a y a s b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n r o o t s a n d suffixes (see § 1 0 . 5 o n t h e difficulties o f

d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c o m p o u n d s f r o m suffixal d e r i v a t i o n s in T a r i a n a ) . S o m e p r o c e s s e s ( A 2

a n d E in § 2 . 5 . 2 ) o c c u r o n t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n enclitics a n d r o o t s a n d b e t w e e n

enclitics. N o p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s o c c u r o n proclitic b o u n d a r i e s . R o o t - i n t e r n a l

p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s are d i s c u s s e d in § 2 . 5 . 3 .

2.5.1 W - m e t a t h e s i s

/ / - m e t a t h e s i s is attested in a n u m b e r o f N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e U p p e r R i o

N e g r o . S e e , for i n s t a n c e , A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 5 a ) o n /z-metathesis in B a r e , a n d V a l a d a r e s

( 1 9 9 3 ) o n A - m e t a t h e s i s in K u m a n d e n e , a dialect o f K u r r i p a k o ; n o t e h o w e v e r that in

B a r e , b u t p o s s i b l y n o t in B a n i w a / K u r r i p a k o , this p r o c e s s is l i m i t e d to w o r d - i n i t i a l

p o s i t i o n . In T a r i a n a , its a p p l i c a t i o n is i n d e p e n d e n t o f stress p l a c e m e n t . V o w e l f u s i o n

p r o c e s s e s d e s c r i b e d in § 2 . 5 . 2 a l w a y s a p p l y after /z-metathesis. A root- o r a suffix-initial

h , w h e n p r e c e d e d b y a p r e f i x o r a root, m e t a t h e s i s e s in t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y s :

A . C V - + - A V X - * C W X - » [ a s p i r a t e d C ] V X , if C is a stop, a n a s a l o r a bilabial glide.

E x a m p l e s are:

• p r e f i x di- ( 3 s g n f ) + r o o t - h i m a (hear) —> d h i - i m a — > dhima 'he hears';

• p r e f i x n a - (3pl) + r o o t - h i m a —» n h a - i m a —• n h e m a 'they hear';

• p a : 'one' + -hipa 'classifier h u m a n ' —• p h a - i p a —• p h e p a 'one ( h u m a n ) ' ;

• r o o t y a w i 'jaguar' + r o o t hipani 'rapid' —> y a w h i - i p a n i —* y a w h i p a n i ;

• ' I a u a r e t e ' , lit. ' r a p i d o f jaguar'.

If t h e r e a r e t w o syllables o f C V structure, e a c h c o n t a i n i n g a stop, a n a s a l o r a bilabial

glide, p r e c e d i n g t h e - h VX s e q u e n c e , /j-metathesis a p p l i e s to t h e l e f t m o s t o f t h e s e , e.g.

hamd 'two' + -hipa ' n u m e r a l classifier: h u m a n ' — > nhamd-ipa — > hhamepa ' t w o ( h u m a n

o n e s ) ' ( n o t *nhamhepa).

If C is n o t a s t o p , a n a s a l o r a bilabial glide, t h e h - m e t a t h e s i s d o e s n o t a p p l y . T h e

suffix-initial h s i m p l y d i s a p p e a r s a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s o f v o w e l f u s i o n ( s e e § 2 . 5 . 2 ) a p p l y ,

e.g. m a d a l i 'three' + -hipa ' n u m e r a l classifier: h u m a n ' — • madalipa 'three ( h u m a n ones)'.

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 2 . 5 P h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s 4 7

B . V i - + / z V 2 X - > A V 1 V 2 X ( - > h V 2 X if V i = V 2 ) ; that is, if a syllable p r e c e d i n g t h e

b o u n d a r y is o f V structure, h ' j u m p s ' o n e syllable, a n d t h e p r e c e d i n g syllable a c q u i r e s

/zV structure. E x a m p l e s are:

• p r e f i x z- ( 2 p l ) + r o o t -hipa ' g r a b ' — + hi-ipa — * hipa 'you pi. grab';

• p r e f i x /- ( 2 p l ) + r o o t - h e m d t h a 'shout' —* h i e m d t h a ' y o u shout'.

T h e v o w e l c o a l e s c e n c e w h i c h a p p l i e s after /z-metathesis d o e s n o t result in t h e

e m e r g e n c e o f l o n g v o w e l s (see u n d e r A in §2.5.2).

If t h e p r e f i x h a s t h e v o i c e d d e n t a l s t o p a s a n onset, /z-metathesis t a k e s p l a c e in n o r m a l

a n d r a p i d s p e e c h , b u t n o t in s l o w d e l i b e r a t e s p e e c h , e.g. di-hipa —• dhipa 'he takes'

( n o r m a l t o r a p i d register), dihipa 'he takes' ( s l o w register); du-hupa — » dhupa 'she takes'

( n o r m a l to r a p i d r e g i s t e r ) , duhupa ( s l o w register).

C . C V + V w / z V —» C / z V w V —• [aspirated C]Vw, w h e n C is a stop, a n a s a l o r a bilabial

glide, e.g.:

• p a : 'one' + - i w h i 'classifier: t h i n particle-like things' —• p h e w i ' o n e t h i n particle-

like thing'.

In this c a s e v o w e l m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n (ar+z —» e) a p p l i e s after /z-metathesis; v o w e l

m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n w i l l n o t a p p l y o n t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n a r o o t that e n d s i n d\ a n d a

suffix t h a t starts w i t h -i ( c o m p a r e D l 1 in §2.5.2). T h i s rule d o e s n o t a p p l y for a s p i r a t e d

c o n s o n a n t s o t h e r t h a n w/z, e.g. p a : 'one' + -iphina 'classifier: quarter'—* p d - i p h i n a 'one

quarter', p a : 'one' + -phe 'classifier: leaf-like' —>pd:phe 'one leaflike thing'.

T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f /z-metathesis a c c o u n t s for m o s t o c c u r r e n c e s o f a s p i r a t e d s t o p s ,

e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e v o i c e d a s p i r a t e d d h , a n d n a s a l s , a n d o f t h e a s p i r a t e d bilabial glide (see

T a b l e 2.2).

2 . 5 . 2 Vowel f u s i o n s

V o w e l f u s i o n s , i.e. t h e b o u n d a r y p r o c e s s e s w h i c h i n v o l v e c h a n g e s w i t h i n v o w e l

s e q u e n c e s , a r e ( A ) v o w e l c o a l e s c e n c e , ( B ) m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n , ( C ) v o w e l loss o n

p r e f i x - r o o t b o u n d a r i e s , ( D ) v o w e l loss a n d c o m p e n s a t o r y l e n g t h e n i n g o n suffix

b o u n d a r i e s , a n d ( E ) t h e e m e r g e n c e o f g l i d e s o n suffix a n d enclitic b o u n d a r i e s . V o w e l

f u s i o n s a p p l y after /z-metathesis.

A . V O W E L C O A L E S C E N C E . V o w e l c o a l e s c e n c e a p p l i e s to identical v o w e l s o n p r e f i x -

r o o t b o u n d a r i e s , o n r o o t - s u f f i x b o u n d a r i e s , b e t w e e n suffixes, a n d b e t w e e n a r o o t a n d a n

enclitic.

A l . O n a r o o t - s u f f i x b o u n d a r y , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f s t r e s s e d p l a c e m e n t : V j + V j —• Vi.

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s , t h e initial v o w e l o f t h e suffix is u n s t r e s s e d :

• p a n i - s i ( h o u s e - N P O S S ) + -ite ( a n i m a t e classifier) —> p a n i s i t e 'the o n e w h o

b e l o n g s t o t h e h o u s e ' ;

• d i p u m i - 'after h i m ' + - i t a ' c a u s a t i v e ' — > dipumita 'he p u n i s h e s ' ;

• k d n a r i - i - t h i d a ( m i r r o r - l N D F - e y e ) —> k a n a r i t h i d a 'mirror-eyed' (a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n

evil spirit).

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 4 8 2 P h o n o l o g y

In t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s , t h e initial v o w e l o f t h e suffix is stressed:

• maitfi 'bad' + -ipa 'classifier: b i g o p e n s p a c e ' —• maitfipa 'bad (big o p e n s p a c e ,

e.g. a field)';

• m a : 0 - 'bad' + -ite ' n o u n class a n i m a t e ' —•» maitfite 'bad a n i m a t e one';

• hawdya 'inga fruit' + -dpa 'classifier: largish l o n g objects' —• hawaydpa 'inga

fruit w h i c h is l a r g i s h a n d long'.

A 2 . O n a p r e f i x - r o o t b o u n d a r y , if t h e initial v o w e l o f t h e r o o t is stressed, t h e rule is V , +

Vi — • v ^ E x a m p l e s are:

• n u - i i m a —• n u : m a 'I l o o k for' ( a m i n i m a l p a i r w i t h nit-ma 'I p o i s o n fish'); wa-dra

—• w d : r a ' w e fly';

• di- ( 3 s g n f ) + -isa ( c l i m b ) —• d i : s a ( 3 s g n f + c l i m b ) 'he climbs'.

If v o w e l c o a l e s c e n c e a p p l i e s after ^ - m e t a t h e s i s , a n A l - t y p e p r o c e s s a p p l i e s , n o

m a t t e r w h e t h e r t h e v o w e l o f t h e r o o t is stressed o r not, e.g. di- ( 3 s g n f ) + r o o t - h i m a

( h e a r ) —> d h i - i m a —> d h i m a 'he hears' (cf. o t h e r e x a m p l e s in §2.5.1). If t h e r e are t w o

h o m o r g a n i c v o w e l s o n a r o o t - e n c l i t i c b o u n d a r y , A l applies, e.g. d e : p i = i h a

( n i g h t = A P P R ) 'a little bit at night' ( w h e n it is j u s t a little bit d a r k ) —• d e . p i h a .

B . M O N O P H T H O N G I S A T I O N . M o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n a p p l i e s o n p r e f i x - r o o t b o u n d a r i e s a n d

o n root-suffix b o u n d a r i e s b u t n o t b e t w e e n suffixes. T h i s p r o c e s s is a p p l i e d

i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f stress p l a c e m e n t .

a + /—> e, e.g.:

• n a - (3pl) + -isa ( c l i m b ) —• n e s a 'they c l i m b ' ;

• -did ' r e t u r n ' 4- - i t a ' c a u s a t i v e ' — • -dieta ' m a k e return';

• k a - (relative) + - h i m a 'hear' —» k h e m a 'the o n e w h o hears' ( h e r e the

m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n a p p l i e s after t h e /z-metathesis);

• di-pitdna 'his n a m e ' + -ita 'causative' — • dipitaneta 'he n a m e s ' ;

• d i . r a 'he d r i n k s ' + -ita 'causative' —» d i . r e t a 'he m a k e s ( s o m e o n e ) drink';

• wdpa ' w e rot' + -ita 'causative' — > wapeta ' w e m a k e rot'.

M o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n d o e s n o t t a k e p l a c e if either / o r a o f t h e r o o t is l o n g (recall that

affixes n e v e r c o n t a i n l o n g v o w e l s ; s e e § 2 . 1 . 2 a n d T a b l e 2.4), a s in t h e f o l l o w i n g

e x a m p l e s :

• n a - '3pl' + - i : t u ' s t e a l ' —*• n a - i : t u 'they stole';

• n a - '3pl' + -i:nu —> n a - i : n u 'they killed' (see also §2.2.2);

• p a : - + -ita ( o n e - C L : A N I M ) — > p d . i t a , p d i t a 'one (animate)'.

N e i t h e r d o e s t h e m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n o c c u r if t h e v o w e l a is stressed, a s in: hamd

'two' + -ita ( t w o - C L : A N l M ) —> h a m d i t a ' t w o (animate)'. T h e e x c e p t i o n to this is t h e

specifier article d i h d :

• dihd 'he, specifier article' + -ita 'CL:INAN' — > dheta 'the i n a n i m a t e one';

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 2.5 Phonological processes 4 9

• dihd 'he; specifier article' + -ipu 'classifier: l o n g h o l l o w ' —• dhepu 'the l o n g

h o l l o w o n e ' ;
1 3
• dihd 'he; specifier article' + -itfi 'bundle' — > dhetfi 'the b u n d l e - l i k e one'.

It a l w a y s a p p l i e s t o a s e q u e n c e a(:) + i w h i c h h a s arisen as a result o f /z-metathesis

(see C in § 2 . 5 . 1 ) , e.g. p a : - 'one' + - i w h i 'classifier: thin particle-like things' — > p h e w i 'one

t h i n particle-like t h i n g (cf.phepa 'one ( h u m a n ) ' in A u n d e r §2.5.1).

M o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n in T a r i a n a a p p e a r s to b e fairly recent. A c o m b i n a t i o n wapa ' w e

rot' + -ita 'causative' c a n o n l y b e realised a s wapeta ' w e m a k e rot' in t h e p r e s e n t - d a y

T a r i a n a . H o w e v e r , in t h e T a r i a n a s h a m a n i c c h a n t s r e c o r d e d o v e r fifty y e a r s a g o (see

§1.8), t h e s a m e v e r b a p p e a r s i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y a s wapeta ' w e m a k e rot' ( w i t h

m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n ) a n d as wapaita ( w i t h o u t m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n ) , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e

r h y t h m .

C . V O W E L L O S S O N P R E F I X - R O O T B O U N D A R I E S . P r e f i x e s c o n t a i n o n l y t h e short v o w e l s

a, u a n d /. O n p r e f i x - r o o t b o u n d a r i e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g rules a p p l y , u n l e s s t h e A o r B rules

h a v e a l r e a d y a p p l i e d :

C I . ( i ) u- + - / — * w, e.g.:

• n u - 'lsg' + -isa 'climb' —• n u s a 'I c l i m b ' ;

• n u - 'lsg' + - i m a 'sleep' —• n u m a 'I sleep'.

C I a l s o a p p l i e s after h - m e t a t h e s i s :

• du- ' 3 s g f + -hipa ' g r a b ' — » dhupa 'she grabs'.

C I . ( i i ) u- + - V —+ w V , if V is a v o w e l o t h e r t h a n stressed /, e.g.:

- u + -/ —• ui, e.g.:

• n u - 'lsg' + -ira 'drink' —• n u i r a 'I drink';

-u + -e —> u e , e.g.:

• du- ' 3 s g f + - e m a 'stand' —> d u e m a 'she stands';

• d u - ' 3 s g f + -hepa 'answer' —•> dhuepa 'she a n s w e r s ' ;

-w + - a —• wa, e.g:

• n u - ' l s g ' + - a ' g o ' — > nud 'I g o ' , n w - ' l s g ' + - d m 'fly' —• raa/a 'I fly'.

S e q u e n c e s -u + -e c a n result in w for s o m e s p e a k e r s , b o t h y o u n g a n d old, w h o d o n o t

h a v e m u c h c h a n c e o f s p e a k i n g T a r i a n a regularly. E m i l i o Brito, J u v e n a l B r i t o a n d B a t i s t a

B r i t o w e r e u s i n g t h e f o r m dhuka 'she d u g ' ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : du- + -heka) i n s t e a d o f

d h u e k a ; o t h e r s p e a k e r s w e r e c o n s i s t e n t in c o r r e c t i n g t h e m .

13 1
T h e classifier suffix 'bundle is e i t h e r - 0 or -itfi d e p e n d i n g on the speaker. M o r e traditional speakers,

e.g. C a n d i d o Brito, prefer the form -tfi, e.g. manakatfi 'bundle of acai fruit* (from manaka 'acai fruit' and

-tfi 'CL:BUNDLE'). M o r e innovative speakers use the form -itfi, e.g. manaketfi (from manaka 'acai fruit'

a n d -itfi *CL:BUNDLE'), a n d dhetfi 'the bundle-like one' cited above; this form is s a i d t o b e ' f r o m Baniwa'.

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 5 0 2 Phonology

S i n c e n o l o n g v o w e l s a r e a l l o w e d w i t h i n v o w e l s e q u e n c e s (see §2.2.2), a l o n g v o w e l

is r e a l i s e d a s short, a s in - u + -/: e.g. n u - 'lsg' + -i:tu 'daughter' —• n u - i t u ' m y daughter'.

T h i s p r o c e s s d o e s n o t o p e r a t e o n a r o o t - s u f f i x b o u n d a r y , e.g. h a n u - 'big' + -ite

'classifier a n i m a t e ' —* h a n u i t e (not *hanute) 'big a n i m a t e o n e ' (see D b e l o w ) .

C 2 . ( i ) z- + -e —> e if t h e /z-metathesis a p p l i e s , this p r o c e s s a p p l i e s o p t i o n a l l y :

• di- ' 3 s g n f + -hepa ' a n s w e r ' — • dhepa o r dhiepa 'he a n s w e r s ' ;

• di- ' 3 s g n f + -he 'enter' — • dhe o r dhie 'he enters'.

C 2 . (ii) o t h e r w i s e i- + - V —> i V , e.g.:

/- + -e —> i e , e.g.:

• di- ' 3 s g n f + - e m a 'stand' —• d i e m a 'he stands';

• di- ' 3 s g n f + -eku ' r u n ' —•> d i e k u 'he runs';

/"- + - e : —> i e , e.g.:

• J/- ' 3 s g n f + - e . n e n e 'tongue' —> d i - e n e n e 'his t o n g u e ' ;

/- + - u —• /w, e.g.:

• di- ' 3 s g n f + - u m a 'seek' —> d i u m a 'he seeks';

, 4
• rfi- ' 3 s g n f + - w ^ 'seek' — • diukd 'he arrives';

/- + - a — > /V2, e.g.:

• <#- ' 3 s g n f + -d ' g o ' —> <i/d ' h e went'.

C 3 . a- + - w —> a : , e.g.:

• «<?- ' 3 p l ' + - u m a 'seek' —> n d . m a 'they seek'.

C 4 . a- + - e —* e ; , e.g.:

• w a - 'lpl' + - e k u ' r u n ' —-> w e . k u ' w e run'.

T h i s p r o c e s s a l l o w s v a r i a b l e o u t p u t , e v e n w i t h t h e s a m e s p e a k e r : ai a s in wwz'&w ' w e

run', o r ei a s in w e i k u ' w e run'. T h e v a r i a n t w e . k u is c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e d b y o l d e r s p e a k e r s .

D . V O W E L L O S S A N D C O M P E N S A T O R Y L E N G T H E N I N G O N S U F F I X B O U N D A R I E S . T h e s e

r u l e s a p p l y o n r o o t - s u f f i x b o u n d a r i e s a n d b e t w e e n suffixes, after rules A a n d B . ( N o

s u f f i x e s b e g i n w i t h u o r e: s e e T a b l e 2.4.)

D I . u + - / — • w, a s in:

• d i - m u s u 'he g o e s out' + -ita 'causative' —• d i m u s u i t a 'he m a k e s g o out';

• d i - k a p u k u 'he turns' + - i t a ' c a u s a t i v e ' — • dikapukuita 'he m a k e s turn';

• h a n e 'that' + -riku 'locative d e r i v a t i o n a l affix' + - i m a 'classifier: pair' —> h a n e -

rikuma 'the l o c a t i o n o f a side o v e r there'.

14
Batista Brito, a fluent speaker w h o rarely uses Tariana, treats these sequences differently: for h i m -/ + V

—• V , e.g. di-eku ' h e r u n s ' is p r o n o u n c e d a s deku, a n d di-ukd 'he arrives' as duka.

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 2 . 5 P h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s 51

D 2 . « + - / — • -ui, a s in:

• h a n u - 'big' + -ite ' n o u n c l a s s a n i m a t e ' —• h a n u i t e 'big ( a n i m a t e ) ' ;

• h a n u - 'big' + -ita ' n o u n class i n a n i m a t e ' —> h a n u i t a 'big (inanimate)'.

D 3 . u + -i —• u (if t h e r e is a l o n g v o w e l in t h e first syllable), a s in:

• h e : k u ' w o o d ' + -ita 'CL:INAN' —• h e k u t a 'paddle';

• k a : y u 'thus' + -ite 'NCL:ANIM' — * kayute 'an a n i m a t e o n e w h o is like this'.

D 4 . - u + -/—•» - / , a s in:

• h a n u - 'big' + -ipa 'classifier: large s p a c e ' — • hanipa 'large ( s p a c e ) ' ; 'a lot'.

D 5 . u + - a — • w, a s in:

• /*a/7w ' b i g ' + -dphi 'CL: H O L L O W ' — • hanuphi 'a b i g h o l l o w o b j e c t (e.g. a pan)';

• h a n u 'big' + - a p a 'CL: L A R G I S H L O N G ' — > hanupa 'big largish l o n g o b j e c t (e.g. a

sandal)'.

D 6 . w: + - i —> w : , a s in:

• sw/'small' + -//?# 'classifier: s p a c e ' —• s u . p a 'small (space)'.

D 7 . -u: + -d—> «:, e.g:

• s w . ' s m a i r + - # p W 'classifier: h o l l o w ' —» s u . p h i 'a s m a l l h o l l o w o b j e c t (a pan)';

• sw: 'small' + - o p a 'classifier: largish long' —> s w . p a 'small o n e (a sandal)'.

D 8 . e' + - d - > e, a s in:

• surupe 'clay' + - # p / n 'classifier: h o l l o w ' — • surupephi 'a c l a y pan'.

D 9 . e + / —• e, a s in:

• adaru-phe 'parrot feather (parrot-classifier: leaf-like objects)' + - i m a 'classifier:

pair' — > daruphema 'a h e a d - o r n a m e n t m a d e o f p a r r o t feathers' ( s e e § 2 . 3 . 5 o n t h e

l o s s o f a).

D 1 0 . £ + - / — • /, a s in:

• dithi-sede-ite ( 3 s g n f + e y e - N E G . E X - N C L : A N I M ) —» d i t h i s e d i t e 'eyeless';

• h a n u p e ' m u c h ' + -zte ' n o u n class a n i m a t e ' — > hanupite 'the o n e w h o h a s a lot'.

D l 1. a : , a + -/ —• *:, i f / is u n s t r e s s e d (that is, m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n d o e s n o t a p p l y ) :

• matfd:- 'good' +-ite ' n o u n c l a s s a n i m a t e ' — > matfute ' g o o d ( a n i m a t e ) ' ;

• w y a > 'long' + -ite ' n o u n class a n i m a t e ' —• w i . t e 'long a n i m a t e one';

• a l i a 'exist' + -ite ' n o u n class a n i m a t e ' —• alite 'existing one'.

T h i s latter p r o c e s s is p r o b a b l y o f r e c e n t origin, s i n c e s o m e v a r i a t i o n is a l l o w e d : for

i n s t a n c e matfiite ' g o o d ( a n i m a t e ) ' m a y s u r f a c e a s matfdite in s l o w d e l i b e r a t e s p e e c h ,

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 52 2 Phonology

e s p e c i a l l y w h e n matfv.te ' g o o d ( a n i m a t e ) ' c o n t r a s t s w i t h rnd.tfite 'bad ( a n i m a t e ) '

( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m ma:tfi 'bad' + -ite 'NCLiANIM'). W e m e n t i o n e d in § 2 . 1 . 2 a b o v e that

v o w e l l e n g t h t e n d s to b e u n s t a b l e ; t h e o p t i o n a l i t y o f t h e b o u n d a r y p r o c e s s in this c a s e is
1 5
a m e a n s o f ' r e i n f o r c i n g ' t h e distinction in this m i n i m a l pair.

E. W E A K E N I N G A N D L O S S O F / O N S U F F I X A N D E N C L I T I C B O U N D A R I E S . If a root-final -/

is f o l l o w e d b y a n enclitic-initial y , it g e t s deleted, e.g. n a w i k i 'person' + =ya ' e m p h a t i c '

—» nawikya 'really a person'. If a root-final -z i s f o l l o w e d b y affix-initial a, t h e n / —> y,

e.g. da:pi 'cipo vine', D d . p y a l i 'the river o f C i p o vine'.

W h e n t h e s a m e i t e m is u s e d as a suffix a n d as a n enclitic (see §2.6), b o u n d a r y v o w e l

f u s i o n a p p l i e s o n l y to t h e suffix. T h i s is t h e c a s e w i t h -iha ' a p p r o x i m a t i v e ' : w h e n it is

u s e d a s a suffix, v o w e l f u s i o n a p p l i e s , as in kadihite ( f r o m k a d a - i h a - i t e ) 'blackish' (see

D l 1 a b o v e ) . W h e n it is u s e d a s a n enclitic, n o v o w e l fusion t a k e s p l a c e , e.g. kadite-ihd

( w i t h a v a r i a n t kaditeyha: cf. §2.2.2) ( b l a c k + N C L : A N I M - A P P R O X ) 'blackish' (relative to

o t h e r b l a c k t h i n g - s e e §3.1.3), k a d d - m h a - i h a , o r kaddmhayha ( b l a c k - P R E S . N O N V I S -

A P P R O X ) 'it i s g e t t i n g darkish'.

2.5.3 P h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n r o o t s a n d w i t h i n affixes

P h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n r o o t s i n v o l v e syllable c o n t r a c t i o n a n d

m o n o p h t h o n g i s a t i o n ( d i s c u s s e d u n d e r A b e l o w ) . T h e loss o f t h e syllable ka w i t h i n

affixes is d i s c u s s e d u n d e r B . T h e s e p r o c e s s e s o c c u r in n o r m a l a n d r a p i d register b u t n o t

in s l o w d e l i b e r a t e s p e e c h .

U n s t r e s s e d p i c a n b e d e l e t e d in r a p i d s p e e c h in t h e clitic =pidana, =pidaka a n d

=pidd w h i c h b e c o m e = d a n a , =daka a n d =da respectively; this h a p p e n s o n l y w i t h

y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s .

A . S Y L L A B L E C O N T R A C T I O N A N D M O N O P H T H O N G I S A T I O N W I T H I N R O O T S A N D W I T H I N

AFFIXES. In p o l y s y l l a b i c r o o t s t h e u n s t r e s s e d s e q u e n c e u w a gets c o n t r a c t e d t o a: in r a p i d

s p e e c h , e.g. y u w a p i k u ' s o m e t i m e ' b e c o m e s y a . p i k u . T h i s p r o c e s s is m o r e f r e q u e n t l y

attested w i t h y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s . A n u n s t r e s s e d w a b e c o m e s a if p r e c e d e d b y a c o n s o n a n t ,

e.g. d i - k e n w a , d i - k e h a 'he starts', y a k o r e k w a , y a k o r e k a 'door o p e n i n g ' (see d i s c u s s i o n in

§ 2 . 2 . 2 a b o v e ) . T h i s a l s o h a p p e n s w i t h i n o n e A k t i o n s a r t enclitic: = b d s w a , =bosa ' b r e a k

b y s m a s h i n g ' . A n u n s t r e s s e d s e q u e n c e ua c a n b e s i m p l i f i e d t o a w i t h s o m e y o u n g

p e o p l e , e.g. d i - p d n u a , di-pdnoa 'he sent' m a y b e p r o n o u n c e d a s di-panua a n d a s d i - p a n a .

V o w e l s e q u e n c e ie m a y b e m o n o p h t h o n g i s e d to e:, e.g. n a - d i e n a 'they p a d d l e '

b e c o m e s n a - d e : n a . T h e m a n n e r a d v e r b kayu 'thus, in this w a y , like' c a n b e c o n t r a c t e d to

ke: o r ki.\ if u s e d in a n a d p o s i t i o n a l s e n s e 'like' a s in 2 . 3 , o r 2.4. E a c h o f t h e s e e x a m p l e s

c a n b e r e p h r a s e d w i t h kayu if p r o n o u n c e d s l o w l y . S e e further d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r H in

§ 1 1 . 1 1 . T h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n is characteristic o f y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s a n d i n n o v a t i v e o l d e r

s p e a k e r s (e.g. L e o n a r d o B r i t o a n d J o s e M a n o e l Brito).

15
Jacinto Brito, raised b y a Tariana-speaking father and a Baniwa-speaking mother, never applies this

process, e.g. ewa:- 'yellow' + -ite *NCL:ANIM' should yield ewi.te 'a y e l l o w animate object', while Jacinto

p r o n o u n c e s t h i s a s ewaite. This has been pointed out to m e as a Baniwa-type pronunciation.

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 2 . 6 P r o s o d i c c l a s s e s of m o r p h e m e s a n d t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s 5 3

2.3 n u - a - m i k e : - n h i pi-ni

l s g - s a y - N O M t h i s . w a y - A N T 2 s g - d o

' H a v e it d o n e a s I said.'

2 . 4 k a : p a r u ki: h i k u - i t e

b i g . b e l l i e d . m o n k e y like a p p e a r - N C L : A N I M

' s o m e o n e l o o k i n g like a b i g - b e l l i e d m o n k e y . '

If kayu is u s e d a s a n a d v e r b c o n t r a c t i o n d o e s n o t o c c u r , e.g. 2 . 5 :

2.5 k u i t e y a p h i n i = n h a k a y u

I N T E R + N C L : A N I M t h i n g = P R E S . V I S . I N T E R t h u s

p i m a - i t e d i h a

s o u n d - N C L : A N I M h e

' W h a t t h i n g (is it) w h i c h s o u n d s like this?'

In r a p i d i n f o r m a l s p e e c h a stressed syllable ay b e c o m e s ey o r e(:), e.g. hdyku, he(:)ku

'tree', d i h a - n a i , d i h a - n e i , d i h a - n e : ( A R T - C L : L A K E ) 'this v e r y lake', N a n a y o , Naneyo

' m y t h i c a l f e m a l e creator' (see further e x a m p l e s in §2.2.2). T h e syllable ay in a n

u n s t r e s s e d syllable t e n d s to c o n t r a c t into r , e.g. kaydd, kidd 'be finished, ready', k a y u , ki:

'thus'. ( L e o n a r d o B r i t o h a s ke: a s a v a r i a n t o f ki: a n d o f kdyu; s e e a l s o § 2 . 6 o n t h e

r e a l i s a t i o n o f proclitic kay). A l s o s e e u n d e r C 4 u n d e r § 2 . 5 . 2 . o n w d i k u , w e i k u , w e . k u .

B . E L I S I O N O F T H E S Y L L A B L E ka W I T H I N AFFIXES. T h e syllable ka is e l i d e d in disyllabic

affixes i f it is u n d e r l y i n g l y u n s t r e s s e d a n d if t h e resulting w o r d is n o t s h o r t e r t h a n t h r e e

syllables. F o r i n s t a n c e , d i - s a p e - k a s u ( 3 s g n f - s p e a k - I N T ) 'he is a b o u t to speak' is

p r o n o u n c e d a s d i - s a p e s u , a n d ma-kuida-kade ( N E G - e n d u r e - N E G ) 'he/she d i d n o t e n d u r e '

a s m a - k u i d a - d e . T h e n o u n y a r u - m a k d - s i 'clothes', w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f t h e r o o t y a r n 'thing',

a suffix - m a k a 'classifier for cloth-like objects' a n d a n o t h e r suffix -si ' n o n - p o s s e s s e d ' is

p r o n o u n c e d a s y a m m d s i . T h e syllable -ka-, a part o f t h e suffix - m a k a , is u n d e r l y i n g l y

u n s t r e s s e d ; it a c q u i r e s t h e p r i m a r y stress in y a r u - m a k d - s i f o l l o w i n g t h e stress rules

f o r m u l a t e d in § 2 . 3 . 3 .

T h e syllable ka is n o t e l i d e d if it is u n d e r l y i n g l y stressed; for i n s t a n c e , kawhi-kdsu

( w a k e . u p - N E G . F U T ) 'he/she w o n ' t w a k e u p ' c a n n o t b e p r o n o u n c e d as * k a w h i - s u (the

u n s t r e s s e d suffix - k a s u 'intentional' a n d the stressed -kdsu 'negative future ( u s e d w i t h

p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s ) ' a r e a m i n i m a l p a i r (see further e x a m p l e s in §14.4)). T h e elision o f t h e

k a syllable a l s o d o e s n o t a p p l y if t h e resulting w o r d w o u l d b e c o m e s h o r t e r t h a n t h r e e

syllables; t h u s , m d : - k a s u ( [ + g o - l N T ) c a n n o t b e p r o n o u n c e d a s * m d : s u . ( T h e suffix - k a s u

is s i m i l a r to - m a k a in y a r u - m a k d - s i a b o v e in that it is u n d e r l y i n g l y u n s t r e s s e d b u t

a c q u i r e s s u r f a c e stress in a g r e e m e n t w i t h §2.3.3.) Similarly, hyu-kdde ( a p p e a r - N E G ) 'not

a p p e a r ; n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e ' ( C h a p t e r 17) c a n n o t surface a s *hyude, a n d t h e n e g a t i v e kade

o f t e n u s e d a s a n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e is n e v e r j u s t *de ( s u c h elision w a s d e s c r i b e d for

T u c a n o ( R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 47)).

2 . 6 P r o s o d i c c l a s s e s o f m o r p h e m e s a n d t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s

W e s a w in § 2 . 4 that T a r i a n a d i s t i n g u i s h e s roots, affixes, proclitics, a n d t w o t y p e s o f

enclitics ( s e e T a b l e 2.5). A p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d in this l a n g u a g e m a y c o n s i s t o f o n e or

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 54 2 Phonology

1 6
m o r e t h a n o n e g r a m m a t i c a l word. If a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d c o n t a i n s a proclitic a n d / o r a n

enclitic, t h e n it m a y c o n s i s t o f m o r e t h a n o n e g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d .

R O O T S c a n f o r m g r a m m a t i c a l a n d p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s o n their o w n , a n d t h e y h a v e a

p r i m a r y stress ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f interjections d i s c u s s e d in §2.4.1). S i m i l a r l y to

o t h e r N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b ) , r o o t s o f different w o r d c l a s s e s

h a v e different syllable structure. V e r b a l r o o t s c a n c o n s i s t o f o n e o r t w o syllables.

E x a m p l e s o f m o n o s y l l a b i c v e r b a l r o o t s are -a 'go, say, give', -ka 'see', - n u ' c o m e ' , - w a

'try', - n a 'want', - m a ' p o i s o n fish', -yu 'sieve1. E x a m p l e s o f disyllabic v e r b a l r o o t s a r e - u k u

'pick, s o w ' , - i n u ' k i l l ' , -dia ' b e c o m e , return', - t a k h a 'split'. V e r b s w h i c h c o n t a i n m o r e t h a n

t w o s y l l a b l e s a r e u s u a l l y d e r i v e d , e.g. -matfi-ka ( b a d - t h e m a t i c ) ' t r a n s f o r m into

s o m e t h i n g bad', - i n u - p i r u ( c o m e u p - m o v e ) ' m o v e all over'. M o s t stative v e r b (S 0 ) roots

are disyllabic, e.g. l e k a 'break', k a . w h i ' w a k e up', h a l a 'be open', ira 'need'. N o m i n a l

r o o t s a r e r a r e l y m o n o s y l l a b i c ( o n e e x a m p l e is ta: 'large w a s p ' ) ; t h e y are m o r e o f t e n

d i s y l l a b i c o r e v e n p o l y s y l l a b i c , e.g. - n u m a 'mouth', - h e n i 'ear', - t h a k u 'nose', hdye

' a n t s h r i k e ( t y p e o f bird)', kuida 'chestnut', y a k a s o l o 'apron-like traditional clothing',

u k a r a ' s h r i m p ' , k e r a w i k i 'a t y p e o f s n u f f .

A F F I X E S ( p r e f i x e s a n d suffixes) c a n n o t f o r m g r a m m a t i c a l o r p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s o n

their o w n . P r e f i x e s a r e all m o n o s y l l a b i c ; t h e y are c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s (§6.1.1),

relative-attributive k a - a n d n e g a t i v e m a - . M o s t suffixes are m o n o s y l l a b i c ; s o m e are

disyllabic. P r e f i x e s a r e a t o n i c ; s o m e suffixes are stressed, a n d s o m e are n o t ( s e e §2.3.3).

P R O C L I T I C S c a n f o r m g r a m m a t i c a l a n d p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s o n their o w n . T h e y are

m o n o s y l l a b i c . T h e y are procliticised to t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d if t h e y a r e n o t in f o c u s . T h e y

n e v e r h a v e s e c o n d a r y stress. Proclitics are: a d v e r b kay= 'thus' (see §3.2), kwa/kwe=

'interrogative-distributive' (see § 1 1 . 4 ) , c o n n e c t i v e n e = 'then; and' a n d n e = ' e m p h a t i c

n e g a t i o n ; n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e ' (see § 3 . 2 , a n d also C h a p t e r s 17, 2 1 a n d 2 5 ) . E x a m p l e 2.6

illustrates kay= a s a proclitic. It is typically u s e d in t h e r e s u m p t i v e p h r a s e 'so-they-did'

( u s e d in a s e n s e c l o s e t o 'after that').

2 . 6 k a y = n a - n i n a - y h a n e m h a n i = p i d a n a n a - y a m i

t h u s = 3 p l - d o 3 p l - s w i m 3 p l + w a l k = R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - d i e

n a - r u k u n a : u n i - s e

3 p l - c o m e . d o w n 3 p l + g o w a t e r - L O C

' H a v i n g d o n e this (after this), t h e y g o t d r o w n e d a n d w e n t d o w n into t h e

water.'

Kay a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t w o r d is illustrated in 2.7.

2 . 7 k a y d u - n i d i - k e s i - p e = n u k u d u - k a l i t e = p i d a n a

t h u s 3 s g f - d o 3 s g n f - f r i e n d - P L = T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g f - t e l l = R E M . P . R E P

'After s h e a c t e d this w a y ( n o t a n y o t h e r w a y ) , s h e told his friends...'

16
A definition o f grammatical and phonological w o r d is found in D i x o n a n d Aikhenvald (2002). A

g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d is understood as a unit consisting o f a n u m b e r of grammatical elements w h i c h (a)

a l w a y s o c c u r together, rather than scattered through the clause (the criterion o f cohesiveness); (b) occur in

a fixed order; a n d (c) h a v e a conventionalised coherence a n d meaning. A l s o see A i k h e n v a l d (2002a), for a

further discussion of w o r d s in Tariana.

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 2 . 6 P r o s o d i c c l a s s e s of m o r p h e m e s a n d t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s 5 5

I n 2 . 8 , n e 'then' is procliticised to t h e first c o n s t i t u e n t o f t h e c l a u s e w h e n t h e

s e q u e n c i n g o f a c t i o n s is n o t in f o c u s .

2 . 8 n e = d i k w e - s e = t i k i m a w a r i - d a p a n a n h a

t h e n = 3 s g n f + n e a r - L O C = D I M s n a k e - C L : H A B t h e y

n a - n a - n i - d a p a n a

3 p l - l i v e - T O P . A D V - C L : H A B

' A n d n e a r it t h e r e is a s n a k e h o u s e w h e r e t h e y live.'

T h e proclitic n e ^ in 2 . 9 is a n i n d e p e n d e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l a n d g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d . H e r e

it h a s a l o n g v o w e l a n d is h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h t h e interjection n e 'Hey!' ( s e e § 2 . 4 . 1 ) u s e d

a s a n a t t e n t i o n g e t t i n g d e v i c e , e.g. n e , Oli! ' H e y , O l i (listen to m e ) ! ' (also s e e C h a p t e r 3).

A s a n i n d e p e n d e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d , t h e c o n n e c t i v e n e = i n t r o d u c e s a n u n e x p e c t e d

p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n : w h a t a p p e a r e d t o b e j u s t w a s t e l a n d is in fact a d a n g e r o u s s p o o k y

' s n a k e h o u s e ' .

2.9 n a w i k i m a : - k a d e - w a n i = n a k a

p e o p l e N E G + g o - N E G - C L : A B S T R = P R E S . V I S

k a r u - n a = m a = n a k a n e : m a w a r i - d a p a n a = n a k a

a f r a i d - A F F = E X C H P R E S . V I S a n d s n a k e - C L : H A B = P R E S . V I S

'It i s a p l a c e w h e r e p e o p l e d o n o t g o , it is d a n g e r o u s a n d it is t h e s n a k e h o u s e . '

U n l i k e o t h e r proclitics, n e = 'then, and', c a n t a k e t h e enclitic =nuku 'topical n o n -

subject' ( s e e § 7 . 2 . 2 ) . N e ^ n u k u ( t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S ) is u s e d if s e q u e n c i n g is topical, i.e.

is w h a t t h e story is a b o u t . T h e r e is a n o t h e r c o n n e c t i v e , nese 'then', w h i c h c a n a l s o t a k e

t h e enclitic = n u k u . It is c o g n a t e w i t h B a n i w a o f I c a n a c l a u s e c o n n e c t i v e n h e t t e 'then'.

( S e e A p p e n d i x o n h o w n e s e w a s r e a n a l y s e d in t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect.)

2 . 1 0 n e = n u k u n a h a n a - k u n a n h e t a = p i d a n a

t h e n = T O P . N O N . A / S t h e y 3 p l - t a k e . o n t o . l a p 3 p l + d r a g = R E M . P . R E P

' A n d t h e n t h e y t o o k (a p i e c e o f g o l d t h e y f o u n d ) into their lap.'

I n t e r r o g a t i v e - d i s t r i b u t i v e k w a , kwe u s u a l l y o c c u p i e s t h e first p o s i t i o n in t h e c l a u s e

( s e e § 2 5 . 1 ) . It c a n b e p r o c l i t i c i s e d to a n i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g w o r d w i t h w h i c h it

f o r m s o n e c o n s t i t u e n t , a s in 2 . 1 1 ; o r it c a n o c c u r w i t h a c l a u s a l enclitic, as in 2 . 1 2 .

2 . 1 1 k w a = y a p h i n i = n h a w a - n a k h e s a r a k a n a

w h a t = t h i n g = P R E S . V I S . I N T E R l p l - O B J m u c k . a r o u n d

' W h a t is m u c k i n g a r o u n d w i t h r e s p e c t to u s ? ( a s k e d t h e M o o n ' s c o u s i n s ) '

2 . 1 2 k w e = m h a d e n u - n i n h u a

w h a t = F U T . U N C E R T l s g - d o I

' W h a t shall I d o (to f e e d m y c h i l d r e n ) ? '

T h e n e g a t i v e proclitic ne ' e m p h a t i c n e g a t i o n ' o f t e n o c c u r s t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r

n e g a t i v e m a r k e r s , o r i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e w o r d s in a c l a u s e (see § 1 7 . 6 ) . It is

h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h t h e c o n n e c t i v e n e . U n l i k e t h e c o n n e c t i v e , t h e n e g a t i v e ne n e v e r

t a k e s -se 'locative' o r =nuku 'TOP.NON.A/S'. In 2 . 1 3 ne is cliticised o n t o the first w o r d o f

t h e c l a u s e .

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 5 6 2 P h o n o l o g y

2 . 1 3 i h y a n u - e n i p e n e = m h a i s i k i m a - y a m i - k a s u

y o u l s g - c h i l d r e n N E G = h u n g e r N E G - d i e - I N T

' Y o u m y c h i l d r e n , ( y o u ) are n o t g o i n g to starve (lit. d i e f r o m h u n g e r ) . '

T h e proclitic ne is m o s t f r e q u e n t l y cliticised o n t o a n e g a t i v e p r e d i c a t e , e.g.

n e = h y u k a d e = p i d a n a ( N E G = n o t . a p p e a r = R E M . P . R E P ) '(nothing) a p p e a r e d ' , o r o n t o p a : -

'one', e.g. n e ^ p a i t a ne=ma-nu~kade=pidana ( N E G = o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M N E G = N E G - c o m e -

N E G = R E M . P . R E P ) 'no o n e c a m e ' . N e = in n e = p a i t a is t h e o n l y i n s t a n c e o f n e g a t i n g a

c o n s t i t u e n t s e p a r a t e l y , s i n c e it c a n b e u s e d to a n s w e r a q u e s t i o n ' W h o c a m e ? ' - ' N o one'.

I n 2 . 1 4 , n e is a n i n d e p e n d e n t w o r d , s i n c e it is i n c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s ( m e a n i n g 'not a single

o n e , n o t a bit o f m e d i c i n e ' ) .

2 . 1 4 k a s i n a = w y a = n u k u n e d i - t a p e

n o w + A F F = E X T R A L = T O P . N O N . A / S N E G 3 s g n f - m e d i c i n e

s e d e = n a k a

N E G . E X = P R E S . V I S

' N o w ( o v e r t h e r e ) t h e r e is n o t a single bit o f m e d i c i n e (against evil breath).'

2 . 1 5 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t t h e t a b o o s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s u c c e s s f u l h u n t i n g . In t h e

first c l a u s e ( 2 . 1 5 a ) , ne is cliticised o n t o t h e first w o r d . A s t h e story g o e s o n , s t r o n g e r a n d

s t r o n g e r p r o h i b i t i o n s are b e i n g t a l k e d a b o u t ; ne a p p e a r s t h e n as a n i n d e p e n d e n t l y

s t r e s s e d w o r d , a s in 2 . 1 5 b a n d 2 . 1 5 c .

2 . 1 5 a n e = d e r i p u m e n i - p e r i m h a l d a = m h a p a - n h a

N E G = b a n a n a s w e e t - C O L L P R O H = P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - e a t

' O n e s h o u l d n o t eat a n y s w e e t b a n a n a s . '

2 . 1 5 b n e i n a r u = n e m h a ! d a = m h a p a - k w a

N E G w o m a n = C O M P R O H = P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - h a n g

' O n e s h o u l d N O T s l e e p w i t h a w o m a n . '

2 . 1 5 c n e s y a w a m h a ! d a = m h a p a - k u k a

N E G fire P R O H - P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - l i g h t

' O n e s h o u l d N O T light fire.'

T h e n e g a t i v e ne c a n also b e u s e d a s a o n e - w o r d e m p h a t i c n e g a t i v e reply:

2 . 1 6 S a n t a T e r e z i n h a - p e n i n a - n u = n h a = s i t a n e

S a n t a T e r e z i n h a - P L r A N I M 3 p l - c o m e = P R E S . V I S . I N T E R = C O M P L N E G

' H a v e t h e p e o p l e f r o m S a n t a T e r e z i n h a a r r i v e d y e t ? N o ! '

F l o a t i n g c l a u s a l enclitics c a n a t t a c h to a n y proclitic (see b e l o w ) ; in a d d i t i o n , ne 'then,

a n d ' a l s o o c c u r s w i t h a p h r a s a l enclitic =nuku (TOP.NON.A/S), a s in 2 . 1 0 a b o v e . In all

t h e s e c a s e s , t h e p r i m a r y stress falls o n t h e proclitic, a n d the enclitic b e a r s a s e c o n d a r y

stress (cf. 2 . 1 2 , w h e r e t h e enclitic -mhade h a s s e c o n d a r y stress). 2 . 1 7 illustrates a

c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n n e c t i v e ne a n d t h e c l a u s a l enclitic =pidana 'REM.P.REP'. A

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d w h i c h c o n s i s t s j u s t o f a proclitic a n d o f enclitic(s) is u s u a l l y s t r e s s e d

o n t h e first syllable (that is, o n the proclitic). S i m i l a r e x a m p l e s are at T 1 . 4 a n d T 1 . 1 8 .

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 2 . 6 P r o s o d i c c l a s s e s of m o r p h e m e s a n d t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s 5 7

T w o c l a u s a l enclitics a t t a c h t o t h e c o n n e c t i v e ne in T 2 . 2 6 {ne-ya-pidana ( t h e n - E M P H -

R E M . P . R E P ) ) .

2 . 1 7 n e = p i d a n a na: n a : m a - n h a

t h e n = R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + g o 3 p l + s e e k - P A U S

' A n d s o t h e y w e n t h u n t i n g . '

E N C L I T I C S , u n l i k e proclitics, c a n n o t f o r m a p h o n o l o g i c a l o r a g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d o n

their o w n . T h e y a l w a y s b e a r a s e c o n d a r y stress. E n c l i t i c s are u s u a l l y disyllabic; a f e w

are m o n o s y l l a b i c (e.g. c l a u s a l enclitic =ya 'emphatic', p h r a s a l enclitic =pu, =pi

' a u g m e n t a t i v e , really'), a n d a f e w are trisyllabic, (e.g. clausal enclitic =pidana ' r e m o t e

p a s t r e p o r t e d ' o r p h r a s a l enclitic =mikiri ' n o m i n a l p a s t t e n s e m a s c u l i n e ' ) .

E n c l i t i c s fall into (a) f i x e d p o s i t i o n p h r a s a l e n c l i t i c s , i.e. t h o s e w h i c h a t t a c h to certain

m o r p h o l o g i c a l c l a s s e s o f w o r d s o r p h r a s e s ( n o u n s , n o u n p h r a s e s , v e r b s ) , a n d (b) clausal

enclitics, i.e. t h o s e w h i c h c a n a t t a c h to a n y t y p e o f c o n s t i t u e n t in a g i v e n c l a u s e ,

p r o v i d e d it is c o n t r a s t i v e ( s e e T a b l e 2.5).

P H R A S A L ENCLITICS typically refer to c a t e g o r i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f u n c t i o n o f a n

N P i n a c l a u s e , s u c h a s c a s e ( C h a p t e r 7), n o m i n a l c a t e g o r i e s ( s u c h a s d i m i n u t i v e ,

= m i s i n i , = s i n i 'also', o r t e n s e o n n o u n s : s e e §9.1), or particular characteristics o f v e r b a l

a c t i o n ( s e e § 1 5 . 2 o n A k t i o n s a r t enclitics). C l a u s e s e q u e n c i n g m a r k e r s (e.g. ^ n i s a w a

'after.SS', =kayami 'after:DS') are also p h r a s a l enclitics w h i c h g o o n t o t h e e n d o f a

s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e . In contrast, c l a u s a l enclitics e x p r e s s c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h c a n b e

c o n s i d e r e d c l a u s a l , e.g. t e n s e , a s p e c t , evidentiality a n d m o o d (see S c h e m e 12.2).

P h r a s a l enclitics w h i c h attach t o a n o u n p h r a s e u s u a l l y g o o n t o t h e last w o r d o f it, a s

in 7.6c, w h e r e t h e f o c u s s e d s u b j e c t enclitic =ne g o e s at t h e e n d o f a n o u n p h r a s e d i h a

n e : r i = n e ( h e d e e r = F O C . A / S ) . T h e y m a y g o o n t o a n y w o r d w i t h i n a c o n s t i t u e n t i f it is in

c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s , a s in 2 . 1 8 .

2 . 1 8 d i h a = n e ma:tfite d i - a = p i d a n a

h e = F O C . A / S b a d + N C L : A N I M 3 s g n f - s a y = R E M . P . R E P

' H e , t h e b a d o n e , said.'

S o m e A k t i o n s a r t enclitics c a n b e u s e d as i n d e p e n d e n t w o r d s , u n l i k e o t h e r p h r a s a l

enclitics, w h e n in c o n t r a s t i v e focus. In 2 . 1 9 =thepi 'into water' is u s e d a s a n enclitic ( a n d

it is n o t c o n t r a s t i v e ) , a n d in 2 . 2 0 it is u s e d as a n i n d e p e n d e n t w o r d , is c o n t r a s t i v e , a n d

t a k e s a p r i m a r y stress {thepi). S e e further d i s c u s s i o n in § 1 5 . 2 .

2 . 1 9 d u - w h a = t h e p i d u - a d u - a p h u a h u

3 s g f - f a l l = I N T O . W A T E R 3 s g f - g o 3 s g f - d i v e A W A Y

d u - r u k u d u - a = p i d a n a

3 s g f - g o . d o w n 3 s g f - g o = R E M . P . R E P

' S h e (the girl t r a n s f o r m e d into a s n a k e - w o m a n ) fell into w a t e r , d i v e d a w a y a n d

w e n t d o w n . '

2 . 2 0 t h e p i d i - r u k u di-a

I N T O . W A T E R 3 s g n f - g o d o w n 3 s g n f - g o

'Into w a t e r h e w e n t ( c o n t r a r y to all expectations).'

F L O A T I N G C L A U S A L ENCLITICS c a n g o o n t o a n y o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t in t h e c l a u s e , if it

is in c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s a n d p r e p o s e d to t h e p r e d i c a t e ( i n c l u d i n g a proclitic). T h e

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 5 8 2 Phonology

u n m a r k e d p l a c e for t h e m is t h e p r e d i c a t e . In serial v e r b s a n d c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s t h e y

a p p e a r after t h e first p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d (see a l s o C h a p t e r s 18 a n d 19), e.g. 2.21 (this

e x a m p l e c o n t a i n s a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ) a n d 2 . 1 5 . In i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s c l a u s a l

enclitics u s u a l l y a t t a c h to t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e w o r d (as in 2.12).

2 . 2 1 h i k u = m h a d e w a - n i

a p p e a r = F U T . U N C E R T 1 p l - d o

' W e will act like this.'

C l a u s a l enclitics f o l l o w affixes a n d p h r a s a l enclitics. In 2 . 2 2 t h e c l a u s a l enclitic

=pidana ' r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d ' f o l l o w s t h e p h r a s a l enclitic =nuku 'topical non-subject'.

C l a u s a l enclitics c a n n o t a t t a c h t o a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e proclitic c o n n e c t i v e n e = a n d

p h r a s a l enclitic =nuku.

2 . 2 2 d i - m i n a = n u k u = p i d a n a m a - k a - k a d e

3 s g n f - b e . o n l y = T O P . N O N . A / S = R E M . P . R E P N E G - s e e - N E G

' H e (evil spirit) h a s n e v e r s e e n o n l y this o n e (a d o g ) ( c o n t r a r y to w h a t o n e

e x p e c t s ) . '

P h r a s a l enclitics m u s t f o l l o w affixes in a g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d , w i t h t w o e x c e p t i o n s :

(a) If a c a t e g o r y is m a r k e d w i t h affixes m o r e t h a n o n c e , a n affix c a n f o l l o w a p h r a s a l

enclitic. N u m b e r m a r k i n g is a c a s e in point. W e will s e e in § 8 . 3 that n u m b e r c a n

b e m a r k e d s e v e r a l t i m e s in o n e n o m i n a l w o r d , s i n c e s o m e p h r a s a l enclitics

r e q u i r e s e p a r a t e n u m b e r m a r k i n g . In 2 . 2 3 t h e suffix -pe in its s e c o n d o c c u r r e n c e

f o l l o w s a p h r a s a l enclitic =yana 'pejorative'; t h e n it f o l l o w s a n o t h e r p h r a s a l

enclitic - p a s i ' a u g m e n t a t i v e ' , p l u r a l i s i n g b o t h o f t h e m . T h e u s e o f -pe is

o b l i g a t o r y ( s i n c e t h e referent is h u m a n - s e e §8.4).

2 . 2 3 n h a - m a - p e = y a n a - p e = p a s i - p e = n u k u

t h e y - C L : F E M - P L = P E J - P L = A U G - P L = T O P . N O N . A / S

' t h e m ( w o m e n ) t h e b i g n a u g h t y o n e s '

(b) If a n affix c a n a t t a c h to a n N P , it c a n t h e n f o l l o w a clitic. W e will s e e u n d e r B in

§ 5 . 1 . 2 that classifiers w h i c h m a r k a g r e e m e n t in a n N P a t t a c h to t h e last w o r d in

a n N P , e.g. d i w h d = t h e p i t e ( f r o m d i - w h d = t h e p i - i t e ( 3 s g n f - f a l l = I N T O . W A T E R -

N C L r A N I M ) ) 'the o n e w h o falls into water', a n d 2.24.

2 . 2 4 h e k u - n a tsuri i - t a p e = y a n a - n a

t r e e - C L : V E R T d i a r r h o e a I N D F - m e d i c i n e = P E J - C L : V E R T

'a t r e e w h i c h is a p o o r m e d i c i n e for diarrhoea'

C l a s s i f i e r s are n o t enclitics; t h e y h a v e all t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f suffixes in T a b l e 2 . 5 . If a n

affix f o l l o w s a n enclitic, v o w e l f u s i o n t a k e s p l a c e o n a n enclitic-affix b o u n d a r y a s if t h e

enclitic w e r e a r o o t ( a s i n diwhd-thepite: s e e u n d e r A in §2.5.2).

S o m e m o r p h e m e s h a v e ' m u l t i p l e m e m b e r s h i p ' - that is, t h e y c a n o c c u r a s (i) p h r a s a l

enclitics a n d a s affixes, o r (ii) a s p h r a s a l enclitics a n d as roots.

T h e a p p r o x i m a t i v e - i h a 'a little bit' is a p h r a s a l enclitic w i t h n o u n s a n d w i t h v e r b s .

W i t h a d j e c t i v e s , it c a n b e h a v e a s a suffix, or a s a p h r a s a l enclitic, w i t h a m e a n i n g

d i f f e r e n c e ( s e e §3.1.3). If a size a d j e c t i v e c o n t a i n s t h e suffix - i h a ' a p p r o x i m a t i v e ' a n d

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 2 . 6 P r o s o d i c c l a s s e s of m o r p h e m e s a n d t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s 5 9

c o m p a r i s o n is i m p l i e d , t h e a p p r o x i m a t i v e f o l l o w s t h e a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r o n a n a d j e c t i v e

a n d b e h a v e s like a n enclitic: it a c q u i r e s a s e c o n d a r y stress, a n d t h e v o w e l f u s i o n

p r o c e s s e s d i s c u s s e d u n d e r C in § 2 . 5 . 2 d o n o t a p p l y (also s e e C h a p t e r 10), e.g. itfi/i

h a n u - i t e ^ i h a ( g a m e b i g - N C L : A N I M = A P P R O X ) 'a b i g g i s h a n i m a l ( b i g g e r t h a n a n o t h e r

one)'. W h e n u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r , s u c h a n a d j e c t i v e t e n d s to t a k e a n o t h e r n o u n class

m a r k e r , t o a g r e e w i t h t h e s a m e h e a d . In 2 . 2 5 , - i h a is a suffix (it u n d e r g o e s b o u n d a r y

p r o c e s s e s a n d d o e s n o t h a v e a s e c o n d a r y stress), w h i l e in 2 . 2 6 it is a p h r a s a l enclitic.

( A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e =ne is a p h r a s a l clitic, a n d is u s e d w i t h

n o u n s ; its f u n c t i o n a l c o u n t e r p a r t , - w e , is a suffix u s e d w i t h p r o n o u n s . ) T h e b o u n d a r y

p r o c e s s e s d o n o t a p p l y in 2 . 2 6 s i n c e h e r e =iha is a n enclitic.

2 . 2 5 k a d i h i t e

k a d a - i h a - i t e ( s e e D l 1 in § 2 . 5 . 2 a b o v e )

b l a c k - A P P R O X - C L : A N I M

'a b l a c k i s h o n e '

2 . 2 6 k a d i t e = i h a

k a d a - i t e = i h a

b l a c k - N C L : A N I M = A P P R O X

' o n e t h a t is b l a c k e r o r less b l a c k t h a n s o m e t h i n g else'

A n u m b e r o f A k t i o n s a r t enclitics c a n b e u s e d a s b o t h p h r a s a l enclitics a n d

i n d e p e n d e n t r o o t s ( s e e § 1 5 . 2 , a n d e x a m p l e s 2 . 1 9 a n d 2 . 2 0 a b o v e ) . S o c a n d i m i n u t i v e

= t u k i ( s e e T a b l e 9.3).

W i t h i n a w o r d , fixed p o s i t i o n p h r a s a l enclitics o c c u p y a specific p o s i t i o n e a c h w i t h i n

a string o f enclitics, a n d s o d o floating c l a u s a l enclitics (see C h a p t e r 4 for t h e

s e q u e n c i n g o f p h r a s a l enclitics w i t h i n a n o u n p h r a s e o r a n o m i n a l h e a d ; a n d C h a p t e r 12

o n t h e s e q u e n c i n g o f v e r b a l p h r a s a l enclitics, a n d o f floating c l a u s a l enclitics w i t h i n a

v e r b a l w o r d ) .

Clitic g r o u p s c o n s i s t i n g o f a proclitic a n d o f enclitic(s) b e h a v e differently f r o m

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s o f o t h e r t y p e s . First, w h e n proclitics a n d A k t i o n s a r t enclitics a p p e a r

a s i n d e p e n d e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s , t h e y a r e t h e o n l y i n s t a n c e s o f m o n o s y l l a b i c

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s w i t h a s h o r t v o w e l ( b e s i d e s a f e w interjections). S e c o n d , T a r i a n a

h a s t w o p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s w h i c h are clitic-specific. R e g r e s s i v e v o w e l a s s i m i l a t i o n

is n o r m a l l y i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f a clitic a n d o f t h e e n d o f a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d

w h i c h c o n t a i n s enclitics ( C u n d e r §2.4.4). L o s s o f a s p i r a t i o n w i t h i n a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d

o c c u r s a c r o s s a n enclitic b o u n d a r y ( A u n d e r §2.4.3). In a d d i t i o n , a s p i r a t i o n floating d o e s

n o t o c c u r o n a clitic b o u n d a r y w i t h i n a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d w h i c h c o n t a i n s enclitics.

A clitic w o r d c o n s i s t i n g o f a proclitic a n d enclitic(s) is o n e p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d (there

is j u s t o n e p r i m a r y stress). It h a s s o m e a d d i t i o n a l properties. First, w h e n proclitics

c o m b i n e w i t h enclitics, e.g. n e = p i d a n a ( t h e n = R E M . P . R E P ) in 2 . 1 7 to f o r m a

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d , t h e p r i m a r y stress falls o n t h e proclitic, a n d e a c h enclitic m a i n t a i n s

its s e c o n d a r y stress. S e c o n d , a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d c o n s i s t i n g o f a proclitic a n d enclitic(s)

differs f r o m o t h e r w o r d s in t h r e e w a y s :

(i) S u c h a w o r d c a n c o n t a i n n o m o r e t h a n t w o enclitics.

(ii) T h e r e is t h e f o l l o w i n g restriction o n its syllable structure. If a w o r d c o n s i s t i n g

o f a proclitic a n d a n enclitic c o n t a i n s t w o syllables (that is, if a m o n o s y l l a b i c

enclitic is h o s t e d b y a proclitic), t h e v o w e l o f t h e proclitic - w h i c h r e c e i v e s t h e

p r i m a r y stress - is p h o n e t i c a l l y l e n g t h e n e d , e.g. n e = m h a ' t h e n = P R E S . N O N V l S ' is

p r o n o u n c e d a s n e : = m h a , a n d n e = n a 'then=REM.P.VlS' a s n e : = n a . T h i s d o e s n o t

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 6 0 2 Phonology

h a p p e n if it c o n t a i n s m o r e t h a n t w o syllables, e.g. ne=pita ' t h e n = A G A I N ' o r

n e ^ s i n a 'then=REM.P.INFR'.

(iii) N o s e g m e n t a l l y m a r k e d p a u s e s o c c u r b e t w e e n a proclitic a n d a n enclitic (see

§2.7). T h e r e a r e restrictions o n t y p e s o f s e g m e n t a l l y m a r k e d p a u s e s o n enclitic

b o u n d a r i e s .

2 . 7 P a u s e m a r k i n g

S i m i l a r l y t o a n u m b e r o f o t h e r i n d i g e n o u s l a n g u a g e s o f t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o r e g i o n ,

T a r i a n a h a s s e g m e n t a l m a r k i n g for p a u s e s . T h i s m a r k i n g c a n b e o f t w o k i n d s : ( A ) final

v o w e l c h a n g e s a n d ( B ) n a s a l syllable insertion.

A . F I N A L V O W E L C H A N G E S . M o s t o f t h e s e p r o c e s s e s o c c u r at t h e e n d o f a p a r a g r a p h , a

c l a u s e o r a s e n t e n c e ; o n l y s o m e c a n o c c u r in t h e m i d d l e . It i n v o l v e s (i) v o w e l

c e n t r a l i s a t i o n w i t h o u t l e n g t h e n i n g ; (ii) v o w e l centralisation w i t h l e n g t h e n i n g ; a n d (iii)

v o w e l l o w e r i n g w i t h l e n g t h e n i n g . V o w e l l e n g t h e n i n g w i t h rising i n t o n a t i o n is u s e d for

c l a u s e - l i n k i n g ((iv) b e l o w ) . F i n a l v o w e l c h a n g e s s h o w s o m e similarities to T u c a n o
1 7
( R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 1 4 9 , 347).

(i) V o w e l c e n t r a l i s a t i o n w i t h o u t l e n g t h e n i n g : final - a g o e s to i T h i s p r o c e s s m a y t a k e

p l a c e at t h e e n d o f a c l a u s e to s h o w that t h e s p e a k e r e x p e c t s s o m e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e

c o n v e r s a t i o n . 2 . 2 7 is a n a n s w e r to a g r e e t i n g ('are y o u here?'); C r o c o d i l e , t h e s p e a k e r ,

e x p e c t s t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n to g o o n , s i n c e h e is e x p e c t i n g s o m e n e w s :

2 . 2 7 p a u s a l : alia=thi

n o n - p a u s a l : a l i a = t h a

E X I S T - F R

'I a m h e r e ( a n d s o ? ) [PAUSE]'

In 2 . 2 8 t h e p r o c e s s a p p l i e s to t h e e n d o f t h e c l a u s e w h i c h c o n t a i n s a significant

a n n o u n c e m e n t . V o w e l c e n t r a l i s a t i o n signals t h e e n d o f t h e direct s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t .

2 . 2 8 w h a e n i = n e rei d i - s a - d o = n e

w e c h i e f = F O C . A / S k i n g 3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M = I N S

d i - k w a = k a = n a k a ( N O N - P A U S A L )

d i - k w a = k a = n a k i ( P A U S A L )

3 s g n f - s l e e p . i n . h a m m o c k = D E C L = P R E S . V I S : P A U S

d i - a - n i p e = p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s a y - H A B = R E M . P . R E P

' " O u r k i n g is s l e e p i n g w i t h his w i f e [PAUSE]", h e (the parrot) u s e d to say.'

17
A t least s o m e speakers s e e m to b e aware of that (Olivia a n d Jovino Brito pointed out to m e several

times that this is a ' T u c a n o influence', especially with reference to not very fluent speakers like Juvenal

Brito (see 2.28)).

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 2 . 7 P a u s e m a r k i n g 6 1

A p a u s e m a r k e d w i t h v o w e l c e n t r a l i s a t i o n c a n o c c u r in t h e m i d d l e o f a c l a u s e . In

2 . 2 9 t h e s p e a k e r p a u s e s after t h e first p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d ( w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f a proclitic

a n d a n enclitic) t r y i n g t o r e m e m b e r w h a t ' s g o i n g to h a p p e n n e x t ( n o n - p a u s a l f o r m is

n e = n a k a ) . A n o t h e r p a u s e , for t h e s a m e r e a s o n , is at t h e e n d o f t h e s e n t e n c e (the n o n -

p a u s a l f o r m is di-d).

2 . 2 9 n e = n a k i k u i t e y a w i d i - a a a

t h e n = P R E S . V I S I N T E R + N C L : A N I M j a g u a r 3 s g n f - g o o o

' " A n d t h e n [PAUSE] w h a t ' s h i s n a m e , t h e j a g u a r is g o i n g a w a y [ P A U S E ] " ( w e said

in v a i n to o u r g r a n d f a t h e r w h o w a s d e t e r m i n e d to kill t h e jaguar).'

C e n t r a l i s a t i o n o f w o r d - f i n a l a at t h e e n d o f a c l a u s e a p p e a r s to b e m o r e w i d e s p r e a d in

t h e P e r i q u i t o s variety, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h y o u n g e r p e o p l e ; for i n s t a n c e , - n a k a 'present

visual' is r e g u l a r l y p r o n o u n c e d a s - n a k i . In t h e s h a m a n i c s o n g s r e c o r d e d b y Briizzi

( 1 9 6 1 ) a n d b y B i o c c a ( 1 9 6 5 ) (see §1.8.2), t h e w o r d - f i n a l -a s u r f a c e s as / at t h e e n d o f

e v e r y line.

(ii) V o w e l c e n t r a l i s a t i o n w i t h l e n g t h e n i n g , w h e r e b y clause-final / a n d a b e c o m e m i , a n d

t h e stress shifts t o t h e last syllable. ( T h i s is t h e o n l y i n s t a n c e o f l o n g / in T a r i a n a . ) T h e

p a u s e lasts l o n g e r in (ii) t h a n in (i). T h i s p r o c e s s n e v e r o c c u r s in t h e m i d d l e o f a c l a u s e .

T h i s p r o c e s s o f t e n o c c u r s w i t h v o c a t i v e s , e.g. n a y i m l ( n o n - p a u s a l nayi) ' m a r r i a g e a b l e

c o u s i n ! (vocative)', a n d in c o m m a n d s , to m a k e t h e m m o r e insistent. 2 . 3 0 w a s said b y

J o v i n o after n o o n e v o l u n t e e r e d to clear t h e table w e w e r e w o r k i n g o n , to insist that the

t a b l e b e c l e a r e d i m m e d i a t e l y .

2 . 3 0 y u p i s a hipiiii ( n o n - p a u s a l hipa)

dirt 2 p l + g r a b

' T a k e a w a y t h e dirt [PAUSE].'

W h e n t h e p e o p l e s e e m e d to b e reluctant to g o to sleep, t h e s t a t e m e n t in a c o m m a n d

f u n c t i o n in 2.3 l a w a s r e p e a t e d a s in 2 . 3 l b .

2 . 3 1 a d a i n u = d a k a

s l e e p = Y E T

' W e w i l l s l e e p yet.'

2 . 3 1 b d a i n u = d a k m i

s l e e p = Y E T : P A U S

' W e w i l l s l e e p y e t [PAUSE].'

T h i s p r o c e s s f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e s in l a m e n t s . O l i v i a said 2 . 3 2 as a r e a c t i o n to t h e s a d

p i e c e o f n e w s a b o u t T i a g o ' s (the i n d i g e n o u s v i c e - p r e f e c t o f S a o G a b r i e l d a C a c h o e i r a )

u n t i m e l y d e a t h - w h i c h w a s t h o u g h t o f a s h a v i n g b a d c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h e w h o l e

i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e I a u a r e t e a r e a a n d for T i a g o ' s family. It w a s p r o n o u n c e d

w i t h a s i n g s o n g i n t o n a t i o n u s e d in g r e e t i n g s a n d in l a m e n t a t i o n s (§2.9).

2 . 3 2 ma:tfi=sikiiii

b a d = R E C . P . I N F R : P A U S

'It i s b a d [PAUSE].'

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 6 2 2 Phonology

T h e p r o c e s s a —> iii d o e s n o t t a k e p l a c e if t h e clause-final w o r d is m o n o s y l l a b i c o r

e n d s i n -ia. In this c a s e t h e clause-final a is s i m p l y l e n g t h e n e d , cf. d i a a a 'he said; h e

w e n t ' a n d n o t * d i i i i i n 2 . 2 9 .

(iii) V o w e l l o w e r i n g w i t h l e n g t h e n i n g w h e r e b y w o r d - f i n a l i b e c o m e s e, w o r d - f i n a l e

b e c o m e s a, a n d w o r d - f i n a l a b e c o m e s a:. T h i s p r o c e s s u s u a l l y t a k e s p l a c e at t h e e n d o f a

c l a u s e o r a s e n t e n c e , w h e n t h e h e a r e r is s u p p o s e d to b e far a w a y , a s in 2 . 3 3 .

2 . 3 3 i - n h a - s e e e e ( n o n - p a u s a l : i-nha-si)

2 p l - e a t - P R O X . I M P : P A U S

'Eat h e r e [PAUSE].'

(iv) C l a u s e - l i n k i n g v o w e l l e n g t h e n i n g w i t h rising intonation. L e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e c l a u s e -

final a a c c o m p a n i e d b y rising i n t o n a t i o n h a s a f u n c t i o n different f r o m (1)—(iii): it

i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c l a u s e is n o t sentence-final, a s t h e w o r d n a a a a 'they w e n t ' in 2 . 3 4 (see

§ 2 . 9 o n t h e rising i n t o n a t i o n a s a n i n d i c a t i o n that t h e c l a u s e is n o t finished). A short

p a u s e c a n b e i n s e r t e d after t h e l e n g t h e n e d a ( w h i c h is realised a s t w i c e a s l o n g a s a

r e g u l a r l o n g a). T h e n o n - p a u s a l f o r m o f n a a a a is na:.

2 . 3 4 w y a k a n a a a a p a : - d a h e k u - d a

far 3 p l + g o : P A U S o n e - C L : R O U N D w o o d - C L : R O U N D

d i : k e t a = p i d a n a d i h a

3 s g n f + m e e t = R E M . P . R E P h e

T h e y w e n t far [PAUSE] ( a n d ) h e e n c o u n t e r e d o n e fruit.'

P a u s a l m a r k i n g o f t y p e s (i) a n d (ii) d o e s n o t o c c u r either o n t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n

r o o t s a n d suffixes, o r o n a clitic b o u n d a r y . In contrast, p r o c e s s e s (iii) a n d (iv) c a n o c c u r

o n a clitic b o u n d a r y , if t h e s p e a k e r is h e s i t a n t a b o u t t h e c h o i c e o f t h e right clitic, a s in

2 . 3 6 . T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story told b y E m i l i o B r i t o , a v e r y fluent y o u n g s p e a k e r

w h o , h o w e v e r , h a d s o m e t r o u b l e in c h o o s i n g c o r r e c t e v i d e n t i a l s (see § 1 4 . 2 . 7 ) ; t h e v o w e l

l e n g t h e n i n g b e f o r e t h e e v i d e n t i a l ( a c c o m p a n i e d b y a short p a u s e ) is t h e result o f

h e s i t a t i o n o n h i s part.

2 . 3 5 u : n i d i - r a d i - r a a a a = p i d a ( n o n - p a u s a l : di-ra)

w a t e r 3 s g n f - d r i n k 3 s g n f - d r i n k : P A U S = R E P

' H e d r a n k w a t e r , h e [PAUSE] drank.'

B . N A S A L S Y L L A B L E INSERTION. A characteristic p r o p e r t y o f a p r o s o d i c p h r a s e in all

t h e A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o is t h e 'nasal p a u s e ' m a r k e r - a p h r a s e -

final syllable - h a o r - n h a - u s e d a s a b o u n d a r y signal ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 c ) . T h i s p a u s e

m a r k i n g is a c c o m p a n i e d b y falling i n t o n a t i o n .

I n T a r i a n a , this m a r k e r c a n n o t b e i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f serial

c o n s t r u c t i o n s ; it c a n o n l y a p p e a r o n t h e last c o m p o n e n t , a s in 2 . 3 6 . T h e p a u s e m a r k e r is

u s e d t o s i g n a l a l e n g t h y p a u s e in t h e e n d o f a n i n t o n a t i o n unit w h i c h often c o i n c i d e s

w i t h t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w c l a u s e . I n d e p e n d e n t p r e d i c a t e s w i t h i n e a c h c l a u s e

( s e p a r a t e d b y a p a u s e a n d rising e n u m e r a t i o n i n t o n a t i o n : §2.9) are in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

2 . 3 6 d i - e : n e n e = n u k u [dhita] [ d i - u k a n i = d h u r i

3 s g n f - t o n g u e = T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + d r a g 3 s g n f - p u l l = F O L D . I N . T W O

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 2 . 8 P h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e 6 3

d i - r u k u - i - t a = p i d a n a = n i k i ]

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 = R E M . P . R E P = C 0 M P L

[ d i - m a r a d i - n u - h a ]

3 sgnf-float 3 s g n f - c o m e - P A U S

' H e ( a s h a m a n ) d r a g g e d h i s (evil spirit's) t o n g u e , p u l l e d it d o w n f o l d i n g it i n t w o ,

a n d c a m e d o w n s t r e a m [PAUSE].'

T h e n a s a l p a u s e m a r k e r is n o t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e clause-final v o w e l l e n g t h e n i n g

w i t h r i s i n g i n t o n a t i o n i n d i c a t i v e o f a n o n - s e n t e n c e final position.

2 . 8 P h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e

T h e n e x t h i g h e s t p r o s o d i c d o m a i n in T a r i a n a after a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d is a

p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e . T w o o r m o r e p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s w h i c h f o r m a p h o n o l o g i c a l

p h r a s e a r e p r o n o u n c e d a s o n e i n t o n a t i o n unit; t h e y c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d w i t h a p a u s a l

m a r k e r ( s e e § 2 . 7 ) , a n d t h e stress o n t h e first c o m p o n e n t ( s ) is realised a s a s e c o n d a r y

stress. N o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n g o in b e t w e e n these. P o s s e s s i v e a n d a d p o s i t i o n a l n o u n

p h r a s e s , serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d i d i o m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n s are e a c h r e a l i s e d a s o n e

p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e in n o r m a l a n d in r a p i d s p e e c h .

A p o s s e s s i v e n o u n p h r a s e a s a s i n g l e p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e is illustrated in 2 . 3 7 . T h e

stress o n t h e first c o m p o n e n t , n a w i k i 'person', is w e a k e n e d . T h e i n s e r t i o n o f p a u s a l - h a ,

- n h a is u n g r a m m a t i c a l .

2 . 3 7 n a w i k i tfare

n a w i k i i-tfa-re

p e r s o n I N D F - h a i r - P O S S

'person's hair'

Serial v e r b s in T a r i a n a h a v e t h e p r o s o d i c p r o p e r t i e s o f a m o n o v e r b a l c l a u s e ( G i v o n

1 9 9 1 ; a n d s e e C h a p t e r 18). A l l t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e s e p a r a t e

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s , s i n c e t h e y h a v e i n d e p e n d e n t stress. In n o r m a l s p e e c h register a

serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is p r o n o u n c e d a s a single p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e (see § 1 8 . 2 for

further p r o s o d i c d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n different t y p e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) . I n 2 . 3 8 all t h e

c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) , e x c e p t for t h e last o n e , are

s h o w n t o r e c e i v e a s e c o n d a r y stress. T h i s d o e s n o t h a p p e n in s l o w s p e e c h .

2 . 3 8 n e = p i d a n a [halia d i - s w a di-a-ha]

t h e n = R E M . P . R E P d a w n 3 s g n f - s t a y 3 s g n f - g o - P A U S

' T h e n it w a s d a w n i n g (lit. d a w n - s t a y - g o ) [PAUSE].'

T h e i n s e r t i o n o f t h e p a u s a l m a r k e r b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial

c o n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d b e u n g r a m m a t i c a l , as illustrated in 2 . 3 9 (see C h a p t e r 18).

2 . 3 9 * h a l i a d i - s w a - h a d i - a

d a w n 3 s g n f - s t a y - P A U S 3 s g n f - g o

If a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n s a m o n o s y l l a b i c v e r b a s its first c o m p o n e n t , t h e

w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a y b e c o m e o n e p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d in r a p i d s p e e c h . F o r i n s t a n c e ,

he i-nu ( 2 p l + e n t e r 2 p l - c o m e ) ' c o m e in' is often p r o n o u n c e d as h e . n u o r h e n u .

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 6 4 2 P h o n o l o g y

I d i o m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n s are also p r o n o u n c e d as o n e p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e e.g. ka: di-ka

( t h u s 3 s g n f - s e e ) 'despise, lit. l o o k like this', di-yaku-pe di-sisd ( 3 s g n f - s p e e c h - P L 3sgnf-

finish) ' m u t t e r s o m e t h i n g unintelligible' (lit. h i s s p e e c h e n d s ) , p a : p a m a 'talk in vain'.

S h o r t e n i n g a n d c e n t r a l i s a t i o n o f a w o r d - f i n a l v o w e l w i t h i n a p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e is

characteristic o f s o m e s p e a k e r s , e.g. 2 . 4 0 f r o m a story told b y J o s e M a n o e l Brito. A

p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e is e n c l o s e d in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

2 . 4 0 hi [ p i - w h s d a k e ] d i - a = p i d a n a

h e r e 2sg-sit g r a n d s o n : V O C 3 s g n f - s a y = R E M . P . R E P

'"Sit h e r e , g r a n d s o n " , h e said.'

2 . 9 I n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n s

F a l l i n g i n t o n a t i o n is characteristic o f t h e e n d o f a n y c l a u s e ( w h e t h e r d e c l a r a t i v e o r

i n t e r r o g a t i v e ) . R i s i n g i n t o n a t i o n o n t h e last w o r d a c c o m p a n i e d b y l e n g t h e n i n g (see §2.7)

is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b o t h o f a n o n - f i n a l c l a u s e w i t h i n a s e n t e n c e a n d o f a n o n - f i n i s h e d c l a u s e

( s e e 2 . 3 4 a n d d i s c u s s i o n there).

A f t e r t h o u g h t s a r e s i g n a l l e d b y p h r a s e - f i n a l falling i n t o n a t i o n a n d a p a u s e - s e e 2 1 . 1 1

a n d 2 1 . 1 8 , a n d d i s c u s s i o n there. I m p e r a t i v e c l a u s e s h a v e a h i g h e r p i t c h a n d s t r o n g e r

intensity o n t h e s t r e s s e d syllable o f t h e p r e d i c a t e , a n d m a y h a v e a falling i n t o n a t i o n -

s e e § 2 1 . 4 . 2 . I n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s h a v e o p t i o n a l rising i n t o n a t i o n - s e e § 2 1 . 4 . 3 .

E x c l a m a t o r y c l a u s e s o f t e n h a v e slightly rising i n t o n a t i o n - s e e § 2 1 . 4 . 4 .

W h e n n o u n p h r a s e s , p r e d i c a t e s or c l a u s e s are c o o r d i n a t e d , t h e r e is characteristic

' e n u m e r a t i n g ' i n t o n a t i o n . T h e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable o f t h e last w o r d is l e n g t h e n e d a n d its

final syllable a c q u i r e s stress a n d rising pitch, for e x a m p l e dhi.ta, did, diruku-pidand 'he

t o o k ( s o m e t h i n g ) , w e n t , w e n t d o w n ' . P a u s a l f o r m s c a n n o t b e u s e d w i t h this i n t o n a t i o n

pattern. 2 . 4 1 e x e m p l i f i e s t h e ' e n u m e r a t i o n ' i n t o n a t i o n w h e n e n u m e r a t i n g s e v e r a l objects.

2 . 4 1 m a : n a k a : p u : p e r i : m a : p a : a l i a = m h a

a9ai.fruit p e a c h . p a l m . fruit h o n e y E X I S T = P R E S . N O N V I S

T h e r e is a$ai, p e a c h p a l m fruit, h o n e y . '

C o m p a r e t h e stress o f t h e s e w o r d s w h e n p r o n o u n c e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y :

2 . 4 2 m a n a k a p u p e r i m a : p a

a9ai.fruit p e a c h . p a l m . f r u i t h o n e y

A f t e r t h e p h r a s e o r a s e q u e n c e w i t h e n u m e r a t i n g i n t o n a t i o n t h e r e is u s u a l l y a p a u s e .

T h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f this i n t o n a t i o n m a y s e r v e to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n o n e

p r e d i c a t i o n , e.g. a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d a c o o r d i n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n (see C h a p t e r

18). T h i s i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n is n o t u s e d w i t h c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n .

In c o n t e n t q u e s t i o n s t h e q u e s t i o n w o r d a c q u i r e s h i g h e r p i t c h a n d is p r o n o u n c e d w i t h

g r e a t e r intensity, a s in:

2 . 4 3 k a n i = n i h k a d i - a

w h e r e = P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 3 s g n f - g o

' W h e r e d i d h e g o ? '

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 2.9 Intonation patterns 65

In y e s - n o q u e s t i o n s t h e w o r d to w h i c h t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l are a t t a c h e d is

p r o n o u n c e d w i t h h i g h e r p i t c h a n d g r e a t e r intensity, as in:

2 . 4 4 m a t f a = n h a p i h a

g o o d = . P R E S . V I S . I N T E R y o u

' A r e y o u fine?'

L a m e n t s a n d g r e e t i n g s s h a r e a distinctive s i n g s o n g i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n w h i c h c o n s i s t s

o f a rising c o n t o u r a n d l e n g t h e n i n g a n d l o w e r i n g t h e v o w e l o f t h e final syllable o f e v e r y

i n t o n a t i o n unit. 2 . 4 5 e x e m p l i f i e s a g r e e t i n g p r o n o u n c e d w i t h this i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n (also

cf. 2 . 3 2 ) . A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is at 2 1 . 1 1 5 .

1
2 . 4 5 p i - u k a = n i h k a p h i a ^ nuito/

2 s g - a r r i v e = I N T E R . R E C . P y o u m y . d a u g h t e n V O C
1
w y a k a - s e / p i - u k a = n i h k a

f a r - L O C 2 s g - a r r i v e = P A S T . V I S . I N T E R

' H a v e y o u arrived, m y d a u g h t e r , h a v e y o u a r r i v e d f r o m far away...?'

A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n w i t h o u t final v o w e l l e n g t h e n i n g a n d l o w e r i n g is characteristic for

recitals a n d a c c o u n t s o f t h e O f f e r i n g feast.

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 3

W o r d classes

T a r i a n a h a s t h r e e o p e n lexical classes, t w o s e m i - c l o s e d c l a s s e s a n d t w e l v e c l o s e d

c l a s s e s o f w o r d s .

3.1 O p e n w o r d c l a s s e s

T h r e e o p e n w o r d c l a s s e s are v e r b s , n o u n s a n d adjectives. T h e w o r d c l a s s e s differ in

their g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s , in t h e w o r d c l a s s - c h a n g i n g d e r i v a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s t h e y

p a r t i c i p a t e in, a n d in t h e f u n c t i o n a l slots in t h e c l a u s e w h i c h t h e y typically o c c u p y .

V e r b s a r e p r o t o t y p i c a l p r e d i c a t e s , w h i l e n o u n s are p r o t o t y p i c a l h e a d s o f n o u n p h r a s e s ,

a n d a d j e c t i v e s a r e p r o t o t y p i c a l m o d i f i e r s . S u b c l a s s e s o f v e r b s , n o u n s a n d a d j e c t i v e s are

d i s c u s s e d in § § 3 . 1 . 1 - 3 . A n o v e r v i e w o f w o r d c l a s s - c h a n g i n g m o r p h o l o g i c a l d e v i c e s is

g i v e n in § 3 . 1 . 4 .

3. L I Verbs

V E R B S c a n b e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d for p e r s o n , n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r ; their v a l e n c y c a n b e

c h a n g e d w i t h v a l e n c y - r e d u c i n g o r v a l e n c y - i n c r e a s i n g d e r i v a t i o n s ( c a u s a t i v e , p a s s i v e ,

r e c i p r o c a l ) , t h e y t a k e a n e g a t i v e suffix, a n d v e r b a l classifiers (see §5.1.5 a n d C h a p t e r s

1 2 - 1 3 , 17). T h e y o f t e n h o s t t e n s e - a s p e c t - e v i d e n t i a l i t y , m o o d a n d A k t i o n s a r t c l a u s a l

enclitics ( s e e C h a p t e r s 1 4 - 1 6 ) . T h e y c a n f o r m serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e s ( s e e C h a p t e r s 1 8 - 1 9 ) .

V e r b s d i v i d e into t w o classes: t h o s e w h i c h t a k e p r e f i x e s ( c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g ,

relativising a n d n e g a t i v e ) a n d t h o s e w h i c h d o not. A c t i v e transitive a n d intransitive

v e r b s o b l i g a t o r i l y t a k e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s t o m a r k t h e A / S a c o n s t i t u e n t ( s e e

P r e f a c e ) . S t a t i v e (S 0 ) v e r b s a n d v e r b s o f p h y s i c a l states (Sj0) d o n o t t a k e a n y c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r s . T h i s d i v i s i o n r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n

b e t w e e n a c t i v e a n d stative intransitive v e r b s inherited f r o m P r o t o - A r a w a k (see

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b ) .

T r a n s i t i v e a n d intransitive a c t i v e v e r b s h a v e o n l y o n e o b l i g a t o r y prefixal p o s i t i o n , s o

t h a t w h e n p r e f i x e d n e g a t i o n m a - is u s e d , p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s are

o m i t t e d , a n d p e r s o n / g e n d e r / n u m b e r distinctions are neutralised. P r e f i x e d v e r b s s h o w

p r e d i c a t e - a r g u m e n t a g r e e m e n t w i t h c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s w h i l e p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s

l a c k this.

V e r b s i n T a r i a n a fall into further c l a s s e s a c c o r d i n g to their transitivity.

A . A M B I T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S . In s o m e l a n g u a g e s e v e r y , o r a l m o s t e v e r y v e r b is strictly

transitive o r intransitive; in o t h e r l a n g u a g e s at least s o m e v e r b s c a n h a v e either

transitivity v a l u e . T h e s e v e r b s are c a l l e d a m b i t r a n s i t i v e , o r labile ( D i x o n 1 9 9 4 : 1 8 ; 54).

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 3 . 1 O p e n w o r d c l a s s e s 6 7

E a c h t r a n s i t i v e v e r b in T a r i a n a c a n also b e u s e d in intransitive c l a u s e s , a n d t h u s is

a m b i t r a n s i t i v e ( h o w e v e r , a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s d o n o t s h a r e all t h e p r o p e r t i e s w i t h

i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ; cf. d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r § 1 3 . 3 ) . M o s t v e r b s are S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s , e.g.

- h h a 'eat', - i n u 'kill, fight, hunt', - h a 'hit'; -ka 'see', - h i m a 'hear'; - s a t a 'greet', etc. T h i s

m e a n s t h e o b j e c t N P c a n a l w a y s b e o p t i o n a l l y o m i t t e d , a s in E n g l i s h 'eat' ('he is e a t i n g

d i n n e r ' o r 'he is eating'). E x a m p l e 3.1 illustrates a n a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b .

3.1 (asi) n u - n h a - k a

( p e p p e r ) 1s g + A - e a t - R E C . P . V I S

'I e a t / h a v e e a t e n ( p e p p e r ) . '

D i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f o r m a s u b c l a s s o f S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s . T h e i r s e c o n d a r g u m e n t

c a n b e e i t h e r gift o r recipient, e.g. - a 'give', -phya 'sell', - w a l i t a 'offer' (ritual offering);

-waya 'buy.' S = 0 a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s c o n s t i t u t e a s m a l l i s h , c l o s e d class w h i c h i n c l u d e s

v e r b s o f b r e a k i n g , e.g. - m a k h a 'break' (split); - t h u k a 'break'; s a w a 'tear' (clothes); a n d a

f e w m o r e v e r b s , e.g. - w h a w e t a 'breathe, m a k e breathe'; - k u s e t a 'swing'; - d u k u n i a ' s w i t c h

o n , light', -hipa 'take; s u c c e e d ; start (a m o t o r ) ' . S e e C h a p t e r 12, for further e x a m p l e s ,

a n d for a d i s c u s s i o n o f e x t e n d e d intransitive v e r b s .

B . I N T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S m a y b e p r e f i x e d , S a (active), prefixless, stative S 0 , o r v e r b s o f

p h y s i c a l states S i o .

B l . A C T I V E (S a ) V E R B S i n c l u d e a v a s t m a j o r i t y o f v e r b s o f m o t i o n , s t a n c e , v e r b s o f

b e g i n n i n g a n d f i n i s h i n g a n d a f e w o t h e r s , e.g. - m u s u 'go out', - e m h a n i 'walk', - k a n a

' w a l k a r o u n d ' ; - n u ' c o m e ' ; - i m a 'sleep, c l o s e o n e ' s eyes'; - k e n a 'start', - s i s a 'be finished1.

B 2 . S T A T I V E (S 0 ) V E R B S d e n o t e p h y s i c a l states, m o s t l y i n v o l u n t a r y results o f p r o c e s s e s ,

e.g. l a m a 'burn, g e t burnt'; l e k a 'split'; k e . k a 'split o p e n ' ; h a l a 'be o p e n ' ; h i k u 'appear, b e

like'; t h e c o p u l a a l i a a n d t h e i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e hyukade 'not appear'; kuripua 'not b e at

all' b e l o n g t o this class. S t a t i v e v e r b s d o n o t t a k e a n y c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s , cf. 3.2.

A n y a d j e c t i v e o r n o u n c a n b e u s e d a s a n S 0 v e r b in t h e p r e d i c a t e slot.

3.2 n u h a k e r u - m h a

I b e . a n g r y - P R E S . N O N V I S

'I a m angry.'

B 3 . V E R B S O F P H Y S I C A L S T A T E (S i 0 ) f o r m a s m a l l class; t h e y d e n o t e p h y s i c a l states, e.g.

dai 'be sleepy', u n i n a 'be thirsty', m h a i s i k i 'be h u n g r y ' , m h a i s i k i k a i 'be v e r y h u n g r y ; lit.

a c h e o f h u n g e r ' . T h e y d o n o t t a k e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefixes. T h e S i o c o n s t i t u e n t o c c u r s

w i t h t h e - n a c a s e m a r k e r (see C h a p t e r 7), if e x p r e s s e d w i t h a p r o n o m i n a l c o n s t i t u e n t , a s

i n 3 . 3 .

3.3 d a i - m h a n u - n a

b e s l e e p y - P R E S . N O N V I S 1 s g - C A S E . M A R K E R

'I a m sleepy.'

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 6 8 3 Word classes

T h e s e v e r b s differ in their m o r p h o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s s u c h a s a p p l i c a t i o n o f transitivity

r e d u c i n g a n d transitivity i n c r e a s i n g d e r i v a t i o n s . S e e C h a p t e r 12 ( a n d A i k h e n v a l d

2 0 0 0 b ) .

S e c o n d a r y v e r b s - i.e. 'those p r o v i d i n g s e m a n t i c m o d i f i c a t i o n o f s o m e o t h e r v e r b s ,

w i t h w h i c h t h e y a r e in a syntactic o r a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n ' ( D i x o n 1 9 9 1 : 8 8 ) -

fall into t h r e e m a j o r s u b c l a s s e s : t h o s e w h i c h are obligatorily u s e d in serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e.g. - a 'be g o i n g to', - w a 'try', -sita 'succeed, m a n a g e ' (these a r e t h e m o s t

n u m e r o u s ; s e e a l s o C h a p t e r 18); t h o s e w h i c h f o r m serial-like c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e.g. -yeka

' k n o w h o w ' ; a n d t h o s e w h i c h m u s t t a k e a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e , e.g. m a h y u n a 'be

i m p o s s i b l e , b e difficult' (see § 1 2 . 1 . 4 ) . S o m e s e c o n d a r y v e r b s , e.g. ira 'need, m u s t ' a n d

i n u , i n u n a 'be lazy, u n w i l l i n g ' , t a k e n o n - c a n o n i c a l l y m a r k e d a r g u m e n t s . S e e C h a p t e r 12

for d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n . V e r b structure - different for p r e f i x e d a n d prefixless v e r b s - is

o u t l i n e d in § 1 2 . 2 . V e r b s h a v e to b e n o m i n a l i s e d to b e u s e d as a r g u m e n t s , o r as

m o d i f i e r s ; s e e §3.1.4.

3.1.2 N o u n s

N O U N S h a v e g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s o f G E N D E R , N O U N C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , P O S S E S S I O N ,

N U M B E R , C A S E , N O M I N A L T E N S E a n d E X T R A L O C A L I T Y .

G e n d e r is r e a l i s e d in p e r s o n - n u m b e r c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g o n v e r b s a n d obligatorily

p o s s e s s e d n o u n s ( s e e T a b l e 6 . 1 ; a n d also d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 5). N o u n s u s u a l l y b e a r

n o o v e r t g e n d e r m a r k i n g (there are, h o w e v e r , a f e w g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l

suffixes d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 10). N o u n classification is realised t h r o u g h classifier

a g r e e m e n t o n m o d i f i e r s in h e a d - m o d i f i e r n o u n p h r a s e s (a m o d i f i e r c a n b e a n adjective,

a n u m e r a l , a d e m o n s t r a t i v e , o r a m e m b e r o f s o m e o t h e r c l o s e d class). F o r e a c h t y p e o f

m o d i f i e r f r o m a c l o s e d class, a slightly different set o f classifiers is e m p l o y e d (see

C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 11). M o s t classifiers c a n b e u s e d o n the n o u n itself s i m i l a r l y to a

d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix. S e m a n t i c a l l y , n o u n classification o v e r l a p s w i t h g e n d e r to a certain

extent.

N o u n s d i v i d e into i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d (or p r e f i x e d ) a n d a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d

(prefixless) ( s e e C h a p t e r 6). T h e r e are special c a s e s for a f o c u s s e d A / S , a topical n o n -

A / S , a n d a l s o a l o c a t i v e c a s e a n d a n i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e (see C h a p t e r 7). N u m b e r

d i s t i n c t i o n s i n c l u d e singular, plural, u n m a r k e d (or collective) a n d a s s o c i a t i v e . D i f f e r e n t

s e m a n t i c g r o u p s o f n o u n s h a v e different n u m b e r distinctions a n d n u m b e r m a r k i n g (see

C h a p t e r 8).

N o u n s a l s o h a v e a t h r e e - f o l d t e n s e distinction (past, future a n d u n m a r k e d ) a n d c a n

b e c h a r a c t e r i s e d for extralocality ( m e a n i n g that t h e participant referred to is in a

different p l a c e , o r is t h e o n l y o n e n o t to d o s o m e t h i n g ) (see C h a p t e r 9). A n u m b e r o f

enclitics c a n o n l y o c c u r o n n o u n s a n d n o u n p h r a s e s , e.g. contrastivity, c o o r d i n a t i o n a n d

d e g r e e m a r k e r s ( a u g m e n t a t i v e , d i m i n u t i v e a n d a p p r o x i m a t i v e ) ; t h e s e are also d i s c u s s e d

in C h a p t e r 9. D e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes are d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 10.

U n l i k e w i t h v e r b s , s o m e n o m i n a l c a t e g o r i e s - n u m b e r , g e n d e r , classifier a n d c a s e -

c a n b e m a r k e d m o r e t h a n o n c e w i t h i n a n o m i n a l w o r d (see C h a p t e r 4).

N o u n s h a v e a v e r y c o m p l e x inflectional structure (see C h a p t e r 4). N o u n s fall into

s e v e r a l distinct c l a s s e s a c c o r d i n g to their m o r p h o l o g i c a l possibilities a n d t h e p r o p e r t i e s

o f their referents. N o t e that this classification is s e p a r a t e f r o m g e n d e r s , a n d f r o m

classifiers d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 5.

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 3.1 Open word classes 6 9

A . P R E F I X E D A N D N O N - P R E F I X E D N O U N S . O b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s t a k e a p o s s e s s i v e

p r e f i x ( p o s i t i o n 1 in n o u n structure: s e e C h a p t e r 4). O t h e r n o u n s c a n n o t t a k e prefixes.

P r e f i x e d n o u n s i n c l u d e b o d y parts, k i n s h i p n o u n s , a f e w m o r e w o r d s (-da:na ' s h a d o w ' ,

- i p i t a n a ' n a m e ' ) a n d n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s . T h e set o f p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s a n d its e m p l o y m e n t

are s o m e w h a t different for n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s t h a n for all o t h e r p r e f i x e d n o u n s (see §6.1).

U n l i k e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , o n l y o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s participate in ' d o u b l e object'

c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( s e e s e c t i o n C in §7.5).

B . N O U N S W I T H A H U M A N R E F E R E N T . N o u n s w i t h a h u m a n referent f o r m a s e p a r a t e

s u b c l a s s w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s : t h e y t a k e g e n d e r sensitive d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes

( s e e C h a p t e r 10) a n d h a v e a special set o f plural m a r k e r s (see C h a p t e r 8). T h e y c a n b e

e i t h e r p r e f i x e d o r prefixless.

C . K I N S H I P N O U N S . K i n s h i p n o u n s are a c l o s e d s u b s e t o f n o u n s a n d m u s t h a v e a h u m a n

referent (in stories a b o u t a n i m a l s , t h e y c a n b e u s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to these). M o s t o f

t h e m a r e p r e f i x e d ; s o m e are n o t (see C h a p t e r 6). K i n s h i p n o u n s f o r m p l u r a l s in a w a y

distinct f r o m all o t h e r s u b c l a s s e s o f n o u n (see C h a p t e r 8). T h e y also h a v e a g r a m m a t i c a l

c a t e g o r y o f 'vocative' n o t f o u n d w i t h o t h e r n o u n s ( e x c e p t for p e r s o n a l n a m e s ) . V o c a t i v e

n o u n s c a n n o t b e p o s s e s s e d , a n d t h e y t a k e a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f suffixes a n d n o clitics.

V o c a t i v e f o r m s a r e a n areal p r o p e r t y s h a r e d b y T a r i a n a w i t h T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s ; t h e y are

a l s o p r e s e n t in s o m e o t h e r l a n g u a g e s o f N o r t h W e s t A m a z o n i a (e.g. G u a h i b o : s e e

A i k h e n v a l d a n d D i x o n 1 9 9 9 b ) , b u t a r e n o t f o u n d in N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e

r e g i o n .

T A B L E 3.1 K I N S H I P N O U N S W I T H F U L L Y S U P P L E T I V E V O C A T I V E F O R M S

SEX N O N - V O C A T I V E VOCATIVE SEMANTICS

s o n o f m a l e e g o ' s sister; son's

m a s c n u - w a s d d o tesi
wife's b r o t h e r

d a u g h t e r o f m a l e e g o ' s sister;

fern n u - w a s d d o tethii d a u g h t e r o f o n e ' s wife's

sister/brother

m a s c n u - w h e r i d u w h u e g r a n d f a t h e r

m a s c n u - s i m d - r i tesi d a u g h t e r ' s h u s b a n d

n u - p h e - r i - s a - d o n u - p h e - r i n u

fern ( l s g - e l d e r . s i b l i n g - ( l s g - e l d e r . s i b l i n g - e l d e r brother's w i f e

M A S C + I N D F - S p o u s e - F E M ) M A S C + w i f e : v o c )

fern n u r i n u ( l s g + s o n + w i f e ) tethii son's w i f e

m a s c n u - h h a w h e - r i n u k h i wife's father; h u s b a n d ' s father

fern n u - n h a w e - m n u k u i wife's m o t h e r

m a s c n u - t e d u a - r i m o t h e r ' s brother's child;

n a i
fern n u - t e d u a - r u m a r r i g e a b l e relative

V o c a t i v e s a r e f o r m e d in s e v e r a l different w a y s : (a) full s u p p l e t i o n (see T a b l e 3.1);

(b) partial s u p p l e t i o n (see T a b l e 3.2); (c) s u b t r a c t i o n o f the g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l

suffix w i t h o u t stress shift ( T a b l e 3.3); a n d (d) stress shift (see T a b l e 3.4). T h e r e are a

f e w k i n s h i p n o u n s w h i c h u n d e r g o n o c h a n g e i n v o c a t i v e s (see T a b l e 3.5). Finally, t h e r e

is a g r o u p o f k i n s h i p n o u n s w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h a v o c a t i v e a n d t w o n o n - v o c a t i v e ,

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 7 0 3 Word c l a s s e s

'referential' f o r m s s u c h that t h e s p e a k e r s ' o w n relatives are treated differently to others'

r e l a t i v e s ( s e e T a b l e 3.6).

V o c a t i v e f o r m s t a k e o n l y t w o k i n d s o f n o u n m o r p h o l o g y : t h e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes

-pern ' o l d : f e m i n i n e ' a n d -peri ' o l d r m a s c u l i n e ' (see C h a p t e r 10), e.g. n u - i t o - p e r u ( l s g -

d a u g h t e r : v o c - O L D ) ' m y o l d ( g r o w n - u p ) daughter'; a n d n o m i n a l t e n s e , e.g. p a i k a - m i k i - r i

( f a t h e r - N O M . P A S T - M A S C ) ' m y late father'.

T h e t e r m n a i is t h e o n e u s e d i n a n i m a l stories w i t h a n i m a l s o f different s p e c i e s

a d d r e s s i n g e a c h other.

T A B L E 3.2 K I N S H I P N O U N S W I T H P A R T L Y S U P P L E T I V E V O C A T I V E F O R M S

S E X N O N - V O C A T I V E V O C A T I V E S E M A N T I C S

fern n u - i t u n u i t o d a u g h t e r

m a s c n u d n e r i s o n

fern nu-ddki-ru g r a n d d a u g h t e r
dake
m a s c nu-ddki-ri g r a n d s o n ; g r a n d c h i l d

fern n u - w e - d o n u - e d u y o u n g e r sister

m a s c n u - w e - r i n u - e r i y o u n g e r b r o t h e r

T A B L E 3.3 K I N S H I P N O U N S W H I C H F O R M V O C A T I V E S B Y S U B T R A C T I O N O F T H E G E N D E R

S E N S I T I V E S U F F I X W I T H O U T S T R E S S S H I F T

S E X N O N - V O C A T I V E V O C A T I V E S E M A N T I C S

m a s c n u - i d o d - r i s o n o f father's y o u n g e r b r o t h e r
indod
fern n u - i d o d - r u d a u g h t e r o f father's y o u n g e r b r o t h e r

m a s c n u - p h e - r i elder b r o t h e r
nu-phe
fern n u - p h e - r u e l d e r sister

m a s c nuidud-ri one's ( f e m a l e ego's) brother's s o n

nu-idud
fern n u i d u d - r u one's ( f e m a l e ego's) brother's d a u g h t e r

D . P E R S O N A L N A M E S . P e r s o n a l s a c r e d n a m e s , called ' n a m e s o f blessing' ( T a r i a n a p a -

y a p a - n i p e i-pitana (IMP-bless-NOM I N D F - n a m e ) 'blessing n a m e ' , T u c a n o base'ke w a m e

'spirit n a m e ' ) are a c l o s e d class o f e l e v e n m e m b e r s . Different sets o f n a m e s a r e u s e d in

e a c h g r o u p . T h e f e m i n i n e n a m e s o f t h e W a m i a r i k u n e g r o u p f r o m t h e B r i t o f a m i l y are:

K u m a t h a . w , B a l i d a , K a i s a d o , A n a i s a d o , a n d t h e m a s c u l i n e n a m e s are: P a i p h a k a ,

P a p h e k a , K u m a d a , T u d a w h i r i , M e n a k a , Tuiri, S e r e w h a r i , Kuda ( s e e M o r e i r a a n d

M o r e i r a 1 9 9 4 , for a list o f I t f i r i m h e n e p e r s o n a l n a m e s , a n d t h e A p p e n d i x , for a list o f

s a c r e d n a m e s in t h e P e r i q u i t o s variety). T h e y c a n n o t b e p l u r a l i s e d o r m o d i f i e d . ( S e e

§ 1 . 6 , a n d A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 a . ) T h e y are s i m i l a r to k i n s h i p n o u n s (see T a b l e 3.4) in

h a v i n g v o c a t i v e f o r m s d e r i v e d v i a s u b t r a c t i o n o f t h e final syllable ( p o s s i b l y , a suffix,

e.g. -ri, - t h a w , -da) a n d stress shift. E x a m p l e s are Tuiri - Tui!, B d l i d a - B a l i ! T h e

v o c a t i v e f o r m o f K u m a t h a . w is K u m a d a .

T h e s e n a m e s a r e u s e d v e r y rarely ( o n l y o n special o c c a s i o n s , for i n s t a n c e , in spells).

T h e y u s e d to b e e m p l o y e d in p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w h e n s p o u s e s a d d r e s s e d e a c h

o t h e r a s 'father o f t h e first born', o r ' m o t h e r o f t h e first born', respectively. S i n c e

C a n d i d o a n d M a r i a ' s first-born c h i l d is Tuiri ( P o r t u g u e s e n a m e : I s m a e l , M a y e ) , M a r i a

a d d r e s s e s C a n d i d o a s Tui h a n i r i 'father o f Tui', a n d h e a d d r e s s e s h e r as Tui h a d o ' m o t h e r

o f Tui'. N o t e t h e o m i s s i o n o f t h e final syllable o f the n a m e in this c o n s t r u c t i o n w h e r e

t h e v o c a t i v e f o r m s a r e u s e d .

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 3. J O p e n w o r d c l a s s e s 7 1

T A B L E 3.4 K I N S H I P N O U N S W H I C H F O R M V O C A T I V E S B Y S T R E S S S H I F T

S E X N O N - V O C A T I V E V O C A T I V E S E M A N T I C S

fern n u - t e d u d - r u n u - t e d u a - r u d a u g h t e r o f a d a u g h t e r o f p a t e r n a l g r a n d f a t h e r

m a s c n u - t e d u d - / i n u - t e d u a - d s o n o f a d a u g h t e r o f p a t e r n a l g r a n d f a t h e r

fern n u - n i d u a nu-nidud wife's sister

m a s c n u - d d l i n a nu-dalind wife's b r o t h e r

T A B L E 3.5 K I N S H I P N O U N S W H I C H U N D E R G O N O C H A N G E I N V O C A T I V E S

S E X N O N - V O C A T I V E = V O C A T I V E S E M A N T I C S

fern h i d o g r a n d m o t h e r

m a s c nu-si-ri h u s b a n d ' s brother; sister's h u s b a n d

fern n u - s a - r u h u s b a n d ' s sister; sister o f sister's h u s b a n d

T A B L E 3.6 K I N S H I P T E R M S W H I C H D I S T I N G U I S H T H R E E F O R M S

N O N - V O C A T I V E , R E F E R R I N G T O

S E X O N E ' S O W N V O C A T I V E S O M E O N E E L S E ' S S E M A N T I C S

R E L A T I V E R E L A T I V E

father's e l d e r b r o t h e r a n d g r a n d -
m a s c p a i p h e k a p a i p h e
h a n i r i father's e l d e r brother's s o n s

m a s c p a i k a p a i father

m o t h e r ; father's brother's
fern n d : k a n a hado
( y o u n g e r o r elder) w i f e ( w i v e s )

fern n e t e n d k a naitend h a d o t h e r u m o t h e r ' s sister

m a s c n a m i - k a n a m i n u - n a m i father's y o u n g e r b r o t h e r

m a s c n u k h i - k a n u k h i nu-khi-ri m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r

fern n u - k u i - k a n u k u i n u - k w i m father's sister

T o c r e a t e a v o c a t i v e f o r m o f a p e r s o n a l n a m e o f P o r t u g u e s e origin, t h e final syllable

o f t h e n a m e ( w h i c h is u s u a l l y l o n g e r t h a n t w o syllables) is o m i t t e d , a n d stress shifted

o n t o t h e last syllable, e.g. O l i v i a - v o c a t i v e Oli, Cdndido - v o c a t i v e C a n d i , L e o n a r d o -

v o c a t i v e L e o n d , f a i m u n d o - v o c a t i v e f a i m u . V o c a t i v e f o r m s o f n o u n s w i t h a h u m a n

r e f e r e n t a r e s o m e t i m e s a l s o f o r m e d in t h e s a m e w a y . L e o n a r d o u s e d to a d d r e s s h i s w i f e

as p e d a l , v o c a t i v e f o r m of p e d d l i e 'old, a d u l t (person)'. A m e r i c o B r i t o u s e d a v o c a t i v e

f o r m o f m i n a r i ' m a s t e r of, m i n d , for a d d r e s s , in a story a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g ritual:

3.4 hi n u - k e s i - p e y - a p i

D E M : A N I M 1s g - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - P L I N D F - w i t h

n u - w h a - n i - p u s i t a a l i a - m h a d i h a k a n a p a d a ,

l s g - s i t - T O P . A D V - C L : C L E A R I N G E X I S T - P R E S . N O N V I S h e t h i s . m a n y ,

p a n i - s i m i n a n u - k e s i - n i

h o u s e - N P O S S m a s t e r : V O C 1 s g - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - M A S C

' H e r e , w h e r e I live w i t h m y b l o o d relatives, o n t h e c l e a r i n g w h e r e I live, s o m a n y

(relatives) t h e r e are, o h m a s t e r o f t h e h o u s e , m y relative.'

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 7 2 3 Word c l a s s e s

J u s t o n c e a v o c a t i v e f o r m o f a n o u n w i t h a n a n i m a t e n o n - h u m a n referent w a s

p r o d u c e d , / ? / ^ ' o h cat!' from p i s a n a 'cat'. 3.5 c o m e s f r o m a H a n s e l a n d G r e t e l - t y p e story

t o l d b y E m i l i o B r i t o (this story b e a r s a v e r y s t r o n g B a n i w a influence).

3.5 tfu, pisa, m h e d a pi-Itu p i - n h a

h e y c a t : V O C P R O H 2sg-steal 2 s g - e a t

' H e y , cat, d o n ' t steal food.'

E . I N A N I M A T E N O U N S . T h e s e n o u n s f o r m a s u b c l a s s w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e n u m b e r

d i s t i n c t i o n s t h e y s h o w : t h e y d i s t i n g u i s h singular, plural a n d collective. T h e s e n o u n s also

o c c u r w i t h s h a p e a n d f o r m classifiers a s d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes (see §5.1.3).

F. I N H E R E N T L Y L O C A T I O N A L N O U N S A N D P L A C E N A M E S . T h e s e n o u n s differ f r o m o t h e r s

in t h a t t h e y t e n d n o t t o o c c u r w i t h t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e -se (see §7.3). P l a c e n a m e s h a v e their

o w n set o f d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes (see C h a p t e r 10), a n d t h e y c a n n o t b e p o s s e s s e d o r

m o d i f i e d .

3.1.3 Adjectives

A D J E C T I V E S in T a r i a n a s h a r e a n u m b e r o f features w i t h n o u n s , a n d a n u m b e r o f features

w i t h stative v e r b s ; t h e y a l s o h a v e a f e w features o f their o w n . A n y adjective c a n b e u s e d

w i t h o u t a n o m i n a l h e a d in a n o u n p h r a s e , e.g. inaru matfi:te 'bad w o m a n ' , o r matfi.te

' b a d o n e ' ( s e e C h a p t e r 4). T h e m a j o r i t y o f inflectional a n d d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes u s e d w i t h

n o u n s a n d a d j e c t i v e s a r e t h e s a m e (for i n s t a n c e , b o t h classifier m o r p h e m e s a n d n u m b e r

m a r k e r s c a n b e u s e d w i t h n o u n s a n d w i t h adjectives, h o w e v e r , in different f u n c t i o n s -

s e e b e l o w ) .

A d j e c t i v e s c a n b e u n d e r i v e d a n d d e r i v e d . U n d e r i v e d adjectives f o r m a s m a l l i s h

c l o s e d c l a s s o f a b o u t t w e n t y i t e m s listed b e l o w . T h e y are d i v i d e d into s e m a n t i c g r o u p s

f o l l o w i n g D i x o n ( 1 9 9 1 ) . A d j e c t i v e s are g i v e n w i t h t h e classifier t h e y o c c u r w i t h m o s t

frequently. (Classifiers m e n t i o n e d h e r e are: -da ' r o u n d objects', -ite 'generic a n i m a t e ' ,

-peri ' u n c o u n t a b l e ; collective', -puna 'road', - w a n i 'natural p h e n o m e n a ' . ) T a r i a n a h a s n o

specific a d j e c t i v e s w h i c h refer t o f o r m , e.g. r o u n d , h o l l o w , c u r v e d ; t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

m e a n i n g s are e x p r e s s e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f classifiers, e.g. kanari h a n u - k w e m a ( m i r r o r b i g -

C L : F L A T . R O U N D ) 'big r o u n d mirror'.

A . D I M E N S I O N : h a n u i t e 'big'; m a l e d a 'thick, large'; tsuite 'small'; m a d u i t e 'short';

m e d e w i t e 'thin'. S e e § 8 . 2 , o n s u p p l e t i v e n u m b e r m a r k i n g o f h a n u - a n d further

irregularities o f t h e d i m e n s i o n adjectives. T w o o t h e r d i m e n s i o n a d j e c t i v e s are

s y n c h r o n i c a l l y m o n o m o r p h e m i c , b u t historically d e r i v e d . T h e adjective m a k i t e ' w h o l e ,

e x t e n d e d ' is d e r i v e d f r o m t h e r o o t m a k a - w h i c h is n o t u s e d o n its o w n (its f u n c t i o n in

t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e is that o f a ' d u m m y ' r o o t u s e d to f o r m lexical i t e m s b y a t t a c h i n g

classifiers, e.g. m a k a - d a w a ( s o m e t h i n g - C L : R O O M ) 'a r o o m ; s o m e t h i n g r o o m - l i k e ' (see

§5.1.3).

B . A G E : w a l i t e ' n e w , y o u n g ' ; e m i t e ' y o u n g , unripe'; upite 'old, w o r n out' ( i n a n i m a t e

r e f e r e n t s o n l y ) . T h e n o u n p e d a d a (a variant: p e d a r e ) is u s e d w i t h h u m a n referents to

m e a n 'old; adult' (it a l s o m e a n s 'ripe', w i t h r e f e r e n c e to fruit w h i c h falls o n t h e g r o u n d

w h e n r e a d y t o b e c o n s u m e d ) .

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 3.1 Open word classes 73

C . V A L U E : ma.tfite ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : ma:fl+ite) 'bad, adverse'; matfi:te, matfia-ite

'proper, g o o d ' . T h e v a l u e a d j e c t i v e s c a n also b e u s e d b o t h as S 0 v e r b s a n d a s Sj 0 v e r b s .

W h e n u s e d a s S 0 v e r b s , t h e y c a n f o r m c o m p o u n d s w i t h o t h e r stative (S 0 ) v e r b s (see

§ 1 8 . 7 ) .

D . C O L O U R : e w i t e 'yellow'; h a d t e 'white; light; transparent'; hiporite 'green, b l u e ;

u n r i p e ' ; iiite 'red, o r a n g e , v e r y d a r k y e l l o w ; r i p e ' ; kadite 'black'; h a m a r i t e 'purple, b l u i s h

violet'. A n a d d i t i o n a l c o l o u r adjective, kesorite ' m u d d y , dirty, b r o w n i s h ' , a p p e a r s to b e

d e r i v e d f r o m a n u n k n o w n r o o t *-isole w i t h a prefix ka- 'relativised. A n o t h e r adjective,

kapunite 'striped', is h i g h l y u n u s u a l in that it a p p e a r s t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n

o f t h e p r e f i x k a - 'relativised w i t h t h e classifier -puna 'road; stripe'.

E. P H Y S I C A L PROPERTIES: h a m i a - p e r i 'heavy'; hedi-peri 'thick' (e.g. m a n i o c m a s h ) ;

hipisi-peri 'bitter'; h e t e n i - p e r i 'bitter a n d tart'; kama:-peri 'sour'; p i w a - p e r i 'salty';

p u m e n i - p e r i 'sweet'; tara-peri 'hard'.

F. O T H E R . O n e further adjective d o e s n o t a p p e a r to b e l o n g to a n y o f t h e s e m a n t i c g r o u p s

o u t l i n e d in t h e P o s i t i o n p a p e r : k e n i n i t e 'loved ( b y w o m e n ) ' ( c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e relative-

attributive ka- + s y n c h r o n i c a l l y u n a t t e s t e d r o o t * - i n i n a + -ite N C L : A N I M ) a n d its n e g a t i v e

c o u n t e r p a r t m e n i n i t e 'not l o v e d ( b y w o m e n ) ' ( w i t h t h e p r e f i x m a - w h i c h is t h e

c o u n t e r p a r t o f ka-). S e m a n t i c a l l y , it d e s c r i b e s a k i n d o f i n h e r e n t p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t y . T h i s

a d j e c t i v e o c c u r s o n l y w i t h t h e a n i m a t e n o u n class m a r k e r , a n d is u s e d to refer to a m a n

w h o is l u c k y e n o u g h to g e t a w o m a n , e.g. tfiari ina: k e n i n i t e ( m a n w o m a n : P L

R E L + ? + N C L : A N I M ) 'a m a n l o v e d b y w o m e n ; a m a n w h o c a n get a wife'. In a c t u a l texts,

t h e n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t m e n i n i t e is m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n the p o s i t i v e o n e ;

n u m e r o u s T a r i a n a stories relate t h e m i s f o r t u n e s o f a m a n w h o c a n n o t get h i m s e l f a w i f e ,

e.g. w a l i - k i d ina: m e n i n i t e ( y o u n g - N O M : M A S C . S G w o m a n : P L N E G . R E L + ? + N C L : A N I M ) 'a

1
m a n n o t l o v e d b y w o m e n ; a m a n w h o c a n n o t get a wife'.

A l l a d j e c t i v e s r e q u i r e classifier a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e h e a d n o u n . N u m b e r a g r e e m e n t is

o p t i o n a l w i t h n o u n s w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent, a n d o b l i g a t o r y w i t h h u m a n a n d h i g h e r

a n i m a t e s ( s e e C h a p t e r 8). A l l a d j e c t i v e s h a v e m o s t n o m i n a l g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s ,

e x c e p t for t e n s e a n d extralocality (i.e. a n adjective c a n n o t h a v e a t e n s e v a l u e distinct

f r o m t h e h e a d n o u n ) . A d j e c t i v e s m a r k their plural differently f r o m n o u n s (see C h a p t e r

8). E x a m p l e 3.6 illustrates classifier a g r e e m e n t w i t h a n u n d e r i v e d adjective, a n d 3.7

s h o w s classifier a g r e e m e n t o n a n a d j e c t i v e d e r i v e d f r o m a v e r b a l p h r a s e (dithi sede 'his

e y e d o e s n o t exist').

3.6 h e k u - n a h a n u - n a

w o o d - C L : V E R T b i g - C L : V E R T

'a b i g tree'

1
T h e verbal root *inina w a s used only o n c e by Jose" M a n o e l Brito, o n e of the oldest speakers of the

language, in the story about the Tariana ancestors, Una menina-de-kana-ka diha ( w o m a n : P L

NEG+be.loved?-NEG-PASS/iMPERS-SUB he) 'since he w a s not loved by women'. N o other Tariana speaker

appears to k n o w this r o o t let a l o n e u s e it.

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 7 4 3 Word c l a s s e s

3.7 tjari di-thi-sedite

m a n 3 s g n f - e y e - N E G . E X + N C L : A N I M

'an e y e l e s s m a n '

A n u m b e r o f p r o p e r t i e s are characteristic o f all o r s o m e u n d e r i v e d adjectives, b u t n o t

o f m o s t d e r i v e d adjectives.

(i) O n l y t h e r o o t s o f u n d e r i v e d a d j e c t i v e s o f v a l u e c a n b e u s e d as S 0 a n d Sj 0 v e r b s , e.g.

matfa ' g o o d , well'; maitfi 'bad, badly'. T h e r o o t s o f a d j e c t i v e s o f p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a n d

c o l o u r c a n b e u s e d a s S 0 v e r b s .

(ii) U n d e r i v e d a d j e c t i v e s o f ' d i m e n s i o n ' , 'colour', a n d o n e o f ' p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t y ' c a n t a k e

b o t h t h e suffix - i h a ' a p p r o x i m a t i v e , a little bit', a n d a clitic -iha. ( O n t h e p r o s o d i c

d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n - i h a a s a clitic, a n d as a suffix s e e §2.6.) W h e n - i h a is a suffix, it

p r e c e d e s t h e classifier; it t h e n refers to a s m a l l e r d e g r e e o f a q u a l i t y b u t d o e s n o t i m p l y

a n y c o m p a r i s o n , e.g. h e k u - n a h a n u - i h a - n a (tree-CL:VERT big-APPROX-CL:VERT) 'a

b i g g i s h tree'. W h e n =iha is a clitic it f o l l o w s t h e classifier, a n d i n d i c a t e s a s m a l l i s h

d e g r e e o f q u a l i t y c o m p a r e d to s o m e ( u s u a l l y n o t m e n t i o n e d ) s t a n d a r d o f c o m p a r i s o n ,

e.g. h e k u - n a h a n u - n a = i h a 'a b i g g i s h tree, as c o m p a r e d to o t h e r trees a r o u n d ' . ( S e e

§ 5 . 1 . 2 , a n d e x a m p l e s 5.27, for t h e possibility o f a d d i n g a n a g r e e m e n t m a r k i n g classifier

o n t o a clitic iha, t h u s c r e a t i n g a d o u b l e m a r k i n g o f n o u n class.)

T o e x p l a i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n d i m e n s i o n adjective+classifier+zTza a n d

adjective+zTztf+classifier, J o s e L u i s B r i t o d r e w t h e f o l l o w i n g figure, s h o w i n g h o w o n e

circle is 'smallish' relative to o t h e r s :

F I G U R E 3.1

O o
h a n u - k w e m a t s u - k w e m a = i h a t s u - k w e m a

b i g - C L : R O U N D s m a l l - C L : R O U N D = A P P R O X s m a l l - C L : R O U N D

T h e n h e d r e w o n e v e r y s m a l l circle a n d i n d i c a t e d that it c o u l d b e c a l l e d tsu-iha-

k w e m a 'a s m a l l i s h ( r o u n d ) one'.

T h e f o r m i h a is u s e d in a s i m i l a r w a y w i t h c o l o u r a d j e c t i v e s w h i c h d e n o t e t h e b a s i c

c o l o u r s . E x a m p l e 3.8 w a s u s e d to d e s c r i b e t h e c o l o u r o f m y son's hair a s b l o n d o r

'reddish' ( t h e r e w a s n o o n e else w i t h b l o n d h a i r a r o u n d ) .

3.8 di-tfa-re irihite

3 s g n f - h a i r - P O S S r e d + A P P R O X + N C L : A N I M

' r e d d i s h hair'

3.9 w a s s a i d w h e n t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e c o l o u r o f t h e d i l u t e d soft-drink I h a d m a d e that

d a y : o n e c o u l d c h a n g e t h e c o l o u r ( m a k i n g it m o r e o r less r e d ) b y c h a n g i n g t h e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e p o w d e r ; its c o l o u r u s e d to c h a n g e f r o m o n e d a y to a n o t h e r .

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 3. J O p e n w o r d c l a s s e s 7 5

3.9 u n i i r i - p e r i = i h a

w a t e r r e d - C O L L = A P P R O X

'rose-ish w a t e r (relative to r o s y w a t e r o f o t h e r days)'

I n 3 . 1 0 , n o c o m p a r i s o n is i m p l i e d , a n d s o - i h a o c c u r s a s a suffix.

3 . 1 0 ke:ri irihite a l i a - k a - n u k u

m o o n / s u n r e d + A P P R O X + N C L : A N I M E X I S T - D E C L - T O P . N O N . A / S

k a m u - m h a d e n a : - n a k a p e d a r i a - p e

h o t - F U T . U N C E R T 3 p l + s a y - P R E S . V I S o l d - P L

' W h e n t h e m o o n is r e d d i s h , t h e o l d p e o p l e s a y it w i l l b e hot.'

O f c o l o u r a d j e c t i v e s , o n l y t h o s e referring t o t h e b a s i c c o l o u r s ( w h i t e , b l a c k , b l u e , red,

g r e e n - b l u e , y e l l o w - o r a n g e ) a l l o w this b e h a v i o u r o f -iha. W i t h t h e a d j e c t i v e k e s o l e

( R E L + m u d ) ' b r o w n ; m u d d y ' , - i h a a p p e a r s a s a suffix only, w h e t h e r a c o m p a r i s o n is

i m p l i e d o r not, e.g. k e s o l e - i h a - n a ( b r o w n - A P P R O X - C L : V E R T ) 'brownish'.

T h e f o r m i h a a s a suffix a n d a s a n enclitic is a l s o u s e d w i t h o n e a d j e c t i v e o f t h e a g e

t y p e , w a l i - ' y o u n g ' ; t h u s i n a r u w a l i - k i - r u - i h a - m a ( w o m a n y o u n g - N O M - N O M : F E M -

A P P R O X - C L : F E M ) m e a n s 'a y o u n g i s h w o m a n ' , a n d inaru w a l i - k i - r u - m a - i h a ( w o m a n

y o u n g - N O M - N O M : F E M - C L : F E M - A P P R O X ) m e a n s 'a y o u n g i s h w o m a n w h o is y o u n g e r t h a n

o t h e r s ; n o t y e t a c o m p l e t e y o u n g w o m a n o f w a l i k i r u a g e g r o u p ) . Similarly, y a r u - m a k a -

si w a l i h a - m a k a (thing-CL:CLOTH.LiKE-NPOSS n e w + A P P R O X - C L : C L O T H . L l K E ) m e a n s 'a

n e w i s h shirt' w i t h o u t a n y c o m p a r i s o n i m p l i e d .

In c o n t r a s t , in 3 . 1 1 , - i h a is u s e d a s a n enclitic, i m p l y i n g a c o m p a r i s o n . T h i s c o m e s

f r o m t h e s t o r y a b o u t h o w t h e turtle tried to t a k e his r e v e n g e o n t h e tapir. T o d i s c o v e r

w h e r e t h e t a p i r w a s , h e w a s f o l l o w i n g h e a p s o f t h e tapir's e x c r e m e n t . O n h i s w a y , h e

w a s a b l e t o find n e w e r a n d n e w e r h e a p s , b e f o r e h e f o u n d t h e tapir h i m s e l f . E a c h h e a p

w o u l d tell h i m h o w m u c h t i m e h a d p a s s e d s i n c e t h e tapir h a d b e e n there. T h e a d j e c t i v e

w a l i ' n e w ' ( u n d e r l i n e d ) is u s e d w i t h o u t t h e h e a d (its h e a d , ' h e a p o f e x c r e m e n t , h a s b e e n

m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e ) .

3.11 d i h a iha-sini w a l i - p e r i h a d i - k e t a - k a - p i d a n a

A R T f e c e s - A L S O n e w - C O L L + A P P R O X 3 s g n f - e n c o u n t e r - S U B - R E M . P . R E P

d i - k a w a d h i p a m a - s i n i k a y u tuki

3 s g n f - l e g 3 s g n f + f o o t + C L : P A I R - A L S O s o a.little

d i - a d i - k e t a - p i d a n a - p i t a d i h a

3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - e n c o u n t e r - R E M . P . R E P - A G A I N A R T

d i - s u - m i - n u k u w a l i - p e r i i h a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - e x c r e t e - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S n e w - C L : C O L L + A P P R O X - R E M . P . R E P

'After h e (the turtle) e n c o u n t e r e d a n e w i s h o n e ( h e a p o f tapir's e x c r e m e n t ) , a l s o his

(tapir's) footprints, s o h e w e n t o n a little, a n d e n c o u n t e r e d a n e w e r h e a p o f

e x c r e m e n t . '

T h e o n l y u n d e r i v e d a d j e c t i v e o f 'physical p r o p e r t y ' w h i c h a l l o w s this 'double' u s e o f

i h a is hipisi- 'bitter'. T h i s m o r p h e m e a l s o o c c u r s w i t h stative v e r b s hape 'be cold', k a m u

'be hot' a n d s a k a m u 'be l u k e - w a r m ' . T h e o t h e r a d j e c t i v e s o f t h e s a m e s e m a n t i c c l a s s d o

n o t a l l o w this, e.g. u n i p u m e n i - p e r i ( w a t e r s w e e t - C L : C 0 L L ) ' s w e e t w a t e r (or drink)', uni

p u m e n i h a - p e r i ' s w e e t i s h w a t e r ' ( n o m a t t e r w h e t h e r c o m p a r i s o n i m p l i e d o r n o t ) , ?uni

p u m e n i - p e r i h a .

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 16 3 Word c l a s s e s

(iii) U n d e r i v e d a d j e c t i v e s w h i c h refer to p r i m a r y c o l o u r s t a k e a special d e r i v a t i o n a l

suffix - w h a r e '-ish, n o t q u i t e t h e s h a d e o f colour', e.g. e w a - w h a r e 'yellow-ish, n o t

e x a c t l y y e l l o w ' ; i r i - w h a r e 'reddish, n o t q u i t e red'.

A l l a d j e c t i v e s s h a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s w i t h n o u n s :

(i) T h e y c a n b e u s e d a s N P h e a d s w i t h o u t special w o r d c l a s s - c h a n g i n g m o r p h o l o g y .

(ii) T h e y c a n b e u s e d a s c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t s (see § 2 1 . 4 . 1 , o n c o p u l a c l a u s e s ) .

U n l i k e n o u n s , a d j e c t i v e s d o n o t t a k e n o m i n a l t e n s e a n d extralocality m a r k i n g (see

C h a p t e r s 4 a n d 9). T h e y c a n n o t b e h e a d s o f p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s (a classifier

c o n s t r u c t i o n is u s e d in t h e s e c a s e s - s e e §6.5).

A d j e c t i v e s s h a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s w i t h stative v e r b s :

(a) W h e n u s e d a s p r e d i c a t e s t h e y t a k e t h e s a m e m o r p h o l o g y a s stative v e r b s ( n o u n s

d o n o t ) .

(b) T h e y c a n b e u s e d in s o m e i m p e r a t i v e c l a u s e s similarly to stative v e r b s (see

C h a p t e r 16); n o u n s c a n n o t b e u s e d this w a y .

(c) U n d e r i v e d a d j e c t i v e s c a n n e v e r t a k e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefixes.

P r o p e r t i e s specific to a d j e c t i v e s ( n o t s h a r e d w i t h either n o u n s o r v e r b s ) are:

(d) classifiers o f all t y p e s (see C h a p t e r 5) are u s e d a s a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r s w i t h

a d j e c t i v e s a n d a s d e r i v a t i o n a l d e v i c e s , o r parts o f c o m p o u n d s w i t h n o u n s ;

(e) p l u r a l is a n a g r e e m e n t c a t e g o r y for adjectives, u n l i k e n o u n s , a n d a d j e c t i v e s d o

n o t h a v e s o m e o f t h e plural f o r m s n o u n s h a v e (e.g. pluralia t a n t u m ) ;

(f) a d j e c t i v e s h a v e a specific adjectival plural m a r k e r -peni a n d n o t a n y o t h e r

m a r k e r ;

(g) s o m e s e m a n t i c g r o u p s o f a d j e c t i v e s a l l o w the alternate p l a c e m e n t o f

a p p r o x i m a t i v e - i h a (see a b o v e ) ;

(h) all a d j e c t i v e s h a v e i h a ' a p p r o x i m a t i v e ' a s a suffix, w h i l e n o u n s a n d v e r b s t a k e it

a s a clitic;

(i) m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s (-ita d e r i v a t i o n s ) are n o t f o r m e d o n a d j e c t i v e s ( t h e y

a r e f o r m e d o n stative v e r b s , a n d j u s t o n s o m e n o u n s ) .

A d j e c t i v e s in T a r i a n a a r e t y p o l o g i c a l l y u n u s u a l in s h a r i n g s o m e p r o p e r t i e s w i t h

n o u n s a n d s o m e w i t h v e r b s , a n d also h a v i n g s o m e o f their o w n . T h i s c a n p r o b a b l y b e

e x p l a i n e d b y t h e historical p r o c e s s e s w h i c h c o n d i t i o n e d t h e w a y this l a n g u a g e c a m e

a b o u t : t h a t is, a c o m b i n a t i o n o f h e a d - m a r k i n g features inherited f r o m P r o t o - A r a w a k a n d

d e p e n d e n t - m a r k i n g f e a t u r e s diffused f r o m E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s . In m a n y N o r t h

A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s w i t h a 'typical' A r a w a k h e a d - m a r k i n g t y p o l o g y a d j e c t i v e s are a

s u b c l a s s o f v e r b s ; this is t h e c a s e in B a r e ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 a ) , P a l i k u r ( A i k h e n v a l d a n d

G r e e n 1 9 9 8 ) , a n d in L o k o n o A r a w a k (Pet 1 9 8 7 ) . In E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s m o d i f i e r s

c o m p a r a b l e t o a d j e c t i v e s in o t h e r l a n g u a g e s a r e n o u n - l i k e (see R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 : vol. 1).

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 3 . 2 M a n n e r a d v e r b s a n d t i m e w o r d s 7 7

3.1.4 Word c l a s s - c h a n g i n g m o r p h o l o g i c a l d e r i v a t i o n s

T h e e x i s t e n c e o f w o r d c l a s s - c h a n g i n g m o r p h o l o g i c a l d e r i v a t i o n s in T a r i a n a p r o v i d e s a n

i m p o r t a n t a r g u m e n t in f a v o u r o f a n e a t m o r p h o l o g i c a l distinction a m o n g t h e t h r e e o p e n

classes. T h e s e d e r i v a t i o n s will b e briefly e x e m p l i f i e d h e r e a n d t h e n d i s c u s s e d in m o r e

detail in t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h a p t e r s o n v e r b a l a n d n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y .

V e r b s c a n n o t b e u s e d a s a r g u m e n t s w i t h o u t b e i n g n o m i n a l i s e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g affixes

are u s e d t o f o r m n o u n s f r o m v e r b s : (a) -nipe 'object a n d a c t i o n n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' , e.g. - h h a

'eat', p a - n h a - n i p e (iMP-eat-NOM) 'food; t h e a c t i o n o f eating'; (b) -si 'object

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' , e.g. n h a - k a - s i (eat-TH-NOM) 'food'; ira-ka-si ( d r i n k - T H - N O M ) 'drink';

h i w y a - s i ( b r e a t h e - N O M ) 'poison' ( a c h i e v e d b y 'evil breath'), h e r e n a - s i 'illness', kali-si

'story'; (c) - m i 'locative a n d o b j e c t resultative n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' , e.g. d i - a - m i ( 3 s g n f - g o -

N O M ) 'the p l a c e w h e r e h e went', di-sape-mi ( 3 s g n f - s a y - N O M ) 'his w o r d , w h a t h e said'.

T h e s e m a r k e r s are u s e d o n c e p e r serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r

2 0 .

A l m o s t a n y classifier ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f o n e , specifically n u m e r a l classifier -hipa

' H U M A N ' - s e e C h a p t e r 5 ) c a n b e u s e d t o d e r i v e a n o u n f r o m a v e r b , e.g. a l i a 'exist', alia-

w a n i (exist-CL:NAT.PHEN) 'place w i t h a n a t u r a l object', a s in urupe-da a l i a - w a n i ( m u d -

C L : R O U N D exist-CL:NAT.PHEN) 'place w h e r e t h e r e is m u d ' . C o l l e c t i v e m a r k e r -peri

( w h i c h is n o t a classifier) c a n a l s o b e u s e d this w a y , e.g. alia 'exist', a l i a - p e i i 'living

b e i n g s , b e i n g , state', a s in i n g l e s kayu a l i a - p e i i ( E n g l i s h like exist-COLL) 'the state o f

b e i n g like E n g l i s h p e o p l e ' (e.g. d r i n k i n g tea, a q u i t e u n u s u a l h a b i t in N o r t h e r n Brazil),

o r 'a g r o u p o f t h o s e w h o are like E n g l i s h people'.

S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s are a s u b c l a s s o f n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f c l a u s e s

i n t r o d u c e d w i t h te 'until, u p to' - s e e § 2 0 . 2 . 5 a n d C h a p t e r s 2 2 - 2 4 ) . T o b e u s e d as a

p r e d i c a t e o f a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e , a v e r b d o e s n o t h a v e to b e n o m i n a l i s e d ; it c a n m e r e l y

t a k e a s e q u e n c i n g enclitic. H o w e v e r , s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s h a v e s o m e n o m i n a l p r o p e r t i e s

(e.g. t h e y c a n act a s a r g u m e n t s o f v e r b s a n d b e c a s e - m a r k e d ) , b u t l a c k o t h e r s (e.g. t h e y

c a n n o t b e p o s s e s s e d o r m o d i f i e d , a n d c a n n o t t a k e t h e n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y o u t l i n e d in

C h a p t e r 4).

T o v e r b a l i s e a n o u n , t h e m a r k e r o f a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e -ita is u s e d , e.g.

-ipitana ' n a m e ' , - p i t a n e t a (-pitana+-ita) ' n a m e , b e s t o w a n a m e ' ; -phuni ' c o m p a n i o n

(translated a s friend o r e n e m y ) ' , -phunita ' a c c o m p a n y ' ; e n u 'thunder', -enita ' m a k e

( s o u n d of) thunder'. H o w e v e r , this d e r i v a t i o n is n o t fully p r o d u c t i v e .

T o u s e a v e r b o r a n o u n a s a m o d i f i e r , a classifier c a n b e a d d e d o n t o it, e.g. di-tape

( 3 s g n f - c u r e ) 'he cures', di-tape-na (3sgnf-cure-CL:VERT) ' b e l o n g i n g to a vertical o n e

(e.g. a tree) w h i c h cures'.

3 . 2 M a n n e r a d v e r b s a n d t i m e w o r d s

M A N N E R A D V E R B S a n d t i m e w o r d s in T a r i a n a constitute s e m i - c l o s e d classes. M o s t

m a n n e r a d v e r b s are o f a v e r b a l o r i g i n (arising f r o m a reinterpretation o f serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , a s § 1 8 . 5 ) , e.g. khida 'be r e a d y , readily', litena, d i t e n a 'more'. T h e

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m a n n e r a d v e r b s o f v e r b a l o r i g i n a n d c o m p o n e n t s o f a m b i e n t serial

v e r b s is a s f o l l o w s : (i) t h e r e c a n n o t b e a n y p a u s e b e t w e e n c o m p o n e n t s o f serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s w h i l e a p a u s e is p o s s i b l e after a n a d v e r b ; (ii) o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n b e

i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n a n a d v e r b a n d a p r e d i c a t e , b u t n o t b e t w e e n t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n .

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 7 8 3 Word classes

A d v e r b s c a n n o t t a k e c a s e m a r k i n g . T h e i r p r o t o t y p i c a l f u n c t i o n is to m o d i f y a v e r b , o r

a p r e d i c a t e ( s e e §3.4). T h e r o o t s o f u n d e r i v e d a d j e c t i v e s c a n b e u s e d as v a l u e a d v e r b s

( s e e § 3 . 1 . 3 ) . E x a m p l e s o f u n d e r i v e d a d v e r b s are: kayu 'thus, like t h i s ' , ka: 'like this, j u s t

like this', kdya 'in t h e s a m e w a y ' , dakida ' a l w a y s , frequently', tsome 'a lot', tuki, tukituki

'a little bit' ( a l s o s e e T a b l e 9.3), kaikade 'in vain', k w a m h e 'almost', meda 'in v a i n , for

n o t h i n g ; c o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n ' , apare 'all o f a s u d d e n , at once', p a w e y a 'together',

p u a y a 'different (negative)', ika 'this w a y ' , h o t h o 'away', p a . p e ' m a y b e ' , a n d ka:, kdya
2
'like this, i n t h e s a m e w a y as'. T h e r e are a b o u t t w e n t y u n d e r i v e d a d v e r b s altogether.

E x a m p l e s 3 . 1 2 a n d 3 . 1 3 illustrate t h e s i m p l e a d v e r b s s o m e 'a lot' a n d apale

'suddenly'. I n 3.13 t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k e r g o e s o n t o t h e a d v e r b w h i c h is

f o c u s s e d .

3 . 1 2 iya s o m e d i - w h a

r a i n a. l o t 3sgnf-fall

' T h e r a i n w a s falling a lot (it w a s r a i n i n g heavily).'

3 . 1 3 d i h a h e k u - n a - n u k u a p a r e - p i d a n a

h e w o o d - C L : V E R T - T O P . N O N . A / S s u d d e n l y - R E M . P . R E P

d i - n a d h i p a

3 s g n f - h i t 3 s g n f + g r a b

' H e (the m a n ) s u d d e n l y g r a b b e d t h e tree a n d hit (the evil spirit).'

N u m e r o u s A k t i o n s a r t enclitics d i s c u s s e d in § 1 5 . 2 c a n b e u s e d a s m a n n e r a d v e r b s ,

e.g. thepi 'to.water' in 2 . 1 9 a n d 2 . 2 0 .

T h e r e a r e a f e w d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes for m a n n e r a d v e r b s . T h e suffix -ku d e r i v e s a n

a d v e r b f r o m t h e a d j e c t i v e kiya 'strong': kiyaku 'strongly' ( n o t e that kiya c a n a l s o b e u s e d

a s a n a d v e r b , w i t h t h e s a m e m e a n i n g ) . T h i s suffix also a p p e a r s in k w a m e - k u 'slowly',

p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d f r o m k w a m e ' h o w ' a n d -ku, a n d in y a s e n e - k u ( T u c a n o - A D V ) 'in T u c a n o

( l a n g u a g e ) ' . K a y u m a k a 'thus, this w a y ' is p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d f r o m kayu 'like' w i t h a suffix

- m a k a (this suffix d o e s n o t a p p e a r a n y w h e r e else in t h e l a n g u a g e ) . O n e m a n n e r a d v e r b ,

m a k a t u l i n a 'again', c o n t a i n s a n o n - p r o d u c t i v e suffix -ina (see § 2 5 . 5 . 3 a n d § 2 6 . 1 . 3 o n its

origins).

T w o a d v e r b s h a v e t h e p r e d i c a t e a s their s c o p e - h o r t a t i v e m a : 'let's', a s in 3 . 1 4

( w h i c h is p r o b a b l y a b o r r o w i n g f r o m T u c a n o mad) a n d w a s a 'let's g o ( a n d d o

s o m e t h i n g ) ' , a s in 3 . 1 5 . U n l i k e m a : w h i c h is u s u a l l y a d j a c e n t to t h e p r e d i c a t e , w a s a c a n

b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e p r e d i c a t e b y a n o t h e r constituent, as in 3.16.

3 . 1 4 m a : w a - m u s u w a - h a

let's l p l - g o . o u t l p l + g o - P A U S

'Let's g o out.'

3 . 1 5 w a s a w h a m i t a i k a s u

let's.go l p l + b u r n n o w

'Let's b u r n ( g a r d e n ) n o w . '

2
T h e f o r m ka: is r a r e l y used. It a p p e a r s in the idiomatic expression ka: di-ka 'despise, lit. l o o k like this'.

Possibly, kaya c o m e s from ka+ emphatic -ya. Kayu can be procliticised to a following w o r d (see §2.6); it

c o m b i n e s with the u n m a r k e d proximate d e m o n s t r a t i v e hi to form a n a d v e r b hikayu 'this way'.

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 3.2 Manner adverbs and time words 7 9

3 . 1 6 w a s a a s a l e w a - n h a

let's.go asale.fruit l p l - e a t

'Let's g o a n d eat a s a l e fruit.'

T I M E W O R D S , u n l i k e m a n n e r a d v e r b s , c a n t a k e t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e enclitic - n u k u , if

topical, a n d t h e y c a n a l s o t a k e t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e -se. T h e y c a n n o t t a k e a n y o t h e r n o u n

m o r p h o l o g y , o r b e p o s s e s s e d o r m o d i f i e d . N e i t h e r c a n t h e y b e e m p l o y e d a s a r g u m e n t s

o f v e r b s . E x a m p l e s o f t i m e w o r d s are: upitha 'in t h e o l d days', y u w a p i k u 'for s o m e time',

h e k u 'yesterday', d e s u ' t o m o r r o w ' , i k a s u 'today', k a s i n a 'now', p a n a s u 'now', ikasu p i a k a

'right n o w ' , p i i k d s e 'the part o f t o d a y w h i c h is a l r e a d y g o n e ' , y a m i n a ' s o m e t i m e before',

p a t h e s e d a p e 'the d a y b e f o r e y e s t e r d a y , a f e w d a y s ago', p a y a p e s e 'before, in t h e t i m e s

past', depita 'at night' ( s e e 3.21), h e k w a - k a 'at n o o n ' . T h e r e are a b o u t fifteen o f these.

D e r i v e d t i m e w o r d s c a n c o n t a i n n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , e.g. desu a l i a - k a d a ( t o m o r r o w E X I S T -

C L : D A Y ) 'the d a y after t o m o r r o w ' , lit. t h e d a y w h i c h exists t o m o r r o w ' . E x a m p l e 3 . 1 7

illustrates d e s u ' t o m o r r o w ' ; it is n o t topical a n d d o e s n o t r e c e i v e a n y c a s e - m a r k i n g .

3 . 1 7 d e s u w a : w a - m a n a p u - s e

t o m o r r o w l p l + g o l p l - p o i s o n . f i s h s p r i n g - L O C

'Let's g o p o i s o n fish in t h e s p r i n g t o m o r r o w . '

In 3 . 1 8 , d e s u is topical: t h e m a n w h o h a s b e e n u n l u c k y in h u n t i n g is w o r r i e d a b o u t

w h a t h i s c h i l d r e n a r e g o i n g to eat t o m o r r o w .

3 . 1 8 n u - e n i p e k w a k a - d a na-fiha k a . w h i

l s g - c h i l d r e n w h a t - D O U B T 3 p l - e a t w a k e . u p

d e s u - n u k u

t o m o r r o w - T O P . N O N . A / S

' W h a t will m y c h i l d r e n eat w h e n t h e y w a k e u p t o m o r r o w ? '

K a s i n a ' n o w ' c a n t a k e t h e extralocality m a r k e r -wya - s e e § 9 . 2 .

T w o n o n p r o d u c t i v e w o r d c l a s s - c h a n g i n g suffixes d e r i v e t i m e w o r d s f r o m n o u n s :

-ina, a s i n k a s i n a 'now', f r o m i k a s u 'today', d e i k i n a 'in t h e afternoon', f r o m daiki, deiki

'afternoon', a n d -ita, a s in d e . p i t a 'at night', f r o m d e . p i 'night'. O n e suffix, -piu 'times', is

u s e d t o d e r i v e w o r d s referring to 'times' f r o m n u m b e r s o n e to three, e.g. p a : - p i u 'once',

n a m a - p i u ' t w i c e ' , madari-piu 'thrice; t h r e e times'.

C e r t a i n n o u n s w h i c h refer to t i m e are u s e d , like t i m e w o r d s , in t h e f u n c t i o n o f v e r b a l

m o d i f i e r s ; t h e y a r e f r e q u e n t l y s y n o n y m o u s w i t h a d v e r b s f o r m e d o n t h e s a m e n o u n r o o t s

w i t h t h e h e l p o f a d v e r b i a l d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes, e.g. de:pi 'night, at night'; d e . p i t a 'at

night'. N o u n s w h i c h refer to t i m e - s u c h a s hekwapi 'day, at d a y time', d e . p i 'night',

halite ' m o r n i n g ' , d e i k i 'afternoon' - c a n b e u s e d a s a r g u m e n t s a n d t a k e n o u n

m o r p h o l o g y .

T h e r e is a c l o s e d class o f d e m o n s t r a t i v e a d v e r b s : hi, a h i , at, a i a 'here', h a n e 'there',

nesepere ' f r o m t h e r e ' , kaipeda 'this m u c h ' , e.g.:

3 . 1 9 k a i p e d a n h e s i r i d i - n a - s i k a hi

t h i s . m u c h like 3 s g n f - O B J - R E C . P . I N F R D E M : A N I M

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 8 0 3 Word c l a s s e s

itfitfi n a p i - p e - n u k u

b l i n d . s n a k e b o n e - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e m u s t like t h e s e b l i n d s n a k e ' s b o n e s s o m u c h . '

I n t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect hihi is u s e d i n s t e a d o f af, w h i l e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a e m p l o y s hi

(see § 1 1 . 3 ) . A n o t h e r w o r d for 'here' in P e r i q u i t o s is hise, a n d for 'there' h e s e .

I n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b s are k w a m e 'how', k a n i 'where', kweka 'why', kwe 'how', k w e m a k a

' w h e n ' , k a i d a ' h o w m u c h ' (see C h a p t e r s 11 a n d 2 1 ) . A n u m b e r o f a r c h a i c d e m o n s t r a t i v e

a d v e r b s c o n t a i n -ite 'from': aT-te '(the o n e ) f r o m here', ne-ite '(the o n e ) f r o m there' (cf.

-ite 'directional' in B a r e ) ; t h e s e m a y b e relics o f o l d d e r i v a t i o n a l m o r p h o l o g y , or

i n s t a n c e s o f t h e a n i m a t e n o u n class m a r k e r -ite (see C h a p t e r 5).

3 . 3 C l o s e d c l a s s e s

In T a r i a n a , t h e c l o s e d w o r d c l a s s e s that c a n b e u s e d a s N P h e a d s a n d as m o d i f i e r s are:

(a) p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s ; (b) specifier articles; (c) interrogative-distributive kwa/kwe; (d)

d e m o n s t r a t i v e s ; (e) gestural deictic khi; (f) distributive i n d i v i d u a l i s e r napada; (g)

g e n e r a l indefinite p a - (also u s e d a s n u m e r a l 'one'); (h) n u m e r a l s ; (i) quantifiers

( u n i v e r s a l thuyme ' a l l ' , hanupe 'many', m h a i d a 'few'). T h e s e c l a s s e s differ in t h e a m o u n t

o f n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y t h e y take, a n d also in sets o f classifiers t h e y are u s e d w i t h (see

§5.1.6). S e e C h a p t e r 1 1 .

A d p o s i t i o n s (see § 1 1 . 1 1 ) are also a c l o s e d w o r d class historically d e r i v e d f r o m

v a r i o u s s u b c l a s s e s o f n o u n s , a s w e l l a s f r o m v e r b s . A d p o s i t i o n s c a n o n l y b e u s e d as N P

h e a d s . A d p o s i t i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m n o u n s t a k e little n o u n m o r p h o l o g y . A d p o s i t i o n s

d e r i v e d f r o m v e r b s d o n o t t a k e a n y v e r b a l m o r p h o l o g y ( h o w e v e r , t h e y m a y c o n t a i n

fossilised v e r b a l suffixes a n d enclitics).

C o n n e c t i v e s are a c l o s e d class o f t h r e e m e m b e r s : n e , nese a n d d i - w e s e ; t h e y s h a r e a

f e w p r o p e r t i e s w i t h n o u n s (see § 1 1 . 1 0 ) . T h e c o n n e c t i v e kaika 'and ( a n i m a t e ) ' f o r m s a

c l o s e d c l a s s o n its o w n ; it is c o n s i d e r e d in § 2 1 . 2 .

T h e w o r d h i s a d a (sg), h i s a k a (pi) 'real, b e l o n g i n g to the earth' c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a

c l a s s o f its o w n . It o c c u r s o n l y rarely, in t h e p r e d i c a t e slot, as in 3.20, a n d a s a part o f a

serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , as in 3 . 2 1 . Its u n u s u a l feature is t h e n u m b e r m a r k i n g p a t t e r n

n o t f o u n d w i t h a n y o t h e r w o r d class (see C h a p t e r 8 o n n u m b e r w i t h n o u n s , a d j e c t i v e s

a n d v e r b s ) .

3 . 2 0 k i a k u - p e n i h i s a k a - t h a - n i n a

s t r o n g - P L : A N I M real : P L - F R - A N T + R E M . P . V I S

w h a - m i s i n i

w e - a l s o : P A R T . C O N T R

' W e , t h e s t r o n g o n e s , t o o , h a v e a l w a y s b e e n t h e real ones.'

3.21 h i s a d a p i - u k a p i - e m a - n a k a

real: S G 2 s g - a r r i v e 2 s g - s t a n d - P R E S . V I S

' Y o u (sg) a r e s t a y i n g (here) a s t h e real o n e (i.e. t h e real o w n e r o f t h e land).'

Haw 'yes', h a i d a 'I don't k n o w ' , ne 'no ( e m p h a t i c ) ' (see § 2 . 6 ; e x a m p l e 2 . 1 6 ) , a n d ne

'then, hey!' f o r m a s e p a r a t e c l o s e d class o f p r o c l a u s e s , s i n c e e a c h o f t h e m c a n b e u s e d a s

a c l a u s e b y itself. Haw c a n n o t t a k e a n y a r g u m e n t s , a n d is u s e d a s a o n e - w o r d r e s p o n s e ,

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 3 . 4 W o r d c l a s s e s a n d f u n c t i o n a l s l o t s : a n o v e r v i e w 8 1

a s illustrated i n T l . 7 a n d T 2 . 6 . Haida 'I d o n ' t k n o w ' is also u s e d a s a o n e - w o r d r e s p o n s e ;

h o w e v e r , it c a n t a k e a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e a s i n 3 . 2 2 .

3 . 2 2 h a i d a k a n a p a d a - p i keri-pi d h u t a

I . d o n ' t . k n o w h o w . m a n y - C L . L O N G m o o n - C L : L O N G 3 s g f + t a k e

d u - a - d a k e w h e d o n i t e

3 s g f - g o - D O U B T R E L + p r e g n a n t + N C L : A N I M

'I d o n ' t k n o w h o w l o n g it m i g h t t a k e h e r ( a d o g ) t o b e pregnant.'

T h e l o c a t i v e deictic n h a k a 'right here' f o r m s a class o f its o w n . It i n v o l v e s p o i n t i n g at

a g i v e n l o c a t i o n , a s i n 3 . 2 3 . It c a n n o t t a k e a n y c a s e - m a r k e r s , u n l i k e o t h e r l o c a t i o n a l

e x p r e s s i o n s .

3 . 2 3 n h a k a n u - a n u - n a - k a

r i g h t . h e r e 1s g - g o 1s g - l i v e - R E C . P . V I S

'I a m g o i n g t o stay right h e r e (pointing).'

I n t e r j e c t i o n s f o r m a s m a l l c l o s e d class. T h e y c a n n o t b e p o s s e s s e d o r m o d i f i e d , a n d

u s u a l l y f o r m o n e - w o r d c l a u s e s w h i c h c a n s o m e t i m e s b e interpreted a s direct s p e e c h

c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s o f t h e v e r b p i m a 'sound' ( a s i n 2 . 1 ) . T h e y a r e p h o n o l o g i c a l l y

distinct f r o m o t h e r m o r p h e m e s i n that t h e y d o n o t h a v e a n i n d e p e n d e n t p i t c h ( t h o u g h

t h e y a r e stressed: s e e §2.3), e.g. tfu ' L o , o h ! ' , kui ' a d m i r a t i o n a n d surprise', h u 'away',

p u a ' w o u ! ( p l e a s a n t surprise)', w e u ! 'the s o u n d o f a rope', a n d k o l e u ! 'imitation o f a bird's

voice', tfin! fln!; t h o ! t h o ! ( s o u n d s ) (also s e e e x a m p l e 2 . 2 ) . O n e w h i c h c o n t a i n s t w o

syllables, b e n a ' L o , oh!', is a b o r r o w i n g f r o m T u c a n o .

3 . 4 W o r d c l a s s e s a n d f u n c t i o n a l slots: a n o v e r v i e w

T a b l e 3 . 7 s u m m a r i s e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n m a j o r w o r d classes a n d f u n c t i o n a l slots

in T a r i a n a . A s t e r i s k (*) m e a n s that certain m o r p h o l o g i c a l o r syntactic p r o c e s s e s h a v e t o

b e a p p l i e d f o r a m e m b e r o f a g i v e n w o r d class t o a p p e a r i n this function.

A m e m b e r o f a n y o p e n o r s e m i - o p e n w o r d class c a n b e u s e d a s a h e a d o f a n

intransitive p r e d i c a t e . H o w e v e r , w h e n n o u n s a r e u s e d a s h e a d s o f intransitive p r e d i c a t e s ,

t h e y c a n t a k e o n l y a l i m i t e d a m o u n t o f v e r b a l m o r p h o l o g y (for i n s t a n c e , t h e y c a n n o t

t a k e i m p e r a t i v e affixes). T o b e u s e d a s t h e h e a d o f a transitive p r e d i c a t e , a d j e c t i v e s a n d

n o u n s h a v e t o b e v e r b a l i s e d ; m a n n e r a d v e r b s c a n n o t b e v e r b a l i s e d . T o b e u s e d a s

a r g u m e n t s , v e r b s h a v e t o b e n o m i n a l i s e d .

T A B L E 3 . 7 W O R D C L A S S E S A N D F U N C T I O N A L S L O T S I N T A R I A N A

V E R B A D J E C T I V E N O U N M A N N E R A D V E R B T I M E W O R D

H E A D O F I N T R A N S I T I V E
y e s (all) y e s y e s y e s y e s
P R E D I C A T E

H E A D O F T R A N S I T I V E
y e s ( s o m e ) n o * n o * n o n o
P R E D I C A T E

H E A D O F N P n o * y e s y e s n o n o

M O D I F I E R I N N P n o * y e s n o * n o n o

M O D I F I E R S O F A V E R B n o n o n o y e s y e s ( s o m e )

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 4

N o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y a n d n o u n structure

T h e g r a m m a t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f n o u n s a s a w o r d class a n d o f distinct s u b c l a s s e s o f n o u n s

( p r e f i x e d v s . n o n - p r e f i x e d n o u n s , n o u n s w i t h a h u m a n referent, k i n s h i p n o u n s , p e r s o n a l

n a m e s , i n a n i m a t e n o u n s , i n h e r e n t l y l o c a t i v e n o u n s a n d p l a c e n a m e s ) are c o n s i d e r e d in

§ 3 . 1 . 2 . H e r e I p r e s e n t a n o v e r v i e w o f n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y a n d o f t h e structure o f a

n o m i n a l w o r d .

T a r i a n a is a p o l y s y n t h e t i c l a n g u a g e w h i c h c o m b i n e s h e a d - m a r k i n g m o r p h o l o g y w i t h

e l e m e n t s o f d e p e n d e n t m a r k i n g (see §1.1). U n l i k e m o s t l a n g u a g e s o f t h e w o r l d , n o u n s in

T a r i a n a a r e n o t o n l y derivationally, b u t also inflectionally c o m p l e x . T h e y c a n t a k e u p t o

s i x t e e n structural p o s i t i o n s ( o n e o f w h i c h is a prefix position). T h e s e i n c l u d e classifiers,

t e n s e (future a n d past), extralocality, contrastitivity, c a s e s a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r affixes a n d

enclitics. S o m e o f t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s c a n b e e x p r e s s e d iteratively, that is, m o r e t h a n o n c e .

S u c h c a t e g o r i e s i n c l u d e n o u n class m a r k e r s (see C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 10), a n d plural (see

C h a p t e r 8). T h e s t r u c t u r e o f a n o u n in T a r i a n a is s h o w n in D i a g r a m 4 . 1 .

A m i n i m a l n o m i n a l w o r d c a n c o n s i s t j u s t o f a root, o r o f a prefix p l u s a r o o t

( d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f t h e root: w h e t h e r it is a l i e n a b l y o r i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d - s e e

C h a p t e r 6 ) , o r o f a r o o t p l u s a g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e - s u f f i x . A g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d in T a r i a n a is

g e n e r a l l y c e n t r e d o n a root. T h e r e are f e w c o m p o u n d s w h i c h c o n s i s t o f t w o roots, e.g.

n a p u - i h e n i ( s t r e a m - f i s h ) 'fish f r o m little streams', p u a l i - s y a w a (oven-fire) ' o v e n fire', o r

s a - k a m u ( s m o k e - h o t ) ' w a r m ' (see § 1 0 . 5 ) . T h e c o m p o n e n t s m u s t a p p e a r t o g e t h e r , w i t h

t h e w o r d h a v i n g a c o n v e n t i o n a l i s e d c o h e r e n c e a n d m e a n i n g . O t h e r m a r k e r s are

o b l i g a t o r y if t h e sort o f m e a n i n g t h e y d e n o t e n e e d s to b e e x p r e s s e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , plural

is o b l i g a t o r y w i t h h u m a n referents, a n d classifier a s a n a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r is o b l i g a t o r y if

a n o u n o r a n a d j e c t i v e is u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r , etc.

D i a g r a m 4.1 d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a n y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m a r k i n g o f v o c a t i v e f o r m s

( d i s c u s s e d in § 3 . 1 . 2 ) o n k i n s h i p n o u n s a n d a f e w o t h e r n o u n s , s i n c e it is h i g h l y irregular

a n d o f t e n s h o w n b y s u b t r a c t i o n . N e i t h e r d o e s D i a g r a m 4.1 i n c l u d e a r c h a i c p o s s e s s i v e

suffixes w h i c h s u r v i v e in j u s t a f e w a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s (see t h e d i s c u s s i o n in

§6.4).

N o u n s t r u c t u r e is s o m e w h a t m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n v e r b structure (see S c h e m e 12.1).

T h e m a i n d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e structure o f a n o u n a n d t h e structure o f t h e v e r b is that

n o u n c a t e g o r i e s c a n b e m a r k e d m o r e t h a n o n c e in a w o r d , w h i l e v e r b c a t e g o r i e s c a n n o t

b e . T h a t is, t h e s a m e n o m i n a l c a t e g o r y m a y b e m a r k e d m o r e t h a n o n c e o n a n o u n or

w i t h i n a n N P , w h i l e all v e r b a l c a t e g o r i e s are e x p r e s s e d j u s t o n c e o n a p r e d i c a t e . T h i s

m u l t i p l e m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n is o f several distinct t y p e s , a n d is c o n s i d e r e d in

C h a p t e r 5 o n classifiers, C h a p t e r 7 o n c a s e m a r k i n g a n d C h a p t e r 8 o n n u m b e r m a r k i n g

(also s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 d ) .

N o t all n o u n s c a n h a v e all p o s i t i o n s filled; t h e y fall into s e v e r a l s u b c l a s s e s d e p e n d i n g

o n w h i c h structural 'positions' c a n b e filled. S o m e n o u n s c a n c o n t a i n m o r e t h a n o n e r o o t

( s e e e x a m p l e s in C h a p t e r 10); h o w e v e r , s i n c e m o s t u n d e r i v e d n o u n s w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e

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 4 Nominal morphology and noun structure 83

r e f e r e n t c a n b e u s e d a s a classifier ( s e e C h a p t e r 5), difficulties m a y arise in

d i s t i n g u i s h i n g n o m i n a l r o o t c o m p o u n d i n g f r o m a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n n o m i n a l

r o o t + classifier ( s e e § 1 0 . 5 ) .

D I A G R A M 4.1 N O U N S T R U C T U R E I N T A R I A N A

P r e f i x 1. P o s s e s s i v e (5 p e r s o n s in singular, t h r e e in plural), o r n e g a t i v e m a - ,

o r relative ka- p r e f i x

2. R O O T

S u f f i x e s 3. G e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix (see T a b l e 10.1)

4. Classifier a s a d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix ( m a y b e m o r e t h a n o n e for n o u n s w i t h

a n i n a n i m a t e referent)

5. P l u r a l m a r k e r

E n c l i t i c s 6. P e j o r a t i v e =yana ( + p l u r a l -pe)

7. A p p r o x i m a t i v e =iha ' m o r e o r less'

8. D i m i n u t i v e =tuki (or d i m i n u t i v e plural =tupe) o r a u g m e n t a t i v e =pasi

(+ p l u r a l -pe)

9. T e n s e (past s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e =rniki-ri, fern. = m i k i - m , pi. =mikim9 future

- p e n d )

10. E x t r a l o c a l i t y a n d restrictivity (=wya 'the o n e left out; extralocal:

p a r t i c i p a n t in a p l a c e distinct f r o m w h e r e t h e s p e e c h a c t i s ' ; =mia 'just,

only')

11. O b l i q u e c a s e =ne ' c o m i t a t i v e - i n s t r u m e n t a l '

S u f f i x 12. O b l i q u e c a s e -se 'locative'

E n c l i t i c s 1 3 . C o n t r a s t i v e =se

14. C o o r d i n a t i v e = m i s i n i , =sini 'also'

15. F o c u s s e d A / S =ne/=nhe

16. T o p i c a l n o n - s u b j e c t =nuku

P o s i t i o n 1 is restricted to i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s a n d o t h e r n o u n s w h i c h t a k e

p r e f i x e s (e.g., n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s ) - s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 6. N o u n s h a v e a s y s t e m

o f five p e r s o n s (first, s e c o n d a n d third in s i n g u l a r a n d in plural, indefinite a n d

i m p e r s o n a l w i t h o u t n u m b e r distinctions), w h i l e v e r b s h a v e o n l y four, s i n c e t h e

indefinite p e r s o n p r e f i x is h a r d l y e v e r u s e d w i t h v e r b s (the p e r s o n s y s t e m is d i s c u s s e d in

C h a p t e r 6). N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s d o n o t t a k e t h e indefinite p e r s o n prefix, u n l i k e o t h e r n o u n s .

T h e r o o t o c c u r s in p o s i t i o n 2 (see § 1 0 . 5 o n h o w several r o o t s c a n o c c u r in o n e n o u n ) .

P o s i t i o n 3 is filled w i t h n o n - p r o d u c t i v e , o r s e m i - p r o d u c t i v e , d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes, t h e

c h o i c e o f w h i c h d e p e n d s o n t h e n o u n . F o r i n s t a n c e , n o u n s w i t h h u m a n referents t a k e

g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e suffixes, e.g. n u - k e s i - d u a ( l s g - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - F E M ) ' f e m a l e b l o o d

relative', n u - k e s i - n i ( l s g - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - M A S C ) ' m a l e b l o o d relative', a n d l o c a t i o n a l n o u n s

c a n t a k e a s p e c i a l set o f suffixes, e.g. Dapyari (vine+CL:RiVER) 'river o f a v i n e ' (see

T a b l e 10.1).

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 8 4 4 Nominal morphology and noun structure

P o s i t i o n 4 c a n b e filled m o r e t h a n o n c e , a n d it a l l o w s v a r i a b l e m o r p h e m e o r d e r i n g ,

w i t h a s e m a n t i c effect, a s s h o w n in 4.1 a n d 4.2 ( a n d also in 1.2 a n d 1.3).

4.1 n u - k a w a - m a - d a

1 s g - l e g - C L : S I D E . O F - C L : R O U N D

' o n e r o u n d p a r t o f a side o f m y leg'

4 . 2 n u - k a w a - d a - m a

l s g - l e g - C L : R O U N D - C L : S I D E . O F

' o n e s i d e o f m y c a l f

S o m e c a t e g o r i e s - e.g. plural, p o s i t i o n 5 - get m a r k e d m o r e t h a n o n c e , s i n c e enclitics

i n p o s i t i o n s 6, 8 a n d 9 r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l plural n u m b e r m a r k e r s , t h u s c r e a t i n g a

s i t u a t i o n c o m p a r a b l e to e n d o c l i s i s w h e r e b y enclitics p r e c e d e affixes (see § 2 . 6 o n t h e

p r o p e r t i e s o f clitics in T a r i a n a ) . T h e t h r e e enclitics w h i c h r e q u i r e plural m a r k i n g (see

§ 8 . 3 o n m u l t i p l e p l u r a l s ) are t h u s s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r to i n d e p e n d e n t w o r d s in that t h e y

h a v e g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s o f their o w n (see K l a v a n s 1 9 7 9 for a d i s c u s s i o n o f s e p a r a t e

g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s f o u n d in clitics). B r a c k e t s in 4.3 indicate t h e s c o p e o f t h e

n u m b e r - m a r k i n g suffix ~pe.

4.3 [ n h a - m a - p e ] = [ y a n a - p e ] = [ t u p e ] = [ m i k i ]

[ t h e y - C L : F E M - P L ] = [ P E J - P L ] = [ D I M : P L ] = [ N O M . P A S T : P L ]

'the little b a d d e a d f e m a l e o n e s '

T h e s e enclitics c a n n o t b e u s e d a s i n d e p e n d e n t g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d s in their o w n right,

t h u s b e i n g b o t h p r o s o d i c a l l y a n d g r a m m a t i c a l l y 'deficient'.

T w o o b l i q u e c a s e s o c c u p y p o s i t i o n s 11 a n d 12 - t h e locative suffix -se a n d t h e

i n s t r u m e n t a l / c o m i t a t i v e enclitic =ne ( w h i c h alternates w i t h =nhe in y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s

l a n g u a g e - s e e C h a p t e r 6). T h e a l l o m o r p h o f =ne w i t h p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s is t h e suffix

- w e ; p o s s i b l y , =ne b e c a m e a n enclitic o n l y recently, a s t h e result o f its d e v e l o p i n g

o v e r l a p w i t h t h e f o c u s s e d A / S m a r k e r =ne/nhe (see §7.2.1). P o s i t i o n s 11 a n d 12

( o b l i q u e c a s e s ) a n d 15 ( f o c u s s e d 'subject') c a n n o t b e filled s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ; 15 a n d 16

c a n b e filled s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , c r e a t i n g a n i n s t a n c e o f m a r k i n g t w o syntactic f u n c t i o n s

w i t h i n t h e s a m e w o r d (cf. A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 d , a n d §7.6).

T h e suffixes a n d t h e enclitics w h i c h a n o u n , or a n o u n p h r a s e , t a k e s h a v e a fixed

order. ( N o t e t h a t p h r a s a l enclitics w h i c h g o o n t o a v e r b , o r a v e r b a l p h r a s e , a l l o w s o m e

variability - s e e C h a p t e r 12.)

I n 4 . 4 b e l o w t h i r t e e n structural p o s i t i o n s a r e filled ( n o t e that t h e r e c u r s i v e plural

m a r k i n g -pe after p e j o r a t i v e =yana c o u n t s a s o n e position, a n d p o s i t i o n 4 is filled t w i c e :

o n c e w i t h a d e r i v a t i o n a l classifier - m a 'feminine', a n d o n c e w i t h a n a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r -

ite 'animate'). S q u a r e b r a c k e t s i n d i c a t e t h e syntactic structure.

4 . 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 4 11 13 14 16

[ [ [ n u - p h e - f u - m a - p e = y a n a - p e = t u p e = m i k i ] - i t e ] = n e = s e = m i s i n i = n u k u ]

l s g - o l d e r . s i b l i n g - F E M - C L : F E M - P L = P E J - P L = D I M : P L - P A S T : P L =

C L : P E R S O N = C O M I T = C O N T R = T O O : P A R T . C O N T R = T O P . N O N . A / S

' w i t h this v e r y p e r s o n b e l o n g i n g to m y b a d little o l d e r sisters, too'

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 4 N o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y a n d n o u n s t r u c t u r e 8 5

C a t e g o r i e s in p o s i t i o n s 1, 2, 3 a n d 4 are characteristic o f t h e h e a d n o u n , w h i l e all

o t h e r p o s i t i o n s 5 - 1 6 are filled o n c e p e r n o u n p h r a s e ; t h e y c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d as

b e l o n g i n g to a 'phrasal' level. T h a t is, in a s e n s e , n o t j u s t n o u n s b u t n o u n p h r a s e s in

T a r i a n a c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d inflectionally c o m p l e x .

O t h e r w o r d c l a s s e s w h i c h s h a r e syntactic f u n c t i o n s a n d at least s o m e g r a m m a t i c a l

c a t e g o r i e s w i t h n o u n s (adjectives a n d c l o s e d c l a s s e s d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r s 3 a n d 11) are

s o m e w h a t different in structure. A d j e c t i v e s d o n o t h a v e p o s i t i o n s 1 a n d 3. A classifier in

p o s i t i o n 4 c a n b e a n a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r w i t h t h e n o m i n a l h e a d . T h e r e c a n b e m o r e t h a n

o n e classifier in this p o s i t i o n , m a r k i n g a g r e e m e n t w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e h e a d - s e e B

u n d e r § 5 . 1 . 2 .

If a n o u n p h r a s e is u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r to a n o t h e r n o u n p h r a s e , a n o u n class m a r k e r is

a t t a c h e d t o t h e e n d o f t h e N P to m a r k a g r e e m e n t , a s in 4 . 5 , w h e r e t h e N P ' m e d i c i n e for

d i a r r h o e a ' (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) is u s e d to m o d i f y t h e h e a d n o u n 'tree'; t h e classifier -na

' V E R T I C A L ' is a t t a c h e d to t h e e n d o f t h e m o d i f y i n g N P (similar e x a m p l e s are 5.25-6).

4.5 h e k u - n a [tsuli i-tape]-na

t r e e - C L : V E R T [ d i a r r h o e a I N D F - m e d i c i n e ] - C L : V E R T

'a tree, ( w h i c h is) a m e d i c i n e for d i a r r h o e a '

If t h e last e l e m e n t m o d i f y i n g t h e N P a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s a classifier, t h e a g r e e m e n t

m a r k e r w i l l g o o n t o it, t h u s c r e a t i n g a situation w h e r e b y a g r e e m e n t t a k e s p l a c e w i t h t w o

h e a d s : t h a t o f a n e m b e d d e d N P a n d that o f a n e m b e d d i n g o n e . In 4 . 6 t h e classifier -phe

'leaf-like' m a r k s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e h e a d o f t h e e m b e d d e d n o u n p h r a s e , 'beautiful leaf,

a n d t h e classifier - n a 'vertical' m a r k s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e 'higher level' N P , 'tree w i t h

b e a u t i f u l leaves'.

4 . 6 [ h e k u - n a [ p a n a - p h e m a t f a - p h e ] - n a ]

t r e e - C L : V E R T l e a f - C L : L E A F . L I K E g o o d - C L : L E A F . L I K E - C L : V E R T

'a t r e e w h i c h h a s beautiful leaves'

T h i s d o u b l e a g r e e m e n t m a r k i n g h a s b e e n attested w i t h a d j e c t i v e s a n d articles, b u t n o t

w i t h m e m b e r s o f a n y o t h e r c l o s e d class.

A d j e c t i v e s h a v e their o w n plural m a r k e r s (in slot 5; s e e C h a p t e r 8), n a m e l y -pent

' a n i m a t e plural' a n d -peri 'collective'. T h e y n e v e r t a k e t h e a s s o c i a t i v e plural.

T a r i a n a a l l o w s t h e m a r k i n g o f m o r e t h a n o n e clausal f u n c t i o n w i t h i n o n e n o u n p h r a s e

( s e e C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 7, e s p e c i a l l y §7.6.2), a s illustrated in 4.7 said b y J o v i n o w h e n h e

w a s e x p l a i n i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e in t i m e b e t w e e n A u s t r a l i a a n d B r a z i l to o t h e r s (after I h a d

s h o w n t h e d i f f e r e n c e o n a w a t c h ) .

4 . 7 w h a - n e - n u k u i k a s u - n a k a

w e - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S t o d a y - P R E S . V I S

n h a - n e - n u k u d e s u - n a k a

t h e y - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S t o m o r r o w - P R E S . V I S

' F o r u s , it is t o d a y , for t h e m , it is t o m o r r o w . '

T h i s is different f r o m j u s t c o m b i n i n g t w o m o r p h e m e s to refer to t h e s a m e syntactic

f u n c t i o n o f a n o u n p h r a s e . W h e n t w o m o r p h e m e s c o m b i n e to refer to t h e s a m e function,

o n e o f t h e m is a l o c a t i v e o r a n i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a s e m a r k e r a n d it p r o v i d e s a

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 86 4 Nominal morphology and noun structure

specific m e a n i n g , w h i l e t h e o t h e r is - n u k u 'topical non-subject', a n d it i n d i c a t e s t h e

g e n e r i c ' n o n - s u b j e c t h o o d ' c o m b i n e d w i t h the i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e d i s c o u r s e status o f t h e

n o u n p h r a s e , e.g. d i - d a k i - n e - n u k u (3sgnf-body-lNS-TOP.NON.A/s) 'with h i s b o d y '

(topical). S e e § 7 . 6 . 2 .

T h e p r i n c i p l e o f ' d o u b l e ' m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n - w i t h i n a l o w e r c l a u s e , o r a n

e m b e d d e d n o u n p h r a s e , a n d w i t h i n a h i g h e r c l a u s e , o r a n o u n p h r a s e - a p p e a r s to b e

c o n s i s t e n t i n T a r i a n a . It also s h o w s t h e inflectional c o m p l e x i t y o f n o u n s a n d their

m o d i f i e r s in T a r i a n a , m i r r o r i n g syntactic structure in m o r p h o l o g i c a l structure a n d

a l l o w i n g t h e inflection ( b o t h c a s e m a r k e r s a n d n o u n class a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r s ) t o specify

t h e s y n t a c t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y at different levels. T h u s , T a r i a n a p r o v i d e s a n

e x c e p t i o n to N i c h o l s ' ( 1 9 8 6 : 1 0 4 - 5 ) s t a t e m e n t that w h i l e ' m a n y l a n g u a g e s h a v e

p o l y s y n t h e t i c v e r b s , t h e r e are n o p o l y s y n t h e t i c n o u n s ' .

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 5

N o u n classes a n d classifiers

T a r i a n a h a s a c o m p l i c a t e d s y s t e m o f several different t y p e s o f classifiers, a n d t w o

g e n d e r s . G e n d e r ( f e m i n i n e a n d n o n - f e m i n i n e ) a g r e e m e n t is realised in v e r b - a r g u m e n t

c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d o n s o m e p o s s e s s o r s (see C h a p t e r s 6 a n d 12); it is a l s o m a r k e d o n

s o m e n o u n s w i t h h u m a n referents (see § 1 0 . 1 ) . T h e r e are n o g e n d e r d i s t i n c t i o n s in t h e

plural.

C l a s s i f i e r s u f f i x e s a r e u s e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c c o n t e x t s :

(a) a s n o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r s o n a d j e c t i v e s a n d s o m e o t h e r m o d i f i e r s ;

(b) a s n u m e r a l classifiers, w i t h n u m b e r s ;

(c) a s d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes o n n o u n s ;

(d) a s p o s s e s s e d classifiers in p o s s e s s i v e N P s , w h e r e t h e y a t t a c h to t h e p o s s e s s i v e

m a r k e r a n d c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n ;

(e) a s v e r b a l classifiers, to c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e n a t u r e o f a n S / O a r g u m e n t o n t h e v e r b ;

(f) w i t h d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , articles a n d o t h e r m o d i f i e r s f r o m c l o s e d c l a s s e s (see

C h a p t e r 11).

T h e r e is a g e n e r i c classifier u s e d o n l y in p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s - s e e § 6 . 5 . 2 . T h e

classifier s u f f i x e s u s e d in all t h e s e f u n c t i o n s are a l m o s t , b u t n o t quite, t h e s a m e . A l l t h e

classifiers h a v e a n a p h o r i c a n d r e f e r e n t - t r a c k i n g f u n c t i o n s in d i s c o u r s e . N o u n class

m a r k e r s c a n b e u s e d m o r e t h a n o n c e in a n o u n p h r a s e m a r k i n g a g r e e m e n t w i t h different

h e a d s at different l e v e l s o f e m b e d d i n g . O t h e r classifiers c a n n o t b e 'stacked' in this w a y .

M o s t classifiers f u n c t i o n a s d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes. U n d e r specific d i s c o u r s e c o n d i t i o n s ,

a n y n o u n w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent c a n b e u s e d a s a classifier ( b e i n g 'repeated' o n t o a n

a d j e c t i v e , a n u m e r a l , a v e r b o r a p o s s e s s i v e m a r k e r ) . T h i s t y p e o f classifier is k n o w n a s

a 'repeater' ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 a : 3 6 1 - 2 ) . T h u s , classifiers constitute a p o t e n t i a l l y o p e n

c l a s s ( s e e §2.4.1 o n s u p r a s e g m e n t a l c h a n g e s f r o m full n o u n s to classifiers o f t h e r e p e a t e r

t y p e ) .

5.1 O v e r v i e w o f t h e m u l t i p l e classifier s y s t e m

T h e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e classifier s y s t e m is c o n s i d e r e d in § 5 . 1 . 1 . I n § 5 . 1 . 2 - 6 I a n a l y s e

n o u n c l a s s e s , n u m e r a l classifiers, n o u n classifiers, v e r b a l a n d d e m o n s t r a t i v e classifiers,

their c o n t e x t s o f u s e a n d f u n c t i o n s . P o s s e s s e d classifiers are e x a m i n e d in m o r e detail in

§ 6 . 5 .

5.1.1 O r g a n i s a t i o n of the s y s t e m

M o s t m o d i f i e r s o f n o u n s ( a n d certain o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s w h i c h c a n b e m o d i f i e d ) r e q u i r e

a classifier. Classifiers a l s o f r e q u e n t l y a p p e a r o n n o u n s to p r o d u c e specific m e a n i n g s .

T h e r e is o n e classifier for a n i m a t e n o u n s , j u s t like in T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s . If t h e f e m a l e

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 8 8 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

s e x o f a referent is in f o c u s , a special f e m i n i n e classifier is u s e d . T h e r e are a large

n u m b e r o f classifiers for n o u n s w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent. A list o f e s t a b l i s h e d

classifiers is g i v e n in T a b l e 5.1. T h e i r s e m a n t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n s are d i s c u s s e d in § 5 . 2 .

A l l i n a n i m a t e n o u n s a r e classified in t e r m s o f their s h a p e o r function. T h e r e are a f e w

classifiers w h i c h refer t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e referent ('bundle', 'pair', 'piece') o r its

p a r t s ('side'). T h e r e are a l s o a n u m b e r o f s e m a n t i c a l l y u n i q u e classifiers ('stretch o f

water', 'canoe'). A t least s o m e o f t h e s e classifiers c a n b e s h o w n to h a v e o r i g i n a t e d in full

n o u n s (cf. § 5 . 3 . 3 ) .

5.1 illustrates t h e u s e o f t h e classifier -kha 'curved' w i t h a n adjective; t h e s a m e

classifier o n a n u m e r a l is s h o w n in 5.2.

5.1 k u l e - k h a m a t f a - k h a

fishing.tool-CL.CURVED g o o d - C L . C U R V E D

'a g o o d f i s h i n g line'

5.2 p a : - k h a k u l e - k h a

o n e - C L : C U R V E D fishing.tool-CL:CURVED

' o n e f i s h i n g line'

In 5 . 3 , t h e s a m e classifier is u s e d w i t h a p o s s e s s i v e m a r k e r -ya- referring t o t h e

p o s s e s s e d n o u n ( s e e §6.5).

5.3 n u - y a - k h a k u l e - k h a

l s g - P O S S - C L : C U R V E D fishing.tool-CL:CURVED

' m y f i s h i n g line'

In 5.4, t h e s a m e classifier is u s e d w i t h the p r e d i c a t e (in t h e f o r m o f t o p i c a d v a n c i n g

v o i c e : s e e § 1 3 . 5 ) .

5.4 k u l e - k h a episi n a - n i - n i - k h a

fishing.tool-CL:CURVED m e t a l 3 p l - d o - T O P . A D V - C L : C U R V E D

' A f i s h i n g line w a s m a d e o u t o f steel.'

In 5 . 5 , it is u s e d w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e , h a .

5.5 h a - k h a k u l e - k h a

D E M : I N A N - C L : C U R V E D f i s h i n g . t o o l - C L : C U R V E D

'this f i s h i n g line'

T h e s a m e classifier is u s e d o n t h e n o u n itself a s a n affix to d e r i v e a n o u n w i t h

c o n c r e t e s e m a n t i c s c a t e g o r i s i n g t h e referent in t e r m s o f its s h a p e (cf. k u l e - k h a in t h e

e x a m p l e s a b o v e a n d §5.1.3). N o u n classifiers are also u s e d a s n o m i n a l i s e r s o n t h e v e r b

( s e e § 2 0 . 3 ) , e.g. p a - i r a - n i - k a d a (lMP-drink-TOP.ADV-CL:DAY) 'the d a y o f drinking'.

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T A B L E 5.1 C L A S S I F I E R S I N T A R I A N A

1. C L A S S I F I E R S W I T H D I S T I N C T F O R M S I N D I F F E R E N T M O R P H O S Y N T A C T I C C O N T E X T S

S E M A N T I C S E X A M P L E S N O U N C L S G N O U N C L P L N U M C L P O S S

G E N E R A L tjad 'man', inaru ' w o m a n ' , tfinu 'dog', a : p i 'snake'

-ite -peni -ita -ite
A N I M A T E u s e d w i t h h u m a n attributes: s i r u r a 'trousers'

H U M A N tjad 'man', inaru ' w o m a n ' -ite -peni -hipa ite

2. C L A S S I F I E R S U S E D J U S T I N T W O M O R P H O S Y N T A C T I C C O N T E X T S

S E M A N T I C S E X A M P L E S N O U N C L A S S E S A N D D

C O L L E C T I V E p u m e n i - p e r i 'sugar', u : n i 'water', s a n a - p e d 'sweat'

A B S T R A C T N O U N S , P L A C E S , ehkwapi 'day, w e a t h e r , world', iya 'rain', p a n i s i - w a n i

N A T U R A L P H E N O M E N A 'place w h e r e h o m e is'

3. C L A S S I F I E R S W I T H T H E S A M E F O R M S I N A L L C L A S S I F I E R C O N T E X T S

A. G e n d e r classifier (not used with specifier article)

C L A S S I F I E R S E M A N T I C S E X A M P L E S

-ma f e m i n i n e inaru ' w o m a n ' , k a b u e t a - m a 'female teacher'

B. Shape a n d form classifiers

C L A S S I F I E R S E M A N T I C S E X A M P L E S O F N O U N S W I T H W H I C H U S E

-da r o u n d o b j e c t s m a w i n a 'pineapple', dithi 'eye', h e k u - d a 'fruit'

-hiwi t h i n l o n g objects itfa 'hair', n u - t h i w i 'eyelash'

-ipa b i g o p e n s p a c e dikaka-pua ' c h e e k ' , yupitfi ' s i e v e ' , hipa ' l a n d ' , kaidoko 'b

-ipu l o n g , h o l l o w , b u n d l e - l i k e haiku-pu 'log', n a w i k i - p u 'grave'

-ita i n a n i m a t e object, i n s t r u m e n t mesapita 'a turi stick', m a r i e 'knife', k a n a d 'mirror, heku

-ku f o l d e d c l o t h a m a - k u ' h a m m o c k '

-kwa flat s u r f a c e a d a 'grater', e n u - k w a ' s k y ' , hipa-kwa 'stony surface'

-kwana p l a i n m a k a - k w a n a ' p l a i n ' , hipa-kwa 'stony surface'

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C L A S S I F I E R S E M A N T I C S E X A M P L E S O F N O U N S W I T H W H

-kwema flat a n d r o u n d karapi ' ( r o u n d ) p l a t e ' , marawi-karapi 'plate o f s n

-kha c u r v i l i n e a r k u l e - k h a 'fishing l i n e ' , hewya-pi-kha ' r a i n b o w '

-khi, -ki t h i n c u r v e d ( r o p e , t a p e ) m a k a - k h i ' r o p e ' , kare-khi 'road o f t h e w i n d t h i n a

- m a k a e x t e n d e d c l o t h y a r u m a k a s i 'cloth', h i t i s i - m a k a 'funeral m a s k ' (lit

-mapha c o m p l e t e l y c o v e r e d di-tfinuma 'his beard', itfima ' m a n e o f hair'

- n a l o n g vertical h e k u - n a 'tree'

-pa largish a n d l o n g de/i 'banana', p e s a n i n i - p a 'ladder'

-peku t h i n stretch leka-peku 'a b r o k e n l o n g i s h piece'

-pi l o n g , thin, vertical; c y c l e o f t i m e h i r i n a ' m a n i o c s q u e e z e r ( t i p i t i ) ' , deri-pi ' b a n a n a t

-pukwi r o u n d a n d h o l l o w episi-pukwi 'metal ring'

-puna stretch o f a r o a d , r o a d hinipu ' r o a d ' , karaka-hwya-puna 'airstrip'

1
-phe leaflike dina-phe ' f e a t h e r ' , papera-phe 'leaf o f paper

-aphi smaller, h o l l o w surupe-phi ' c l a y p o t ' , episi-aphi 'metal pot'

- h w i particles, s m a l l t h i n o b j e c t s i w i 'grain o f salt'

-yawa h o l e s h a l a - y a w a 'hole', d i - t h a k u - y a w a 'his nostril'

C. Quantifier-like classifiers

C L A S S I F I E R S E M A N T I C S E X A M P L E S

-0)tfi b u n d l e manakatfi, manaketfi ' b u n d l e o f a 9 a i ' , deritfi ' b u n

- i m a a p a i r e d object; o n e side o f t w o diphema ' w i n g ( o f a n insect)', d i a r a n i m a '(bird's)

f
-iphina a q u a r t e r p e t h e - i p h i n a a q u a r t e r o f m a n i o c b r e a d '

-pada p i e c e ( e v e n l y cut) maka-pada 'half

- p i u , -pio, -pia t i m e p a : - p i u , p a : - p i o , p a : - p i a 'once'

- s a w a g r o u p m a r e - s a w a 'a g r o u p o f birds'

-yami p i e c e ( u n e v e n l y c u t o r t o r n off) y a r u m a k a s i - y a m i 'piece o f cloth'

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D. Function classifiers

C L A S S I F I E R S E M A N T I C S E X A M P L E S

-dapana h a b i t a t i o n p a n i s i ' h o u s e ' , ditape-dapana 'hospital'

-whya c a n o e , t r a n s p o r t i t a - w h y a 'canoe', k a - k o l o k a - w h y a 'car'

- a n h i line o f a s o n g m a k a n h e 'line o f a s o n g '

E. Specific classifiers

C L A S S I F I E R S E M A N T I C S E X A M P L E S

m a k a - d a w a ' r o o m , still p a r t o f a river', k a r i s a n a

-dawa corner, l i m i t e d s p a c e
s t a g n a n t water'

-depita n i g h t kadawa-depita 'dark night'

-hipita l a n d wa-ya-hipita 'our land'

-ithi s e e d ithi 'seed', iwi 'grain o f salt'

- i w a i trap, w a l l n e h p a n i w a i 'a m a d e u p trap', p a n i s i - w a y ' h o u s e -

-kada a d a y p a : - k a d a 'one day'

-kairathe h e a p o f s t o n e s hipada-kairathe ' h e a p o f s t o n e s '

- k a w a leg, h a n d l e , a n y t h i n g leg-like s i d u - k a w a 'the l o n g p a r t o f a n arrow', h u n i - k a w a

-kena b r a n c h h e k u - k e n a 'tree b r a n c h ' , d i - k a w a n a - k e n a 'his l e g

f
-kiyere, -kyere island k e w e r e ' i s l a n d ' , maka-kyere a b i g island'

-kuda t r u n k h e k u - k u d a 'tree trunk'

-kuda-mi c u t - o f f t r u n k h e k u - k u d a - m i 'cut-off tree trunk'

s m o k e - l i k e ; c u s t o m ; level i s a - k u m a 'fire-smoke', iya-kuma 'cloud' (rain-s

- k u m a
( g e n e r a t i o n ; floor ( o f a h o u s e ) ) p e o p l e ' s c u s t o m ' , h a m a - k u m a alia-dapana ' h o u s

-kuya e x t e n d e d p a r t maka-kuya ' e x t e n d e d p a r t o f a river'

p e t h e , p a i t h e ' m a n i o c bread', k a o - k u t h e , sirul

-kuthe m a n i o c b r e a d
b r e a d '

-kuru mist, s m o k e h a r i a - k u r u ' w h i t e s m o k e '

-khay, khe t h i c k j u n g l e eyawa-khay 'thick j u n g l e '

y e k a - l i m a 'place w h e r e r u b b e r tree g r o w s ' , p

- l i m a p l a c e w i t h c e r t a i n t y p e o f p l a n t
p e a c h p a l m g r o w s ' , m a n a k a - l i m a 'place w h e r e a
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C L A S S I F I E R S E M A N T I C S E X A M P L E S

-nai lake m a k a - n a i 'lake'

- n a k i l o n g h a n d l e p a p i u n i - n a k i 'a b r o o m ' , d i - k a w a n a - n a k i ' b r o o m -

-numa(na) w o r d , l a n g u a g e p a : - n u m a ( n a ) 'one w o r d , o n e l a n g u a g e ' , w a l i - n u

-napi b o n e di-weda-hapi 'his j a w , h i s c h i n - b o n e '

-nhe v e r s e , line p a r a p a n i p e 'singing', p a m u h a - n h e 'a v e r s e in t h

-patawa g o r g e m a k a - p a t a w a 'gorge'

-peda l o w b u s h , s m a l l h e a p kanaperi-peda ' g r a s s y b u s h ' , panaphe-peda ' s m a

-pida c r o w n a n d b r a n c h e s o f a tree heku di-pha-ni-pida 'fallen c r o w n a n d b r a n c h e s

-pina s w a m p m a k a - p i n a ' s w a m p '

-pua river u:ni ' r i v e r ' , hapu 'spring'

-purikuda m o u n t a i n k a d i d o k o - p u n k u d a ' s a n d - m o u n t a i n '

-pukuda b u s h hunay-pukuda 'a b u s h o f m a n i o c '

-pukuipe t u r n u:ni-pukuipe 'turn o f a river'

-pusita c l e a r i n g p u s i s i ' c l e a r i n g ' , neritfiripusita 'large clearing'

- t a k u e n d p o i n t m a w a l i - t a k u 'point o f s n a k e ' (a p l a c e - n a m e )

-turapa c o n e maka-turapa 'cone'

-the k n o t m a k a - t h e 'knot'

-ithepu b o w y a w i t h e p u ' b o w '

- t h i w a r a v i n e m a k a - t h i w a 'ravine'

- w a h e a p p a r i a - w a ' h e a p o f a s h e s '

- w a t a -fill n u - n u m a - w a t a ' m y m o u t h f u l ' , nu-kapi-wata ' m y

- w a t h e joint n u - k a w a - w a t h e ' m y k n e e ' (lit. leg-joint)

- w i trap y a r u k a n a - w i 'type o f trap'

- w i n a pile i h a - w i n a 'pile o f e x c r e m e n t ' , hipada-wina 'pile o

-yapi t i m e s p a n kamu-yapi 'a year'

 5.1 O v e r v i e w of t h e m u l t i p l e classifier s y s t e m 9 3

N o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r s are s o m e w h a t different f r o m classifiers in o t h e r

m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e y attach to t h e last c o n s t i t u e n t o f a n o u n p h r a s e

w h i c h m o d i f i e s a h e a d n o u n , to m a r k a g r e e m e n t (e.g. h e k u - n a tsuli i-tape-na (tree-

C L I V E R T d i a r r h o e a i N D F - m e d i c i n e - C L : V E R T ) 'a tree w h i c h is a m e d i c i n e for diarrhoea':

s e e 4.5 a n d § 5 . 1 . 2 ) . N o u n s c a n b e a s s i g n e d different classifiers d e p e n d i n g o n w h a t

p r o p e r t y is in f o c u s . T h a t is, classifiers are n o t s e m a n t i c a l l y r e d u n d a n t - s e e § 5 . 2 .

A n y u n d e r i v e d n o u n w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent c a n b e u s e d a s a repeater, that is, b e

r e p e a t e d o n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m o d i f i e r (or t h e v e r b ) to m a r k a g r e e m e n t , e.g. k a i d o k o h a n u -

k a i d o k o ( b e a c h b i g - B E A C H ) 'a b i g b e a c h ' ( c o n d i t i o n s for this are d e s c r i b e d in §5.2).

N o u n s w h i c h a l r e a d y c o n t a i n o n e o f t h e m o r p h e m e s listed in T a b l e 5.1 as d e r i v a t i o n a l

affixes c a n n o t b e u s e d this w a y .

C l a s s i f i e r s d i v i d e into t h r e e g r o u p s : (1) classifiers w h i c h h a v e distinct f o r m s in

different classifier e n v i r o n m e n t s ; (2) classifiers u s e d in j u s t t w o e n v i r o n m e n t s ; a n d (3)

classifiers w h i c h h a v e t h e s a m e f o r m in all e n v i r o n m e n t s (these c o n s t i t u t e t h e m a j o r i t y

o f classifiers in t h e l a n g u a g e ) .

1. C L A S S I F I E R S W I T H D I S T I N C T F O R M S I N D I F F E R E N T C O N T E X T S . T W O classifier sets h a v e

distinct f o r m s in different m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c c o n t e x t s - t h e g e n e r a l a n i m a t e classifier, a n d

h u m a n classifier (see 1 in T a b l e 5.1). U n l i k e all o t h e r classifiers t h e y (a) d i s t i n g u i s h

s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l f o r m s ; (b) d i s t i n g u i s h n u m e r a l classifier f r o m n o u n class m a r k e r ; (c)

d o n o t r e q u i r e a classifier w i t h a d e m o n s t r a t i v e in w h i c h c a s e a f u s e d a n i m a t e f o r m o f

t h e p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e is u s e d - s e e A in §5.1.6.

F o r t h e g e n e r a l a n i m a t e classifier (see b e l o w u n d e r A ) , t h e s a m e set o f f o r m s is u s e d

a s s i n g u l a r n o u n c l a s s m a r k e r s , as d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes o n n o u n s , a n d a s p o s s e s s i v e

classifiers, a n d v e r b a l classifiers are t h e s a m e as n u m e r a l classifiers. T h e r e is a s e p a r a t e

p l u r a l n o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r .

F o r t h e g e n e r a l h u m a n classifier (see b e l o w u n d e r B ) , t h e n u m e r a l classifier is

f o r m a l l y distinct f r o m t h e rest; t h e s i n g u l a r n o u n class m a r k e r is u s e d in all t h e o t h e r

classifier e n v i r o n m e n t s ( n o t e that t h e r e are different plural m a r k e r s ) . V e r b a l classifiers

e m p l o y t h e s a m e f o r m a s that in t h e g e n e r a l a n i m a t e set.

A . G E N E R A L A N I M A T E C L A S S I F I E R . T h e g e n e r a l a n i m a t e classifiers are u s e d w i t h all the

a n i m a t e n o u n s , w h i c h i n c l u d e n o u n s w i t h sex-differentiable referents if t h e s e x is n o t in

f o c u s . 5.6 illustrates t h e n u m e r a l classifier -ita a n d t h e n o u n class m a r k e r , -ite\ -ite is

a l s o u s e d a s a n o u n classifier o n t h e h e a d n o u n , e m i t e 'child', a n d as a p o s s e s s e d

classifier ( u n d e r l i n e d ) .

5.6 p a i t a e m i t e m a t f k t e

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M y o u n g s t e r + N C L : A N I M g o o d + N C L : A N I M

n u - i t e - k a

1 s g - P O S S + N C L : A N I M - D E C L

' O n e n i c e c h i l d is m i n e . '

S o m e s p e a k e r s o f t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect b r o u g h t u p in c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e

H o h o d e n e d i a l e c t o f B a n i w a o f I ^ a n a (also N o r t h A r a w a k ) a n d w i t h s p e a k e r s o f t h e

S a n t a T e r e z i n h a dialect d i s t i n g u i s h a g e n e r a l a n i m a t e n u m e r a l classifier, -ite, f r o m a

g e n e r a l i n a n i m a t e o n e , -ita, a s d o t h e P e r i q u i t o s a n d t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a dialects (see

A p p e n d i x ) . T h e s e s p e a k e r s w o u l d s a y p a i t e n a w i k i ( o n e + N U M . C L . A N i M p e r s o n ) 'one

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 9 4 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

p e r s o n ' a n d p a i t a h e k u t a ( o n e + N U M . C L : l N A N w o o d + C L : i N A N ) 'one p a d d l e ' , w h i l e m o s t

s p e a k e r s o f t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect w o u l d s a y p a i t a n a w i k i 'one p e r s o n ' a n d p a i t a h e k u t a

' o n e p a d d l e ' . T h e s y s t e m w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e t w o f o r m s a p p e a r s to b e m o r e a r c h a i c .

B . G E N E R A L H U M A N C L A S S I F I E R . T h e h u m a n classifiers are identical to t h e g e n e r a l

a n i m a t e classifiers, e x c e p t for t h e n u m e r a l classifier, -hipa (see § 2 . 5 , o n p h o n o l o g i c a l

r u l e s w h i c h a p p l y w h e n -hipa is s u f f i x e d to n u m e r a l s : n a m a -+- hipa — • nhamepa; p a : - +

-hipa —> p h e p d ) . T h i s classifier is u s e d o n l y w i t h n u m b e r s 'one', 'two' a n d 'three', w i t h

h u m a n n o n - f e m i n i n e referents, a n d is a l m o s t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e w i t h t h e g e n e r a l a n i m a t e

classifier (it a p p e a r s t o b e h a r d l y e v e r u s e d i n t h e P e r i q u i t o s variety). I n 5.7, -hipa is

u s e d w i t h n u m e r a l 'two' {nama).

5.7 d u h a i n a r u k a n a p e r i - p i d a n a n h a m e p a

A R T . F E M w o m a n g i v e . b i r t h - R E M . P . R E P t w o + N U M . C L : H U M

e m i - p e n i

y o u n g s t e r - P L : A N I M

' T h e w o m a n g a v e birth to t w o children.'

In 5.8, f r o m t h e s a m e story a s 5.7, n a m a - i t a ( t w o - N U M . C L : A N l M ) is u s e d w i t h t h e

s a m e referent.

5.8 d u - i n i p e - n u k u n a m a - i t a - p i d a n a

3 s g f - c h i l d r e n - T O P . N O N . A / S t w o - N U M . C L : A N I M - R E M . P . R E P

k e n i p e

R E L + c h i l d r e n

' S h e h a d t w o children.'

T h e g e n e r a l a n i m a t e classifier is also u s e d to refer to s o m e abstract c o n c e p t s , e.g.

'word', a s w e l l a s to articles o f c l o t h i n g o f E u r o p e a n origin, s u c h as s i r u r a 'trousers', o r

s a i a 'skirt'. T h e h u m a n classifier is n o t u s e d this w a y . T h e classifier -hipa is p r e f e r r e d

w i t h h u m a n r e f e r e n t s if u s e d a n a p h o r i c a l l y , that is, if t h e h e a d n o u n is o m i t t e d , a s in 5.9.

5.9 n a : - p i d a n a n h a n h a m e p a

3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P t h e y t w o + N U M . C L : H U M

' T w o o f t h e m w e n t on.'

T h e classifier -hipa o n t h e n u m e r a l p a : - 'one' is often u s e d to m e a n 'alone', a s in 5.10.

It c a n a l s o m e a n 'just one', e.g. p h e p a inipe ( o n e - N U M . C L : H U M f a m i l y ) 'just o n e family'.

5 . 1 0 d i h a y a w i p h e p a - p i d a n a d i - d i a

A R T j a g u a r o n e + N U M . C L : H U M - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - r e t u r n

d i - a - n h a

3 s g n f - g o - P A U S

' T h e j a g u a r c a m e b a c k alone.'

W h e n u s e d w i t h o u t t h e h e a d n o u n w i t h t h e m e a n i n g o f 'alone', p h e p a c a n b e

p l u r a l i s e d , if it r e f e r s t o m o r e t h a n o n e h u m a n ( m e a n i n g 'lonely ones'), a s in 5 . 1 1 . T h e

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 5.1 Overview of the multiple classifier system 9 5

f o r m p a i t a ( o n e + N U M . C L : A N l M ) c a n b e pluralised, b u t t h e n it h a s a different m e a n i n g :

p a i t a - p e m e a n s ' s o m e ' (see § 1 1 . 7 ) .

5.11 p h e p a - p e n a - w h a - k a n h a n a - y a - k a

o n e + N U M . C L : H U M - P L 3 p l - s t a y - S U B t h e y 3 p l - c r y - S U B

d i h a ifie d h i m a d i - n u

A R T evil.spirit 3 s g n f + h e a r 3 s g n f - c o m e

' W h i l e t h e l o n e l y o n e s ( c h i l d r e n ) stay a n d cry, t h e evil spirit h e a r s ( t h e m ) a n d

c o m e s . '

T h e classifier -hipa c a n o n l y b e u s e d w i t h n o n - h u m a n referents if t h e y are p e r s o n i f i e d

a s p r o t a g o n i s t s o f a story, a s in 5.12.

5 . 1 2 p a : - k a d a n a h a n h a m e p a n a - m u s u

o n e - C L : D A Y t h e y t w o + N U M . C L : H U M 3 p l - g o . o u t

n a : - p i d a n a a w a k a d a - s e

3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P f o r e s t - L O C

' O n e d a y t h e t w o o f t h e m (tapir a n d turtle) w e n t to t h e forest.'

T h i s v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e u s e o f -hipa a n d -ita w i t h h u m a n s is n o t d u e to t h e

o b s o l e s c e n c e o f T a r i a n a . A s i m i l a r v a r i a t i o n exists in at least t w o dialects o f B a n i w a o f

I c a n a ( H o h o d e n e , S i u c i a n d K u m a n d e n e ) w h e r e -ita is u s e d w i t h all h u m a n n o n -

f e m i n i n e r e f e r e n t s a n d their attributes (e.g. c l o t h i n g ) , w h i l e -hipa is u s e d j u s t w i t h

h u m a n n o n - f e m i n i n e referents; it s e e m s that -hipa is p r e f e r r e d w h e n h u m a n p a r t i c i p a n t s

h a v e t o b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h n o n - h u m a n . H o w e v e r , -hipa s e e m s o n its w a y o u t in T a r i a n a
1
s i n c e it is u s e d m u c h less f r e q u e n t l y t h a n in B a n i w a .

N e i t h e r o f t h e t w o classifiers is u s e d w i t h d e m o n s t r a t i v e s o r specifier articles (see A

a n d B u n d e r § 5 . 1 . 6 ) o r w i t h i n d i v i d u a l i s i n g distributive a n d i n t e r r o g a t i v e q u a n t i f i e r s ( E

u n d e r § 5 . 1 . 6 ) . D e m o n s t r a t i v e s a n d specifier articles h a v e s e m i - s u p p l e t i v e f o r m s . T h e

classifier -ite/-ita o c c u r s w i t h i n t e r r o g a t i v e - d i s t r i b u t i v e k w a ( s e e C u n d e r §5.1.6).

2. C L A S S I F I E R S U S E D I N O N L Y T W O E N V I R O N M E N T S . T W O classifiers ( s e e 2 in T a b l e 5.1)

a r e u s e d in o n l y t w o e n v i r o n m e n t s - a s n o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r s a n d a s

d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes o n n o u n s : -peri 'collective' e m p l o y e d w i t h n o u n s w h i c h refer to

s u b s t a n c e s , s u c h a s w a t e r , m i l k , grass, a n d - w a n i 'abstract n o u n s , p l a c e s ' (see §8.1.4). In

5.13 a n d 5 . 1 4 t h e s e classifiers are e m p l o y e d as a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r s o n adjectives.

5.13 u n i e w a - p e r i

w a t e r y e l l o w - C L : C O L L

' y e l l o w w a t e r '

1
T h e extension o f -ita to c o v e r animate referents in T a r i a n a m u s t have occurred under the areal influence

o f T u c a n o languages since in B a n i w a animals are classified b y their shape, cf. Tariana paita a:pi

(one+NUM.CL:ANiM jararaca.snake) 'one jararaca snake1, B a n i w a apa-kha a:pi (one-NUM.CL:CURVED

snake) 'one snake'.

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 9 6 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

5 . 1 4 e h k w a p i m a t f a - w a n i

d a y / w e a t h e r g o o d - C L : A B S T R

'beautiful w e a t h e r '

T h e suffix -peri is often u s e d t o d e r i v e collective n o u n s f r o m a d j e c t i v e s a n d stative

v e r b s , e.g. ewa-peri ' y e l l o w things', hape-peii 'ice, cold', a n d is also u s e d to m a r k

a g r e e m e n t o n a d j e c t i v e s w i t h n o u n s w i t h a collective referent (see 8.24). T h e o t h e r

classifier, - w a n i , d e r i v e s abstract n o u n s o r n o u n s referring to p l a c e s f r o m adjectives, e.g.

k a d a w a 'dark', k a d a w a - w a n i 'darkness' a n d f r o m n o u n s .

T h e classifier - w a n i c a n d e r i v e n o u n s f r o m n o u n p h r a s e s o r e v e n c l a u s e s (just like

o t h e r classifiers o f g r o u p s A a n d C ) e.g. s u r u a p h i - n a i [la.pe alia]-wani (clay-CL:LAKE

m u d d y . p o o l E X I S T - C L I A B S T R ) 'a [lake] full o f c l a y w h e r e t h e r e is a m u d d y pool', a n d

s u r u a p h i - n a i [la.pe alia-wani] a l i a - p u a (clay-CL:LAKE m u d d y . p o o l E X I S T - C L : A B S T R

E X I S T - C L : R I V E R ) 'a r i v e r w h e r e t h e r e is a l a k e full o f c l a y w h e r e t h e r e is a m u d d y pool'.

In 5 . 1 5 , a n o u n is d e r i v e d f r o m a c l a u s e ' p e o p l e d o n o t go' (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) . T h e

suffix -peri is n o t u s e d this w a y : *uni ma-ira-kade-peri ( w a t e r N E G - d r i n k - N E G - C L : C 0 L L )

is u n g r a m m a t i c a l .

5.15 [ n a w i k i m a : - k a d e ] - w a n i - n a k a

p e r s o n N E G + g o - N E G - C L : A B S T R - P R E S . V I S

'This is a p l a c e w h e r e p e o p l e d o n o t go.'

T h e classifier - w a n i c a n a t t a c h to a n o u n w h i c h a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s a n o u n classifier,

t h u s a l l o w i n g 'stacking' o f n o u n classifiers (see §5.1.3), e.g. h a l i a - k u r u - w a n i ( w h i t e -

C L : M I S T - C L : A B S T R ) 'place c o v e r e d w i t h w h i t e mist'. W i t h -peri, this 'stacking' is n o t

p o s s i b l e . If - p e n h a s to b e f o l l o w e d b y a n o t h e r classifier it is s i m p l y o m i t t e d . F o r

i n s t a n c e , uni kada-peri ( w a t e r b l a c k - C L : C 0 L L ) m e a n s 'black water'; 'river w i t h b l a c k

w a t e r ' is u n i kada-pua ( w a t e r b l a c k - C L : R I V E R ) , a n d n o t *uni kada-peri-pua ( w a t e r b l a c k -

CL:COLL-CL:RlVER), N e i t h e r -peri n o r - w a n i is u s e d w i t h d e m o n s t r a t i v e s .

C . C L A S S I F I E R T Y P E S W I T H T H E S A M E F O R M S I N A L L C L A S S I F I E R E N V I R O N M E N T S . T h e rest

o f t h e classifiers ( s e e 3 in T a b l e 5.1) h a v e t h e s a m e f o r m for all t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e

classifiers are u s e d , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f d e m o n s t r a t i v e classifiers a n d classifiers u s e d

w i t h t h e specifier article (see § 5 . 1 . 6 , for t h e u s e o f classifiers w i t h m o d i f i e r s f r o m c l o s e d

classes). A l l t h e classifiers for i n a n i m a t e n o u n s , a n d t h e f e m i n i n e classifier - m a b e h a v e

this w a y .

T h e f e m i n i n e classifier -ma differs f r o m all o t h e r classifiers in t h e f o l l o w i n g

p r o p e r t i e s .

(a) It c a n b e r e p l a c e d b y t h e g e n e r i c a n i m a t e classifier if t h e s e x o f t h e referent is n o t in

f o c u s . T o refer to ' o n e w o m a n ' , o n e c a n s a y either p a : - m a inaru (one-CL:FEM w o m a n ) o r

p a i t a inaru ( o n e + N U M . C L : A N i M w o m a n ) 'one w o m a n ' . T h e f e m i n i n e classifier is often

u s e d a n a p h o r i c a l l y , to refer to a w o m a n , as in 5.16.

5 . 1 6 n h a n a m a - m a n e - t i k i - p i d a n a n a k a

t h e y t w o - C L : F E M t h e n - l i t t l e - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + a r r i v e

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 5.1 O v e r v i e w of t h e m u l t i p l e classifier s y s t e m 9 7

n a - w h a n a - w a p a

3 p l - s t a y 3 p l - w a i t

' T h e n t h e t w o o f t h e m ( w o m e n ) a r r i v e d a n d waited.'

It is a l s o u s e d w h e n t h e f e m a l e s e x o f t h e referent is in focus. 5.17 c o m e s f r o m a

d e s c r i p t i o n o f a ritual p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t w o m e n s e e i n g t h e Y u r u p a r y flute. T h e

f e m i n i n e classifier is u s e d o n t h e n u m e r a l , a n d o n t h e n o u n p e d a l e , p e d a l i a 'old person'.

5 . 1 7 n e i n a r u p a : - m a m a - k a - k a d e - s i n a

N E G w o m a n o n e - C L : F E M N E G - s e e - N E G - R E M . P . I N F R

n e - p e d a l i a - m a - m i s i n i n e - m a - k a - k a d e - s i n a

N E G - o l d - C L : F E M - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R N E G - N E G - s e e - N E G - R E M . P . I N F R

' N o t a s i n g l e w o m a n s a w it, n o t a n o l d w o m a n , either.'

O l d e r p e o p l e a n d s o m e y o u n g e r p e o p l e (for i n s t a n c e J o s e Brito, w h o s e m i n d is set o n

s p e a k i n g 'correct' T a r i a n a ) insist that - m a , rather t h a n -ite, b e u s e d at all t i m e s ; in actual

s p e e c h , h o w e v e r , b o t h o c c u r . In stories told b y y o u n g e r p e o p l e it is n o t u n u s u a l to find

- m a a n d -ite t o refer to a w o m a n w i t h i n t h e s a m e N P , as in 5.18 ( f r o m a story b y E m i l i o

B r i t o ) .

5 . 1 8 d i h a k a i d o k o p a m u i i a - s e - p i d a i n a r u p a : - m a

A R T b e a c h m i d d l e - L O C - R E P w o m a n o n e - C L : F E M

n a - t u t u - n i t e n a - w h e d u - w h a - p i d a

3 p l - t i e - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N I M 3 p l - s i t + C A U S 3 s g f - s i t - R E P

'In t h e m i d d l e o f t h e b e a c h o n e w o m a n w h o w a s tied a n d p u t (there) w a s sitting.'

(b) T h e f e m i n i n e classifier c a n n o t b e u s e d to n o m i n a l i s e a n o u n p h r a s e or a c l a u s e , o r o n

a n o u n w h i c h a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s a suffix, e.g. p a n i - s i ( h o u s e - N P O S S ) 'house', p a n i s i t e

( h o u s e + N C L : A N i M ) 'the m a s t e r o f t h e h o u s e ; a n y m e m b e r o f t h e h o u s e h o l d ( m a l e o r

female)', b u t *panisi-ma '?the m i s t r e s s o f the h o u s e ' . In o n e c a s e -ma a t t a c h e s to a n o t h e r

classifier. T h e n o u n p e - d a l i e 'old person', w h i c h , e t y m o l o g i c a l l y , c o n s i s t s o f p e 'old' (cf.

T a r i a n a , B a n i w a upe, P i a p o c o p e ) + -dali (cf. B a n i w a -dari ' N C L : A N I M A T E ' ) + -e (?), c a n

t a k e - m a ' f e m i n i n e ' t o f o r m p e d a l i e - m a 'old w o m a n ' . H o w e v e r , -dali is n o t u s e d a s a

classifier in T a r i a n a ; b e s i d e s p e d a l i e , this m o r p h e m e s u r v i v e s in t h e t e r m for a s p e c i e s

o f ant, k a d a - d a l i ( b l a c k + N C L : A N i M ) 'black ants' (see § 1 0 . 2 ) .

(c) T h e classifier - m a c a n f o l l o w a g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix - m / - d u , if the

f e m i n i n i t y o f t h e referent is in f o c u s , e.g. w a l i k i r u ' y o u n g w o m a n ' , w a l i k i r u - m a ' y o u n g

w o m a n ' ( c h o s e n a s o n e ' s lover, etc.), w i t h g e n d e r m a r k e d t w i c e , y a l a n a - i - s a - d o - m a

( n o n . I n d i a n - i N D F - s p o u s e - F E M - C L : F E M ) 'a w h i t e w o m a n ' . It c a n also a t t a c h to t h e w o r d

i n a r u ' w o m a n ' , w h i c h c o n t a i n s a fossilised d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix -ru, e.g. inaru-ma-pasi

( w o m a n - C L : F E M - A U G ) 'a h u g e w o m a n ' .

(d) T h e classifier - m a c a n f o l l o w a g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix if a n o u n w i t h a

h u m a n r e f e r e n t ( e s p e c i a l l y a k i n s h i p n o u n ) is p l u r a l i s e d - s e e § 8 . 1 . 2 a n d § 8 . 1 . 3 .

(e) U n l i k e a n y o t h e r classifier, - m a c a n b e u s e d o n t h e first, s e c o n d a n d third p e r s o n

p l u r a l p r o n o u n s , to refer to plural f e m a l e s (see §8.3), e.g. ihya-ma-pe (2pl-CL:FEM-PL)

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 9 8 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

' y o u t h e f e m a l e ones'. It c a n n o t o c c u r o n 3 r d p e r s o n s i n g u l a r p r o n o u n d i h a 'he' (the

f e m i n i n e f o r m d u h a is u s e d i n s t e a d ) ; b u t it d o e s o c c u r - albeit rarely - w i t h t h e

h o m o n y m o u s specifier article, a s in 5.19.

5 . 1 9 d i h a - m a - n u k u p h i a k a - s a - d o - m h a d e

A R T - C L : F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S y o u R E L - s p o u s e - F E M - F U T

' Y o u w i l l m a r r y t h a t ( p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d ) w o m a n . '

C l a s s i f i e r s u s e d w i t h i n a n i m a t e n o u n s d i v i d e into several s e m a n t i c g r o u p s . T h e r e are

t w e n t y - o n e classifiers w h i c h c a t e g o r i s e t h e n o u n in t e r m o f its s h a p e a n d d i m e n s i o n a l i t y

( 3 B in T a b l e 5.1). T h e s e i n c l u d e classifiers for r o u n d , l o n g , t h i n a n d flat objects; o b j e c t s

that a r e c u r v e d a n d thin; a n d s o o n . R e f e r e n c e to s h a p e m a y c o m b i n e w i t h r e f e r e n c e to

m a t e r i a l ; for i n s t a n c e , - m a k a is a classifier for a n y e x t e n d e d p i e c e o f c l o t h o r t h i n g s

m a d e o f cloth, e.g. p i e c e s o f c l o t h i n g (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 4 a o n t h e s e m a n t i c s o f

classifiers in T a r i a n a ) .

S e v e n classifiers h a v e quantifier-like s e m a n t i c s . T h e s e refer t o t h e w a y s o b j e c t s c a n

b e a r r a n g e d a n d q u a n t i f i e d , e.g. pair, b u n d l e , quarter, p i e c e o f s o m e t h i n g , o r g r o u p ( 3 C

in T a b l e 5.1). T h r e e classifiers c a t e g o r i s e n o u n s in t e r m s o f their function: h a b i t a t i o n ,

t r a n s p o r t a n d line o f a s o n g ( 3 D in T a b l e 5.1).

T h e r e a r e o v e r thirty classifiers w h i c h are u s e d e a c h w i t h a specific referent, e.g.

c o r n e r , island, lake, different sorts o f n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a - s u c h as b u s h , s w a m p , stretch

o f a h y d r a n t , hill a n d s o o n (see 3 E in T a b l e 5.1). T h e y often u n d e r g o s e m a n t i c

e x t e n s i o n s , a n d in fact a l s o c a t e g o r i s e their referents in t e r m s o f s h a p e a n d o t h e r

p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , o r in t e r m s o f f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s . F o r i n s t a n c e -ithi ' C L I S E E D ' c a n

b e u s e d t o refer to m o s t s e e d - l i k e s m a l l o b j e c t s (e.g. g r a i n s o f rice o r salt); -kada 'day'

m a y b e u s e d t o refer t o a n y s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e ; - k a w a ' C L : L E G ' c a n b e u s e d to refer to

a n y t h i n g w h i c h is l o n g a n d vertical a n d t h u s 'leg-like'; -turapa ' C L : C O N E ' c a n b e u s e d

w i t h a n y t h i n g t h a t h a s t h e f o r m o f a c o n e . T h e classifier - k u m a refers to s m o k e - l i k e

c l o u d s ; a n d a l s o t o v a r i o u s t h i n g s w h i c h c a n b e c o n c e i v e d o f a s h a v i n g different levels -

it c o v e r s g e n e r a t i o n s o f p e o p l e a n d t h e levels, o r floors, o f a h o u s e . T h u s , m a n y specific

classifiers c a n b e u s e d s i m i l a r l y to s h a p e a n d f o r m classifiers - t h e r e is n o w a t e r t i g h t

b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n a specific classifier a n d classifiers o f o t h e r t y p e s . W i t h i n this larger

set, s o m e classifiers c h a r a c t e r i s e j u s t o n e referent a n d c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d 'unique' - this

is t h e c a s e o f - p u s i t a 'clearing' o r - w i 'trap'.

A f e w classifiers a r e m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o m p l e x , e.g. -kuda-mi ( - C L : T R U N K - C U T . O F F ) 'a

c u t o f f t r u n k ( o f a tree)' (see § 1 0 . 2 o n t h e suffix -mi). P o s s i b l y , o t h e r p o l y s y l l a b i c

classifiers a l s o c o n t a i n fossilised suffixes; for i n s t a n c e , -dapana 'habitation' c o n s i s t s o f

-da (cf. B a n i w a -da 'generic classifier, a l s o u s e d for r o u n d things') + -pana ( p o s s e s s e d

f o r m of p a n - 'house': s e e §6.4). Classifiers -pusita 'clearing', -depita 'night' a n d -hipita

'land' c o n t a i n a fossilised suffix -ita w h i c h a l s o o c c u r s in t h e irregular p o s s e s s i v e f o r m s

o f t h e s e n o u n s . C o m p a r a t i v e d a t a f r o m o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s s h o w that, at least in

-hipita, -ita c o u l d b e p a r t o f t h e r o o t (cf, for i n s t a n c e , I n a p a r i hipite 'sand': P a r k e r 1 9 9 9 ) .

M o s t classifiers c a n b e s h o w n t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m full n o u n s a n d m u s t h a v e o r i g i n a t e d

in 'repeaters' ( s e e §5.3). F o r i n s t a n c e , - m a k a ' e x t e n d e d cloth' g o e s b a c k to P r o t o - A r a w a k

* m a k a 'stretch o f cloth', t h e r o o t that w a s b o r r o w e d into E n g l i s h a n d n u m e r o u s I n d o -

E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s a s t h e w o r d for ' h a m m o c k ' ( w i t h a prefix a-9 p r o b a b l y a deictic).

Classifier -phe 'leaf-like objects' c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e r o o t 'leaf in n u m e r o u s N o r t h

A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s (cf. B a n i w a o f I $ a n a -phe 'leaf), a n d -pua 'classifier for stretch o f

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 5 . 1 O v e r v i e w of t h e m u l t i p l e classifier s y s t e m 9 9

r o a d ' c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e w o r d for r o a d (cf. B a n i w a o f I ^ a n a -apua 'road'). S e e further

e x a m p l e s in A i k h e n v a l d ( 2 0 0 1 b ) . ( S o m e classifiers d o n o t exist a s full n o u n s a n y m o r e ;

s o m e o f t h e m c a n a p p e a r w i t h p r e f i x e s - s e e 5.27.) Classifiers - k a w a , - k u d a , -napi, - t a k u

a n d -numa(na) c o m e f r o m b o d y p a r t s ('leg', 'trunk', 'bone', 'nose; point' a n d ' m o u t h ' ) ; t h e y

a r e o f 'repeater' t y p e ( s e e §5.3). T h e y h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d in t h e table o f classifiers

b e c a u s e o f their s e m a n t i c e x t e n s i o n s . H o w e v e r , s i n c e T a r i a n a h a s a t e n d e n c y t o c r e a t e

'ad h o c ' classifiers o u t o f r e p e a t e r s , t h e list o f specific classifiers c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d o p e n -

e n d e d - s e e § 5 . 3 .

5 . 1 . 2 N o u n c l a s s e s

T h e m a r k i n g o f n o u n c l a s s e s o n a d j e c t i v e s is d i s c u s s e d u n d e r A , a n d t h e m a r k i n g o n

m o d i f i e r s o f o t h e r t y p e s is c o n s i d e r e d in B .

A . N O U N C L A S S M A R K I N G O N A D J E C T I V E S . A g r e e m e n t for n o u n class is o b l i g a t o r y

b e t w e e n t h e n o u n a n d a m o d i f y i n g adjective, a s s h o w n in 5.6 a n d 5 . 1 3 - 1 4 . A full N P

w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f t h e h e a d n o u n a n d a n a d j e c t i v e ( w i t h a n o u n class m a r k e r o n it) is

illustrated i n 5.24: p a n i - s i matfa-dapana ( h o u s e - N P O S S g o o d - C L : H A B ) 'a b e a u t i f u l h o u s e ' .

T h e h e a d n o u n is f r e q u e n t l y o m i t t e d in d i s c o u r s e ( i f it is r e c o v e r a b l e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t ) :

s e e 5.20.

5 . 2 0 m a : t ( i - d a p a n a - t i k i - s e - p i d a n a d i - n a d i - n a - k a w y a k a - s e

b a d - C L : H A B - D I M - L O C - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - l i v e 3 s g n f - l i v e - S U B f a r - L O C

' H e p r o b a b l y l i v e d far a w a y in a b a d little [house].'

W h e n t h e n o u n d o e s n o t b e a r a classifier, t h e c h o i c e o f a classifier u s e d w i t h a

m o d i f i e r a c q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l s e m a n t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e ; s e e a n illustration in T a b l e 5.3.

B . N O U N C L A S S M A R K I N G O N O T H E R M O D I F I E R S , A N D ' D O U B L E M A R K I N G ' O F N O U N C L A S S .

N o u n c l a s s m a r k e r s a r e u s e d o n a n y w o r d class in a m o d i f i e r f u n c t i o n to m a r k

a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e h e a d n o u n , e.g. p u a l i t e tfinu ( o t h e r w i s e , e l s e w h e r e

( a d v e r b ) + N C L : A N l M d o g ) 'a d o g f r o m e l s e w h e r e ' , ha-pua aT-se a l i a - p u a ( D E M - C L : R I V E R

t h e r e - L O C E X I S T E N T I A L . V E R B - C L : R I V E R ) 'the stretch o f a river w h i c h is there', a n d 5.21-2.

I n 5 . 2 1 , t h e classifier -puna 'stretch' ( u n d e r l i n e d ) is u s e d o n a c o n n e c t i v e kayu/kayi 'like,

so'. I n 5 . 2 2 t h e classifier -dapana 'habitation' is u s e d w i t h t h e n o u n hipe ' g r o u n d ' a s a

m o d i f i e r .

5.21 d i - a - p i d a n a d i - m u s u - k h a d i - a h a - p u n a

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - g o . o u t - A W A Y 3 s g n f - g o D E M : I N A N - C L : R O A D

i - t h i r i k u n a k a v i - p u n a i - t h i r i k u n a - n u k u

I N D F - n e a r l i k e - C L : R O A D I N D F - n e a r - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e w e n t a n d c a m e o u t n e a r this (stretch o f r o a d ) , n e a r s o m e t h i n g like a road.'

5 . 2 2 m a k a - d a p a n a - p e h i p e - d a p a n a - p e - s e a l i a - m h a

w h o l e - C L : H A B - P L g r o u n d - C L : H A B - P L - L O C E X I S T - P R E S . N O N V I S

' T h e r e a r e w h o l e o n e s ( h o u s e s ) m a d e o f g r o u n d ( w h e r e t h e evil spirit lives).'

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 100 5 Noun classes and classifiers

If a n o u n p h r a s e is u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r t o a n o t h e r n o u n p h r a s e , a n o u n class m a r k e r is

a t t a c h e d to t h e e n d o f t h e N P to m a r k a g r e e m e n t . In 5 . 2 3 , t h e N P ' m e d i c i n e for r e d eye'

(in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) is u s e d to m o d i f y t h e h e a d n o u n , 'tree'; t h e classifier -na

' C L : V E R T I C A L ' is a t t a c h e d at t h e e n d o f t h e m o d i f y i n g N P .

5.23 p u i - n a [pa:-thi iri-peri i-tape]-na

c h e s t . n u t . t r e e - C L : V E R T [ I M P - e y e r e d - C L : C O L L I N D F - m e d i c i n e ] - C L : V E R T

' c h e s t n u t tree, ( w h i c h is) a m e d i c i n e for r e d (i.e. i n f l a m e d ) eye'

In 5.24, t h e classifier -dapana 'habitation' is u s e d o n a relative c l a u s e (in s q u a r e

b r a c k e t s ) w h i c h m o d i f i e s t h e h e a d n o u n 'house'.

5 . 2 4 p a n i - s i m a t f a - d a p a n a

h o u s e - N P O S S g o o d - C L : H A B

[ t h u y a a l i a ] - d a p a n a - p i d a n a h i k u

all h a v i n g - C L : H A B - R E M . P . R E P a p p e a r

' T h e r e a p p e a r e d a beautiful h o u s e , ( w h i c h ) h a d all t h e things.'

If t h e last n o u n o f a m o d i f y i n g N P a l r e a d y c o n t a i n s a classifier, t h e a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r

will g o o n t o it. In 5 . 2 5 , t h e classifier - n a ' C L I V E R T I C A L ' , m a r k s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e h e a d

n o u n , 'tree A n d i r a A n t h e l m i d , a n d it f o l l o w s t h e classifier -kha 'curved' w h i c h m a r k s

a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e h e a d o f a n e m b e d d e d N P , b i b i k h a ' c u r v e d vine'.

5.25 h e k u - n a [ b e b i - k h a h i - k a y u

t r e e - C L : V E R T v i n e - C L . C U R V E D D E M : A N I M - l i k e

k e w i - k h a ] - n a

R E L + f l o w e r - C L : C U R V E D - C L : V E R T

'Andira a n t h e l m i a (a tree o f t h e L e g u m i n o s a e - P a p i l i o n o i d e a e f a m i l y ) ( w h i c h is) a

tree w h i c h h a s f l o w e r s like a v i n e s i m i l a r to a c u r v e d vine.'

T h i s s t a c k i n g o f classifier a g r e e m e n t u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s o n l y t w o 'levels', a s in 5.25.

M o r e c o m p l i c a t e d structures, s u c h a s 5.26, are rare. In 5.26 t h e n o u n p h r a s e o f 5.25 is a

m o d i f i e r t o t h e h e a d , 'leaf, a n d it t a k e s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r

- p h e ' C L I L E A F . L I K E ' .

5.26 p a n a - p h e [ h e k u - n a [ b e b i - k h a k a y u

l e a f - C L : L E A F . L I K E [ t r e e - C L : V E R T [ v i n e - C L : C U R V E D like

k e w i - k h a ] -na] - p h e

R E L + f l o w e r - C L : C U R V E D ] - C L : V E R T ] - C L : L E A F . L I K E

'a l e a f o f a t r e e f l o w e r i n g like a c u r v e d vine'

T h u s , a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e n o u n class is m a r k e d t w i c e in 5.25, a n d t h r e e t i m e s in 5.26.

It reflects a g r e e m e n t 'on different levels': that w i t h t h e h e a d o f e m b e d d e d n o u n

p h r a s e ( s ) , a n d t h a t w i t h t h e h e a d o f t h e ' e m b e d d i n g ' n o u n p h r a s e at a h i g h e r level.

A d e m o n s t r a t i v e m o d i f i e r o r t h e specifier article w h i c h c o n t a i n s a classifier ( § 5 . 1 . 6 )

c a n a l s o b e f o l l o w e d b y a n o t h e r classifier i f it is u s e d to m o d i f y a n o t h e r h e a d , e.g. d i h a -

dapana ( A R T - C L : H A B ) 'the h o u s e , specific h o u s e ' o r d i h a - n a i ( A R T - C L : L A K E ) c a n t a k e t h e

n o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r -ite ' a n i m a t e ' to a g r e e w i t h t h e h e a d n o u n , tjari 'man', in

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 5.1 O v e r v i e w of t h e m u l t i p l e classifier s y s t e m 1 0 1

tjari d i h a - d a p a n i t e 'the m a n b e l o n g i n g to t h e h o u s e ; t h e m a s t e r o f t h e h o u s e ' a n d in tfari

d i h a - n a i t e 'the m a n b e l o n g i n g to t h e lake; t h e m a s t e r o f t h e lake'. S i m i l a r l y , t w o

classifiers c a n o c c u r w i t h a d e m o n s t r a t i v e , e.g. ha-puite ( f r o m ha-pua-ite D E M I I N A N -

C L : R I V E R - N C L : A N I M ) y e k a n a ( m a s t e r ) 'the m a s t e r o f this river'. In t h e s e c a s e s classifiers

f r o m different m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c c o n t e x t s are u s e d t o g e t h e r in o n e g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d

(also s e e § 5 . 1 . 3 a n d 5.1.6). T h i s 'double' m a r k i n g o f a g r e e m e n t w i t h N P h e a d s at

different l e v e l s is s i m i l a r to t h e 'double' m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n d e s c r i b e d in

C h a p t e r 7.

T h e r e is y e t a n o t h e r k i n d o f 'double' m a r k i n g o f n o u n class a g r e e m e n t o n a m o d i f i e r .

If a size a d j e c t i v e c o n t a i n s t h e clitic =iha ' a p p r o x i m a t i v e ' a n d c o m p a r i s o n is i m p l i e d , t h e

a p p r o x i m a t i v e f o l l o w s t h e a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r o n a n adjective (see § 3 . 1 . 3 , 3.9 a n d 2 . 2 6 ) ,

e.g. itfiri h a n u - i t e - i h a ( g a m e b i g - N C L : A N l M = A P P R O X ) 'a b i g g i s h a n i m a l ' ( b i g g e r relatively

to a n o t h e r o n e ) . W h e n u s e d as a m o d i f i e r , s u c h a n adjective t e n d s to t a k e a n o t h e r n o u n

c l a s s m a r k e r to a g r e e w i t h t h e s a m e h e a d . T h i s is illustrated in 5.27. T h e u n d e r l y i n g

f o r m for h a n u i t e h i t e is h a n u - i t e - i h a - i t e (big-NCL:ANiM-APPROX-NCL:ANlM). T h e s t a n d a r d

o f c o m p a r i s o n d o e s n o t n e e d to b e m e n t i o n e d . In 5.27, it is u n d e r s t o o d f r o m t h e c o n t e x t :

a m a n is b o a s t i n g o f h i s h u n t i n g a c h i e v e m e n t s , s a y i n g that h e h a s j u s t killed a n e v e n

b i g g e r a n i m a l t h a n h i s rival.

5 . 2 7 n h u a p a i t a itfiri h a n u - i t e h i t e

I o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M g a m e b i g - N C L : A N I M + A P P R O X + N C L : A N I M

n u - i n u - k a d i h a h e m a - k a

1 s g - k i l l - R E C . P . V I S h e t a p i r - R E C . P . V I S

'I h a v e killed a n e v e n b i g g e r a n i m a l ( t h a n that), h e is a tapir.'

T h i s ' d o u b l e n o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t ' is attested o n l y w i t h t h e a n i m a t e n o u n class. It is

s i m i l a r to ' d o u b l e ' plural m a r k i n g d e s c r i b e d in § 8 . 3 .

T w o a d j e c t i v e s - tsu 'small' a n d m a l e - 'large, b i g (pi)' (see § 8 . 2 ) - a n d t h e

i n t e r r o g a t i v e k u i - ' w h i c h ' are m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y a n o m a l o u s in that t h e y t a k e t w o classifiers

in t h e plural: tsu 'small' h a s a s i n g u l a r a n i m a t e f o r m tsu-ite, a n d a n irregular plural f o r m

tsu-ita-peni (small-CL:ANiM-ANiM.PL). S i n g u l a r a g r e e m e n t f o r m s o f t h e gestural deictic

khi 'this big' ( s e e D u n d e r § 5 . 1 . 6 ) also c o n t a i n t w o classifier m o r p h e m e s : a classifier -da

a n d t h e n o u n c l a s s m a r k e r -ite.

5.1.3 Classifiers a s n o m i n a l d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes

N o u n classifiers w h i c h a t t a c h t o t h e n o u n s are s i m i l a r to d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes. W h e n

u s e d o n a n o u n w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent, t h e y h a v e the effect o f f o c u s s i n g o n a n

a d d i t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a n o u n , a n d i n d i v i d u a t i n g its referent. N o u n s w i t h a n

i n a n i m a t e r e f e r e n t are intrinsically u n m a r k e d for n u m b e r w h e n u s e d w i t h o u t a s u f f i x e d

classifier. W h e n a classifier is a d d e d , n o u n s a c q u i r e s i n g u l a t i v e r e a d i n g , a n d c a n b e

p l u r a l i s e d ( s e e § 8 . 1 ) .

1
F o r i n s t a n c e , episi m e a n s 'iron as a substance , it is u n m a r k e d for n u m b e r a n d c a n n o t

b e p l u r a l i s e d ; *episi-pe is n o t a c c e p t a b l e . ( B e f o r e t h e w h i t e i n v a s i o n it u s e d to m e a n

'stone axe', a c c o r d i n g to L e o n a r d o Brito.) W h e n a n o u n classifier is a d d e d , it a c q u i r e s a

m o r e c o n c r e t e s e m a n t i c s , a n d is u n d e r s t o o d a s referring to o n e o b j e c t specified for its

f o r m a n d s h a p e , e.g. episi-kha ( i r o n - C L : c U R V E D ) 'iron wire', episi-pi (iron-CL:LONG)

' l o n g p i e c e o f iron', episi-da (iron-CL:ROUND) 'a motor', episi-aphi (iron-CL:HOLLOW) 'a

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 102 5 Noun classes and classifiers

m e t a l p a n ' , a n d episi-pukwi (iron-CL:ROUND.HOLLOW) 'a m e t a l ring'. A n o u n w i t h a

classifier c a n b e p l u r a l i s e d , e.g. episi-kha-pe (iron-CL:cURVED-PL) 'iron wires'.

Q u i t e a f e w classifiers d o n o t h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g n o u n w i t h a g e n e r a l m e a n i n g -

this is t h e c a s e o f classifiers s u c h a s - p a t a w a 'gorge', - n a i 'lake', o r -kyere 'island', -dawa

'corner', etc. T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g n o u n is f o r m e d b y a t t a c h i n g t h e classifier to a d u m m y

r o o t m a k a - (cf. B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a m a k a - 'big, large'): t h u s , m a k a - n a i ( m a k a - c l : l a k e ) is t h e

g e n e r a l t e r m for 'lake', m a k a - p a t a w a ( m a k a - C L : G O R G E ) is t h e t e r m for 'gorge', m a k a -

kyere m e a n s 'island', m a k a - d a w a m e a n s 'corner', a n d s o o n (see § 5 . 3 . 4 a n d § 2 6 . 2 . 2 ) .

A l l n o u n classifiers ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f -ma 'feminine', -peri 'collective' a n d - w a n i

'abstract n o u n s ' - s e e a b o v e ) c a n b e 'stacked' o n a n o u n . T h e T a r i a n a w o r d for 'airport'

c o n t a i n s t w o classifiers: k a r a - k a - w h y a - p u n a (REL+fly-TH-CL:CANOE-CL:ROAD) 'airport'

(lit. stretch for flying c a n o e ) . T o refer to a p e r s o n w h o b e l o n g s to a n airport (for

i n s t a n c e , w o r k s there), a w o r d c o n t a i n i n g t h r e e classifiers is u s e d : k a r a - k a - w h y a - p u n i t e

( R E L + f l y - T H - C L : C A N O E - C L : R O A D + N C L : A N l M ) ' p e r s o n o f t h e airport' (lit. t h e a n i m a t e o n e

o f a stretch for flying c a n o e ) . Classifiers c a n b e s t a c k e d o n a m o d i f i e r (in a h e a d l e s s

N P ) , for i n s t a n c e , a specifier article as in diha-pua-puna ( A R T - C L : R I V E R - C L : R O A D ) 'the

r o a d - l i k e s t r e t c h o f a river'. W h e n t w o o r m o r e classifiers are s t a c k e d , c h a n g e in their

o r d e r t r i g g e r s c h a n g e in t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e r e s u l t i n g n o u n , a s in 4.1 a n d 4 . 2 w h e r e t h e

s a m e affixes -da a n d - m a a p p e a r in a different order. T h e s e m a n t i c s o f s u c h f o r m a t i o n is

u s u a l l y t r a n s p a r e n t , e.g. t h e a d h o c i n v e n t i o n , in a story told b y I s m a e l B r i t o , p a n a - p h e -

da (leaf-CL:LEAF.LiKE-CL:ROUND) 'a r o u n d o n e ( a n a n i m a l ) c o v e r e d w i t h leaves'. A

s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is h e k u t a - d a ( w o o d + C L : i N A N - C L : R O U N D ) (cf. h e k u t a ( w o o d + C L . l N A N )

'paddle') ' o u t b o a r d m o t o r ' , t h e t e r m u s e d in t h e P e r i q u i t o s variety. T h e s a m e classifier

c a n b e u s e d t w i c e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e s u l t i n g f o r m a t i o n s are s e m a n t i c a l l y s o m e w h a t

i d i o s y n c r a t i c , e.g. hipa-da-da ( g r o u n d - C L : R O U N D - C L : R O U N D ) 'pebble' (cf. hipa-da

( g r o u n d - C L : R O U N D ) 'stone'); mapa-da-da ( h o n e y - C L : R O U N D - C L : R O U N D ) 'a k i n d o f b e e '

(cf. mapa-da ( h o n e y - C L : R O U N D ) 'bee'). S t a c k i n g o f several classifiers is f r e q u e n t in t h e

f o r m a t i o n o f p l a c e - n a m e s , e.g. D i - k a p i - w a t h e - d a ( 3 s g n f - h a n d - C L : H A N D F U L / J O l N T -

C L : R O U N D ) ' S t o n e (classified as r o u n d ) in t h e f o r m o f a handful*, H i t u - m a - t a k u

(menstruate.for.the.first.time-CL:FEM-CL:POiNT) 'Point o f a w o m a n w h o m e n s t r u a t e d for

t h e first time'.

C l a s s i f i e r s n o m i n a l i s e a c l a u s e o r a n N P , e.g. [tsuli i-tape]-na ( d i a r r h o e a INDF-

m e d i c i n e - C L : V E R T ) 'a tree (lit. a vertical o n e ) that is a m e d i c i n e for diarrhoea', n a w i k i -

s e d e - d a p a n a (people-NEG.EXiST-CL:HAB) (lit. t h e r e are n o p e o p l e - h o u s e ) ' h o u s e w i t h n o

p e o p l e ' , h a i k u k a - y a m i - k e n a - p e (tree R E L - d i e - C L : B R A N C H - P L ) ' b r a n c h e s o f a d e a d tree',

a n d 5.28.

5.28 h a i k u - n a h a n u - n a [ d i - s a w i

w o o d - C L : V E R T b i g - C L : V E R T 3 s g n f - h o r n / r o o t

k a - d e ] - n a - p a s i d i - e m a - p i d a

R E L - h a v e - w o o d - C L : V E R T - A U G 3 s g n f - s t a n d - R E P

' A b i g tree w i t h h o r n - l i k e r o o t s w a s s t a n d i n g (there).'

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 5.1 Overview of the multiple classifier system 103

C l a s s i f i e r s a r e n o t clitics - s e e t h e criteria for clitics in §2.6. A n y m o d i f i e r c a n b e

u s e d a s h e a d o f a n N P (see § 3 . 3 ) ; m o d i f i e r s w h i c h c o n t a i n s e v e r a l classifiers reflecting

different l e v e l s o f e m b e d d i n g (see e x a m p l e s 5 . 2 6 - 5 . 3 0 ) c a n also b e u s e d this w a y .

S i m i l a r l y , s e q u e n c e s like diha-dapanite 'the o n e o f t h e h o u s e ' , ' h o u s e m a s t e r ' ( m e n t i o n e d

2
i n § 5 . 1 . 2 ) c a n b e u s e d in h e a d l e s s N P s .

5.1.4 N u m e r a l classifiers

N u m e r a l classifiers are o b l i g a t o r y w i t h t h e n u m b e r s o n e to four. W i t h s i m p l e n u m b e r s

f r o m o n e to t h r e e , t h e classifier is suffixed to t h e n u m e r a l , as in 5.2. T h e classifier is

s u f f i x e d t o n u m b e r 'four', kehpu-nipe ( R E L + f o l l o w - N O M ) , lit. 'the f o l l o w i n g ' ; it is h e r e

f o l l o w e d b y t h e p l u r a l m a r k e r -pe, e.g. kehpunipe-ma-pe waliki-ru-rna-pe (four-CL:FEM-

PL y o u n g s t e r - F E M - C L : F E M - P L ) 'four y o u n g w o m e n ' , hehpunipe-da-pe (four-CL:ROUND-PL)

'four (fruit)'. 'Five', w h i c h is t h e w o r d for 'hand', d o e s n o t r e q u i r e a classifier, e.g. p a : -

kapi t h u y a p u . w e ( i M P - h a n d all m o n k e y ) 'five m o n k e y s ' .

N u m b e r s b i g g e r t h a n five are rarely u s e d in T a r i a n a . T h e y are n o u n p h r a s e s , a n d

c o n t a i n a 'vertical' classifier - n a (to refer to fingers u s e d in c o u n t i n g ) o n a p r e d i c a t e in a

m o d i f y i n g f u n c t i o n . In t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect, n u m e r a l s six to n i n e a r e f o r m e d a s

f o l l o w s : o n e s i d e o f a h a n d ( a n d ) o n e + c l a s s i f i e r f o l l o w s (-fclassifier), a s in 5.29 a n d

5.30. T h e v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t i o n s like 5.31 a n d 5.32 m a y b e d u e to l a n g u a g e

attrition. N u m e r a l s e m p l o y e d in t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect are g i v e n in § 1 1 . 8 .

5 . 2 9 p e m e - k a p i p a : - n a d y a n a t a - n a

o n e + S I D E + I N D F - H A N D o n e - C L : V E R T 3 s g n f + f o l l o w - C L : V E R T

'six (vertical t h i n g s ) (i.e. 'the side o f o n e h a n d a n d o n e vertical o n e , i.e. finger

w h i c h f o l l o w s ) '

5 . 3 0 p e m e - k a p i p a : - n a d y a n a t a

o n e + S I D E + I N D F - H A N D o n e - C L : V E R T 3 s g n f + f o l l o w

'six (vertical things)'

N u m b e r 'ten', w h i c h literally m e a n s 'all t h e h a n d s ' , also c o n t a i n s a classifier o n t h e

m o d i f i e r t h u y a 'all', a s in 5.31 a n d 5.32 ( w h i c h a r e variants).

5.31 f i a m a - k a p i t h u y a - n a - p e p u : w e

t w o - h a n d a l l - C L : V E R T - P L c a p u c h i n . m o n k e y

'ten m o n k e y s '

2
U n l i k e s o m e M a k u languages in the V a u p e s region, Tariana does not have generic n o u n classifiers (cf.

D a w 'person girl' = 'girl': Martins a n d Martins 1999; see definition in A i k h e n v a l d 2000a). T h e generic

n o u n yaphini 'thing' c a n b e used with a specific n o u n as a lexical device, e . g . kwaka yaphini kuphe dinu-

nha (what thing fish came-PRES.VlS.iNTER) 'what sort o f fish c a m e ? ' See §26.2.2, on the semantics o f

yaphini.

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 1 0 4 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

5 . 3 2 n a m a - k a p i - d a - p e p u : w e

t w o - h a n d - C L : R O U N D - P L c a p u c h i n . m o n k e y

'ten m o n k e y s '

Y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e P o r t u g u e s e t e r m s for n u m b e r s b i g g e r t h a n five;

t h e s e a r e s o m e t i m e s a c c o m p a n i e d b y classifiers, a n d s o m e t i m e s not: s e t e - d a d i - w h i d a -

p e ( s e v e n - C L : R O U N D 3 s g n f - h e a d - P L ) ' s e v e n h e a d s ' , w i t h a classifier, a n d s e t e - i - w h i d a - p e

( s e v e n - i N D F - h e a d - P L ) ' s e v e n h e a d s ' a p p e a r s in t h e s a m e story. N u m b e r s f r o m e l e v e n to

t w e n t y a r e a l s o c o m p l e x a n d c o n t a i n classifiers, a s illustrated in 5 . 3 3 . M o s t e x a m p l e s ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g , c o m e f r o m stories t o l d b y y o u n g e r p e o p l e . N u m b e r s are

d i s c u s s e d in § 1 1 . 8 .

5.33 n a - r u k u n a - n u i t a - w h y a - p e i i a m a - k a p i

3 p l - g o . d o w n 3 p l - c o m e c a n o e - C L : C A N O E - P L t w o - h a n d

n a m a - d a d y a n a t a - w h y a - p e - p i d a n a

t w o - C L : R O U N D 3 s g n f + f o l l o w - C L : C A N O E - P L - R E M . P . R E P

' T w e l v e c a n o e s c a m e d o w n . '

N u m b e r s w i t h n u m e r a l classifiers are o f t e n u s e d a n a p h o r i c a l l y . T h i s is illustrated

w i t h 5.34. T h e full n o u n , p u p e r i ' p e a c h p a l m fruit', w a s i n t r o d u c e d in t h e first line o f t h e

story; s u b s e q u e n t l y this o b j e c t is referred to w i t h t h e classifier a t t a c h e d to n u m e r a l 'one'.

5 . 3 4 n u - n a p a : - d a p h i t a p i - n u

l s g - O B J o n e - C L : R O U N D 2 s g + b r i n g 2 s g - c o m e

' B r i n g m e o n e ( r o u n d o n e ) (i.e. fruit).'

U n l i k e n o u n c l a s s m a r k e r s a n d classifiers a s d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes ( § 5 . 1 . 3 ) , t h e r e c a n

b e o n l y o n e classifier o n a n u m e r a l .

5.1.5 Verbal classifiers

V e r b a l classifiers c a t e g o r i s e t h e d e r i v e d s u b j e c t o f a v e r b m a r k e d for t h e t o p i c -

a d v a n c i n g v o i c e ( s e e § 1 3 . 5 ) . In 5 . 3 5 t h e f e m i n i n e classifier - m a s i g n a l s t h e p r e s e n c e o f

t h e t o p i c o f t h e c l a u s e , ' w o m a n ' .

5 . 3 5 inari d i - n a k u - n i - m a - p e - s e - m h a i h y a

m u c u r a . r a t 3 s g n f - s w i v e - T O P . A D V - C L : F E M - P L - C O N T R - P R E S . N O N V I S 2 p l

' " Y o u t w o ( w o m e n ) w e r e s w i v e d b y t h e m u c u r a - r a t , " (said t h e b i r d to t h e m y t h i c a l

w o m e n w h o w e r e s m e l l y for that reason).'

T h e f o r m s o f t h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g v o i c e are o f t e n u s e d a s n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , a s p a -

d u k u n i a - n i - d a - p e ( i M P - l i g h t - T O P . A D V - C L : R O U N D - P L ) in 5.37; cf. § 1 3 . 5 a n d § 2 0 . 3 .

V e r b a l classifiers a r e a l s o u s e d to m a r k t h e o b j e c t o f a p u r p o s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

m a r k e d w i t h - h y u ' p u r p o s i v e n o n - v i s u a l ' , as in 5.36, o r - k a r u ' p u r p o s i v e visual', a s in

5 . 3 7 ( s e e § 1 6 . 7 ) .

5 . 3 6 n e - s e d i - m u s u d y - u k a p a n i - s i

t h e n - L O C 3 s g n f - g o . o u t 3 s g n f - a r r i v e h o u s e - N P O S S

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 5. / O v e r v i e w of t h e m u l t i p l e classifier s y s t e m 1 0 5

d i - u m a - p i d a n a d i h a a l i a - h y u - d a p a n a

3 s g n f - l o o k . f o r - R E M . P . R E P h e s t a y - P U R P . N O N V I S - C L : H A B

T h e n h e w e n t a n d l o o k e d for a h o u s e for h i m s e l f to live in.'

5 . 3 7 n h e t a p a - d u k u n i a - n i - d a - p e

3 p l + b r i n g I M P - l i g h t - T O P . A D V - C L : R O U N D - P L

n a - d u k u n i a - k a r a - n a d e p i - s e - p i d a n a

3 p l - l i g h t - P U R P . V I S - C L : V E R T n i g h t - L O C - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y b r o u g h t l a m p s (lit. r o u n d o n e s to b e lit u p ) for t h e m to light l o n g o n e s (i.e.

t o r c h e s ) at night.'

V e r b a l classifiers are o f t e n u s e d a n a p h o r i c a l l y t o refer to a p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d

referent, e.g. t h e classifier - n a 'vertical' in 5.37, a n d -dapana ' C L : H A B I T A T ' in 5.38.

5 . 3 8 d i h a w a l i k i r i d i - d i a - p i d a n a

A R T y o u n g . m a n 3 s g n f - r e t u r n - R E M . P . R E P

d i - a d i h a w a l i k a s u d i - n a - n i - d a p a n a - s e

3 s g n f - g o h e a g a i n 3 s g n f - l i v e - T O P . A D V - C L : H A B - L O C

' T h e y o u n g m a n w e n t b a c k , h e w e n t to t h e [ h o u s e ] in w h i c h h e lived.'

U n l i k e n o u n c l a s s m a r k e r s a n d n o u n classifiers in d e r i v a t i o n s , b u t like n u m e r a l

classifiers, v e r b a l classifiers c a n n o t b e s t a c k e d .

5 . 1 . 6 Classifiers w i t h modifiers f r o m c l o s e d c l a s s e s

C l a s s i f i e r s are u s e d w i t h m o d i f i e r s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c l o s e d classes: d e m o n s t r a t i v e s

( p r o x i m a l a n d distal), t h e specifier article, interrogative-distributive ('which, every'),

g e s t u r a l deictic, i n d i v i d u a l i s i n g distributive ('each') a n d interrogative quantifier ( ' h o w

m a n y ' ) . T h e classifiers u s e d w i t h e a c h o f t h e s e are slightly different f r o m t h e classifiers

e m p l o y e d in o t h e r m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s .

A l l o f t h e s e m o d i f i e r s h a v e a g e n e r i c , o r 'unspecified' f o r m . T h e u s e o f s h a p e

classifiers is o p t i o n a l ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 4 a ; 2 0 0 0 c ) . T h i s u s e d e p e n d s o n t h e r o l e o f a

n o u n in t h e d i s c o u r s e : classifiers are u s e d o n l y if t h e s h a p e o f t h e i n a n i m a t e referent is

f o c u s s e d . T h e s a m e a p p l i e s to t h e w a y t h e f e m i n i n e classifier - m a is u s e d w i t h all t h e

d e i c t i c s d i s c u s s e d h e r e , e x c e p t for t h e specifier article w h i c h h a s a special f o r m u s e d

w i t h f e m i n i n e h u m a n referents.

A . C L A S S I F I E R S W I T H D E M O N S T R A T I V E S . T a r i a n a h a s a t h r e e w a y o p p o s i t i o n in

d e m o n s t r a t i v e s : p r o x i m a t e (hf/ha), distal (hane) a n d p r o x i m a t e e m p h a t i c (hThi) (see

§ 1 1 . 3 ) . O n l y t h e first t w o o c c u r w i t h classifiers ( D i a g r a m 11.1). T h e p r o x i m a t e a n i m a t e

d e m o n s t r a t i v e h a s a s e m i s u p p l e t i v e f o r m (hi); it d o e s n o t t a k e classifiers.

( D e m o n s t r a t i v e s d o n o t d i s t i n g u i s h n u m b e r . ) D e m o n s t r a t i v e s c a n b e specified for s h a p e

a n d f o r m ( w i t h i n a n i m a t e n o u n s ) , a n d for s e x ( w i t h a n i m a t e n o u n s ) if t h e s e features

h a v e t o b e f o c u s s e d ; t h e classifiers are t h e o n e s listed u n d e r B in T a b l e 5 . 1 . B o t h 5.39

a n d 5 . 4 0 illustrate t h e g e n e r i c f o r m o f d e m o n s t r a t i v e s (/zf'this' a n d h a n e ) w i t h a n o u n

that h a s a n a n i m a t e referent.

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 106 5 Noun classes and classifiers

5 . 3 9 hi p h e n i s i hi T a r i a n a - n u

this e l d e r . b r o t h e r s this T a r i a n a 3 p l - c o m e

' T h e s e e l d e r b r o t h e r s , t h e s e T a r i a n a s c a m e . '

5 . 4 0 d i - a y h a - k a - p i d a n a h a n e itfiri

3 s g n f - s w i m - S U B - R E M . P . R E P that a n i m a l

' W h i l e that a n i m a l w a s s w i m m i n g . '

G e n e r i c f o r m s a r e u s e d w i t h n o u n s w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e o r a f e m a l e referent i f it is n o t

in f o c u s . In 5.41 hi ina: m e a n s 'these w o m e n ' a s a class; h a - m a i n a r u w o u l d m e a n 'this

v e r y w o m a n ' . I n 5 . 4 2 , hi w a l i k u m m a 'this y o u n g w o m a n ' is a t o p i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d

p a r t i c i p a n t w h o s e 'femininity' d o e s n o t h a v e to b e f o c u s s e d .

5.41 hi ina: m a : n i h t a - k a d e

D E M : A N I M w o m e n N E G + t h i n k - N E G

T h e s e ( a n c e s t r a l ) w o m e n (as a class) d o n o t think.'

5.42 hi w a l i k i - r u - m a - n u k u n u h u a i-na

D E M : A N I M y o u n g s t e r - F E M - C L : F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S I 2 p l - O B J

n u - d i e t a - d e

1 s g - r e t u r n + C A U S - F U T . C E R T

'I w i l l g i v e y o u b a c k this y o u n g w o m a n . '

S i m i l a r l y , in 5 . 4 3 , a w a k a d a 'jungle' h a s a g e n e r i c referent (it refers to j u n g l e in

g e n e r a l ) , a n d o c c u r s w i t h hi.

5.43 d i h a n a w i k i - m i k i - r i - p i d a n a di-dia d i h a

A R T m a n - N O M . P A S T - M A S C - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - r e t u r n h e

hi a w a k a d a - s e

D E M : A N I M j u n g l e - L O C

' T h i s e x - p e r s o n (evil spirit n a m u ) r e t u r n e d to t h e j u n g l e . '

In contrast, d e m o n s t r a t i v e + c l a s s i f i e r is u s e d to refer to i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t s if t h e n o u n

itself, o r its s h a p e , is in f o c u s . In 5.44, classifier - n a ' C L : V E R T I C A L ' is u s e d w i t h

p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e ( u n d e r l i n e d ) b e c a u s e t h e n o u n it m o d i f i e s ('hill') is in f o c u s .

5 . 4 4 k w a n a h a - n a h y a p a - n a

w h o D E M : I N A N - C L : V E R T h i l l - C L : V E R T

h a n e - r i k u m a - s e k h e t a k a - t h a k e

t h a t - P L A C E + O N E . O F . P A I R - L O C R E L + b r i n g R E L - c r o s s + C A U S

k e : m e t a n u - i t u - k a n a p e - n u k u k a - s a - d u a - m h a d e

R E L + g e t + C A U S 1s g - d a u g h t e r - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S R E L - s p o u s e - F E M - F U T

' W h o t a k e s this v e r y m o u n t a i n a c r o s s to t h e o t h e r side o f t h e river (lit. that o n e

p l a c e o f a pair) will m a r r y m y daughter.'

5.45 s h o w s a s i m i l a r u s e o f - n a ' C L : V E R T I C A L ' w i t h t h e distal d e m o n s t r a t i v e h a n e .

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 5.1 Overview of the multiple classifier system 107

5 . 4 5 h a n e - n a h e k u - n a i t h a n i - k a d i - s w a

t h a t - C L : V E R T t r e e - C L : V E R T u n d e r - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - s t a y

'It ( t h e b a b y ) is at that v e r y tree ( o v e r there).'

O n l y t h e a n i m a t e f o r m o f t h e p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e c a n b e u s e d a n a p h o r i c a l l y to

refer t o a n a n i m a t e b e i n g , a s i n 5.46. I n a n i m a t e /za+classifier h a s t o b e u s e d

a n a p h o r i c a l l y t o refer to a n i n a n i m a t e object, as in 5.47.

5 . 4 6 h i p u a y a - s i n a w a - n a d i - d i a

D E M : A N I M d i f f e r e n t - R E M . P . I N F R l p l - O B J 3 s g n f - r e t u r n

' T h i s ( o n e ) b e c a m e different for us.'

5 . 4 7 n a - n a d h u t a - s i n a d u - n u

3 p l - O B J 3 s g f + b r i n g - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g f - c o m e

h a - p u a - n u k u

D E M : I N A N - C L : R I V E R - T O P . N O N . A / S

' S h e ( t h e m y t h i c a l a n c e s t o r ) b r o u g h t ( T a r i a n a s ) to this o n e (river).'

A n o t h e r i n s t a n c e o f h o w p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e s are u s e d w i t h i n a n i m a t e

classifiers is r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a t i n g s e m a n t i c effect o f n o u n classifiers (also

s e e § 8 . 1 a n d § 5 . 1 . 3 a b o v e ) . A 'generic' a n i m a t e p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e is o f t e n u s e d

w i t h a n o u n u n s p e c i f i e d for n u m b e r , referring to t h e t y p e o f object. In 5 . 4 8 , h e k u 'tree'

refers t o t r e e s a s a t y p e o f v e g e t a t i o n , a n d is u s e d w i t h a g e n e r i c d e m o n s t r a t i v e .

5 . 4 8 hi h e k u - n u k u d i - p a n a - p i d a n a

this t r e e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - p l a n t - R E M . P . R E P

' H e ( C r e a t o r ) p l a n t e d trees.'

T o i n d i v i d u a t e t h e referent, d e m o n s t r a t i v e + c l a s s i f i e r is u s e d , as in 5.49.

5 . 4 9 p a - t h i d h e m a - n a d i h a h a - n a

I M P - e y e 3 s g n f + b u r n - C L : V E R T A R T t h i s - C L . V E R T

h e k u - n a

t r e e - C L : V E R T

' T h i s tree is t h e o n e that b u r n s o n e ' s eyes.'

T h e r e is a n o t h e r set o f p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e s w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h f e m i n i n e a n d

n o n - f e m i n i n e g e n d e r s a n d c a n n o t t a k e classifiers: f e m i n i n e h u i k a a n d n o n - f e m i n i n e h i k a

'this o n e here'. T h e f e m i n i n e f o r m is u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h f e m a l e referents, w h i l e t h e

n o n - f e m i n i n e is u s e d w i t h a n y a n i m a t e referent (e.g. h i k a tjari 'this m a n here', h i k a tfinu

'this d o g here'). T h e y a r e e x t r e m e l y r a r e a n d are c o n s i d e r e d 'old l a n g u a g e ' ; s o m e y o u n g e r

s p e a k e r s d o n ' t e v e n r e c o g n i s e t h e m . T h e y c a n b e u s e d in h e a d l e s s N P s , a s in 5.50, o r as

p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r s , a s in 5 . 5 1 . N o t e that in 5.50, f r o m a text a b o u t a m a n w h o m a r r i e d a

t o a d - w o m a n (told b y C a n d i d o ) , b o t h h u i k a a n d h a - m a (this-CL:FEM) are u s e d w i t h t h e

s a m e m e a n i n g .

5 . 5 0 k a y - d i - n i h u i k a n u - n a d h u t a d u - a

s o - 3 s g n f - d o t h i s . o n e . h e r e : F E M l s g - O B J 3 s g f + b r i n g 3 s g n f - g o

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 1 0 8 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

d i - a - p i d a n a p i - k a - t h a r a - p a d a

3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P 2 s g - s e e - P R E C - C O U N T E R E X

h a - m a - n a k a d i - a - p i d a n a

t h i s - C L : F E M - P R E S . V I S 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

'After h e d i d s o (i.e. a p p e a r e d t o h i s m o t h e r w i t h his n e w w i f e f r o m t h e o t h e r

w o r l d ) , h e said: this o n e b r o u g h t m e ( f r o m t h e o t h e r w o r l d to t h e w o r l d o f m e n ) ,

j u s t h a v e a l o o k , it is t h i s one.'

5.51 h u i k a n u - w e - d u p i - n a

t h i s . o n e . h e r e : F E M l s g - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - F E M 2 s g - O B J

n u - k a l i t e - n i t e d u - a - m h a

l s g - t e l l - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N I M 3 s g n f - c o m e - P R E S . N O N V I S

T h i s y o u n g e r sister o f m i n e , a b o u t w h o m I told y o u , is c o m i n g . '

M o r p h o l o g i c a l l y , t h e p a i r k i k a a n d h u i k a are u n u s u a l in that f e m i n i n e a p p e a r s to b e

m a r k e d w i t h a m o r p h e m e - i n t e r n a l v o w e l c h a n g e . T h i s is r e m i n i s c e n t o f f e m i n i n e

f o r m a t i o n in distant deictics in W a r e k e n a o f X i e ( m a s c u l i n e eta, f e m i n i n e a y u t a , s e e

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 8 a ) .

B . C L A S S I F I E R S W I T H S P E C I F I E R A R T I C L E S . Specifier articles (see § 1 1 . 2 ) are

h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h third p e r s o n p r o n o u n s (see T a b l e 8.1). T h e y are u s e d to refer to a

p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , o r o t h e r w i s e k n o w n a n d identifiable, o r n o n - g e n e r i c

i n d i v i d u a l i s e d , participant.

T h e s e m a n t i c s a n d f o r m o f articles w i t h classifiers are s h o w n in D i a g r a m 5 . 1 .

D I A G R A M 5.1 S E M A N T I C S A N D F O R M O F A R T I C L E S W I T H C L A S S I F I E R S

S I N G U L A R

a n i m a t e i n a n i m a t e

f e i m n i n e n o n - f e m i n i n e gefieric + s h a p e

d u h a d i h a diha-CLASSIFIERS

P L U R A L

a n i m a t e i n a n i m a t e

n a h a diha-CLASSIFIERS(-pe)

T h e third p e r s o n s i n g u l a r n o n - f e m i n i n e p r o n o u n d i h a is u s e d w i t h s i n g u l a r a n i m a t e

n o n - f e m i n i n e referents, a n d w i t h i n a n i m a t e referents ( s i n g u l a r or plural) if their s h a p e is

n o t in f o c u s . I n 5.52 it is u s e d w i t h a s i n g u l a r a n i m a t e referent.

5 . 5 2 d i h a inari i-thi-da l e k a - k a

A R T m u c u r a . r a t I N D F - e y e - C L : R O U N D b u r s t - S U B

p i m a - p i d a n a t h o !

s o u n d - R E M . P . R E P t h o !

' W h e n t h e e y e o f t h e m u c u r a - r a t burst, it g a v e a s o u n d tho!'

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 5.1 Overview of the multiple classifier system 109

In 5 . 5 3 , it is u s e d w i t h i n a n i m a t e referents.

5.53 k a y - n a m i d i h a pani-si-se

s o - A F T E R : D S A R T h o u s e - N P O S S - L O C

n h a - k a - s i m a t f a - p e r i h i k u - p i d a n a

e a t - T H - N O M g o o d - C L : C O L L a p p e a r - R E M . P . R E P

'After that, g o o d f o o d a p p e a r e d in t h e h o u s e . '

If t h e s h a p e o f a n i n a n i m a t e referent is in f o c u s , a classifier h a s to b e u s e d , as in 5.54.

5 . 5 4 y a l a n a m a d a r i p a - p i d a n a n a - n a

w h i t e . m a n t h r e e + N U M . C L : A N I M - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - s t a y

d i h a - w h y a - s e i t a - w h y a - s e - n u k u

A R T - C L : C A N O E - L O C c a n o e - C L : C A N O E - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h r e e m e n w e r e o n this v e r y c a n o e . '

T h e f e m i n i n e classifier, - m a , o c c a s i o n a l l y d o e s o c c u r o n t h e g e n e r i c f o r m o f t h e
3
article d i h a , cf. 5 . 1 9 a n d 5.55. In this, d i h a a s t h e article differs f r o m d i h a a s a p e r s o n a l

p r o n o u n .

5.55 d i h a - m a - p e - n e n a - m u s u - k a n a - n u - p i d a n a

A R T - C L : F E M - P L - F O C . A / S 3 p l - g o . o u t - S U B 3 p l - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

d i h a - d a - p a s i - n u k u d i - a n a p i

A R T - C L : R O U N D - A U G - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - c a r r y . o n . b a c k

d i - m u s u - k a d i - n u - p i d a n a - n i k i

3 s g n f - g o . o u t - S U B 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P - C O M P L

'After t h e s e ( w o m e n ) c a m e out, h e c a m e o u t c a r r y i n g t h e b i g r o u n d o n e (the h e a d

o f a n evil spirit)...'

A r t i c l e s a r e o f t e n u s e d a n a p h o r i c a l l y . L i k e a n i m a t e p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , d i h a is

n o t u s e d a n a p h o r i c a l l y to refer t o i n a n i m a t e s ; d i h a + classifier is u s e d instead, cf. d i h a -

dapana ( A R T - C L : H A B I T A T ) 'the h o u s e ' in 5.56. If u s e d a n a p h o r i c a l l y , d i h a a u t o m a t i c a l l y

a c q u i r e s a ' m a s c u l i n e a n i m a t e ' r e a d i n g .

5 . 5 6 d i h a - d a p a n a - s e n e - p a i t a

A R T - C L : H O U S E - L O C N E G - o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M

n e - m a - k e t a - d e - p i d a n a

N E G - N E G - m e e t - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

' H e d i d n o t find a n y o n e in this (house).'

3
E x a m p l e s o f this sort are rare, but they appear in stories told b y people o f all generations; s o m e

normativist speakers - like Jos6 Luiz Brito - w h o d o not use these forms themselves - suggested that

diha-ma ( A R T = 3 s g n f pronoun)+-/w<? 'feminine classifier1 c a n n o t b e correct b e c a u s e there is a 'contradiction'

b e t w e e n the non-feminine diha and the feminine -ma, and that the correct form ought to be duha ("she')-

ma. T h e form duha-ma has not, however, b e e n attested.

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 110 5 Noun classes and classifiers

T h e f o r m d u h a c a n o n l y b e u s e d w i t h a f e m i n i n e referent, a s in 5.57.

5 . 5 7 d u h a i n a r u - n e - p i d a n a d i - d i a

A R T . F E M w o m a n - I N S - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - r e t u r n

' H e s t a y e d w i t h t h e w o m a n . '

T h e p l u r a l f o r m , n a h a (also u s e d a s third p e r s o n plural: T a b l e 8.1), is u s e d o n l y for

h u m a n s a n d h i g h e r a n i m a t e s (irrespective o f their s e x ) ; c o m p a r e d u h a inaru (ARTiFEM

1
w o m a n ) 'the w o m a n ' , n a h a ina: ( A R T : P L w o m a n i P L ) 'the w o m e n ' ; d i h a tfari (ARTiNF

m a n ) 'the m a n ' , n a h a atfa ( A R T : P L m a n : P L ) 'the m e n ' . If a n o u n h a s a n i n a n i m a t e referent

a n d is n o t i n d i v i d u a l i s e d , d i h a , o r d i h a p l u s classifier is u s e d . T h e f o r m d i h a w i t h a

p l u r a l i n a n i m a t e n o u n is illustrated in 5.58 (also s e e diha-ma-pe ( A R T - C L : F E M - P L ) in

5.55).

5 . 5 8 d i h a k a - k a m a - n u k u d i h a d e p i - p e - s e

h e R E L - b e . d r u n k - T O P . N O N . A / S A R T n i g h t - P L - L O C

n e m h a n i - k a d i - n a d i h p u n i t a

3 p l + w a l k - S U B 3 s g n f - w a n t 3 s g n f + f o l l o w + C A U S

' W h e n t h e y w a l k , h e (the s h a d o w o f a d e c e a s e d m a n ) w a n t s to f o l l o w t h e d r u n k

o n e at night.'

T h e p l u r a l o f i n d i v i d u a l i s e d i n a n i m a t e s c a n b e o p t i o n a l l y m a r k e d w i t h -pe, a s in 5 . 5 9

( s e e a l s o C h a p t e r 8).

5 . 5 9 d i h a - n a - p e w a h a w a - k a - n i - n a - p e

A R T - C L : V E R T - P L w e l p l - s e e - T O P . A D V - C L : V E R T - P L

'the h i g h o n e s (hills) w h i c h w e see'

U n l i k e classifiers w i t h d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , classifiers w i t h articles d o n o t h a v e t h e

s e m a n t i c effect o f i n d i v i d u a t i n g a n o u n (see 5.61).

C . C L A S S I F I E R S A N D T H E I N T E R R O G A T I V E - D I S T R I B U T I V E P R O N O U N . W h e n t h e

i n t e r r o g a t i v e - d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o n o u n k w a - ' w h i c h , every' is u s e d as a m o d i f i e r , it h a s t h e

f o r m s listed in T a b l e 11.2. U n l i k e d e m o n s t r a t i v e s o r t h e specifier article, k w a - d o e s n o t

h a v e a f e m i n i n e f o r m , o r e v e n o c c u r w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e classifier - m a .

T h e a n i m a t e s i n g u l a r f o r m ku-ite a n d t h e a n i m a t e plural k u - i t a - p e n i are u s e d w i t h a n y

a n i m a t e referent, e.g. kuite pari ' w h i c h m a n ' , kuite inaru ' w h i c h w o m a n ' , kuite y a w i

' w h i c h j a g u a r ' ; kuite y a p h i n i - t h a ( I N T E R + N C L : A N I M thing-PRES.vis.iNTER) ' w h a t ( p e r s o n )

is this?' T h e f o r m kuite is o f t e n u s e d h e a d l e s s l y , in t h e m e a n i n g o f 'what's its n a m e , this

a n i m a t e one'. T h e structure o f k u - i t a - p e n i is r e m i n i s c e n t o f tsu-ita-peni ( s m a l l - C L : A N i M -

A N I M . P L ) ( s e e § 5 . 1 . 2 ) .

T h e u n m a r k e d i n a n i m a t e f o r m k w a k a is u s e d t o refer to a n y i n a n i m a t e o b j e c t w h o s e

f o r m is u n k n o w n o r n o t i m p o r t a n t , e.g. k w a k a y a p h i n i - t h a ? ( I N T E R . I N A N t h i n g -

P R E S . N O N V I S . I N T E R ) ' w h a t t h i n g is this?' W h e n t h e s h a p e is f o c u s s e d , a f o r m w i t h a

classifier is u s e d , a s in 5.60.

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 5. / Overview of the multiple classifier system 111

5 . 6 0 k w a k a - w h y a n a : m i a - n i - w h y a

I N T E R . I N A N - C L : C A N O E 3 p l + s i n k - T O P . A D V - C L : C A N O E

' W h i c h c a n o e w a s t h e c a n o e t h e y s a n k ? '

K w a k a is o f t e n u s e d w i t h a quantifier-like classifier - s a w a 'group', a n d t h e n it c a n b e

a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h s i n g u l a t i v e - s e n ( § 8 . 1 . 6 ) , cf. a f r e q u e n t l y a s k e d q u e s t i o n :

5.61 k w a k a - s a w a - s e r i - n h a d i h a ?

I N T E R . I N A N - C L : G R O U P - S I N G L - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R h e

' O f w h a t g r o u p (that is, w h a t tribe) is h e ? '

K w a k a is o f t e n u s e d h e a d l e s s l y , in hesitation, in t h e m e a n i n g o f 'what's that, this

i n a n i m a t e o n e ' , a s in 5 . 6 2 ( s e e further e x a m p l e s in C h a p t e r 2 1 ) .

5 . 6 2 w a h a a l i a - r i d y e d a k w a k a n u m a r i - p a n i i k w e - s e

w e E X I S T - R E L d o w n r i v e r I N T E R . I N A N N u m a l i - r a p i d I N D F + d o w n - L O C

' T h e p l a c e w e w e r e at d o w n r i v e r , w h a t ' s its n a m e , n a m e , d o w n s t r e a m f r o m t h e

4
N u m a l i rapids.'

W h e n i n t e r r o g a t i v e k a n i ' w h e r e ; w h i c h ' is u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r it t a k e s n o r m a l n o u n

c l a s s m a r k e r s (just like a n y o t h e r adjective-like e l e m e n t ) , e.g. 5 . 6 3 .

5.63 k a n i - m a - p u - n h a k e t e m i - m a

w h i c h - C L : F E M - A U G - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R r e m a i n - C L : F E M

' W h i c h ( f e m a l e ) o n e is t h e r e m a i n i n g o n e ? '

D . C L A S S I F I E R S W I T H G E S T U R A L D E I C T I C . T h e gestural deictic khi- ' h a v i n g a f o r m like

this ( g e s t u r i n g ) ' h a s t h e a g r e e m e n t f o r m s s h o w n in T a b l e 1 1 . 3 . U n l i k e k w a - it d o e s n o t

d i s t i n g u i s h a n i m a t e a n d i n a n i m a t e f o r m s , b u t it c a n o c c u r w i t h t h e a n i m a t e n o u n class

m a r k e r -ite. T h e g e s t u r a l deictic is m o s t o f t e n u s e d w i t h i n a n i m a t e referents - s e e § 1 1 . 5 .

T h e u n m a r k e d f o r m w h i c h c o n s i s t s of khi + -da ' C L I R O U N D ' is u s e d w h e n t h e s h a p e o f a

referent is n o t in f o c u s , a s in 5.64.

5 . 6 4 u n i k h i - d a k h e w a k a - p u a

w a t e r l i k e . t h i s - C L : R O U N D d e e p - C L : R J V E R

'the river ( w h i c h is) d e e p like this'

If t h e s h a p e o f t h e referent is in f o c u s , a f o r m - s p e c i f i c classifier is u s e d , e.g. khidetfi

manaketfi ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m khida-itfi manaka-itfi) (like.this-CL:BUNDLE acai.fruit-

C L i B U N D L E ) 'a b u n d l e o f acai this big', maka-pina wyaka-pina khida-pina ('big'-

C L i S W A M P f a r - C L : S W A M P t h i s . b i g - C L : s w A M P ) 'a far a w a y s w a m p this big', k h i d a - m a

i n a r u (this.big-CL:FEM w o m a n ) 'a w o m a n this big', khidite f f r o m khida-ite) tfari ' m a n

this big'. W i t h a p l u r a l referent, d o u b l e plural m a r k i n g o c c u r s , w h e r e b y t h e plural

4
T h e difference b e t w e e n kwana, kwaka and kuite is d i s c u s s e d in § 11.4.

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 1 1 2 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

m a r k e r -pe is a d d e d t o t h e r o o t khi, a s in khi-pe-kha-pe k u l e - k h a (like.this-PL-

C L : C U R V E D - P L f i s h i n g . h o o k - C L i c u R V E D ) 'fishing lines this big' (also s e e 1 1 . 4 0 , a n d

d i s c u s s i o n in §8.3). A d o u b l e plural is illustrated in 5.65, f r o m a story t o l d b y A m e r i c o

B r i t o a b o u t t h e g o o d o l d d a y s w h e n e v e n m a n i o c b r e a d w a s b i g g e r t h a n n o w a d a y s

( w h e n p r o n o u n c i n g 5 . 6 5 , h e m a d e a large circular m o v e m e n t w i t h h i s h a n d s , t o s h o w

h o w big, r o u n d a n d ring-like, t h e b r e a d w a s ) .

5.65 p e t h e - m i s i n i , m a l e d a n a - n i - n a ,

m a n i o c . b r e a d - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R t h i c k - C L : R O U N D 3 p l - d o - R E M . P . V I S

p e t h e - m i s i n i k h i p e - p u k w i - p e

m a n i o c . b r e a d - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R t h i s . b i g + P L - C L : R O U N D . H O L L O W - P L

k e s a m a

fullness

' M a n i o c b r e a d (lit. m a n i o c b r e a d s ) , t o o , t h e y m a d e t h e m thickly, m a n i o c b r e a d ,

t o o , t h e y w e r e b i g like this in their fullness.'

T h e s e c o n d p l u r a l m a r k e r is o p t i o n a l , u n l e s s t h e referent is a n i m a t e , a s in 5.66 w h e r e

t h e a n i m a t e -peni (the plural o f -ite ' N C L : A N I M A T E ' ) is u s e d .

5 . 6 6 k h i p e - p e n i - p a s i - p e n a - m u s u n a - n u m a w a r i - p a s i - p e

t h i s . b i g + P L - P L : A N I M - A U G - P L 3 p l - g o . o u t 3 p l - c o m e s n a k e - A U G - P L

' T h e s n a k e s c a m e out, b i g like this ( s h o w i n g h o w b i g t h e y w e r e ) . '

E. C L A S S I F I E R S W I T H I N D I V I D U A L I S I N G D I S T R I B U T I V E A N D W I T H I N T E R R O G A T I V E

Q U A N T I F I E R . T h e a g r e e m e n t f o r m s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s i n g distributive napada 'each, o n e

b y o n e ' a n d t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e quantifier kanapada ' h o w m a n y , h o w m u c h ' are s h o w n in

T a b l e 11.4. T h e y a r e s i m i l a r t o khi 'gestural deictic' (see D a b o v e ) . U n l i k e k h i d a , napada

h a s t h e s a m e f o r m for u n m a r k e d a n d for s e x a n d s h a p e specific singular; a n d t h e ' f o r m

specific' p l u r a l d o e s n o t h a v e t h e plural m a r k e d t w i c e . T h e u n m a r k e d f o r m is u s e d w i t h

n o n - f e m i n i n e a n i m a t e s . In 5 . 6 7 t h e u n m a r k e d f o r m , napada, is u s e d to refer to m e n e a c h

p a i n t i n g h i m s e l f .

5 . 6 7 n a p a d a - s i n a n a - n i - s i n a n a - k u l i r a - n i p e

o n e . b y . o n e - R E M . P . I N F R 3 p l - d o - R E M . P . I N F R 3 p l - p a i n t - N O M

' T h e y d i d their p a i n t i n g ( p a i n t e d t h e m s e l v e s for a ritual feast) o n e b y one.'

In 5 . 6 8 , t h e u n m a r k e d f o r m is u s e d w i t h napada, m o d i f y i n g a n o u n w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e

referent, 'canoe'; t h e s h a p e o f c a n o e is n o t in focus.

5 . 6 8 n a - p i d a n a d i h a - w h y a - p e n a p a d a - p i d a n a

3 p l + g o - R E M P . R E P A R T - C L : C A N O E - P L o n e . b y . o n e - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y (the c h i e f s d a u g h t e r s ) w e n t o n t o o n e c a n o e after another.'

In contrast, in 5.69, napada f o l l o w e d b y a s h a p e classifier -da 'round' is u s e d

a n a p h o r i c a l l y t o refer to bottles o f w h i s k y .

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 5. / O v e r v i e w of t h e m u l t i p l e classifier s y s t e m 1 1 3

5 . 6 9 w h a n a p a d a - d a - p e p i - w a n a

l p l o n e . b y . o n e - C L : R O U N D - P L 2 s g - o r d e r

' O r d e r u s a r o u n d o n e (i.e. a bottle) each.'

T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e quantifier kanapada (see T a b l e 11.5) b e h a v e s similarly, in that it is

o n l y u s e d w i t h a classifier if t h e s h a p e o f a f e m i n i n e or a n i n a n i m a t e referent is in f o c u s ;

u n l i k e n a p a d a , p l u r a l h a s t o b e m a r k e d t h e n (kanapada is n o t u s e d w i t h s i n g u l a r

referents):

5 . 7 0 k a n a p a d a - d a p a n a - p e a l i a - n h a Y a w h i p a n i - s e

h o w . m a n y - C L : H A B - P L E X I S T - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R . I a u a r e t e - L O C

' H o w m a n y h o u s e s are t h e r e in Iauarete?'

T h e s i n g u l a r f o r m kanapada w i t h o u t a classifier is u s e d w i t h collective referents, as

in 5 . 7 1 , o r a s a q u a n t i f i e r ' h o w m u c h ' a s in 5.72.

5.71 k u p h e p a w a r i p h i p a k a n a p a d a pi-na-ri

fish right 2 s g + t a k e h o w . m a n y 2 s g - w a n t - R E L

p i - n h a p h i p a

2 s g - e a t 2 s g + t a k e

' T a k e t h e right ( q u a n t i t y ) o f fish, h o w e v e r m a n y y o u w a n t to eat (lit. w h a t y o u

w a n t t o eat) y o u t a k e (it).'

5 . 7 2 k a n a p a d a - n h a p i - w a n a p h i a

h o w . m a n y / m u c h - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R 2 s g - b u y y o u

' H o w m u c h d i d y o u b u y ? '

H u m a n referents, o r a n y i n d i v i d u a l i s e d referents, are often u s e d w i t h t h e plural f o r m

k a n a p a d a - p e , e.g. kanapada-pe n a w i k i ( h o w . m a n y - P L p e o p l e ) ' h o w m a n y p e o p l e ' ,

kanapada-pe ita-whya-pe ( h o w . m a n y - P L canoe-CL:CANOE-PL) ' h o w m a n y c a n o e s ' . T h e

p l u r a l m a r k i n g is n o t o b l i g a t o r y . Kanapada c a n n o t b e u s e d w i t h a classifier w i t h o u t a

p l u r a l m a r k e r .

F. C L A S S I F I E R S W I T H M O D I F I E R S O F C L O S E D C L A S S E S : A S U M M A R Y . D e m o n s t r a t i v e s ,

articles, i n t e r r o g a t i v e - d i s t r i b u t i v e s , t h e gestural deictic, a n d t h e distributive a n d t h e

q u a n t i f i e r h a v e s o m e w h a t different p r o p e r t i e s a s to h o w t h e y are u s e d w i t h n o u n s

r e q u i r i n g different n o u n c l a s s e s , o r classifier m o r p h e m e s . T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e

s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 5.2.

F o r m o s t m o d i f i e r s f r o m c l o s e d classes, s h a p e classifiers h a v e a p r a g m a t i c effect;

that is, t h e y a r e o p t i o n a l a n d are u s e d o n l y if t h e s h a p e ( a n d f e m i n i n i t y in all c a s e s

e x c e p t w i t h specifier article a n d interrogative-distributive kwa-) is in f o c u s . A l l t h e

m o d i f i e r s h a v e a g e n e r i c o r a n u n m a r k e d f o r m u s e d for i n a n i m a t e referents if their s h a p e

is n o t in f o c u s . H o w e v e r , t h e status o f this g e n e r i c f o r m is different in a l m o s t e v e r y c a s e :

w i t h p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e s a n d t h e specifier article, the a n i m a t e n o n - f e m i n i n e f o r m

is u s e d a s g e n e r i c ; i n t e r r o g a t i v e - d i s t r i b u t i v e kwa h a s a special i n a n i m a t e f o r m , w h i l e the

g e s t u r a l d e i c t i c a n d t h e distributive o n l y h a v e o n e u n m a r k e d f o r m w i t h o u t a n y a n i m a c y

d i s t i n c t i o n s .

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T A B L E 5.2 C L A S S I F I E R S W I T H M O D I F I E R S O F C L O S E D C L A S S E S

I N T E R R O G A T I V E - G E S T U R A L D
P R O P E R T I E S D E M O N S T R A T I V E A R T I C L E
D I S T R I B U T I V E k w a - D E I C T I C k h i

1. P R A G M A T I C E F F E C T O F
y e s y e s y e s y e s
S H A P E C L A S S I F I E R S

2. G E N E R I C O R U N M A R K E D
y e s y e s y e s y e s
F O R M

s p e c i a l
3. F O R M U S E D A S G E N E R I C a n i m a t e n o n - f e m i n i n e u n m a r k e d f o r m
i n a n i m a t e f o r m

4. I N D I V I D U A T I N G E F F E C T O F
y e s n o n o n o
C L A S S I F I E R S

5. U S E O F N O U N C L A S S
n o n o y e s y e s
A N I M A T E M A R K E R -ite

6. O B L I G A T O R Y F E M I N I N E
n o y e s n o n o
F O R M

7. U S E O F F E M I N I N E
y e s n o n o y e s
C L A S S I F I E R - m a

8. A N I M A T E V S I N A N I M A T E
y e s n o y e s n o
F O R M

9. S I N G U L A R v s P L U R A L
n o o p t i o n a l y e s y e s
D I S T I N C T I O N

10. D O U B L E P L U R A L n o n o n o y e s

11. U S E D O N L Y W I T H
n o n o n o n o
N O N S I N G U L A R R E F E R E N T S
 5 . 2 F u n c t i o n s of classifiers 1 1 5

O t h e r p r o p e r t i e s i n w h i c h t h e s e m o d i f i e r s differ are: w h e t h e r t h e n o u n c l a s s a n i m a t e

m a r k e r -ite is u s e d o r n o t ; w h e t h e r t h e r e is a n o b l i g a t o r y f e m i n i n e f o r m ; w h e t h e r t h e

f e m i n i n e classifier - m a is u s e d at all; w h e t h e r t h e r e is a s p e c i a l a n i m a t e a n d a n

i n a n i m a t e f o r m ; a n d w h e t h e r t h e r e is a f o r m a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s i n g u l a r a n d plural. In

a d d i t i o n , k h i 'gestural clitic' is t h e o n l y c l o s e d c l a s s o f m o d i f i e r s t o r e q u i r e d o u b l e p l u r a l

m a r k i n g ; a n d t h e q u a n t i f i e r k a n a p a d a r e q u i r e s a n o n s i n g u l a r referent.

5.2 F u n c t i o n s o f c l a s s i f i e r s

C l a s s i f i e r s in T a r i a n a a r e n o t s e m a n t i c a l l y r e d u n d a n t . A n y i n a n i m a t e n o u n c a n b e u s e d

w i t h o n e o r a n u m b e r o f different classifiers, t o f o c u s o n its different p r o p e r t i e s . F o r

i n s t a n c e , if 'water' is s e e n a s a s u b s t a n c e it r e q u i r e s 'collective' n o u n c l a s s m a r k e r -peri,

e.g. u n i p u m e n i - p e r i ( w a t e r s w e e t - C L : C O L L ) ' s w e e t water'. W h e n t h e s a m e n o u n is u s e d

t o refer t o a r i v e r w h i c h is s e e n a s a stretch o f w a t e r , -pua is u s e d : u n i h a n u - p u a 'a b i g

river' ( s e e n j u s t a s a river, n o t h i n g else). If a r i v e r is s e e n a s c u r v e d , it is r e f e r r e d t o a s

u n i h a n u - k h a 'a b i g ( c u r v e d ) river'; i f it is s e e n a s a r o a d t o b e f o l l o w e d , - p u n a w i l l b e

u s e d , a s i n u n i h a n u - p u n a 'a l a r g e ( r o a d - l i k e ) river'; a n d if o n e w a n t s to stress t h a t a r i v e r

c o v e r s a b i g o p e n s p a c e , t h e classifier -ipa is u s e d , a s in u n i h a n i p a 'a b i g river, a b i g

p o o l o f w a t e r ' ( w h i c h c o v e r s a l a r g e s p a c e ) . T h i s is r e m i n i s c e n t o f classifiers in

n u m e r o u s S o u t h E a s t A s i a n l a n g u a g e s , a s w e l l a s o f n o u n c l a s s e s i n n u m e r o u s

A u s t r a l i a n l a n g u a g e s . B e c k e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) d i s c u s s e s t h e possibilities o f f o c u s s i n g o n different

a s p e c t s o f a n o b j e c t b y c h o o s i n g different classifiers i n B u r m e s e ( a l s o s e e C h a p t e r 1 2 o f

A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 a ) . A f e w o f t h e s e possibilities a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 5.3.

T A B L E 5.3 R E C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F A N O U N : u n i ' R I V E R , W A T E R '

N O U N + MODIFIER TRANSLATION

u n i h a n u - p u a (big-CL:RIVER) 'big river'

u n i p u m e n i - p e r i ( s w e e t - C O L L ) ' s w e e t w a t e r '

u n i h a n i p a ( b i g + C L : L A R G E . S P A C E ) 'big, l a r g e river; l a r g e p o o l o f w a t e r '

u n i h a n u - k h a ( b i g - C L : C U R V E D ) 'big, c u r v e d river'

u n i h a n u - w a n i (big-CL:ABSTR.PLACES) 'big river (as a location)'

u n i h a n u - n a i ( b i g - C L : L A K E ) 'big, l a k e - l i k e river'

u n i h a n u - d a w a ( b i g - C L : C O R N E R ) 'big b a y in a river'

u n i h a n u - p i n a ( b i g - C L : S W A M P ) 'big, s w a m p y river'

u n i h a n u - p u n a ( b i g - C L : R O A D ) 'big river (roadlike)'

u n i h a n u - k w a (big-CL:FLAT.SURFACE) 'big river ( w i t h flat surface)'

u n i h a n u - p e k u (big-THiN.STRETCH) 'thin stretch o f a river'

N o t all classifiers c a n b e u s e d w i t h e v e r y n o u n ; for i n s t a n c e , t h e classifier - m a k a

' e x t e n d e d cloth' c a n n o t b e u s e d w i t h uni. T h e s e m a n t i c s o f classifiers is u s u a l l y

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d ; b u t t h e r e a r e s o m e e x c e p t i o n s : p a : - k a d a e h k w a p i ( o n e - C L : D A Y d a y ,

w o r l d ) m e a n s ' o n e d a y , o n c e u p o n a t i m e ' , w h i l e p a : - d a e h k w a p i ( o n e - C L : R O U N D d a y ,

w o r l d ) m e a n s ' n e x t d a y , a n o t h e r d a y ' ( a l s o s e e §5.1.1 a n d § 1 1 . 7 o n p a i t a

( o n e + N U M . C L : A N i M ) 'one' a n d p h e p a ( o n e + N U M . C L : H U M A N ) 'one, alone').

T h e i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n o f classifiers in T a r i a n a d i s c o u r s e is r e f e r e n t - t r a c k i n g . A n o u n

is u s u a l l y m e n t i o n e d j u s t o n c e in t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n a r r a t i v e , a n d t h e n r e f e r r e d to w i t h a

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 1 1 6 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

classifier t h r o u g h o u t a story. In n a r r a t i v e d i s c o u r s e classifiers are m o r e f r e q u e n t t h a n

n o u n s .

T h e r e f e r e n t - t r a c k i n g f u n c t i o n o f classifiers is illustrated w i t h 5 . 7 3 , f r o m a story

a b o u t h o w t w o m e n m e t a n evil spirit o n a river w h e r e t h e y c a m e to fish; t h e evil spirit

t o o k o f f h i s shirt, a n d t h e n t h e w h o l e story e v o l v e s a r o u n d this shirt w h i c h h a s all t h e

p o w e r o f t h e evil spirit itself. T h e m a g i c shirt {yammakasi) is i n t r o d u c e d in t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f t h e narrative. T h e c a s e m a r k i n g {-nuku 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' ) i n d i c a t e s that

t h e shirt is g o i n g t o b e t h e future t o p i c o f d i s c o u r s e . L a t e r o n , t h e shirt is c o n s i s t e n t l y

r e f e r r e d to either a s h a n e - m a k a 'that (distant) o n e m a d e o f cloth', w h i l e t h e shirt itself is

at a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e m e n , o r a s d i h a - m a k a ' h e - m a d e o f cloth', w h e n it

b e c o m e s directly i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e m .

5.73 d i h a y a r u - m a k a - s i - n u k u di-sole(...)

A R T t h i n g - C L : C L O T H - N P O S S - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - g e t . o f f + C A U S (...)

i r a - m h a p a - p e - n i k i

n e e d - P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - t h r o w - C O M P L

h a - n e - m a k a - n u k u

D E M - D I S T - C L : C L O T H - T O P . N O N . A / S

n a - p i d a n a n u - k e s i n i h a w p i h a p i - a

3 p l + s a y - R E M . P . R E P l s g - f r i e n d y e s y o u 2 s g - g o

p i - p e - n i k i h a - n e - m a k a - n u k u

2 s g - t h r o w - C O M P L D E M : I N A N - D I S T - C L : C L O T H - T O P . N O N . A / S

h a - n e - m a k a - n a k a k a r u n a - n a k a

D E M - D I S T - C L : C L O T H - P R E S . V I S d a n g e r o u s - P R E S . V I S

w a - n a h a i k u - n a d h i t a

l p l - O B J t r e e - C L : V E R T 3 s g n f + t a k e

d i - n a - t h a - p i d a n a di-ni-thepi

3 s g n f - O B J - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - m a k e - T O . W A T E R

d i - p e - n i k i d i - n a - p i d a n a d i h a - m a k a

3 s g n f - t h r o w - C O M P L 3 s g n f - O B J - R E M . P . R E P A R T - C L : C L O T H

d h e - k h a d i - a - n h a

3 s g n f + e n t e r - A W A Y 3 s g n f - g o - P A U S

' H e (the evil spirit) t o o k o f f h i s shirt ... I t is n e c e s s a r y to t h r o w that (shirt) a w a y ,

t h e y (the m e n ) said, m y friend, y e s , y o u g o a n d t h r o w that shirt a w a y . T h a t (shirt)

is d a n g e r o u s for us. H e ( o n e o f t h e m e n ) t o o k a tree-trunk a n d tried to t h r o w it

a w a y , in v a i n . It ( t h e shirt) c a m e u p o n t h e m a n . '

A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y is illustrated in 5 . 7 4 a a n d b . H e r e it is o b v i o u s f r o m t h e c o n t e x t

that -dapana ' C L : H A B ' refers t o t h e h o u s e . T h e story is a b o u t h o w a d e e r a n d a j a g u a r

d e c i d e d t o live together. It is i m p o r t a n t that t h e y c h o s e to live in t h e s a m e h o u s e , o n e in

o n e r o o m , a n d t h e o t h e r in a n o t h e r r o o m . N e i t h e r t h e h o u s e , n o r t h e r o o m s are

i n t r o d u c e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f full l e x e m e s , s i n c e t h e m e a n i n g is clear f r o m t h e c o n t e x t .

G e n i t i v e a n d n u m e r a l classifiers are u s e d . T h e lexical i t e m p a n i s i 'house' is u s e d o n l y in

t h e last s e n t e n c e o f t h e text, 5 . 7 4 b , to s u m m a r i s e w h a t h a p p e n e d .

5 . 7 4 a p a : - p i u - p i d a n a itjiri n a - s i w a - k a k a n a - n i

o n e - C L : T I M E - R E M . P . R E P a n i m a l 3 p l - s e l f - R E C 3 p l - d o

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 5.3 R e p e a t e r s a n d 'ad h o c ' classifiers 1 1 7

p a : - d a p a n a - p i d a n a n a - y a y a w i neri

o n e - C L : H A B - R E M . P . R E P 3pl-live j a g u a r d e e r

n e r i p a > d a w a - s e y a w i p a : - d a w a

d e e r o n e - C L : R O O M - L O C j a g u a r o n e - C L : R O O M

n a - y a - p i d a n a p a : - d a p a n a - y a

3 p l - l i v e - R E M . P . R E P o n e - C L : H A B - E M P H

' O n c e t h e a n i m a l s d e c i d e d b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s to live in o n e ( h o u s e ) , j a g u a r a n d

d e e r , d e e r in o n e ( r o o m ) , j a g u a r in a n o t h e r ( r o o m ) , t h e y lived in o n e (house).'

5 . 7 4 b n e - p i d a n a n a h a p a n i s i - n u k u n a - p e n i - k h a

s o - R E M . P . R E P t h e y h o u s e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - l e a v e - A W A Y

' S o t h e y a b a n d o n e d t h e h o u s e . '

C l a s s i f i e r s a r e w i d e l y u s e d in e v e r y d a y s p e e c h in deictic function, e.g. ha-kyere

k w a k a - k y e r e - n h a ( D E M : I N A N - C L : I S L A N D what-CL:iSLAND-PRES.Vls.lNTER) ' W h a t i s l a n d is

this?' T h e y are m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t in c o n v e r s a t i o n s t h a n full n o u n s .

f
5.3 R e p e a t e r s a n d a d hoc* classifiers

5.3.1 The use of r e p e a t e r s

N o t all i n a n i m a t e n o u n s in T a r i a n a o c c u r w i t h o n e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d classifiers listed in

T a b l e 5 . 1 . T h e s e classifiers c o v e r a b o u t 6 0 p e r c e n t o f u n d e r i v e d n o u n s w i t h a n

i n a n i m a t e referent. T o classify t h e rest, a different m o r p h o l o g i c a l t e c h n i q u e is u s e d

w h i c h c o n s i s t s in r e p e a t i n g t h e h e a d n o u n o n t h e m o d i f i e r . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e m a n t i c

g r o u p s o f u n d e r i v e d n o u n s r e q u i r e a repeater, u n l e s s a particular s h a p e p r o p e r t y h a s to

b e f o c u s s e d :

(a) c u l t u r a l l y i m p o r t a n t artefacts, e.g. ada 'grater', m u k u t u , k a . m e , k u s i w a 'types o f

b a s k e t s ' , tuda 'fishing net';

(b) i m p o r t a n t a b s t r a c t n o u n s , e.g. d a i k i n a 'afternoon', d e . p i 'night', a n d s o m e t i m e s

a l s o ke.ri 'sun, m o o n ' ( s o m e t i m e s also classified a s a n i m a t e , e.g. deipite ke:ri

( n i g h t + N C L : A N i M s u n / m o o n ) , 'nightly s u n / m o o n ; m o o n ' ; ehkwapite ke:ri

( d a y + N C L : A M M s u n / m o o n ) 'daily s u n / m o o n ; sun'; b u t n o t ke:ri ' m o n t h ' w h i c h is

classified a s a m e m b e r o f -pi class o f ' l o n g thin objects);

(c) s o m e b o d y parts, e.g. -daki 'body', -kapi 'hand', - h e n i 'ear';

(d) o c c a s i o n a l l o a n s , m o s t l y f r o m P o r t u g u e s e , e.g. m e s a 'table', p i l y a 'battery',

g a r a v a d o r a 'tape recorder'.

C o m p o u n d s trigger a g r e e m e n t u s i n g their s e c o n d part a s a n a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r o f

'repeater' t y p e , e.g. Yawhipani (jaguar+RAPiD) hanu-hipani (big+RAPiD) 'a b i g r a p i d o f

t h e Jaguar'.

T h e r e p e a t e d h e a d n o u n is u s e d a s a n o r d i n a r y classifier. 5.75 illustrates t h e u s e o f a n

i n c o r p o r a t e d h e a d n o u n o f a h e a d - m o d i f i e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , hinipuku 'garden', a s a classifier

w i t h a n a d j e c t i v e . 5 . 7 6 s h o w s t h e u s e o f t h e s a m e i n c o r p o r a t e d h e a d n o u n as a g e n i t i v e

classifier (in a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h p o s s e s s i v e m a r k e r j>a-).

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 1 1 8 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

5 . 7 5 h i n i p u k u h a n u - h i n i p u k u

g a r d e n b i g - G A R D E N
1
'big g a r d e n

5 . 7 6 n a - m u s u - n a k a n a m u - s a - d u y a - h i n i p u k u - s e

3 p l - g o . o u t - P R E S . V I S s p i r i t - s p o u s e - F E M P O S S - G A R D E N - L O C

' T h e y w e n t o u t to t h e evil spirit's wife's garden.'

If t h e s a m e n o u n hinipuku 'garden' is u s e d a s a p a t h it c a n b e u s e d w i t h t h e classifier -

p u n a ' C L : R O A D ' , a s in 5.77. If o n e w a n t s t o talk a b o u t a particularly large g a r d e n , t h e

classifier -ipa ' C L : B I C O P E N . S P A C E ' will b e a p p r o p r i a t e , a s in 5.78.

5 . 7 7 h i n i p u k u h a n u - p u n a

g a r d e n b i g - C L : R O A D

'big g a r d e n ( v i e w e d a s a road)'

5 . 7 8 h i n i p u k u h a n i p a

g a r d e n b i g + C L : B I G . O P E N . S P A C E

'big g a r d e n ( v i e w e d a s a large space)'

T h e u s e o f a r e p e a t e r is s e m a n t i c a l l y u n m a r k e d in that t h e r e is n o f o c u s o n a n y

p a r t i c u l a r s h a p e o r f o r m . F o r m a l l y , a r e p e a t e r u s u a l l y c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e n o u n itself. A n

i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n is e m p l o y e d a s a r e p e a t e r a p p e a r s w i t h t h e indefinite

p o s s e s s o r p r e f i x /"-, e . g . -isipi 'tail' i n 5.79.

5-79 diha-i-sipi n e - p i d a n a d i - n a r e

A R T - I N D F - T A I L t h e n - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - d i s a p p e a r

d i - a s e d e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

T h i s ( p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d tail o f t h e fish) t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d , it w a s n o l o n g e r

there.'

In j u s t o n e c a s e , t h e last t w o syllables o f t h e n o u n o c c u r r e d as a repeater: t h e w o r d for

'foot' is -hipama; a n d J o s e M a n o e l B r i t o u s e d j u s t t h e last t w o syllables, - p a m a , to m a r k

a g r e e m e n t :

5 . 8 0 d a : p i - k h a n u - n a n h u e p a m a m a : t j i - p a m a

n u - h i p a m a ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m )

v i n e - C L : C U R V E D l s g - O B J l s g + f o o t b a d - C L : F O O T

d y - u k a d i - p a p a - m h a n a

3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3 s g n f - c u r l - R E M . P . N 0 N V I S

' A v i n e c u r l e d a r o u n d m y b a d foot.'

5.3.2 The f u n c t i o n s of repeaters

W i t h u n d e r i v e d n o u n s , o n e c a n either u s e o n e o f t h e classifiers listed in T a b l e 5 . 1 , o r a

r e p e a t e r , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e role o f t h e h e a d n o u n in d i s c o u r s e . R e p e a t e r s a r e u s e d a s a n

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 5.3 Repeaters and 'ad hoc' classifiers 119

a g r e e m e n t d e v i c e if t h e h e a d n o u n is in f o c u s , o r i f it is v i e w e d a s a w h o l e rather t h a n a

s u m o f its parts.

E x a m p l e s 5.81 a n d 5.82 illustrate t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f a f o c a l i s e d c o n s t i t u e n t as a n

a g r e e m e n t d e v i c e . B o t h are t a k e n f r o m a text a b o u t h o w t w o M a k u p e o p l e w e r e t a k e n to

t h e h o u s e o f t h e evil spirit f r o m w h i c h o n l y o n e o f t h e m m a n a g e d to e s c a p e a f t e r w a r d s .

T h e h o u s e is i n t r o d u c e d in 5.81 w h e r e t h e specific classifier -dapana 'habitation' is u s e d

i n a h e a d l e s s g e n i t i v e classifier c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s h o u s e r e q u i r e s e m p h a s i s s i n c e it will

b e t h e c e n t r e o f t h e future narrative, a n d this is w h y t h e a d h o c r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e n o u n

p a n i s i ' h o u s e ' is u s e d in t h e s a m e t y p e o f h e a d l e s s g e n i t i v e classifier c o n s t r u c t i o n in t h e

f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e i n t h e n a r r a t i v e , 5 . 8 2 b e l o w .

5.81 n u h a n h u t a n u - d i a n u - a - d e d u - a - p i d a n a

I l s g + t a k e l s g - r e t u r n l s g - g o - F U T . C E R T 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

n u - y a - d a p a n a - s e d u - a - p i d a n a n a m u - i - s a - d o

1 s g - P O S S - C L : H A B - L O C 3 s g f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P s p i r i t - I N D F - s p o u s e - F E M

'I s h a l l t a k e y o u b a c k to m y h o u s e , s a i d t h e w i f e o f t h e evil spirit.'

5 . 8 2 k a y i d u - n i d h u t a d u - d i a

s o 3 s g f - d o 3 s g f + t a k e 3 s g f - r e t u r n

d u - a - p i d a n a d u - y a - p a n i s i - s e

3 s g f - g o - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g f - P O S S - C L : H O U S E - L O C

'After s h e d i d so, s h e t o o k ( t h e m ) b a c k to h e r v e r y h o u s e . '

E x a m p l e 5 . 8 3 refers to t h e w h o l e o f t h e h e a d n o u n (karapi 'plate'), a n d s o repetition

is r e q u i r e d . 5 . 8 4 refers to t h e c h i p p e d p a r t o f t h e h e a d n o u n ('plate'), a n d t h e classifier

- k w e m a ' r o u n d flat object' is u s e d in this c a s e .

5.83 n u h a k a r a p i h a l a - k a r a p i - n i k i

I p l a t e o p e n - C L : P L A T E - C O M P L

' M y p l a t e is c o m p l e t e l y full o f holes.'

5 . 8 4 n u h a k a r a p i l e k a - k w e m a

I p l a t e b r e a k - C L : R O U N D . F L A T

' M y p l a t e is b r o k e n ( m y p l a t e h a d a b r o k e n r o u n d part).'

5.3.3 'Ad h o c ' classifiers

T h e T a r i a n a s y s t e m o f n o u n classification is t h u s a p o t e n t i a l l y o p e n s y s t e m , a s is t h e

c a s e i n m a n y l a n g u a g e s w i t h classifiers ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 a ) , a l m o s t a n y n o u n c a n b e

u s e d i n t h e s a m e c o n t e x t a s a classifier. R e p e a t e r s o f t e n b e c o m e institutionalised

classifiers. T h a t is, r e p e a t e r s are r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s h a v i n g a m o r e g e n e r i c r e f e r e n c e , a n d

t h e r e f o r e c o m e t o b e u s e d a s further classifiers a n d a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r s for i t e m s s i m i l a r

in (a) p h y s i c a l f o r m , (b) social function, o r (c) b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s a m e s e m a n t i c field.

T h i s p r i n c i p l e is illustrated w i t h e x a m p l e s b e l o w . T h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n e w classifier

f r o m r e p e t i t i o n o n t h e s e m a n t i c b a s i s o f a c o m m o n f u n c t i o n is illustrated w i t h 5.85,

w h e r e t h e c o m m o n n o u n y e r i 'basket' is u s e d a s a classifier for a specific t y p e o f b a s k e t

( k a m e , a b a s k e t w o r n o v e r t h e h e a d ) .

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 1 2 0 5 N o u n c l a s s e s a n d classifiers

5.85 k a m e h a n u - y e r i

b a s k e t b i g - C L : B A S K E T

'a b i g b a s k e t '

A n o t h e r illustration o f t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e is g i v e n in 5.86; h e r e wepuna 'part o f a n

a r r o w to p u t p o i s o n in', is u s e d to classify t h e lexical i t e m kapisiri 'a n e e d l e u s e d to

p r e p a r e p o i s o n ' . H e r e t h e a g r e e m e n t is e m p l o y e d to indicate t h e specific u s e o f kapisiri

in p r e p a r i n g p o i s o n ; a n u n m a r k e d classification o f kapisiri as a l o n g t h i n o b j e c t is s h o w n

in 5.87.

5 . 8 6 k a p i s i r i h a n u - w e p u n a

n e e d l e b i g - C L : P A R T . O F . A R R O W . T O . P U T . P O I S O N

'a n e e d l e u s e d for p u t t i n g p o i s o n into a n a r r o w '

5 . 8 7 k a p i s i r i h a n u - h ( i ) w i

n e e d l e b i g - C L : L O N G . T H I N

'a l o n g n e e d l e '

A n ' e x t e n s i o n ' o f a r e p e a t e r into a classifier b y c o m m o n f o r m is illustrated b y turapa

' c o n e ; s o m e t h i n g o f a c o n e f o r m ' a s in 5.88. E x t e n s i o n b y t h e s a m e s e m a n t i c field for

ehkwapi 'day; s o m e t h i n g that a p p e a r s d u r i n g t h e day' is s h o w n in 5.89, y a k a r e 'village;

1
c o m m u n i t y , place a p p e a r s in 5.90 a n d depita 'night, s o m e t h i n g that a p p e a r s at night'

o c c u r s in 5 . 9 1 . T h i s t e c h n i q u e i n v o l v e s m e t a p h o r i c e x t e n s i o n a n d a n a l o g y ( c f e s p e c i a l l y

- t u r a p a , in 5.88).

5.88 k e p i r a - m a k a m a t f a - t u r a p a

b i r d - C L : C L O T H g o o d - C L : C O N E

'a b e a u t i f u l b i r d - n e s t (cone-like)'

5.89 e n u - k w a k a d a w a - e h k w a p i

s k y - C L : F L A T . S U R F A C E b l a c k - C L : D A Y

'a b l a c k c l o u d '

5 . 9 0 di-na-ri h a n u - y a k a r e

3 s g n f - l i v e - N O M b i g - C L : P L A C E

'his b i g d w e l l i n g place'

5.91 k e r a r p i m a t f a - d e p i t a

m o o n l i g h t g o o d - C L : N I G H T

'beautiful m o o n l i g h t '

S o m e o f t h e s e classifiers are o n t h e w a y t o w a r d s g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n . S u c h is t h e c a s e

o f ehkwapi 'day; s o m e t h i n g that a p p e a r s d u r i n g t h e day', u s e d to m a r k a g r e e m e n t w i t h

s e v e r a l n o u n s referring to natural p h e n o m e n a , a n d o f depita 'night, a n y t h i n g that

h a p p e n s at night', y e r i 'type o f basket', y a k a r e 'settlement'.

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 5.4 Summary 121

5 . 3 . 4 Classifiers a n d t h e l e x i c o n

T a r i a n a d i s c o u r s e is o r g a n i s e d in s u c h a w a y that classifiers are m o r e c o m m o n in a c t u a l

s p e e c h t h a n full n o u n s ( s e e §5.2). T h i s m a k e s s e n s e , g i v e n that t h e referent is f r e q u e n t l y

o b v i o u s f r o m t h e c o n t e x t , a n d s o c a n b e referred to w i t h a classifier t h r o u g h o u t t h e text.

M o s t s p e c i f i c classifiers w h i c h refer to n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a listed u n d e r E in T a b l e 5.1

d o n o t h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g full n o u n . S u c h a n o u n c a n b e d e r i v e d b a s e d o n t h e d u m m y

r o o t m a k a , e.g. - d a w a 'CL: CORNER, LIMITED SPACE', m a k a - d a w a ' r o o m ; still part o f a

river'; - k u m a 'CLiSMOKE.LiKE; C U S T O M ; LEVEL' ( m e a n i n g either g e n e r a t i o n , o r floor o f a

h o u s e ) , m a k a - k u m a ' s m o k e ; level'; -kuya ' C L . E X T E N D E D P A R T O F A R I V E R ' , maka-kuya

' e x t e n d e d p a r t o f a river'; - n a i ' C L I L A K E ' , m a k a - n a i 'lake'. S p e c i f i c classifiers w h i c h refer

to c o n c r e t e o b j e c t s a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d o n n o u n s t h e m s e l v e s a n d also w i t h t h e d u m m y

root; e.g. - k w a 'CL:FLAT.SURFACE', e.g. e n u - k w a 'sky', hipa-kwa 'stony surface', m a k a -

k w a 'flat surface'. F u n c t i o n a l l y , t h e m o r p h e m e m a k a - related to B a n i w a o f I ^ a n a maka

'big' - is s i m i l a r to T u c a n o opd 'certain s h a p e , f o r m ' a n d is u s e d in e x a c t l y t h e s a m e

f u n c t i o n (cf. R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 : 3 2 7 ; W e s t 1 9 8 0 a n d § 2 6 . 2 . 2 ) .

5.4 S u m m a r y

W e h a v e s e e n t h a t T a r i a n a h a s a large n u m b e r o f classifier t y p e s u s e d in distinct

m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e n o u n c a t e g o r i s a t i o n w i t h classifiers is b a s e d o n t h e

d i v i s i o n o f n o u n s into t h o s e w i t h a n i m a t e referents ( i n c l u d i n g h u m a n s ) a n d t h e rest.

T h e r e is a c l o s e d set o f classifiers u s e d w i t h a n i m a t e n o u n s only. S i n c e a n y i n a n i m a t e

n o u n c a n b e u s e d a s a repeater, t h e set o f i n a n i m a t e classifiers is p o t e n t i a l l y o p e n . T h i s

c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e s m a l l c l o s e d c l a s s o f t w o g e n d e r s realised in v e r b a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g

( s e e § 1 1 . 1 ) . N o u n c l a s s m a r k e r s ( u s e d a s a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r s a n d a s d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes

o n n o u n s ) , n u m e r a l classifiers, v e r b a l classifiers, p o s s e s s e d classifiers a n d classifiers

u s e d w i t h m o d i f i e r s f r o m c l o s e d c l a s s e s d i s p l a y a n u m b e r o f different p r o p e r t i e s .

O n l y N O U N CLASS M A R K E R S a l l o w 'stacking' ( e m p l o y i n g m o r e t h a n o n e m a r k e r in o n e

g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d ) . 'Stacking' o f n o u n class m a r k e r s in m o s t c a s e s c o r r e s p o n d s to

' d o u b l e ' m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n (see C h a p t e r 4 o n t h e inflectional c o m p l e x i t y in

T a r i a n a n o u n s ) , w h i l e 'stacking' t h e s e m o r p h e m e s a s d e r i v a t i o n a l d e v i c e s a l l o w s for the

d e r i v a t i o n a l c o m p l e x i t y o f n o u n s . O n e o f t h e m o s t striking p r o p e r t i e s o f T a r i a n a

classifiers is t h e possibility o f their u s e m o r e t h a n o n c e in a n o u n p h r a s e m a r k i n g

a g r e e m e n t o n different l e v e l s o f h e a d s .

T w o m o r p h e m e s {-peri 'collective' a n d - w a n i 'abstract n o u n s ' ) c a n b e u s e d o n l y as

n o u n c l a s s m a r k e r s a n d a s n o u n classifiers; t h u s , t h e r e are m o r e n o u n c l a s s e s a n d n o u n

classifiers t h a n classifiers o f o t h e r types. T h e s e m o r p h e m e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e

classifier - m a , d o n o t a l l o w 'stacking'. T h e r e is o n e specific N U M E R A L C L A S S I F I E R (-hipa

' h u m a n ' ) w h i c h o c c u r s j u s t w i t h n u m b e r s a n d is a l m o s t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e w i t h t h e a n i m a t e

classifier; t h u s , n u m e r a l classifiers f o r m a set o f classifiers distinct f r o m o t h e r types.

V E R B A L C L A S S I F I E R S o c c u r in r a t h e r restricted c o n t e x t s (especially if c o m p a r e d w i t h

o t h e r A m a z o n i a n l a n g u a g e s w h i c h p o s s e s s v e r b a l classifiers, s u c h as M u n d u r u k u , f r o m

t h e T u p i f a m i l y : A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 a ) . P O S S E S S I V E C L A S S I F I E R S , u n l i k e classifiers o f a n y

o t h e r t y p e , c a n b e r e p l a c e d w i t h t h e g e n e r i c p o s s e s s i o n m a r k e r y a r u p e 'thing' (see

§6.5.2).

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 6

P o s s e s s i o n

S i m i l a r l y t o v e r b s , n o u n s in T a r i a n a c a n b e d i v i d e d into t h o s e w h i c h t a k e p r e f i x e s , a n d

t h o s e w h i c h d o not. T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n is u l t i m a t e l y l i n k e d to t h e d i v i s i o n o f n o u n s into

i n a l i e n a b l y a n d a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d t y p e s . I n a l i e n a b l y ('obligatorily') p o s s e s s e d n o u n s

a l w a y s t a k e p r e f i x e s ; s o m e o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s m a y t a k e p r e f i x e s ; o t h e r n o u n s

d o n o t t a k e p r e f i x e s .

6.1 P e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g

6.1.1 The s y s t e m

A s in m o s t o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s , T a r i a n a u s e s t h e s a m e set o f c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g

p r e f i x e s for m a r k i n g A / S a o n v e r b s ( C h a p t e r 12) a n d p r o n o m i n a l p o s s e s s o r o n

o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s . P r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n d e p e n d e n t

p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s are g i v e n in T a b l e 6 . 1 . ( A d d i t i o n a l g e n d e r distinctions in i n d e p e n d e n t

p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 8.1.) ( I n d e p e n d e n t p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s a r e f o r m e d

v i a c o m b i n a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s a n d a n e m p h a t i c particle - h a -

s e e § 1 1 . 1 . )

T A B L E 6.1 C R O S S - R E F E R E N C I N G P R E F I X E S A N D P R O N O U N S

S I N G U L A R P L U R A L

C R O S S - R E F E R E N C I N G P R O N O U N S C R O S S - R E F E R E N C I N G P R O N O U N S

1 n u - n u h a w a - w(a)ha

2 p i - p i h a , p h i a i- iha

3 n f di- d i h a , dihya
n a - n(a)ha
3 f du- d u h a , d u h u a

i m p e r s o n a l p a - p(a)ha - -

i n d e f i n i t e * i- - - -

T h e i n d e f i n i t e p r e f i x is u s e d o n l y o n n o u n s , v e r y rarely o n v e r b s - s e e § 6 . 1 . 2 .

T a b l e 6.1 s h o w s that T a r i a n a h a s a s y s t e m o f f o u r p e r s o n s in c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g

p r e f i x e s a n d p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s . T h e 'fourth p e r s o n ' is i m p e r s o n a l w h i c h h a s a g e n e r i c

r e f e r e n c e ( s i m i l a r to 'all'; s e e C h a p t e r 11). T w o n u m b e r s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d for t h r e e

p e r s o n s , b u t n o t for t h e i m p e r s o n a l . C r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s h a v e y e t a n o t h e r ,

u n u s u a l , f o r m : t h e 'indefinite' c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefix i- w h i c h h a s n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g

p r o n o u n . Its u s e w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w . P e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g o n p r e f i x e d n o u n s

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 6.1 P e r s o n a l cross-referencing 1 2 3

is u s e d t o i n d i c a t e p o s s e s s o r , e.g. n u - w h i d a ' m y head', p i - w h i d a 'your (sg) head',

p h a w i d a ' a n y o n e ' s ( i m p e r s o n a l ) h e a d ; o u r head'.

6.1.2 The indefinite prefix

T h e five-term p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g s y s t e m is a feature s h a r e d b y T a r i a n a w i t h

B a n i w a o f tyana a n d w i t h B a r e (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 a ) . C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g : B a n i w a

o f I $ a n a h n u w i d a ( f r o m nu-whidd) ( l s g - h e a d ) ' m y head', p h a w i d a ' a n y o n e ' s head', i-

whida-fi (iNDF-head-NPOSS) 'a h e a d ' ( p o s s e s s o r is u n k n o w n ) . T h i s s y s t e m g o e s b a c k to

P r o t o - A r a w a k ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b ) .

T h e d r a s t i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n T a r i a n a a n d B a n i w a lies in t h e different u s e s o f t h e

i n d e f i n i t e p r e f i x : in B a n i w a it is u s e d b o t h w i t h n o u n s a n d w i t h v e r b s , w h i l e in T a r i a n a

it is r e s t r i c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o n o u n s . I n A b e l o w , w e l o o k at t h e u s e o f t h e indefinite p r e f i x

w i t h n o u n s i n T a r i a n a . I n B , w e will l o o k at h o w it is u n d e r g o i n g attrition in its

a p p l i c a t i o n t o n o u n s . In C w e will e x e m p l i f y t h e f e w s u r v i v i n g i n s t a n c e s o f its u s e w i t h

v e r b s .

A . T H E U S E O F T H E I N D E F I N I T E P R E F I X I N P O S S E S S I V E N O U N P H R A S E S .

(i) T h e indefinite p e r s o n p r e f i x i- is u s e d a s p o s s e s s i o n m a r k e r o n p r e f i x e d n o u n s ( b u t

n o t o n n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s : s e e § 6 . 2 ) if t h e r e is a n o n - p r o n o m i n a l p o s s e s s o r p r e p o s e d t o t h e

p o s s e s s e d n o u n ; c o m p a r e n u p i t a n a ' m y n a m e ' , w i t h kuphe ipitana (fish i N D F + n a m e )

'fish's n a m e ' (cf. d i p i t a n a 'his n a m e ' ) .

If t h e p o s s e s s o r is p o s t p o s e d to t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n (as afterthought: s e e C h a p t e r 2 1 ) ,

t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n t a k e s p e r s o n - n u m b e r c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g , e.g. dipitana kuphe

( 3 s g n f + n a m e fish) 'his n a m e , t h e fish's'.

(ii) T h e indefinite p r e f i x m a r k s a n o n - p r o n o m i n a l a r g u m e n t o f a p r e f i x e d a d p o s i t i o n ,

e.g. d i - p u m i (3sgnf-after) 'after h i m ' , b u t tjdri i-pumi ( m a n iNDF-after) 'after a m a n ' ( n o t

all a d p o s i t i o n s b e h a v e this w a y : s e e § 1 1 . 1 1 ) .

T h e s e t w o u s a g e s a r e t h e s a m e a s in B a n i w a o f l9ana, cf. B a n i w a ri-tfinu-ni (3sgnf-

d o g - P O S S ) 'his d o g ' , b u t Jodo i-tfinu-ni ( J o h n iNDF-dog-POSS) 'John's dog'; ri-jiu (3sgnf-

for) 'for h i m ' , J o d o i-\iu ( J o h n iNDF-for) 'for J o h n ' ; a n d a f t e r t h o u g h t c o n s t r u c t i o n s : ri-\iu,

Jodo ( 3 s g n f - f o r J o h n ) 'for h i m , that is for J o h n ' a n d ri-tfinu-ni, Jodo ( 3 s g n f - d o g - P O S S

J o h n ) 'his d o g , J o h n ' s ' ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 b ) . ( S e e § 6 . 4 . 3 , o n t h e v e s t i g e s o f p o s s e s s i v e -ni

in T a r i a n a . ) B a n i w a a l s o e m p l o y s t h e indefinite prefix o n n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s ( u n l i k e

T a r i a n a ) .

(iii) N o u n s w i t h t h e indefinite p e r s o n p r e f i x /- are u s e d as r e p e a t e r s ( s e e § 5 . 3 . 1 , e x .

5.79), e.g. T a r i a n a n a m a - i - s a w i ( t w o - i N D F - H O R N ) ' t w o horns'. T h i s is n o t attested in

B a n i w a w h e r e t h e i m p e r s o n a l p a - is u s e d instead, e.g. dzamema p a - k a p i flnu

( t w o + C L : s i D E i M P - h a n d d o g ) 'ten dogs'.

In B a n i w a , b u t n o t in T a r i a n a , t h e p r e f i x /- m a r k s a n o n - p o s s e s s e d f o r m o f

i n a l i e n a b l y (i.e. obligatorily) p o s s e s s e d n o u n s . T h e s e n o u n s also t a k e t h e n o n - p o s s e s s e d

suffix -/>', e.g. i-whida-fi (INDF-head-NPOSS) 'a head', i-enipe-fi (iNDF-child-NPOSS) 'a

child' ( s e e § 6 . 4 . 1 , o n its t r a c e s in T a r i a n a ) .

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 1 2 4 6 P o s s e s s i o n

B . A T T R I T I O N O F T H E I N D E F I N I T E P R E F I X /-.

T h e indefinite p r e f i x - w h i c h h a s n o c o r r e s p o n d e n t in t h e T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s w i t h w h i c h

T a r i a n a is c o n s t a n t l y in c o n t a c t - is u n d e r g o i n g attrition. W e h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d

t h a t T a r i a n a ( u n l i k e B a n i w a ) d o e s n o t u s e /- o n v e r b s ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f s o m e c a s e s

d i s c u s s e d u n d e r C b e l o w ) ; n e i t h e r is t h e /- p r e f i x u s e d w i t h n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s . In 6 . 1 , t h e

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x di- ' 3 s g n f is u s e d o n t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n to m a r k t h e p o s s e s s o r -

like a r g u m e n t , 'water'.

6.1 u n i d i - m u s u - r i

w a t e r 3 s g n f - c o m e . o u t - N O M

'a s p r i n g o f w a t e r ' (lit. c o m i n g o u t o f w a t e r )

T h e indefinite /-, a s in *?uni i-musu-ri ( w a t e r i N D F - c o m e . o u t - N O M ) , w o u l d b e

u n g r a m m a t i c a l in T a r i a n a , b u t g r a m m a t i c a l in B a n i w a .

T h e indefinite p r e f i x /- is u n d e r g o i n g attrition a m o n g y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s , particularly

in p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w h e r e /- is n o r m a l l y required. 6.2 c o m e s f r o m a story told b y

G r a c i l i a n o ; h e first u s e d di- i n s t e a d of/- o n t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n 'bed' ( o f a lake), a n d t h e n

c o r r e c t e d h i m s e l f .

6.2 p a n a - p h e - p i d a n a d i - s w a d i h a - n a i d i - k u d a - s e

l e a f - C L : L E A F . L I K E - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s t a y A R T - C L : L A K E 3 s g n f - b e d - L O C

' A l e a f w a s s t a y i n g o n t h e b e d o f t h e lake.'

6.3 c o m e s f r o m a story t o l d b y J o v i n o . H e first u s e d t h e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefix n a -

to refer t o 'their (pigs') h e a d s ' , a n d t h e n c o r r e c t e d h i m s e l f a n d u s e d the indefinite p e r s o n

m a r k e r /- (after C a n d i d o r e p e a t e d t h e n o u n p h r a s e correctly, w i t h /-).

6.3 h e k u - p a d a p a - p a d a di-pisa d i - n a - p i d a n a

t r e e - C L : P I E C E o n e - C L : P I E C E 3 s g n f - c u t 3 s g n f - h i t - R E M . P . R E P

n a - n a a p i a n a - w h i - d a - p e - n u k u (as said b y J o v i n o )

3 p l - O B J p i g 3 p l - h e a d - C L : R O U N D - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

i - w h i - d a - p e - n u k u (as c o r r e c t e d b y C a n d i d o )

I N D F - h e a d - C L : R O U N D - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e c u t a p i e c e o f w o o d a n d hit t h e m , pigs' heads.'

T h e indefinite p r e f i x /- o n s o m e k i n s h i p t e r m s is s i m p l y e l i d e d in y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s

s p e e c h : cf. h a m u s a - d o (evil.spirit s p o u s e - F E M ) , i n s t e a d o f h a m u i s a - d o (evil.spirit

i N D F - s p o u s e - F E M ) 'evil spirit's wife' (as in 5.76), a n d n e k a n a s a - d o i n s t e a d o i n e k a n a i-

s a - d o ' c h i e f s wife'.

C . V E S T I G E S O F T H E I N D E F I N I T E P R E F I X O N V E R B S .

A n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n B a n i w a a n d T a r i a n a lies in t h e u s e o f t h e indefinite

p r e f i x w i t h v e r b s . In B a n i w a , if t h e s u b j e c t ( A / S c o n s t i t u e n t ) is p r e p o s e d to t h e

p r e d i c a t e , t h e indefinite p e r s o n m a r k e r /- is u s e d o n t h e v e r b , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , g e n d e r ,

n u m b e r a n d p e r s o n a g r e e m e n t is neutralised, e.g. atfiaii i-aku ( m a n INDF-say) 'the m a n

says'. If t h e A / S is p o s t p o s e d , t h e r e is a full a g r e e m e n t o n t h e v e r b , a s in r i - a k u atfiari

( 3 s g n f - s a y m a n ) 'the m a n says'. P r e p o s i n g t h e A / S to t h e v e r b h a s to d o w i t h f o c u s s i n g

this c o n s t i t u e n t ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 a ) . T h e u s e of/- o n v e r b s in T a r i a n a is u n g r a m m a t i c a l

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 6.1 Personal cross-referencing 125

(e.g. tjari di-sape ( m a n 3 s g n f - s a y ) 'the m a n says', *t/8/i i-sape) (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 b ,

for t h e a n a l y s i s o f d i s c o u r s e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e indefinite prefix c o n s t r u c t i o n s in B a n i w a ) .

T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , a f e w fixed e x p r e s s i o n s w h e r e t h e /'- p r e f i x is still u s e d o n v e r b s

( n o t e t h a t t h e y are n o t u s e d b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s ) . A n i d i o m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n 'with j o y ,

h a p p i l y ' (literally, ' w i t h j o y entering') is illustrated in 6.4. Its v a r i a n t is p u w h i i - w a - n e

( b e . h a p p y iNDF-enter-iNS) ( y o u n g e r p e o p l e s a y p u w h i d i - w a - n e ) .

6.4 p u w h i - p e r i i - w a - n e - p i d a n a d h e

b e . h a p p y - C O L L I N D F - e n t e r - I N S - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + c o m e . i n

d y - u k a d i - y a - p a n i s i - s e

3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3 s g n f - P O S S - H O U S E - L O C

' H a p p i l y h e c a m e into h i s h o u s e . '

T h e indefinite c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefix is u s e d in c o m p a r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s (see

§ 2 1 . 5 . 2 ) , o n t h e v e r b - y e n a 'surpass (the c o m p a r a t i v e o f superiority)', as in 6.5, a n d o n

t h e v e r b - w a r a 'be r e d u c e d (the c o m p a r a t i v e o f inferiority)', a s in 6.6. T h e s e c o m p a r a t i v e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e o f a v e r b a l o r i g i n ( t h e y m a y g o b a c k to g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) .

6.5 n u h a d u h a i n a r u i - v e n a - n a k a n u - y e k a

I A R T . F E M w o m a n I N D F - s u r p a s s - P R E S . V I S l s g - k n o w

'I k n o w m o r e t h a n that w o m a n . '

6.6 n u h a d u h a i n a r u i - w a r a - n a k a n u - y e k a

I A R T . F E M w o m a n I N D F - b e . r e d u c e d - P R E S . V I S l s g - k n o w

'I k n o w less t h a n that w o m a n . '

In 6.7, t h e indefinite p e r s o n m a r k e r /'- i s u s e d o n a n e g a t e d n o m i n a l i s a t i o n in a serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e indefinite m a r k e r w a s u s e d in all t h e s i m i l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n s

(referring t o p e o p l e ' i g n o r a n t o f s o m e t h i n g ' , e.g. ma-sape-kadite i-yeka (NEG-talk-

N E G + N C L : A N I M i N D F - k n o w ) 'the o n e w h o d o e s n o t k n o w t h e stories).

6.7 n e - p i d a n a m a - i r a - k a d i t e

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P N E G - d r i n k - N E G + N C L : A N I M

i - y e k a d i - p i k a

I N D F - k n o w 3 s g n f - g o . c r a z y

' T h e n t h e o n e w h o d o e s n o t k n o w h o w to d r i n k g o e s m a d (gets d r u n k ) . '

In o n e further i d i o m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n , /- (6.8a) is in free v a r i a t i o n w i t h t h e r e g u l a r

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r di- (6.8b):

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 126 6 Possession

6 . 8 a phitfi i-iiha-ka

a g o u t i I N D F - e a t - S U B

o r

6 . 8 b phitji di-iiha-ka
a g o u t i 3 s g n f - e a t - S U B
lit. ' A g o u t i e a t i n g (the m o o n ) ' , i.e. ' t i m e w h e n t h e r e is full m o o n . '

I n t h e d i a l e c t o f P e r i q u i t o s t h e indefinite p r e f i x is u s e d m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n in S a n t a

R o s a - s e e §1 o f A p p e n d i x .

6.1.3 I m p e r s o n a l cross-referencing

T h e i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r is u s e d o n obligatorily p o s s e s s e d n o u n s to

refer t o a g e n e r i c o r a n u n k n o w n p o s s e s s o r . In 6.9, it is u s e d o n a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n

( u n d e r l i n e d ) ; n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s o f p r e f i x e d v e r b s a r e obligatorily p o s s e s s e d - s e e § 6 . 2 . In

6 . 1 0 i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g is u s e d o n t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n 'food' ( f o r m e d o n a

p r e f i x e d v e r b ) .

6.9 n h e t a p a - d u k u n i a - n i - d a - p e

3 p l + g e t I M P - l i g h t - T O P . A D V - C L : R O U N D - P L

' T h e y g o t l a m p s . '

6 . 1 0 m h e s i k i n a - n a alia-sina p a - n h a - f i

h u n g e r 3 p l - O B J E X I S T - R E M . P . N O N V I S I M P - e a t - C O N V

s e d e - p i d a n a

N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

T h e y w e r e h u n g r y , t h e r e w a s n o food.'

I m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g is u s e d o n t h e p r e d i c a t e o f n o m i n a l i s e d s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e s if t h e s u b j e c t h a s g e n e r i c r e f e r e n c e , e.g. p a - k a l i t e - k a (iMP-tell-suB) 'advice', lit.

' w h e n o n e a d v i s e s ' , a n d in 6 . 1 1 :

6.11 di-na ka-ka-kari h a r a m e p a

3 s g n f - O B J R E L - s e e - P . R E L be.frightened I M P + g o

p a - k a m i a pa:-pidana

IMP-fall.ill I M P + g o - R E M . P . R E P

T h e o n e w h o h a d s e e n (evil spirit fiamu) gets frightened, gets sick.'

I m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g o n p r e f i x e d a d p o s i t i o n s (see § 1 1 . 1 1 , a n d §6.2) c a n h a v e

first p e r s o n i n c l u s i v e r e f e r e n c e , p o s s i b l y u n d e r T u c a n o influence. ( T h i s is s i m i l a r to t h e

u s e o f P o r t u g u e s e g e n t e 'people' a s a first p e r s o n plural p r o n o u n ; in T a r i a n a t h e

i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g w i t h a first p e r s o n plural m e a n i n g h a s b e e n attested w i t h

s p e a k e r s w h o k n o w little P o r t u g u e s e . ) 6 . 1 2 c o m e s f r o m t h e story a b o u t t h e evil spirit

w h o u s e d t o b e a p e r s o n .

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 6.2 Obligatorily possessed nouns 127

6 . 1 2 p a - d a l i p a - t h a - p i d a n a d i - e m h a n i - n i k i a w a k a d a - s e - n u k u

I M P - n e a r - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - w a l k - C 0 M P L j u n g l e - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e w a l k s e v e r y w h e r e in t h e v e r y j u n g l e n e a r [us all] (people).'

A n i m p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n , a c c o m p a n i e d b y i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g o n t h e v e r b is

o f t e n u s e d i n t h e s a m e m e a n i n g - s e e 6 . 1 3 .

6 . 1 3 k a y u - m a k a p h a n a w i k i h e m a p a - w e t a - k a s u

s o - A F F I M P p e o p l e tapir I M P - t r a p - I N T

m a t f a p a - t a n e - t a - m h a

g o o d I M P - f a s t - C A U S - P R E S . N O N V I S

T h u s [ w e ] p e o p l e will t r a p a tapir (successfully) (if) w e fast well.'

It c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h a n o u n w i t h g e n e r i c s e m a n t i c s a s a n o v e r t subject:

6 . 1 4 h i k u - n h a p a - n i p a - i n u p a - n h a - k a tfari

b e . l i k e . t h i s - P A U S I M P - d o I M P - k i l l I M P - e a t - R E C . P . V I S m a n

' M e n (in g e n e r a l ) h u n t (lit. 'kill') a n d eat like this.'

I m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g is a l s o u s e d o n t h e d e p e n d e n t p r e d i c a t e o f s e c o n d a r y

v e r b s w i t h n o n - c a n o n i c a l l y m a r k e d a r g u m e n t s (see D u n d e r § 1 2 . 1 . 4 , a n d 1 2 . 6 6 - 9 ) .

6.2 O b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s

O b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s c a n n o t b e u s e d w i t h o u t a c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefix. ( T h i s is

s i m i l a r t o t h e restrictions o n p r e f i x e d v e r b s - s e e C h a p t e r 12.) O b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d

n o u n s i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g g r o u p s :

(i) b o d y p a r t s a n d p a r t s o f p l a n t s , e.g. -kapi 'hand', - k a w a 'leg', -hipa Toot', -ekwa

'face', -daki 'body', - i w i 'flower', -kuda '(tree-)trunk' ( e x c e p t i o n s are d i s c u s s e d in

§ 6 . 4 . 2 ) ;

(ii) m o s t k i n s h i p t e r m s , e.g. -daki- 'grandchild', -itu 'daughter', - i n 'son', - w e -

' y o u n g e r sibling', - w h e - 'grandparent'; -sa- 'spouse'; -daripa-ki 'cousin,

" c o m p a d r e " ' , -duiri 'cousin' (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 a ; e x c e p t i o n s are in § 6 . 4 . 2 ) ;

(iii) a f e w o t h e r n o u n s referring to t h i n g s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e o p l e , e.g.

- i p i t a n a ' n a m e ' , -isa 'smell', -mina(-) 'owner', -kesi- 'friend', -phuni ' c o m p a n i o n ' ,

-yenipe 'children', -inipe 'family', -dana ' s h a d o w ' , -pupa-ni ' w e a p o n s ' , - k h o l e -

'servant, slave', - i k a n a 'chief, -yarupe 'thing, m a n n e r , l a n g u a g e ; g e n e r i c

p o s s e s s i v e classifier' (also s e e §6.5).

I n c o n t r a s t t o o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s , k i n s h i p p o s s e s s i o n a n d b o d y part p o s s e s s i o n

in T a r i a n a a r e m a r k e d in t h e s a m e w a y (see §6.4.1). U n l i k e k i n s h i p n o u n s , n o u n s w h i c h

d e n o t e b o d y p a r t s ( a n d s o m e n o u n s o f g r o u p (iii)), e.g. ' n a m e ' , c a n e n t e r into ' d o u b l e

object' c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( s e e C u n d e r §7.5).

N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s o f p r e f i x e d v e r b s are obligatorily p o s s e s s e d , i.e. t h e y m u s t i n c l u d e a

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x referring t o t h e p o s s e s s o r o r t h e A / S a a r g u m e n t , e.g. - h i m e t a

'think', d h i m e t a - r i ( 3 s g n f + t h i n k - R E L ) 'his t h o u g h t ' , o r 'his thinking', na-ni-nipe ( 3 p l - d o -

N O M ) 'their d e e d s ; w h a t t h e y did'. T h e y b e c o m e o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d if t h e y c o n t a i n

a n o t h e r p r e f i x - ka- 'relative' o r m a - 'negative'. T h u s , n a m e s for b o d y parts w h i c h are

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 128 6 Possession

d e r i v e d w i t h k a - f r o m a v e r b o r f r o m a n o u n c a n n o t t a k e p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s , e.g. ka-

r a h t a ( R E L - b r e a t h e ) 'lungs' (lit. 'breather'), kesa-ni-da ( R E L + s m o k e / s m e l l - T O P . A D V -

C L : R O U N D ) 'kidney' (lit. a s m e l l y r o u n d o n e ) . N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s differ f r o m o t h e r p r e f i x e d

n o u n s a n d f r o m p r e f i x e d a d p o s i t i o n s in t h e set o f c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s t h e y t a k e -
1
n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s d o n o t t a k e t h e indefinite prefix i- (cf. 6.1). T h i s creates a t y p o l o g i c a l l y

r a t h e r u n u s u a l situation w h e r e b y 'obligatorily p o s s e s s e d n o u n s ' constitute a class o p e n

b y d e r i v a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a c l o s e d set. T h e o n l y n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s o f p r e f i x e d v e r b s w h i c h

d o n o t t a k e p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s are t h o s e w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e suffix -si, e.g. (i)hha-ka-si

(eat-TH-NPOSS) 'food', hiwya-si (breathe-NPOSS) 'breath, spell', ira-ka-si ( d r i n k - T H -

N P O S S ) 'drink' (also s e e § 1 0 . 3 ) . S e e § 6 . 4 . 1 , for a historical e x p l a n a t i o n .

A d p o s i t i o n s ( s e e § 1 1 . 1 1 ) d i v i d e into t w o c l a s s e s - t h o s e w h i c h t a k e p r e f i x e s a n d

t h o s e w h i c h d o not. P r e f i x e d a d p o s i t i o n s are a s u b c l a s s o f obligatorily p o s s e s s e d n o u n s ,

e.g. - m a 'with', -siu 'for', -api 'with t h e h e l p of, -apise 'underneath', - e w h e ' b e t w e e n ,

a m o n g ' , - t h i r i k u n a 'near, at'. S o m e o f t h e s e a d p o s i t i o n s c o m e f r o m b o d y parts, e.g.

- w h i d a - n a ( h e a d - A F F ) 'at t h e edge', -eriku-se ( a n u s - L O C ) 'inside (the jungle)'. S o m e are

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s o f p r e f i x e d v e r b s , e.g. di-pu-mi ( 3 s g n f - f o l l o w - N O M ) 'after'. M o s t

p r e f i x e d a d p o s i t i o n s m a y t a k e t h e indefinite prefix /- ( e v e n if t h e y are e t y m o l o g i c a l l y

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , e.g. i-pumi 'after', or v e r b s , e.g. i-ruku-i-ta-ka ( i N D F - g o . d o w n - C A U S -

C A U S - S U B ) ' d o w n w a r d s from'.

S o m e n o u n s c a n f u n c t i o n b o t h a s obligatorily p o s s e s s e d a n d a l s o a s o p t i o n a l l y

p o s s e s s e d , w i t h different m e a n i n g s , e.g. kare 'wind' ( o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d ) , -kare 'heart,

s o u l ; t h e r e g i o n w h i c h i n c l u d e s heart, liver a n d belly', w i t h d e r i v a t i v e s -kare-da (heart-

C L : R O U N D ) 'heart', - k a r e - t a n a (heart-AFF?) 'liver'; isa ' s m o k e ' ( o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d ) , -isa

'smell'. A s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p o b t a i n s b e t w e e n t h e o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n i n a m

' w o m a n ' a n d its c o g n a t e , a k i n s h i p n o u n - i n u 'wife of, w h i c h is o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d .

6.3 O p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s

T h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f n o u n s in T a r i a n a are o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d , e.g. y a k a r e 'village',

p a n i s a r u ' a b a n d o n e d village', i n a m ' w o m a n ' , tjari, ' m a n ' etc. T h e y d o n o t t a k e p o s s e s s i v e

p r e f i x e s ; p o s s e s s i o n is m a r k e d b y j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f p o s s e s s o r a n d p o s s e s s e d , e.g. w a h a

p a n i s a m ( w e a b a n d o n e d . v i l l a g e ) 'our a b a n d o n e d village (i.e. w h e r e w e u s e d to live)'.

§ 6 . 4 . 2 s h o w s h o w t h e class o f o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s u n d e r g o e s e x p a n s i o n in

y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s l a n g u a g e d u e to c a l q u i n g f r o m T u c a n o . U n l i k e o t h e r A r a w a k

l a n g u a g e s (e.g. B a n i w a ) , T a r i a n a d o e s n o t h a v e a g r a m m a t i c a l class o f ' u n p o s s e s s a b l e '

n o u n s ; t h a t is, e v e r y n o u n c a n b e t h e h e a d o f a p o s s e s s i v e n o u n p h r a s e .

1
In these nominalisations there is n e v e r any ambiguity as to w h a t argument the prefix refers to: unlike

English, w h e r e 'he' in 'his killing' m a y be either A or O, in Tariana, di- '3sgnf in dinu-nipe (3sgnf+kill-

N O M ) 'his killing' refers to the A (his killing s o m e o n e , not h i m being killed) (see Chapter 20).

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 6.4 Archaisms, innovations and irregularities in obligatorily possessed nouns 129

6.4 A r c h a i s m s , i n n o v a t i o n s a n d i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s

P o s s e s s i o n in T a r i a n a clearly s h o w s s i g n s o f b e i n g s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y T u c a n o

p a t t e r n s . T h i s h a s r e s u l t e d in a partial loss o f t h e m a r k i n g o f a l i e n a b l y a n d i n a l i e n a b l y

p o s s e s s e d n o u n s , in t h e e x p a n s i o n o f o p t i o n a l p o s s e s s i o n , a n d in w i d e u s e o f p o s s e s s e d

classifier c o n s t r u c t i o n s . H o w e v e r , a c l o s e a n a l y s i s o f t h e T a r i a n a l e x i c o n r e v e a l s a

n u m b e r o f a r c h a i s m s , a n d t r a c e s o f s o m e o f t h e irregular p a t t e r n s f o u n d in t h e A r a w a k

l a n g u a g e s .

6.4.1 A r c h a i s m s a n d i n n o v a t i o n s in m a r k i n g i n a l i e n a b l e p o s s e s s i o n

T h e w a y p o s s e s s i o n o f o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s is m a r k e d in T a r i a n a differs f r o m

t h e t y p i c a l A r a w a k p a t t e r n ( f o u n d in B a n i w a o f Icana, B a r e a n d W a r e k e n a , a m o n g the

A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s g e o g r a p h i c a l l y c l o s e to T a r i a n a ; s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 c ) . In all t h e s e

l a n g u a g e s , k i n s h i p p o s s e s s i o n is distinct f r o m b o d y part p o s s e s s i o n in t h e f o l l o w i n g

w a y . M o s t k i n s h i p n o u n s a l w a y s o c c u r w i t h p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s , w h i l e b o d y p a r t s ( a n d

a l s o s o m e k i n s h i p n o u n s a n d s o m e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s ) h a v e a ' n o n - p o s s e s s e d ' f o r m m a r k e d

w i t h t h e indefinite p r e f i x /- a n d a n o n - p o s s e s s e d suffix -fi, e.g. B a n i w a o f I c a n a h n u w i d a

( l s g + h e a d ) ' m y head', i-whida-fi (iNDF-head-NPOSS) ' s o m e o n e ' s h e a d ' ( p o s s e s s o r

u n k n o w n ) ; n u - a k u - n a ( l s g - s p e a k - P O S S ) ' m y story, m y speech', y - a k u - [ i (iNDF-speak-

NPOSS) 'speech' ( s p e a k e r u n k n o w n o r irrelevant).

T h e reflex o f B a n i w a -// in T a r i a n a ( w h e r e it b e c o m e s -si, b y r e g u l a r p h o n o l o g i c a l

c h a n g e ) s u r v i v e s in j u s t a f e w n o u n s , all o f w h i c h are treated a s o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d ,

e.g. y a m - s i ' g o o d s ' (thing-NPOSS) (cf. -yaru-pe (thing-PL: §6.5) 'thing; a g e n e r i c

p o s s e s s i v e classifier' a n d y a r u - m a k a - s i (thing-CL:CLOTH-NPOSS) 'clothing'); hiti-si (tear-

NPOSS) 'tear', hini-si ( b r e a s t . m i l k - N P O S S ) 'breast m i l k ' (cf. -ini 'breast' in B a n i w a o f

I c a n a ) , m d p a n i - s i ' h o u s e ' ( s e e § 6 . 4 . 4 ) . It a l s o s u r v i v e s in a f e w n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , s u c h a s

h h a k a - s i 'food', iraka-si 'drink', h i w y a - s i 'breath, spell', i-aku-si ( i N D F - s p e a k - N O M )

'speech' a n d h e r e n a - s i 'sickness' (see § 1 0 . 3 ) . N o n e o f t h e s e n o u n s c a n t a k e p e r s o n a l

p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s , w h i c h is t h e relic o f t h e o l d p r i n c i p l e - that t h e ' u n p o s s e s s e d ' f o r m

m a r k e r c a n n o t c o m b i n e w i t h p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s (e.g. in B a n i w a *nu-whida-{i ' m y

u n p o s s e s s e d h e a d ' w o u l d b e u n g r a m m a t i c a l ) . T h i s n o n - p o s s e s s e d suffix g o e s b a c k to

P r o t o - A r a w a k ( s e e P a y n e 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e n o u n n h a k a - s i 'food' h a s a v a r i a n t i-nhaka-si 'food'

w h e r e /- is a t r a c e o f t h e indefinite prefix ( o b l i g a t o r y w i t h n o u n s w h i c h t a k e t h e n o n -

p o s s e s s e d -fi in B a n i w a : A u n d e r §6.1.2).

T h e suffix -si is a r c h a i c ; t h e t r e a t m e n t o f n o u n s w h i c h c o n t a i n it as o p t i o n a l l y

p o s s e s s e d is a n i n n o v a t i o n d u e t o t h e p r o c e s s o f e x p a n s i o n o f o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d

n o u n s - s e e § 6 . 4 . 2 .

6.4.2 E x p a n s i o n of optionally p o s s e s s e d n o u n s

A n u m b e r o f n o u n s w h i c h u s e d t o b e obligatorily p o s s e s s e d (that is, u s e d to t a k e

p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s ) are m o v i n g into t h e class o f o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s : their

p o s s e s s i o n is m a r k e d v i a j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t e r m s .

T h i s e x p a n s i o n is m o s t p r o b a b l y d u e to t h e c a l q u i n g o f t h e T u c a n o p a t t e r n o f

m a r k i n g i n a l i e n a b l e p o s s e s s i o n ( w h i c h i n c l u d e s b o d y part a n d k i n s h i p p o s s e s s i o n ) v i a

j u x t a p o s i t i o n , e.g. T u c a n o : y i ' i p a - c o (I p a r e n t - F E M ) ' m y m o t h e r ' . T w o k i n s h i p n o u n s

w h i c h u s e d t o b e obligatorily p r e f i x e d for p o s s e s s i o n in T a r i a n a - - h a - d u a (parent-FEM)

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 130 6 Possession

' m o t h e r ' a n d - h a - n i r i ( p a r e n t - M A S C ) 'father' - are treated a s obligatorily p o s s e s s e d

( f o l l o w i n g t h e A r a w a k m o d e l , cf. B a n i w a h n a d u a («— nu-ha-dua) ' m y m o t h e r ' ) , o r a s

o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d f o l l o w i n g t h e T u c a n o m o d e l ; this is characteristic o f y o u n g e r

p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h . T h e s e t w o k i n s h i p t e r m s , u n l i k e all o t h e r k i n s h i p t e r m s , n e v e r t a k e t h e

i n d e f i n i t e p r e f i x /'-. T h i s i n n o v a t i o n m o s t p r o b a b l y w e n t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e shift in their

p o s s e s s i o n c l a s s e s . V a r i a t i o n in p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g is o b s e r v e d w i t h all s p e a k e r s . In

T 2 . 1 9 'father' is t r e a t e d a s o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d ; in T 2 . 5 - 6 t h e s a m e n o u n is treated a s

o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d . T h i s story w a s t o l d b y C a n d i d o , t h e m o s t traditional s p e a k e r o f

T a r i a n a .

In T 3 . 2 0 , t o l d b y Olivia, a v e r y i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r , t h e n o u n 'mother' is treated as

o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d , w h i l e in 6 . 1 5 , f r o m a story told b y G r a c i l i a n o , also i n n o v a t i v e , t h e

s a m e n o u n is t r e a t e d a s obligatorily p o s s e s s e d . In t h e s a m e w a y , t h e t e r m for 'boss',

y a l a n a t a , c a n b e t r e a t e d a s i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d o r as a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d - n u -

y a l a n a t a ( l s g - b o s s ) a n d n u h a y a l a n a t a (I b o s s ) are alternative w a y s o f s a y i n g ' m y boss'.

6 . 1 5 n e k a n a n a - h a - d o - n u k u k a - n h a - k a r i

3 p l + c h i e f 3 p l - p a r e n t - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S R E L - e a t - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G

d i - m u s u - p i d a n a d i - n u

3 s g n f - g o . o u t - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - c o m e

' T h e i r (evil spirits') chief, w h o h a d e a t e n their m o t h e r , c a m e out.'

T w o b o d y p a r t t e r m s - napi 'bone' a n d -itfa 'hair' - are s o m e t i m e s t r e a t e d a s

o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d . T h i s v a r i a t i o n is illustrated w i t h t h e e x a m p l e s b e l o w . In 6 . 1 6 , f r o m

a story t o l d b y O l i v i a , a n i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r , napi 'bone' is t r e a t e d as o p t i o n a l l y

p o s s e s s e d . A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is at T 1 . 2 5 . a n d in 6 . 1 7 , f r o m a story told b y C a n d i d o , a n

o l d e r s p e a k e r , t h e s a m e f o r m h a s a p o s s e s s i v e prefix a n d is treated a s obligatorily

p o s s e s s e d .

6 . 1 6 p i - k a - t h a r a n a p i - p e - p a n a - k a

2 s g - s e e - P R E C b o n e - P L - A L L - D E C L

' P l e a s e l o o k , h e r e are all t h e b o n e s . '

6 . 1 7 m a m i y a p i - n u k u n a - k a n a - k e t a - p i d a n a

t i n a m o u I N D F + b o n e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - s e e 3 p l - m e e t - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y f o u n d a t i n a m o u b o n e . '

I n 6 . 1 8 , f r o m a story t o l d b y G r a c i l i a n o , a y o u n g e r s p e a k e r , -itfa is t r e a t e d a s

o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d ( a n d h a s a p o s s e s s i v e suffix -re, s e e §6.4.3).

6 . 1 8 n e n u n a - n u - p i d a n a n a w i k i m a t f a

3 p l + g o . u p 3 p l - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P p e o p l e w e l l

na-tfa-re iri-peni

3 p l - h a i r - P O S S r e d - P L . A N I M

' T h e r e c a m e u p p e o p l e w i t h beautifully b l o n d hair.'

In 6 . 1 9 , f r o m a story a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f n i g h t t o l d b y J o s e , a n i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r , t h e

s a m e n o u n is t r e a t e d a s o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d .

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 6.4 Archaisms, innovations and irregularities in obligatorily possessed nouns 131

6 . 1 9 w a h a itja w a l i - p e r i m h a i d a - p i d a h a l e w a : - k a

w e h a i r n e w - C L : C O L L P R O H - I M P V w h i t e l p l + s a y - S U B

' ( W e h i d f r o m y o u ) s o that o u r hair m i g h t n o t b e c o m e white.'

T h i s v a r i a t i o n is i n d i c a t i v e o f attrition o f t h e o l d A r a w a k m o r p h o l o g y a n d a t e n d e n c y

t o c a i q u e p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g f r o m T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s into T a r i a n a (also s e e §6.4.4, for

t h e w o r d ' h o u s e ' in T a r i a n a ) .

T u c a n o p a t t e r n s o f p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g i n f l u e n c e T a r i a n a in yet a n o t h e r w a y . E v e n if

a n o u n is o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d , it is o f t e n a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h a p r e p o s e d p o s s e s s o r

e x p r e s s e d w i t h a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n , t h u s partially replicating t h e T u c a n o p a t t e r n

illustrated a b o v e , e.g. d i h a di-kesi-pe ( h e 3sgnf-friend-PL) 'his friend' (lit. h e his-friends),

o r p h i a p i - k e s i n i ( y o u . s g 2 s g - f r i e n d ) 'your friend' (lit. y o u y o u r - f r i e n d ) , w h a w e k a n a 'our

c h i e f i n 6 . 2 0 . T h i s is characteristic o f i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s , s u c h a s B a t i s t a B r i t o , t h e

a u t h o r o f 6 . 2 0 .

6 . 2 0 k a y u d i - a - k a d i - s a p e w h a w e k a n a

t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - t a l k w e l p l + c h i e f

' T h i s is h o w o u r c h i e f s p o k e to us.'

6.4.3 R e t e n t i o n of p o s s e s s i v e suffixes o n optionally p o s s e s s e d n o u n s

I n m o s t A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s , p o s s e s s i o n for o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s is m a r k e d w i t h a

p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x a n d a p o s s e s s i v e suffix o n a n o u n . T h e c h o i c e o f a p o s s e s s i v e suffix

u s u a l l y d e p e n d s o n t h e s e m a n t i c s o f a n o u n . N o n - p o s s e s s e d f o r m s are g e n e r a l l y

u n m a r k e d .

T h e A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s differ w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e distribution a n d s e m a n t i c s o f t h e

p o s s e s s i v e suffixes ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , in B a r e t h e p o s s e s s i v e suffix

-se is u s e d w i t h cultural i t e m s a n d l o a n - w o r d s , e.g. w a - d u t u r u - s e ( l p l - d o c t o r - P O S S ) 'our

doctor'; -re is u s e d w i t h artefacts a n d s o m e s e p a r a b l e b o d y parts, e.g. n u - k a k u - r e ' m y

fish-net'; a n d ~ni is u s e d w i t h t h e m a j o r i t y o f i n a l i e n a b l e p o s s e s s e d n o u n s , e.g. n u -

matfeta-ni ' m y knife' ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 b ) . In W a r e k e n a t h e m a j o r i t y o f artefacts m a r k

their p o s s e s s i o n w i t h -re, e.g. murupa 'canoe', nu-murupa-re ' m y c a n o e ' ; y u . w i t a

'firestick', n u - y u : w i t a - r e ' m y firestick'; bitsa ' h a m m o c k ' , n u - b i t s a - r e ' m y h a m m o c k ' ,

w h i l e m o s t o t h e r n o u n s c a n t a k e either -te o r -ne ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 8 b ) . In B a n i w a

a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d artefacts u s u a l l y c a n t a k e -re, w h i l e m a n y o t h e r a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d

n o u n s c a n t a k e either -ni o r -te. In H o h o d e n e , t h e t w o p o s s e s s i v e affixes e x p r e s s

different d e g r e e s o f c l o s e n e s s b e t w e e n p o s s e s s o r a n d p o s s e s s e d , e.g. nu-tfinu-ni ' m y

1
d o g : t h e o n e I reared , a n d nu-tfinu-te ' m y d o g : t h e o n e I f o u n d a n d b e a r n o relation to'.

T h e r e is a l s o a s m a l l c l a s s o f n o u n s w h i c h t a k e p o s s e s s i v e suffix n a , e.g. inipu 'road',

n u - a p u a - n a ' m y road'. T h e s e p o s s e s s i v e suffixes o n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s g o b a c k

t o P r o t o - A r a w a k ( s e e P a y n e 1 9 9 1 : 3 7 8 ) .

T a r i a n a h a s a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y lost p o s s e s s i v e suffixes o n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s .

T h e s e s u f f i x e s r e m a i n o n j u s t a f e w a r c h a i c n o u n s , listed b e l o w .

T h e p o s s e s s i v e suffix -ni is f o u n d o n a f e w n o u n s w h i c h relate to traditional

activities: h i p a t u 'snuff, e.g. kuphe h i p a t u - n i (fish snuff-POSS) 'fish s n u f f ( a t y p e o f

snuff), a n d m u k u t u 'basket' (as in 6.21); in a f e w c o m p o u n d n a m e s for f a u n a , e.g. d i w i -

m a p a - n i ( 3 s g n f + f l o w e r - b e e - P O S S ) 'flower b e e ' (lit. b e e o f f l o w e r ) , k e r i - y a k a - n i ( m o o n -

s h r i m p - P O S S ) 'type o f s m a l l s h r i m p ' (lit. s h r i m p o f t h e m o o n ) , a w i n a - w a r u - n i ( w a c u . t r e e -

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 1 3 2 6 P o s s e s s i o n

parrot-POSS) (also a w i n a - w a r u ) ' m e a l y parrot' ( A m a z o n a farinosa) (lit. p a r r o t o f w a c u -

tree), m a : n a k a d a r u - n i (a9ai+parrot-POSS) 'scarlet m a c a w ' (lit. p a r r o t o f a9ai tree); a n d in

a f e w i n s e c t n a m e s , e.g. p a n a p h e aini-ni (leaf m o s q u i t o - P O S S ) (also k n o w n a s p a n a p h e

aini) 'a t y p e o f w a s p ' (lit. w a s p o f a leaf), h a w a - s e m a : p a - n i ( e a g l e - L O C bee-POSS) 'type

o f b e e ' (lit. a b e e o f ? ) , sye mapa-ni ( w o o d bee-POSS) o r s y a w a mapa-ni (fire b e e - P O S S )

'type o f b e e ' (lit. w o o d b e e , fire b e e ) , adaru m a : n e - n i (parrot ant-POSS) 'a t y p e o f ant' (lit.

a n t o f a p a r r o t ) , m a w a r i k e h u r i - n i ( s n a k e ant-POSS) 'type o f ant' (lit. a n t o f a s n a k e ) ,

m a m i k a m a r a - n i ( t i n a m o u termite-POSS) 'a t y p e o f termite' (lit. t e r m i t e o f t i n a m o u ) ,

n u m a r i k a m a r a - n i (type.of.fruit termite-POSS) 'a t y p e o f termite'. ( O n e o b l i g a t o r i l y

p o s s e s s e d n o u n nu-pupa-ni ' m y a r m s ' , p o s s i b l y c o n t a i n s a fossilised -ni suffix.)

T h e p o s s e s s i v e suffix -re is f o u n d in t w o n a m e s o f traditional artefacts, kayama

' s m o k i n g g r i d (giral)' a n d tiya ' i n d i g e n o u s plate', cf. kuphe kayama-re (fish

s m o k i n g . g r i d - P O S S ) ' s m o k i n g grid for fish', hipatu tiya-re ( s n u f f plate-POSS) 'plate for

s n u f f {tiya-re o f t e n c o n t r a c t e d t o ta.re in r a p i d t o n o r m a l s p e e c h register d u e to t h e

d e s e m a n t i c i s a t i o n o f t h e p o s s e s s i v e suffix, as in 6.22). T h i s suffix is also f o u n d in t w o

p l a c e - n a m e s . O n e is a ' m y t h o l o g i c a l ' p l a c e - n a m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e itinerary o f T a r i a n a

forefathers inere-tapu-re (spirit-dream-POSS) 'spirit's d r e a m ' . T h e o t h e r is P a - w h y a-re-

p a n i (lMP-breathe-POSS-CL:RAPiD) 'Ipanore' (lit. 'the r a p i d o f t h e m a g i c breath') (see

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 b ) .

T h e n o u n s w h i c h retain t h e a r c h a i c p o s s e s s i v e suffixes in T a r i a n a d o n o t t a k e

p r e f i x e s , that is, t h e y a r e treated a s o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d , as illustrated in 6.21 a n d 6.22.

N o t e that in m o s t o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s w h i c h t a k e

p o s s e s s i v e suffixes d o t a k e p r e f i x e s as w e l l (see, for instance, a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f

p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g in W a r e k e n a in A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 8 b ) .

6.21 d u - n a m u r a d u k a d i h a m u k u t u - n i - n u k u

3 s g f - p o k e 3 s g f + a r r i v e h e b a s k e t - P O S S - T O P . N O N . A / S

' S h e p o k e d at his (i.e. t h e spirit's) basket.'

6 . 2 2 hi h i p a t u t a r e - t u k i - n u k u

D E M : A N I M s n u f f p l a t e + P O S S - D I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - n a d h i p a - s a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f + g r a b - T I G H T L Y

' H e g r a b s t h e p l a t e o f s n u f f for h i m . ' ( E x t r a c t e d f r o m a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e offering

ritual.)

In j u s t o n e c a s e , t h e suffix -re is u s e d w i t h a n obligatorily p o s s e s s e d n o u n w h i c h

refers t o a b o d y part. T h e n o u n 'hair' h a s t w o f o r m s -itfa a n d -itfa-re; t h e t w o a r e u s e d

i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y , a s in 6 . 1 8 - 1 9 . It w a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e that this n o u n t e n d s to b e treated

a s o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d ; w h e n it is, o n l y t h e f o r m w i t h o u t -re is u s e d .

T h e p o s s e s s i v e suffix -(ya)na is p r e s e r v e d in p i n ' Y u r u p a r y flute': nu-piryana, n u -

p i r e n a ' m y Y u r u p a r y flute'. U n l i k e m o s t o t h e r n o u n s w i t h p o s s e s s i v e suffixes, this n o u n

a l w a y s t a k e s a p o s s e s s i v e prefix - s e e 6 . 2 3 , f r o m a text a b o u t the offering ritual.

6 . 2 3 h i m a : t f i - p e n i - n a k u

D E M i A N I M b a d - P L : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

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 6.5 P o s s e s s i v e classifiers 1 3 3

w a - p i r e - n a - n u k u w a - h e - t a - n a k a w h a

l p l - Y u m p a r y . f l u t e - P O S S - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - s e e + C A U S - C A U S - P R E S . V I S w e

' W e a r e s h o w i n g o u r Y u r u p a r y flute to t h e " b a d " ones.'

W h e n t h e s a m e n o u n p i n o c c u r s w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i v e suffix -ne, it refers to a n y

i n s t r u m e n t , a s in 6.24, f r o m a story a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g feast told b y A m e r i c o B r i t o

w h e r e t h e t w o p o s s e s s i v e f o r m s -piryana a n d -piri-ne are contrasted.

6 . 2 4 n a - w a l i t a - k a k a - n a k a - p i r y a n a

3 p l - o f f e r - R E C - R E M . P . V I S R E L - Y u r u p a r y . f l u t e + P O S S

n h a n a - p i r i - n e - n e

t h e y 3 p l - i n s t r u m e n t - P O S S - I N S

' T h e o n e s that h a d t h e Y u r u p a r y flute m a d e offerings to e a c h other, they, w i t h their

i n s t r u m e n t s . '

T r a c e s o f this suffix are p o s s i b l y a l s o f o u n d a s fossilised suffixes in t w o o b l i g a t o r i l y

p o s s e s s e d n o u n s : k h o l e - n a 'slave, s e r v a n t ( p o s s e s s e d ) ' (this s a m e r o o t is also f o u n d

w i t h o u t - n a in d i - k h o l e - n e - s e r i (3sgnf-slave-PL-SiNGL) 'one o f t h e g r o u p o f his slaves')

a n d - k u r u - n a ' q u e e n o f b e e s o r flying ants', a s i n da:ne i-kuru-na ( s a u v a . a n t s i N D F - q u e e n -

POSS?) ' q u e e n o f s a u v a ants'; a n d m a y b e also in i - n h a - n a (iNDF-eat-POSS?) 'bait'.

6.4.4 A c o m m o n A r a w a k irregularity in p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g

T h e w o r d for ' h o u s e , h o m e ' in N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s ( a n d e l s e w h e r e w i t h i n t h e

f a m i l y : s e e P a y n e 1 9 9 1 ; A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - b ; S e k i a n d A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g )

t e n d s to h a v e irregular p o s s e s s i v e f o r m s , cf. B a n i w a o f I ^ a n a pan-fi ' h o u s e , h o m e ' , n u -

p a n a ( l s g - h o u s e : P O S S ) ' m y h o u s e / h o m e ' , W a r e k e n a p a n i - \ i 'house', nu-pane ' m y h o u s e ' ,

B a r e p h a n i 'house', n u - b a n a ' m y h o u s e ' . T h i s is also t h e c a s e in T a r i a n a : t h e citation

f o r m is p a n i - s i ( h o u s e - N P O S S ) ' h o u s e , h o m e ' , a n d t h e a r c h a i c p o s s e s s e d f o r m is -pana

{nu-pana ' m y h o u s e / h o m e ' ) . T h i s a r c h a i c f o r m is r e g u l a r l y e m p l o y e d in t h e dialect o f

S a n t a T e r e z i n h a .

H o w e v e r , m o s t s p e a k e r s t e n d n o t to u s e this irregular p o s s e s s e d f o r m , o p t i n g for o n e

o f t h e t w o a l t e r n a t i v e strategies: (a) j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f p o s s e s s o r a n d citation f o r m : n u h a

p a n i s i (I h o u s e ) ' m y h o u s e ' , t h u s 'shijfting' this n o u n f r o m t h e class o f obligatorily

p o s s e s s e d t o t h e c l a s s o f o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s (see §6.4.2), or (b) u s i n g a

c o n s t r u c t i o n : c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x - p o s s e s s i v e -ya- + classifier (§6.5.1), e.g. nu-ya-

dapana ( l s g - P O S S - C L : H A B ) ' m y h o u s e ' .

6.5 P o s s e s s i v e classifiers

A n a l t e r n a t i v e w a y o f e x p r e s s i n g p o s s e s s i o n is w i t h p o s s e s s e d classifier c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

T h e s e a r e o f t w o t y p e s : c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i o n m a r k e r -ya- a n d a classifier

( § 6 . 5 . 1 ) , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h a g e n e r i c p o s s e s s e d classifier -yarupe 'thing' (§6.5.2).

T h e t w o c o n s t r u c t i o n s differ in their g r a m m a t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , a n d in their s e m a n t i c s .

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 1 3 4 6 P o s s e s s i o n

6.5.1 C o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h the p o s s e s s i v e -ya-

C o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i v e -ya- a n d p o s s e s s e d classifiers (see C h a p t e r 5) c a n b e

e m p l o y e d w i t h i n a l i e n a b l y a n d a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s , if t h e fact o f a n o u n b e i n g

p o s s e s s e d is t o b e f o c u s s e d o n , a n d if t h e h e a d n o u n is o m i t t e d .

A p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i s t s of: a c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x + - j a - + P O S S E S S E D

C L A S S I F I E R f o l l o w e d b y t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n ( w h i c h m a y b e o m i t t e d if r e c o v e r a b l e f r o m

t h e c o n t e x t ) , e.g. n u - y a - d a (nhuwi-da) ( l s g - P O S S - C L : R O U N D ( h e a d - C L : R O U N D ) ) ' m y

r o u n d o n e (head)'; nu-ya-dapana (panisi) (lsg-POSS-CL:HOUSE ( h o m e : N O N . P O S S ) ) ' m y

( h o m e ) ' ; n u - i t e (tfinu) ( l s g - P O S S + N C L : A M M ( d o g ) ) ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : nu-ya-ite) ' m y

(dog)'.

I n d e f i n i t e a n d i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s are n o t u s e d in t h e s e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s . T h e u s e o f p o s s e s s e d classifiers is illustrated b e l o w . In 6 . 2 5 , t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a p o s s e s s e d classifier ( o f r e p e a t e r t y p e : u n d e r l i n e d ) is u s e d w i t h o u t t h e

h e a d n o u n ; t h e h e a d n o u n , hipe 'land, c o u n t r y ' is m e n t i o n e d in t h e p r e v i o u s c l a u s e .

6 . 2 5 p i - d i a p i - n u h i p e - s e p h i t a p i - n u w a l i k i - r u - m a

2 s g - r e t u r n 2 s g - c o m e l a n d - L O C 2 s g + t a k e 2 s g - c o m e y o u n g - F E M - C L : F E M

m a t f i t e - n u k u w a - y a - h i p e - s e

g o o d + N C L : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - P O S S - C L : L A N D - L O C

' G o b a c k t o y o u r l a n d ( a n d ) b r i n g a beautiful y o u n g w o m a n to o u r s (land).'

In 6 . 2 6 , f r o m a s t o r y a b o u t t h e traditional flood, t h e h e a d l e s s c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a

p o s s e s s e d classifier -ite ' a n i m a t e ' is u s e d to refer to a b o d y part w h i c h is typically n o t

m e n t i o n e d - f e m a l e g e n i t a l s (the u n d e r l y i n g f o r m of nu-ite is nu-ya-ite).

6 . 2 6 p h i a h a - n i r i n u - n a n u - i t e - s i k a

y o u p a r e n t - M A S C 1s g - O B J 1s g - P O S S + N C L : A N I M - R E C . P . I N F R

d h i p a d h i m a

3 s g n f + g r a b 3 s g n f + h e a r

" T o u r father is t r y i n g to g r a b m e b y m y genitalia (lit. b y m y a n i m a t e o n e ) , " (said

t h e d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w o f K a l i , t h e lord o f m a n i o c , to h e r h u s b a n d t r y i n g to g e t rid o f

Kali).'

In 6 . 2 7 , t h e h e a d n o u n is u s e d w i t h a p o s s e s s e d classifier c o n s t r u c t i o n , to e m p h a s i s e

t h e p o s s e s s i o n .

6 . 2 7 k a n i - n e - t h a h i n a w i k i

w h e r e - I N S - P R E S . N O N V I S . I N T E R D E M . A N I M p e o p l e

k h e s a r a k a n - p e n i n a - n u n u - y a - d a p a n a

b e . m i s e r a b l e - P L : A N I M 3 p l - c o m e l s g - P O S S - C L : H A B

p a n i - s i i-thirikuna

h o u s e - N P O S S I N D F - n e a r

" ' B y w h a t p l a c e s are t h e s e m i s e r a b l e p e o p l e c o m i n g in v a i n n e a r m y v e r y o w n

h o u s e ? " (the evil spirit said, a n n o y e d ) . '

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 6.5 P o s s e s s i v e classifiers 1 3 5

I n 6 . 2 8 t h e p o s s e s s i v e classifier c o n s t r u c t i o n m a r k s p r e d i c a t i v e p o s s e s s i o n .

6 . 2 8 n u - i t e - t h a - k a p h i a i k a s u - n u k u

1 s g - P O S S + N C L : A N I M - F R - R E C . P . V I S y o u . s g n o w - T O P . N O N . A / S

TSIow y o u a r e m i n e (for better o r for w o r s e ) . '

S i m i l a r l y t o a n a l y t i c p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e t y p e ' w e o u r - c h i e f in 6.20, in

y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h , a classifier c o n s t r u c t i o n m a y b e a c c o m p a n i e d w i t h a p r e p o s e d

p o s s e s s o r e x p r e s s e d w i t h a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n , a s in 6 . 2 9 , from a story t o l d b y E m i l i o

B r i t o , a n i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r .

6 . 2 9 n h u a a i - n a k a n u - y a - d a p a n a

I h e r e - P R E S . V I S l s g - P O S S - C L : H A B

' H e r e is m y h o u s e . ' (lit. I m y - h o u s e - l i k e o n e )

T h e p o s s e s s i v e classifier c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h k w a n a ' w h o ' as t h e p o s s e s s o r is t h e w a y o f

q u e s t i o n i n g t h e p o s s e s s o r , e.g. 6 . 3 0 (also s e e § 2 1 . 4 . 3 ) .

6 . 3 0 k w a n a y a - d a p a n a - n h a

w h o P O S S - C L : H O U S E - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

' W h o s e h o u s e (is this o n e ) ? '

C o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i v e -ya- are a n areal feature s h a r e d b y T a r i a n a a n d

T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s ; a s i m i l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n is also f o u n d in B a n i w a , b u t n o t in a n y o t h e r

N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e . It is f o u n d e l s e w h e r e i n t h e T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s . T h i s s u g g e s t s

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f unilateral d i f f u s i o n f r o m T u c a n o into B a n i w a a n d T a r i a n a w i t h i n t h e

V a u p e s - l 9 a n a c o n t a c t area. A l l t h e T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s u s e t h e p o s s e s s i v e m a r k e r -ya-

p l u s classifier to m a r k a l i e n a b l e p o s s e s s i o n , e.g. T u c a n o mi'i-ya-wi'i (2sg-POSS-HOUSE)

' y o u r h o u s e ' . I n T a r i a n a , t h e u s e o f -ya- h a s b e e n e x t e n d e d t o i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d

n o u n s .

T h e f o l l o w i n g t w o e x a m p l e s s h o w structural i s o m o r p h i s m o f p o s s e s s i v e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h p o s s e s s e d classifiers in T a r i a n a ( 6 . 3 1 ) a n d T u c a n o (6.32).

6.31 p i - y a - k u ( a m a - k u )

2 s g - P O S S - C L : E X T E N D E D ( h a m m o c k - C L : E X T E N D E D )

' y o u r h a m m o c k '

6 . 3 2 mi'i-ya-g? ( p u - g i )

2 s g - P O S S - C L : L A R G E ( h a m m o c k - C L : L A R G E )

' y o u r h a m m o c k '

P o s s e s s e d classifiers are also u s e d in B a n i w a in a s i m i l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n t y p e ,

i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f w h e t h e r t h e n o u n b e l o n g s to t h e class o f a l i e n a b l y o r o f i n a l i e n a b l y

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 136 6 Possession

p o s s e s s e d . B a n i w a u s e s t h e p o s s e s s i v e m a r k e r -yal-dza? T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n : c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x -ya-/dza f o l l o w e d b y a classifier is u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y to m a r k

p r e d i c a t i v e p o s s e s s i o n . T h i s is s h o w n in 6.33 ( w i t h a n i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n ) a n d

6 . 3 4 ( w i t h a n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d o n e ) .

6 . 3 3 h r i e h e p i e t a n u - d z a - k u

t h i s : N F . S G h a m m o c k l s g - P O S S - C L

' T h i s h a m m o c k is m i n e . ' (alienable)

6 . 3 4 h r i e h e n h u w i - d a n u - d z a - d a

t h i s : N F . S G h e a d - C L : R O U N D l s g - P O S S - C L : R O U N D

' T h i s h e a d is m i n e . ' ( i n a l i e n a b l e )

6.5.2 C o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h a g e n e r i c p o s s e s s e d classifier - y a r u p e

T h e g e n e r i c p o s s e s s e d classifier -yarupe 'thing, m a n n e r ' is u s e d to refer to a n y i n a n i m a t e

n o u n , m o s t o f t e n o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d . It is p r e f e r a b l y u s e d w i t h n o u n s w i t h c o l l e c t i v e

r e f e r e n t s (e.g. tears, m a n i o c flour - s e e e x a m p l e s b e l o w ) w h i c h w o u l d t a k e - p e n

(CLiCOLLECTlVE) a s a n a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r o n adjectives (see C h a p t e r 8, o n this

m o r p h e m e a s a n u m b e r m a r k e r ) e.g. nu-yarupe hitisi ( l s g - t h i n g tear) ' m y tear', a n d w i t h

n o u n s w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent w h i c h a r e u n m a r k e d for n u m b e r ( s e e §8.1.1), a s in

6 . 3 5 .

6 . 3 5 k a n i - n i h k a n u - y a r u p e k u l e - n u k u

w h e r e - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R l s g - t h i n g fish.hook-TOP.NON.A/S

p i - s u e - t a

2 s g - s t a y + C A U S - C A U S

' W h e r e h a v e y o u p u t m y fish h o o k ( s ) ? '

T h e g e n e r i c p o s s e s s e d classifier m a r k s p r e d i c a t i v e p o s s e s s i o n , a s in 6.36.

6 . 3 6 hi k a w h i n u - y a r u p e - n a k a

D E M r A N I M m a n i o c flour l s g - t h i n g - P R E S . V I S

' T h i s m a n i o c flour is m i n e . '

T h e g e n e r i c p o s s e s s e d classifier is o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e d b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s w i t h

o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s . In 6 . 3 7 , f r o m t h e story a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f n i g h t told b y

J o v i n o a n d J o s e , t h e b o d y part t e r m -itfa 'hair' ( w h i c h , a s w e h a v e s e e n a b o v e , is treated

at t i m e s a s o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d , a n d at t i m e s a s o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d - s e e 6 . 1 8 - 1 9 ) is

u s e d w i t h t h e g e n e r i c classifier y a r u p e .

6 . 3 7 p h i a - m i a - m h a d e n u - n a d i - t a p e pi-ni n u - w h i d a - n u k u

y o u - o n l y - F U T l s g - O B J 3 s g n f - r e m e d y 2 s g - d o l s g - h e a d - T O P . N O N . A / S

2
dz is a regular correspondent to Tariana y in s o m e dialects o f Baniwa, e.g. Siuci and H o h o d e n e ; y is

found in K u r r i p a k o dialects o f B a n i w a o f Icana.

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 6.6 Conclusions 137

n u - y a r u p e itfa d i - t a w i n a - k a r u - p e n a

1 s g - t h i n g h a i r 3 s g n f - g r o w - P U R P . V I S - N O M . F U T

' O n l y y o u will m a k e a r e m e d y for m y (thing) hair to g r o w o n t o m y head.'

T h e g e n e r i c -yarupe is a l m o s t n e v e r u s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to a n a n i m a t e p o s s e s s e e .

O n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y d o y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s e m p l o y -yarupe to refer to a n a n i m a t e p o s s e s s e e

r e c o v e r a b l e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t (for i n s t a n c e , O l i v i a u s e d to refer t o S a b a Brito's o w n

c h i l d r e n a s o p p o s e d t o h i s wife's c h i l d r e n f r o m h e r first m a r r i a g e as S a b a di-yarupe

( S a b a 3 s g n f - t h i n g ) 'Saba's p o s s e s s i o n , S a b a ' s o w n ' ; n o t e t h e l a c k o f the indefinite prefix

h e r e ) . 6 . 3 8 c o m e s f r o m a story told b y J o s e L u i z B r i t o a b o u t a soldier a n d t w e l v e sisters

w h o w e n t u n d e r g r o u n d to d a n c e . T h i s e x a m p l e - w h e r e t h e classifier -yarupe refers to

'their b o y f r i e n d s ' - w a s p r o d u c e d s p o n t a n e o u s l y . It w a s t h e n r e p e a t e d as 6.39, w h e r e t h e

a n i m a t e p o s s e s s e d classifier -ite w a s u s e d instead.

6 . 3 8 n h a n a p a d a - k a n a - d e n a - v a r u p e - n u k u

t h e y e a c h - R E C . P . V I S 3 p l - h a v e 3 p l - t h i n g - T 0 P . N 0 N . A / S

' T h e y h a v e 'theirs' (i.e. a b o y f r i e n d ) each.' (or: ' T h e y e a c h h a v e a boyfriend.')

6 . 3 9 n h a n a p a d a - k a n a - d e d u - i t e - n u k u

t h e y e a c h - R E C . P . V I S 3 p l - h a v e 3 s g f - N C L : A N I M - T 0 P . N 0 N . A / S

' T h e y h a v e 'theirs' (i.e. a b o y f r i e n d ) each.' (or: T h e y e a c h h a v e a boyfriend.')

T h e n o u n - y a r u p e , b e s i d e s its u s e a s a classifier, c a n b e u s e d a s h e a d o f a n o u n p h r a s e

in t w o m e a n i n g s : (a) a s a g e n e r a l t e r m for 'things', 'belongings', a s in 6.40, o r 'doings', a s

in 6.41 ( n o t e t h a t it c a n n o t b e u s e d a s a g e n e r i c n o u n in a g e n e r i c - s p e c i f i c c o n s t r u c t i o n

t y p e , u n l i k e y a p h i n i 'thing' (see C h a p t e r 2 6 ) ; (b) a s a t e r m for 'language', o r 'speech' (see

§ 2 6 . 2 . 2 ) , a s in 6 . 4 2 , 7.53 a n d T l .7; a n d (c) a s a t e r m for 'manner', a s in 7.54.

6 . 4 0 p i - y a r u p e - n u k u p i - t h e t a p h i t a

2 s g - t h i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - a r r a n g e 2 s g + t a k e

' A r r a n g e y o u r b e l o n g i n g s . '

6.41 i - y a r u p e i - p u - m i - n a n u h u a itfa-nuku

2 p l - t h i n g I N D F - f o l l o w - N O M - A F F I h a i r - T O P . N O N . A / S

u n i d i - b o l e t a - n h i thui-niki

w a t e r 3 s g n f - p l u c k - A N T a l l - C O M P L

' B e c a u s e o f y o u r d o i n g s , t h e w a t e r p l u c k e d all m y hair.'

6 . 4 2 h i w a - y a r u p e w a - s a p e - n i p e d i - s i s a - k a s u

D E M : A N I M l p l - t h i n g l p l - s p e a k - N O M 3 s g n f - e n d - I N T

'This, o u r t h i n g , o u r s p e e c h (i.e. t h e T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e ) is g o i n g to c o m e to a n end.'

6.6 C o n c l u s i o n s

T h e s y s t e m o f p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g in T a r i a n a s h o w s drastic r e s t r u c t u r i n g u n d e r t h e

i n f l u e n c e o f T u c a n o - t y p e patterns. T a r i a n a p r e s e r v e s o n l y f e w traces o f t h e c o m m o n

A r a w a k m a r k i n g o f p o s s e s s i o n t y p e s ( s u c h a s t h e indefinite p e r s o n m a r k e r /-, t h e n o n -

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 1 3 8 6 P o s s e s s i o n

p o s s e s s e d suffix -si o n s o m e i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s , a n d p o s s e s s i v e suffixes o n

s o m e a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s ) . T h e r e is a h i g h d e g r e e o f v a r i a t i o n in p o s s e s s i o n

m a r k i n g in T a r i a n a w h e r e it differs f r o m T u c a n o patterns, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h y o u n g e r

s p e a k e r s . T h e r e is a s t r o n g t e n d e n c y to prefer T a r i a n a p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g that

r e s e m b l e s p a t t e r n s f o u n d in T u c a n o . T h a t is, t h e s y s t e m o f p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g is a clear

e x a m p l e o f t h e interrelation b e t w e e n g e n e t i c a l l y i n h e r i t e d a n d areally diffused patterns.

T h e latter is r e i n f o r c e d w i t h t h e y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s d u e to l a n g u a g e attrition a n d h e a v y

c a l q u i n g f r o m t h e d o m i n a n t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e .

I n a d d i t i o n , T a r i a n a h a s t w o p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s : o n e w h i c h d o e s n o t e m p l o y

p o s s e s s e d classifiers a n d o n e w h i c h d o e s . T h e f o r m e r is s e m a n t i c a l l y u n m a r k e d ; t h e

latter is u s e d w h e n t h e p o s s e s s i o n is in f o c u s , o r is i m p o r t a n t in a text. T h e d i f f e r e n c e s

b e t w e e n i n a l i e n a b l y , o r o b l i g a t o r i l y p o s s e s s e d , a n d alienably, o r o p t i o n a l l y p o s s e s s e d ,

n o u n s a r e c o n s i s t e n t l y m a d e in p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h o u t classifiers. S p e c i f i c

p o s s e s s e d classifiers are u s e d w i t h a n y t y p e o f n o u n , w h i l e t h e g e n e r i c p o s s e s s e d

classifier -yarupe is p r e d o m i n a n t l y e m p l o y e d w i t h a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s .

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 7

C a s e m a r k i n g a n d g r a m m a t i c a l relations

T a r i a n a c o m b i n e s h e a d - m a r k i n g m o r p h o l o g y w i t h e l e m e n t s o f d e p e n d e n t m a r k i n g .

U n l i k e a l m o s t a n y o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e , it p o s s e s s e s a c a s e s y s t e m for b o t h c o r e a n d

o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t s o f v e r b s . T h e c a s e m a r k i n g c o m b i n e s r e f e r e n c e to t h e g r a m m a t i c a l

f u n c t i o n o f a n a r g u m e n t a n d t o t h e d i s c o u r s e status o f a referent. A s I h a v e s h o w n

e l s e w h e r e ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 a , 1 9 9 9 c , f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) , t h e c r e a t i o n o f c a s e m a r k i n g in

T a r i a n a is m o s t p r o b a b l y t h e result o f areal diffusion f r o m t h e T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s .

7.1 G e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f c a s e m a r k i n g s y s t e m

T a r i a n a h a s c o r e c a s e s ( u s e d for m a r k i n g A , S a n d O ) a n d o b l i q u e c a s e s . B o t h sets s h o w

a s e m a n t i c o v e r l a p . U n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n o u n c a n r e c e i v e c a s e m a r k i n g f r o m

b o t h sets s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

T a b l e 7.1 s h o w s t h e s y s t e m o f c o r e c a s e m a r k i n g . D i f f e r e n t m o r p h e m e s are

e m p l o y e d for n o u n s a n d for p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s (see § 1 1 . 1 ) . T h e u s e o f c a s e m a r k e r s

d e p e n d s o n topicality a n d focality o f t h e n o u n . T h e m o r p h e m e s u s e d w i t h n o u n s also

m a r k c o m p l e m e n t a n d s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s ( w h i c h are n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s : s e e C h a p t e r s 2 0 ,

2 2 a n d 2 4 ) .

T A B L E 7.1 G R A M M A T I C A L R E L A T I O N S A N D C O R E C A S E S I N T A R I A N A

G R A M M A T I C A L F U N C T I O N D I S C O U R S E S T A T U S N O U N S P R O N O U N S

A , o a , o o n o n - t o p i c a l / t o p i c a l - 0 - 0

A , o a , S 0 f o c u s s e d -nhe/-ne

n o n - t o p i c a l - 0 - n a
N o n - A / S a / S 0 a n d a l s o S l 0
t o p i c a l -nuku/-naku

N o n - A / S a / S 0 c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n b e in O f u n c t i o n a n d in a n y o b l i q u e function. T h e sole

a r g u m e n t o f v e r b s o f p h y s i c a l states (see C u n d e r § 1 2 . 1 . 2 ) , t e r m e d Sj 0 (see A i k h e n v a l d

2 0 0 1 a for further details) is m a r k e d s i m i l a r l y t o N o n - A / S a / S 0 . T a b l e 7.1 s h o w s that

T a r i a n a is b a s i c a l l y n o m i n a t i v e - a c c u s a t i v e , w i t h o v e r t c a s e m a r k i n g d e p e n d e n t o n

d i s c o u r s e p r o p e r t i e s o f c o n s t i t u e n t s .

T h e v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o a l l o m o r p h s o f t h e f o c u s s e d A / S a / S 0 - n h e a n d -ne is

likely to h a v e b e e n c o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f a n a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t in

a n o u n , e.g. n a w i k i - n h e ( p e r s o n - F O C . A / s ) ' p e r s o n (agentive)', b u t d i h a - n e (he-FOC.A/s)

'he ( a g e n t i v e ) ' ( s e e A u n d e r §2.4.3). N o w a d a y s s p e a k e r s v a r y in w h i c h a l l o m o r p h t h e y

u s e - s e e § 7 . 2 . 1 a n d § 7 . 3 . 2 .

T h e v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n - n u k u a n d - n a k u , t h e t w o a l l o m o r p h s for t o p i c a l n o n - A / S a / S 0

( c a l l e d t o p i c a l n o n - s u b j e c t f r o m h e r e o n w a r d s ) w a s m e n t i o n e d in §2.4.4. T h e a l l o m o r p h

- n a k u ( w h i c h d o e s n o t h a v e v o w e l h a r m o n y ) is characteristic o f t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n

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 140 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

( i n c l u d i n g a f e w i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s , e.g. L e o n a r d o B r i t o a n d B a t i s t a B r i t o ) , w h i l e

y o u n g e r p e o p l e u s e - n u k u (this a l l o m o r p h is u s e d b y all t h e s p e a k e r s in P e r i q u i t o s ) . S e e

A i k h e n v a l d ( 2 0 0 2 c ) o n t h e o r i g i n o f t h e T a r i a n a c a s e s y s t e m .

O b l i q u e c a s e s a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 7.2. W h i l e n o u n s d i s t i n g u i s h t w o o b l i q u e c a s e s ,

p r o n o u n s b a s i c a l l y h a v e o n l y o n e ( e x a m p l e s o f t h e locative c a s e o n p r o n o u n s are v e r y

f e w , a n d t h e y a r e restricted to t h o s e w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent - s e e §7.3.1). In § 7 . 4 w e

will s e e t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e o n p r o n o u n s is o b l i g a t o r y w h i l e o n n o u n s it c a n b e

o m i t t e d .

T A B L E 7.2. O B L I Q U E C A S E S I N T A R I A N A

C A S E N O U N S P R O N O U N S

L O C A T I O N A L -se ( n o n e )

I N S T R U M E N T A L / C O M 1 T A T I V E -ne -ine

T y p i c a l l y , t h e c a s e m a r k e r s a p p e a r o n l y o n c e p e r N P , o n t h e last w o r d o f a n N P .

U n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s ( d i s c u s s e d in § 7 . 5 ) t h e s a m e m a r k e r c a n a p p e a r t w i c e in a n

N P .

T h e c a s e f u n c t i o n s in T a b l e s 7.1 a n d 7.2 o v e r l a p : o b l i q u e c a s e s m a r k l o c a t i v e s a n d

i n s t r u m e n t a l s , w i t h a l a r g e a r r a y o f m e a n i n g s illustrated in § 7 . 3 , w h i l e - n u k u 'topical

n o n - s u b j e c t ' , o n n o u n s a n d o n p r o n o u n s , a n d - n a o n p r o n o u n s , m a r k a n y n o n - s u b j e c t

c o n s t i t u e n t . U n d e r s p e c i a l d i s c o u r s e c o n d i t i o n s - d i s c u s s e d in § 7 . 6 - a n o m i n a l

c o n s t i t u e n t in a n o b l i q u e f u n c t i o n c a n a c q u i r e 'double' c a s e m a r k i n g , that is, it c a n t a k e

a n i n s t r u m e n t a l o r a l o c a t i v e c a s e , a n d - n u k u 'topical non-subject'.

M o r p h o l o g i c a l l y , - n u k u 'topical n o n - A / S ' , -nhe/-ne 'agentive A / S ' a n d -ne

' i n s t r u m e n t a l / c o m i t a t i v e * are p h r a s a l clitics s i n c e t h e y a c q u i r e a s e c o n d a r y stress, w h i l e

-se 'locative' a n d - n a ' p r o n o m i n a l n o n - A / S a / S 0 ' are suffixes; -ine

' i n s t r u m e n t a l / c o m i t a t i v e ' u s e d w i t h p r o n o u n s is a suffix.

D i s t i n g u i s h i n g c o r e a n d n o n - c o r e a r g u m e n t s in T a r i a n a is a s e p a r a t e p r o b l e m . A a n d

S a a r e o b l i g a t o r i l y c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e v e r b , a n d t h e O (direct object) c a n b e t h e

target o f t h e p a s s i v e ( s e e § 1 3 . 1 ) . T h i s is t h e o n l y syntactic p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f

'core a r g u m e n t ' status o f A , S a a n d O . ' D o u b l e object' c o n s t r u c t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d in

§ 7 . 5 .

7.2 S e m a n t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n o f c o r e c a s e s

7.2.1 The m a r k i n g of A , S a, SQ

T a b l e 7.1 s h o w s a different m a r k i n g for f o c u s s e d a n d n o n - f o c u s s e d A , S a a n d S0. T h e s e

a r g u m e n t s are z e r o - m a r k e d if t h e y are n o t f o c u s s e d . 'Focus' h e r e is u s e d a s a n u m b r e l l a

t e r m for c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s (see b e l o w ) . E x a m p l e 7.1 s h o w s a n o u n {tjari 'man') in A

f u n c t i o n , 7.2 s h o w s a n o u n (yawi 'jaguar') in S a function, a n d 7.3 a n o u n (yawi 'jaguar')

in S 0 f u n c t i o n .

7 . 1 . [paita tfari] d i - k a p i - p i d a n a d i - p i s a

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M m a n 3 s g n f - h a n d - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - c u t

' O n e m a n c u t h i s h a n d . '

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 7 . 2 S e m a n t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n of c o r e c a s e s 141

7.2. y a w i d h e p u w i k a - s e d i - w h a - p i d a n a

j a g u a r h e + C L : B U N D L E t o p - L O C 3 s g n f - s i t - R E M . P . R E P

d i - w a p a - k a di-fiha-kasu d i - n a

3 s g n f - w a i t - S U B 3 s g n f - e a t - I N T 3 s g n f - 0 B J

' W h i l e t h e j a g u a r w a s sitting w a i t i n g o n t o p o f this ( b u n d l e ) , it w a s g o i n g to eat

h i m ( t h e m a n ) . '

7.3 d i h a y a w i h a r a m e d i - w a s a - t a t h a h u

A R T j a g u a r b e . f r i g h t e n e d 3 s g n f - j u m p - U P A W A Y

d i - w a di-a

3 s g n f - e n t e r 3 s g n f - g o

' T h e j a g u a r w a s frightened, h e j u m p e d u p a n d a w a y h e went.'

A , S a , S 0 c a n b e m a r k e d w i t h a clitic - n h e A n e , if o n e o r m o r e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s listed

b e l o w , a s (I), (II) a n d (III), a r e m e t . A / S a / S 0 m a r k e d w i t h -nheZ-ne is a l w a y s definite

a n d / o r referential; that is, it c a n n o t h a v e a g e n e r i c referent.

(i) A / S A / S O I S A K E Y P A R T I C I P A N T I N C O N T R A S T I V E F O C U S T O A N O T H E R A R G U M E N T . In 7.4

t h e A a r g u m e n t , n a w i k i 'person', is m a r k e d w i t h -nheZ-ne s i n c e this k e y p a r t i c i p a n t o f

t h e s t o r y is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h a n o t h e r k e y participant, t h e evil spirit.

7.4 k i y a - k u hiniri d i - w h a - k a

s t r o n g - P E R S I S T E N T 'ukuki'.fruit 3 s g n f - f a l l - S U B

d i - k a d i - n i w a d i - w a k e - t a

3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - c o l l e c t 3 s g n f - j o i n + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2
1
d i - y a - n h i - p i d a n a d i h a n a w i k i - n e

3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T - R E M . P . R E P A R T m a n - F O C . A / S

' T h e m a n s a w that t h e u k u k i fruit w a s falling d o w n a lot ( a n d ) h e w a s c o l l e c t i n g

( t h e m ) ( w h i l e t h e evil spirit w a s trying to steal the fruit).'

(n) A / S A / S 0 is P R E S E N T E D A S A M A I N P A R T I C I P A N T I N T H E D I S C O U R S E ; O R IS A N E W L Y

I N T R O D U C E D B U T A L R E A D Y K N O W N P A R T I C I P A N T I M P O R T A N T F O R T H E F U T U R E

D I S C O U R S E . In 7 . 5 , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s are p r e s e n t e d as t h e m a i n p r o t a g o n i s t s o f t h e story in

S a f u n c t i o n . T h e s e t w o m e n p r o v o k e d t h e a n g e r o f a n evil spirit in t h e j u n g l e , a n d h e

a l m o s t killed t h e m , s o t h a t t h e y r e m a i n e d u n c o n s c i o u s for s o m e t i m e . Nha 'they' refers

t o t h e t w o m e n ; this c o n s t i t u e n t is m a r k e d w i t h -ne s i n c e t h e t w o m e n are r e i n t r o d u c e d

a s i m p o r t a n t p a r t i c i p a n t s .

7.5 d i h a f i a m u n a - n a d i - p e di-a

A R T evil.spirit 3 p l - O B J 3 s g n f - t h r o w 3 s g n f - g o

n h a - n e n a - y a m i n a - s w a - p i d a n a

t h e y - F O C . A / S 3 p l - b e . u n c o n s c i o u s 3 p l - s t a y - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e evil spirit t h r e w t h e m , t h e y s t a y e d u n c o n s c i o u s . '

1
T h e a l l o m o r p h - n e is u s e d h e r e b e c a u s e t h e narrator, G r a c i l i a n o Brito, d o e s n o t e m p l o y the a s p i r a t e d

a l l o m o r p h - n h e . In this, a n d in o t h e r e x a m p l e s , I k e e p the -nhe/-ne a l l o m o r p h as c h o s e n b y e a c h

i n d i v i d u a l story-teller.

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 142 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

In 7.5a, -ne m a r k e s a n e w i m p o r t a n t participant, 'thunder*.

7 . 5 a d i h a k a y u d i - n i - k a y a m i t u k i - p i d a n a k a l e

h e s o 3 s g n f - d o - A F T E R : D S l i t t l e - R E M . P . R E P w i n d

d i - n u - n h a e : n u - n e d i - n u - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - c o m e - P A U S t h u n d e r - F O C . A / S 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

k i y a - k u - p i d a n a e n u d i - e n e - t a - n h a

s t r o n g - A F F - R E M . P . R E P t h u n d e r 3 s g n f - p a s s + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - P A U S

'After h e (the m a n ) d i d this, t h e r e c a m e a little w i n d , t h e t h u n d e r c a m e , h e (evil

spirit) m a d e it t h u n d e r loudly.'

( m ) A / S A / S O H A V E T O B E D I S A M B I G U A T E D . In l o n g i s h series o f d i a l o g u e s t h e a d d i t i o n o f

-ne o n t o A / S A / S 0 o f t e n s e r v e s to d i s a m b i g u a t e ' w h o d i d what', a s a m a r k e r o f t u r n t a k i n g .

T h i s is illustrated w i t h 7.5. T h i s d i s a m b i g u a t i n g u s e o f -ne is e x t r e m e l y c o m m o n in

stories w h i c h c o n t a i n l o n g d i a l o g u e s ( o f t h e t y p e : hej said - hej a n s w e r e d - hej said).

7 . 6 a d i - w a s a - h u d i - a d i - s a p e - p i d a n a d i h a ne:ri

3 s g n f - j u m p - A W A Y 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P A R T d e e r

' T h e d e e r j u m p e d a w a y ( f r o m t h e a r r o w ) a n d s p o k e . '

7 . 6 b n u h u a w i : n u - k a k w e - b o t h a k a di-a

I h i t . t a r g e t - S U B w h a t - C O N D . P R E S 3 s g n f - g o

p i - n a d i - a - p i d a n a

2 s g - O B J 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

'"If I hit t h e target, w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n to y o u , " said h e (the m a n ) . '

7 . 6 c i k a s u - b o t h a k a p i - n a r e p h i a d i - a - p i d a n a

n o w - C O N D . P R E S 2 s g - d i s a p p e a r y o u 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

d i h a n e : r i - n e

h e d e e r - F O C . A / S

" ' N o w y o u w o u l d h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , " said t h e deer.'

T h e f o c u s s e d s u b j e c t m a r k e r is n o t u s e d in t h e d o u b l e S t y p e c l a u s e (see u n d e r C 2 in

§ 2 1 . 4 . 1 , a n d e x a m p l e s 2 1 . 9 6 - 7 ) .

T h e clitic - n h e / - n e , u n l i k e t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e suffix -ine, a t t a c h e s to t h e full

s u b j e c t f o r m o f t h e p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n . In contrast, t h e suffix -ine c o m b i n e s w i t h

p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s , e.g. n u h u a - n e 'I (focussed)', n u - i n e (lsg-iNST) 'with m e ' . 7.7

c o n t a i n s b o t h .

7.7 n u - i n e p i - a d i - a - p i d a n a d i h a - n e

l s g - C O M 2 s g - g o 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P h e - F O C . A / S

d i - a - k h a n i d i n e

3 s g n f - g o - A W A Y 3 s g n f + C O M

' " C o m e w i t h m e , " h e (the evil spirit) said; h e (the m a n ) w e n t w i t h h i m . '

Y o u n g e r p e o p l e o c c a s i o n a l l y m i x t h e t w o t o g e t h e r (also s e e §7.3.2). E x a m p l e 7.8 is

f r o m a s t o r y t r a n s l a t e d f r o m P o r t u g u e s e b y J o v i n o w h o u s e d p h i a - n e ( y o u - F O C . A / s )

i n s t e a d of p i n e ( 2 s g + l N S ) 'with you'. ( H i s e l d e r b r o t h e r G r a c i l i a n o c o r r e c t e d h i m . )

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 7.2 S e m a n t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n of c o r e c a s e s 1 4 3

7.8 k w a n a p h i a - n e k a - k w a - k a r i

w h o y o u - C O M R E L - h a n g - P . R E L

p e d a l e - m a - p e - m i a - p i d a n a n a - d i a

o l d - C L : F E M - P L - O N L Y - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - b e c o m e

' W h i c h e v e r ( w o m e n ) slept w i t h y o u (lit. h a n g in h a m m o c k ) , ( t h e y ) b e c a m e old.'

T h e g r o w i n g i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f t h e a l l o m o r p h s o f -nhe/ne ' f o c u s s e d A / S ' a n d

-ne/-ine ' c o m i t a t i v e / i n s t r u m e n t a l ' is characteristic o f i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s , a n d atypical o f

a r c h a i c s p e a k e r s - s u c h a s C a n d i d o o r A m e r i c o Brito. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n c a n b e

e x p l a i n e d b y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t w o factors, o n e o f w h i c h is l a n g u a g e o b s o l e s c e n c e . T h e

s e c o n d factor c o u l d b e t h e t y p o l o g i c a l 'naturalness' o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p o l y s e m y

b e t w e e n t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e a n d t h e f o c u s s e d A / S m a r k e r , o r a n e r g a t i v e ( A )

m a r k e r . T h i s p o l y s e m y is w i d e l y attested cross-linguistically (see D i x o n 1 9 9 4 ) ; in t h e

N o r t h e r n A m a z o n i a n a r e a it is f o u n d , for i n s t a n c e , in S i o n a , a W e s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e

f r o m E c u a d o r ( W h e e l e r 1 9 8 7 ) .

7.2.2 The m a r k i n g ofnon-AISJS0

T a r i a n a u s e s different m a r k i n g for t o p i c a l a n d n o n - t o p i c a l n o n - A / S a / S 0 - s e e T a b l e 7 . 1 .

In a d d i t i o n , p r o n o m i n a l a n d n o n - p r o n o m i n a l c o n s t i t u e n t s are m a r k e d in a different w a y

- s e e A b e l o w . In B I e x p l a i n w h a t is m e a n t b y 'topical' w i t h r e s p e c t to T a r i a n a c a s e

m a r k i n g .

A . N O N - T O P I C A L N O N - A / S A / S 0

A l . P R O N O M I N A L C O N S T I T U E N T S . P e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s w i t h a n a n i m a t e referent in n o n -

A / S a / S 0 f u n c t i o n a l w a y s c o n s i s t o f a c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefix + suffix - n a , e.g. n u - n a

'me', p i - n a ' y o u sg.', etc. A c o n s t i t u e n t m a r k e d in this w a y c a n b e a n y referent in n o n -

A / S a / S 0 f u n c t i o n w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f c o m i t a t i v e - i n s t r u m e n t a l (see § 7 . 3 ) w h e r e t h e -ine

c a s e is u s e d . P o s s i b l e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e - n a c a s e are e x e m p l i f i e d b e l o w . 7.9 c o n t a i n s a

p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n m a r k e d w i t h t h e - n a c a s e in O function.

7.9 n h u a n i r i n u - n a di:ta d i - e m e - t a h i p e r i - n e

l s g + f a t h e r l s g - O B J 3 s g n f + l o c k 3 s g n f - s t a y + C A U S l - C A U S 2 p a r i - I N S

' " M y father l o c k e d m e w i t h pari (a t y p e o f w o o d ) , " (said t h e m e n s t r u a t i n g girl).'

T h e suffix - n a c a n m a r k b o t h a gift a n d a recipient o f a ditransitive v e r b , a s in 7 . 1 0

(gift a n d b e n e f i c i a r y c a n o n l y b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y c o n t e x t ) .

7 . 1 0 d i - n a d u - n a d i - h e - t a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g f - O B J 3 s g n f - s e e + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P

' H e s h o w e d h i m to h e r (or h e r to h i m ) . '

It c a n m a r k a b e n e f i c i a r y , a s in 7 . 1 1 , a n d m a l e f i c i a r y , as in 7.12.

7.11 p a - d e p i t a k a y - p i d a n a d i - n a n a - n i

o n e - C L : N I G H T s o - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J 3 p l - d o

' O n e n i g h t t h e y d i d t o h i m thus.'

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 1 4 4 7 C a s e m a r k i n g a n d g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s

7 . 1 2 p h i a p i s a p i - n a w e : - m h a

y o u 2 s g + w o u n d 2 s g - O B J i t c h - P R E S . N O N V I S

' Y o u r w o u n d is i t c h i n g . ' (lit. i t c h i n g t o y o u )

If t h e p o s s e s s e d i t e m is in a p a r t - w h o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e p o s s e s s o r , t h e latter is

m a r k e d w i t h t h e - n a c a s e .

7 . 1 3 d i - k a w a n a - p e k a i k a - p i d a n a d i - n a - n h a

3 s g n f - l e g - P L u s e l e s s - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J - P A U S

'His l e g s w e r e u s e l e s s to h i m . '

It c a n m a r k t h e u n d e r l y i n g A o f a p a s s i v e , as in 7.14; see § 1 3 . 1 , a n d 1 3 . 4 - 5 .

7 . 1 4 p i - n a k e h p a - k a n a - m a h k a

2 s g - O B J R E L + g e t - P A S S I V E - R E C . P . N O N V I S

'"I w a s g r a b b e d b y y o u " (said t h e y o u n g w o m a n to a m y t h i c a l m a n K a d a w a ) . '

In 7 . 1 5 , - n a m a r k s 'reason' (the v e r b h a m a 'be tired of, f e d u p ' is strictly intransitive).

7 . 1 5 d i h a [ n h a ha-niri] h a m a - p i d a d i - w a

h e [they p a r e n t - M A S C ] b e . f e d . u p - R E P 3 s g n f - e n t e r

d i - a n a - n a

3 s g n f - g o 3 p l - R E A S O N

'Their father g o t fed u p b e c a u s e o f t h e m (his children).'

T h e - n a c a s e c a n also m a r k l o c a t i o n ( n o t e that p r o n o u n s rarely if e v e r t a k e t h e

l o c a t i v e c a s e -se\ s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n in §7.3.1). In 7 . 1 6 the - n a c a s e m a r k s 'source'

('from'), a n d in 7 . 1 7 it m a r k s d i r e c t i o n ('to').

7 . 1 6 n a - n a h e r e n a - s i d i - a - m h a

3 p l - F R O M b e . i l l - N O M 3 s g n f - g o - P R E S . N O N V I S

'Illness g o e s a w a y f r o m t h e m . ' ( S a i d as the result o f t h e s h a m a n 'sucking' t h e

illness a w a y . )

7 . 1 7 i h a n u - n a d i - u k a - m h a

f a e c e s 1s g - T O 3 s g n f - a r r i v e - P R E S . N O N V I S
1
'I w a n t to defecate. (lit. ' f a e c e s c a m e to m e ' )

T h e - n a c a s e m a r k s t h e Si 0 c o n s t i t u e n t o f t h e v e r b s o f p h y s i c a l states ( s e e C u n d e r

§ 1 2 . 1 . 2 ; e x a m p l e s 1 2 . 2 7 a n d 1 2 . 2 9 ) a n d t h e n o n - c a n o n i c a l l y m a r k e d A / S a r g u m e n t o f

serialisable s e c o n d a r y v e r b s ira 'need' a n d i n u n a 'be u n w i l l i n g ' ( u n d e r C in § 1 2 . 1 . 4 ;

e x a m p l e s 1 2 . 6 3 - 5 ) . T h i r d p e r s o n p r o n o u n s w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent d o n o t t a k e -na. In

7 . 1 8 , d i h a a n d n o t d i - n a is u s e d .

7 . 1 8 d i h a n u - k a l i t e - d e i-na

it l s g - t e l l - F U T . C E R T 2 p l - O B J

'I w i l l t e l l it ( t h e story) for y o u (or to you).'

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 7.2 S e m a n t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n of c o r e c a s e s 1 4 5

T h e specifier article d i h a - h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h t h e third p e r s o n s i n g u l a r n o n f e m i n i n e

p r o n o u n - d o e s n o t t a k e t h e - n a c a s e .

A 2 . N O N - P R O N O M I N A L C O N S T I T U E N T S . N o n - p r o n o m i n a l c o n s t i t u e n t s in a n o n - A / S a / S 0

f u n c t i o n a r e u n m a r k e d for c a s e if t h e y are n o t topical. L o c a t i v e a n d

c o m i t a t i v e / i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n s t i t u e n t s are u s u a l l y m a r k e d w i t h r e s p e c t i v e o b l i q u e c a s e s

( s e e § 7 . 1 , § 7 . 3 ; a n d a l s o § 7 . 4 , for t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e o b l i q u e c a s e m a r k e r s

c a n b e o m i t t e d ) .

A n u n m a r k e d O , a s i 'pepper' - a c o n s t i t u e n t w i t h a g e n e r i c referent a n d w h i c h is n o t

a future t o p i c - is s h o w n in 7.19.

7 . 1 9 a:si n a : n a - n h a d u - n a

p e p p e r 3 p l + g i v e 3 p l - e a t 3 s g f - O B J

' T h e y g i v e h e r p e p p e r to eat (or: t h e y m a k e h e r eat p e p p e r ) . '

T h e u n m a r k e d O typically refers to c o n s t i t u e n t s w i t h g e n e r i c r e f e r e n c e , a n d is

c o m m o n in d e s c r i p t i o n s o f c u s t o m a r y activities, a s in 7.20, f r o m a story a b o u t b r i d e

p r i c e ; c a n o e s a n d w e a p o n s a r e typically g i v e n this w a y .

7 . 2 0 s t p i - p e n h e t a n a k a i t a - w h y a n h e t a n a k a

a r m s - P L 3 p l + t a k e 3 p l + a r r i v e c a n o e - C L : C A N O E 3 p l + t a k e 3 p l + a r r i v e

' T h e y b r i n g a r m s , t h e y b r i n g c a n o e s (i.e. w h a t e v e r their p o s s e s s i o n s , t h e y g i v e

t h e m a s a brideprice).'

T h e u n m a r k e d O a p p e a r s in fixed e x p r e s s i o n s . 7.21 is a w a y o f d e s c r i b i n g h u n t i n g ;

a l o n g s i m i l a r lines, t h e e x p r e s s i o n di-kale dhita (3sgnf-heart, b r e a t h 3 s g n f + t a k e ) m e a n s

'he b r e a t h e s ' .

7.21 itjiri d i n u

g a m e 3 s g n f + k i l l

' H e h u n t s . ' (lit. h e kills g a m e )

B . T O P I C A L N O N - A / S A / S O

A l l t o p i c a l n o n - A / S a / S o are m a r k e d w i t h a clitic - n u k u . T o b e m a r k e d w i t h - n u k u , a

c o n s t i t u e n t h a s to m e e t o n e o r m o r e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s :

1. T h e c o n s t i t u e n t is (or is g o i n g to b e ) t h e t o p i c o f t h e narrative;

2. T h e c o n s t i t u e n t is referential, specific a n d / o r definite;

3. T h e c o n s t i t u e n t is i m p o r t a n t ( b u t is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y contrastive).

B l . M A R K I N G O F A F U T U R E O R A C U R R E N T T O P I C O F A N A R R A T I V E . T h e clitic - n u k u c a n

b e u s e d t o m a r k O (as in 7.47), gift, r e c i p i e n t (or b o t h o f t h e s e ) , t h e p o s s e s s o r in d o u b l e

o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s (see §7.5), Sj 0 o f v e r b s o f p h y s i c a l states a n d t h e d e m o t e d a g e n t o f

a p a s s i v e - s e e § 1 3 . 1 . I n 7 . 2 2 , - n u k u m a r k s t h e direct object, 'gold', t h e t o p i c o f t h e story

a b o u t g o l d m i n e r s .

7 . 2 2 d i - h e - t a - p i d a n a d i h a p a : k u - n u k u

3 s g n f - s e e + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P A R T g o l d - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e ( t h e M a k u g o l d m i n e r ) s h o w e d t h e g o l d (to t h e w h i t e m a s t e r a b o u t to kill

h i m ) . '

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 1 4 6 7 C a s e m a r k i n g a n d g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s

B 2 . M A R K I N G O F A R E F E R E N T I A L , S P E C I F I C O R D E F I N I T E C O N S T I T U E N T . A referential

n o u n (definite o r indefinite) t a k e s - n u k u . In 7 . 2 3 , d i - w e n i ' p a y m e n t ' h a s a g e n e r i c

r e f e r e n c e , w h i l e na-pia-nipe 'their secret' refers t o o n e o f t h e specific D e s a n o 'secrets'

(rituals a n d m a g i c ) . T h e n o u n w i t h g e n e r i c r e f e r e n c e is u n m a r k e d for c a s e , w h i l e t h e

referential o n e , 'their secret', t a k e s - n u k u .

7 . 2 3 d i - w e n i n a - n a - k a - p i d a n a n a - p i a - n i p e - n u k u

3 s g n f - p a y 3 p l - w a n t - S U B - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - h i d e - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

n a - k a l i t e - p i d a n a d u - n a

3 p l - t e l l - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g f - O B J

' W a n t i n g a p a y m e n t , t h e y (the D e s a n o ) t o l d h e r their secret.'

T h e - n u k u c a s e c a n m a r k a n o u n w i t h g e n e r i c r e f e r e n c e (e.g. p e o p l e ) if it r e f e r s t o a

specific set. I n 7 . 2 4 , t h e 'king' o f a t o w n talks to all t h e p e o p l e o f his t o w n , this is w h y

1
n a w i k i 'people t a k e s t h e - n u k u c a s e .

7 . 2 4 n a w i k i - n u k u d i - s a p e - p i d a n a t h u y a

p e o p l e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P all

' H e t a l k e d t o all t h e p e o p l e . '

B 3 . M A R K I N G A N I M P O R T A N T C O N S T I T U E N T . A c o n s t i t u e n t in a n o n - s u b j e c t f u n c t i o n c a n

b e m a r k e d w i t h - n u k u if a t t e n t i o n n e e d s to b e d r a w n to it. 7 . 2 5 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t

a d a n g e r o u s evil spirit, n a m u , a n d his fears; h e is afraid o n l y o f d o g s a n d n o t h i n g else;

h e r e t h e d o g is s i n g l e d o u t a m o n g all o t h e r a n i m a l s ( o f w h o m t h e evil spirit is n o t

afraid). T h e c o n s t i t u e n t d i - m i n a 'the o n l y o n e ' also refers to t h e d o g .

7 2 5 t f i n u - n u k u n a m u k a r u - m a - m h a

d o g - T O P . N O N . A / S evil.spirit b e . a f r a i d - E X C - P R E S . N O N V I S

d i - m i n a - n u k u - p i d a n a m a - k a - k a d e

3 s g n f - t h e . o n l y . o n e - T O P . N O N . A / S - R E M . P . R E P N E G - s e e - N E G

k a y u - m a k a - p i d a n a k a r u t f i n u - n u k u

s o - A F F - R E M . P . R E P be.afraid d o g - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e evil spirit is v e r y m u c h afraid o f d o g s , h e (evil spirit) d o e s n o t k n o w o n l y

h i m (i.e. t h e d o g is t h e o n l y a n i m a l h e h a s n e v e r s e e n ) , this is w h y h e is afraid o f

d o g s . '

T h e - n u k u c a s e c a n a p p e a r o n p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s if t h e y are h i g h l y t o p i c a l a n d

f o c u s s e d , a s i n 7 . 2 6 (the narrator, J o s e M a n o e l B r i t o , u s e d t h e a r c h a i c a l l o m o r p h - n a k u ) .

7 . 2 6 n h u a - n a k u k i d a - m h a n a

I - T O P . N O N . A / S r e a d y - R E M . P . N O N V I S

' F o r m e , it w a s over.'

T h e - n u k u c a s e m a r k e r u s u a l l y a t t a c h e s to the 'subject' f o r m o f a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n

( n o t t o t h e - n a c a s e f o r m ) , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f a n i m a c y o f t h e referent. In 7 . 2 7 t h e p r o n o u n

d i h a h a s a n i n a n i m a t e referent, w h i l e in 7 . 2 8 t h e s a m e p r o n o u n refers to a n o n h u m a n

a n i m a t e .

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 7.2 S e m a n t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n of c o r e c a s e s 1 4 7

7 . 2 7 w a h a d i h a - n u k u w a - n a l i t a w a - w a

w e h e - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - q u a r r e l lpl-try

' W e (shall) try t o q u a r r e l a b o u t this ( Y u r u p a r i flute).'

7 . 2 8 d i h a - n u k u di-sita h u !

h e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s h o o t B U M P !

d i - r u k u - i - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - f a l l . d o w n - C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

' H e s h o t h i m ( m u t u m b i r d ) d o w n a n d let h i m fall.'

H o w e v e r , y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y p r o d u c e f o r m s in w h i c h - n u k u a t t a c h e s to

t h e - n a c a s e o f p r o n o u n s , a n d later c o r r e c t t h e m . W h e n J o s e L u i z B r i t o w a s translating

p a r t s o f t h e G o s p e l r e a d i n g d u r i n g a c h u r c h s e r v i c e in t h e c h a p e l in S a n t a R o s a , h e

p r o d u c e d 7 . 2 9 - w h i c h h e h i m s e l f later c o n d e m n e d as incorrect.

7 . 2 9 w a - n a - n u k u

l p l - O B J - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - d i e - t a - k a - s i n a d i - n a

3 s g n f - c o m e . b a c k + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - D E C L - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g n f - O B J

' H e ( O u r L o r d ) d i d r e t u r n h i m ( J e s u s ) to us.'

P r o n o u n s w i t h t h e - n a suffix f o l l o w e d b y - n u k u are u s e d b y s p e a k e r s o f t h e S a n t a

T e r e z i n h a variety. 7 . 3 0 c o m e s f r o m a story t o l d b y K r i s t i n a (see §1.9). T h e f o r m ri-na-

n u k u ( n o t e t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a p r e f i x ri- c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e S a n t a R o s a di-) w a s

c o r r e c t e d t o d i h a - n u k u b y o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e B r i t o family.

7 . 3 0 n e - m h e p a d e - p i d a f i - n a - n u k u

N E G - N E G + a n s w e r + N E G - R E P 3 s g n f - O B J - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e y d i d n o t a n s w e r h i m (their father, t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r o f t h e story).'

T h e u s e o f - n a w i t h - n u k u b y t h e y o u n g e r B r i t o c o u l d b e t h e result o f a certain

a m o u n t o f dialect m i x t u r e . S p e a k e r s o f t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect u s e f o r m s like w a - n a - n u k u

a n d w a h a - n u k u a s free v a r i a n t s .

E x a m p l e s w i t h - n u k u o n p r o n o u n s are n o t v e r y f r e q u e n t ( w h i c h is p r o b a b l y d u e to

t h e fact t h a t p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s a r e b y their n a t u r e h i g h l y referential a n d are likely to b e

t o p i c s ) ; t h e y t y p i c a l l y i n v o l v e contrast. In 7.31 a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n w i t h a h u m a n

r e f e r e n t is h i g h l y topical.

7.31 p h i a h i feijao a r o s d i - s w a - n a k a d i - a - p i d a n a

y o u D E M : A N I M b e a n s rice 3 s g n f - s t a y - P R E S . V I S 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

d i h a - n u k u p i - b e s i t a p i - s u e p u a y a - m i a

h e - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - c h o o s e 2 s g - s t a y + C A U S e l s e w h e r e - O N L Y

' " Y o u , t h e r e are b e a n s a n d rice," h e (the chief) said t o h i m (the p r o t a g o n i s t ) , " p u t

t h e m separately".'

E x a m p l e 7 . 3 2 illustrates t h e u s e o f - n u k u o n p r o n o u n s w h i c h h a v e a suffix, o r a clitic

- t h a t is, for e x a m p l e , d i m i n u t i v e , classifier, g e n d e r m a r k e r o r plural. T h e c a s e m a r k e d

p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n - w h i c h refers to evil spirits - is a l r e a d y m a r k e d w i t h d i m i n u t i v e

p l u r a l -tupe\ t h e s e c o n d o c c u r r e n c e o f this p r o n o u n c o n t a i n s t h e enclitic -sini f o l l o w e d

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 148 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

b y - n u k u . T h e story is a b o u t evil spirits w h o d e v o u r e d a w o m a n , a n d 7 . 3 2 d e s c r i b e s h o w

h e r h u s b a n d p u n i s h e d t h e m .

7 . 3 2 n h a - t u p e - n u k u d i - n a - n i p e - w i s a - p i d a n a

t h e y - D I M . P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - h i t - H A B I T - S M A S H - R E M . P . R E P

n h a - s i n i - n u k u d i - n a - p i d a n a - w i s a

t h e y - T O O - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g - h i t - R E M . P . R E P - S M A S H

' H e k e p t hitting t h e little o n e s b y s m a s h i n g , h e s m a s h e d t h e m too.'

A d e p e n d e n c y b e t w e e n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a c a s e m o r p h e m e a n d t h e d i s c o u r s e status

o f its n o u n is w e l l attested in t h e l a n g u a g e s o f t h e w o r l d - it is f o u n d , for i n s t a n c e , in

T u r k i s h ( s e e N i l s s o n 1 9 8 5 ) , in H e b r e w (see K i r t c h u k 1 9 9 3 ) a n d in t h e E a s t T u c a n o

l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n in t h e s a m e a r e a a s T a r i a n a (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 4 b , 1 9 9 9 c , a n d

B a r n e s 1 9 9 9 ) . T h e m o r p h e m e - n u k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' in T a r i a n a s h o u l d b e

c o n s i d e r e d a c a s e m a r k e r a n d n o t a t o p i c m a r k e r u s e d o n n o n - s u b j e c t s . W e c a n recall

that - n u k u is o b l i g a t o r y w i t h definite referents. A n d if a p r o n o m i n a l c o n s t i t u e n t is

t o p i c a l (as in 7 . 2 6 , a n d 7 . 2 9 - 3 2 ) , - n u k u is t h e o n l y o v e r t m a r k e r o f its s y n t a c t i c function.

Its o m i s s i o n results in u n g r a m m a t i c a l s e n t e n c e s .

7.3 T h e s e m a n t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n o f o b l i q u e c a s e s

7.3.1 L o c a t i v e c a s e

L o c a t i v e c a s e is u s e d to m a r k direction, a s in 7 . 3 3 ; location, as in 7 . 3 4 a n d 7 . 3 5 ; o r

s o u r c e , a s in 7 . 3 6 . T h i s p o l y s e m y is a n areally diffused p h e n o m e n o n , f r o m T u c a n o

l a n g u a g e s . ( S e e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 5 o f A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a . )

7 . 3 3 n a - p i d a n a u n i - s e

3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P w a t e r - T O

' T h e y ( t h e w o m e n ' s hair) w e n t into water.'

7 . 3 4 n a w i k i pa:-putfita-se n e h p a n i - p i d a n a

p e o p l e o n e - C L : C L E A R I N G - O N 3 p l + w o r k - R E M . P . R E P

' P e o p l e w e r e w o r k i n g o n a clearing.'

7.35 a d a k i d i - k a m i a - k a - d a k a k a y u m a k a y a k o l e k a - s e

f e v e r 3 s g n f - b e . i l l - S U B - Y E T t h u s d o o r w a y - I N

d i - n a p a d i - w h a - k a ke:ri h a m u - f i - s e

3 s g n f - w a r m . o n e s e l f 3 s g n f - s i t - R E C . P . V I S s u n b e . h o t - R E L - I N

' S i n c e h e is still sick w i t h fever, h e is sitting in the d o o r w a y w a r m i n g h i m s e l f in

t h e h e a t o f t h e sun.'

7 . 3 6 h i w y a k a - s e k a - n u - k a r u

D E M : A N I M f a r - F R O M R E L - c o m e - P A S T . R E L : F E M

d h u m a - n a k a w a k u - n u k u

3 s g f + h e a r - P R E S . V I S l p l + s p e e c h - T O P . N O N . A / S

' S h e w h o c a m e f r o m far a w a y u n d e r s t a n d s o u r speech.'

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 7.3 The s e m a n t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n of o b l i q u e c a s e s 1 4 9

D i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t m e a n s o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

d i r e c t i o n f r o m s o u r c e . In 7 . 3 7 , a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e v e r b -he 'enter' g i v e s

t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a d i r e c t i o n a l m e a n i n g , w h i l e in 7.38 a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h the

v e r b - m u s u 'go out' is r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e 'ablative' m e a n i n g 'from' (see § 1 8 . 3 ) . In t h e

f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

7 . 3 7 ketfa [ n a - m u s u n a - n u - p i d a n a ] n a - y a - y a w a - s e

b l a c k a n t s 3 p l - g o . o u t 3 p l - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - P O S S - C L : H O L E - L O C

' B l a c k a n t s c a m e ( g o . o u t - c o m e ) o u t o f their h o l e (in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e y o u n g

m a n ) . '

7 . 3 8 k a y - d i - n i - k a - n a m i n h a ke:tfa [ n a - d o r e t a

s o - 3 s g n f - d o - S U B - A F T E R : D S t h e y b l a c k . a n t s 3 p l - c a r r y

n h e n a - p i d a n a ] n a - y a - y a w a - s e

3 p l + e n t e r 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - P O S S - C L : H O L E - L O C

'After t h e y o u n g m a n d i d s o ( g a v e t h e m s o m e m a n i o c flour), t h e b l a c k ants carried

it a w a y into their h o l e (carry-enter-go).'

L o c a t i v e -se o f t e n o c c u r s o n t e m p o r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s , a s in 7 . 3 9 a n d 7.40. N o t e that it

c a n b e o m i t t e d f r o m 7 . 3 9 s i n c e t h e classifier 'time, day' is i n h e r e n t l y t e m p o r a l (see

§7.4). It c a n n o t b e o m i t t e d in 7.40.

7 . 3 9 y a l a n a - k a d a - s e - p i d a n a di-a

w h i t e . p e r s o n - C L : D A Y - L O C - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - g o

' T h i s w a s in t h e t i m e o f t h e whites.'

7 . 4 0 h i k u - p i d a n a n a - n i n a - i n u - k a k a

a p p e a r - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - d o 3 p l - k i l l - R E C

p e d a r i a - p e - m i k i - s e

o l d - P L - N O M . P A S T - L O C

' T h u s t h e y w e r e killing e a c h o t h e r b a c k in the o l d e n d a y s (lit. in t h e t i m e s o f t h e

late o l d p e o p l e ) . '

T h e l o c a t i v e -se c a n g o o n a n a d v e r b , a s in 7 . 4 1 ; in t h e s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s it is o p t i o n a l .

7.41 p u a l e - s e n e h p a n i - p i d a

e l s e w h e r e - L O C 3 p l + w o r k - R E P

' T h e y w o r k e d in a different place.'

T h e l o c a t i v e c a s e c a n b e u s e d to m a r k t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t o f a f e w e x t e n d e d

intransitive v e r b s , e.g. 'marry' in 7 . 4 1 , a n d w i : n u 'hit target' in 12.44.

7.41 n a m a - m a - s e - p i d a n a d i - n a ka-sa-niri

t w o - C L : F E M - L O C - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - w a n t R E L - s p o u s e - M A S C

' H e w a n t e d to g e t m a r r i e d t o t w o w o m e n . '

W h e n t h e transitive v e r b -hipa 'grab' is u s e d intransitively, it c a n t a k e a s e c o n d

a r g u m e n t m e a n i n g '[grab] at s o m e t h i n g / s o m e o n e ' ; this a r g u m e n t is m a r k e d w i t h t h e

l o c a t i v e c a s e , a s s h o w n in 7.42. H o w e v e r , all the e x a m p l e s o f this sort c o m e f r o m

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 150 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

stories t o l d b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s , a n d o n e c a n n o t e x c l u d e P o r t u g u e s e i n f l u e n c e (cf.

P o r t u g u e s e p e g a r n e l e 'grab o n t o h i m ' ) .

7 . 4 2 w a l i k i - r u - m a - p e i-tfima-pe-se n h e p a - p i d a n a

y o u n g s t e r - F E M - C L : F E M - P L I N D F - h a i r - P L - L O C 3 p l + g r a b - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y ( o l d w o m e n ) g r a b b e d at y o u n g w o m e n ' s hair.'

T h e transitive v e r b - a w a d a 'think a b o u t , r e m e m b e r ' c a n t a k e either a n u n m a r k e d O

( w h i c h c a n t a k e - n u k u if topical), a s in 7 . 4 3 , o r a l o c a t i v e - m a r k e d c o n s t i t u e n t w i t h O

f u n c t i o n , a s in 7 . 4 4 .

7 . 4 3 m h a l d a i n a p i - a w a d a

P R O H w o m a n : P L 2 s g - t h i n k . a b o u t

' D o n ' t t h i n k o f w o m e n . '

T h i s l o c a t i v e m a r k i n g c o u l d b e partly i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e s y n t a x o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e

w o r d p e n s a r e m 'think in ( s o m e t h i n g ) ' , a n d i n d e e d it o c c u r s m o r e f r e q u e n t l y in y o u n g e r

s p e a k e r s ' s p e e c h t h a n w i t h o l d e r s p e a k e r s ; h o w e v e r , 7 . 4 4 c o m e s f r o m a s t o r y t o l d b y

J o s e M a n o e l B r i t o , a n o l d e r s p e a k e r w h o d o e s n o t k n o w a n y P o r t u g u e s e .

7 . 4 4 k u p h e n a - w a k a - n i - n a i - s e n u - a w a d a

fish 3 p l - j o i n - T O P . A D V - C L : L A K E - L O C 1 s g - t h i n k . a b o u t

n u - a - k a - t h a - n a

1 s g - g o - D E C L - F R - R E M . P . V I S

'I r e m e m b e r e d in v a i n t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e fish g o t together.'

T h e l o c a t i v e c a s e -se u s u a l l y d o e s n o t o c c u r o n p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s w i t h a n i m a t e

r e f e r e n t s ( a - n a c a s e f o r m is u s e d instead). If a third p e r s o n p r o n o u n h a s a n i n a n i m a t e

referent, -se c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y b e u s e d , a s in line 2 6 o f T e x t 1, w h e r e d i h a - s e 'into it'

refers t o t h e b a n a n a m a s h into w h i c h t h e Y a n o m a m i m i x u p t h e b u r n t b o n e s d u r i n g their

funeral festivities.

7.3.2 I n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a s e

A s w e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a s e is m a r k e d o n n o u n s w i t h a

clitic -ne a n d o n p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s w i t h a suffix -ine w h i c h c o m b i n e s w i t h c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s . It h a s a variety o f m e a n i n g s .

T h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a n m a r k a c o r e a r g u m e n t , a n d it c a n also m a r k a n o n -

c o r e a r g u m e n t . W h e n i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e is a c o r e a r g u m e n t , it h a s a c o m i t a t i v e

m e a n i n g ('together with'). T h i s is t h e m a i n m e c h a n i s m o f N P c o o r d i n a t i o n ; b e l o w I refer

t o this u s a g e a s j u s t 'comitative'.

A . C O M I T A T I V E A S A C O R E A R G U M E N T

A I . C O O R D I N A T I N G C O M I T A T I V E . T h e c o o r d i n a t i n g c o m i t a t i v e f o r m s o n e N P w i t h t w o

n o u n s , t h e o r d e r w i t h i n t h e N P b e i n g Nj N j - C O M (there are m o s t often j u s t t w o n o u n s ) .

T h e c o m i t a t i v e N P h a s a c o o r d i n a t i n g m e a n i n g , i.e. 'x w i t h y', o r 'x a n d y together'. T h e

r e f e r e n t s o f b o t h n o u n s h a v e to b e h u m a n (or h i g h a n i m a t e s ) .

T h e c o m i t a t i v e N P (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s in 7 . 4 5 ) c a n o n l y a p p e a r in A / S f u n c t i o n ; it

t r i g g e r s p l u r a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g o n t h e v e r b ( e v e n if e a c h o f the n o u n s w h i c h f o r m t h e

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 7.3 The s e m a n t i c s a n d f u n c t i o n of o b l i q u e c a s e s 1 5 1

N P a r e s i n g u l a r ) . T h e c o m i t a t i v e N P c a n o n l y b e u s e d if b o t h p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e a c t i n g

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . A c o m i t a t i v e N P f o r m s o n e i n t o n a t i o n g r o u p , a n d n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t

c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n its c o m p o n e n t s .

7 . 4 5 n a : k a n e y u n a : [di-we-ri

3 p l + c o m e 3 p l + c l i m b 3 p l + g o 3 s g n f - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - M A S C

d i - p h e - r i - n e ]

3 s g n f - e l d e r . s i b l i n g - M A S C - C O M

T h e y c a m e u p , t h e y o u n g e r a n d t h e e l d e r brother.'

T h e n o u n w h i c h is n o t m a r k e d w i t h t h e c o m i t a t i v e in a c o m i t a t i v e N P c a n b e o m i t t e d

if r e c o v e r a b l e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . U n l i k e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e o n n o n - c o r e a r g u m e n t s

( s e e B ) w h i c h c a n b e o m i t t e d , t h e o m i s s i o n o f a n o u n m a r k e d w i t h 'coordinating'

c o m i t a t i v e is u n g r a m m a t i c a l . E x a m p l e 7 . 4 6 c o n t a i n s f o u r n o u n s e a c h m a r k e d w i t h t h e

c o m i t a t i v e ( n o n e o f w h i c h c a n b e o m i t t e d ) . T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s from a story a b o u t

traditional life in a l o n g h o u s e w h e r e - u n l i k e n o w a d a y s - a T a r i a n a m a n a n d w i f e w o u l d

live t o g e t h e r w i t h h i s p a r e n t s , d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w , y o u n g e r b r o t h e r s , a n d g r a n d c h i l d r e n .

T h e n o u n ('a T a r i a n a ' ) n o t m a r k e d w i t h t h e c o m i t a t i v e is o m i t t e d .

7 . 4 6 p a : - d a p a n a - s i n a n a - y a n a - y a - n h i

o n e - C L : H A B - R E M . P . I N F R 3 p l - s t a y 3 p l - s t a y - A N T

d i h a d i - w e - n e - n e d i h a h a - n i r i - n i p e - n e

h e 3 s g n f - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - P L - C O M h e p a r e n t - M A S C - P L - C O M

d i - i d u a - n e d i - d a k i - n e

3 s g n f - d a u g h t e r . i n . l a w - C O M 3 s g n f - g r a n d c h i l d : P L - C O M

' [ A T a r i a n a ] w i t h h i s y o u n g e r siblings, w i t h his p a r e n t s , w i t h his d a u g h t e r - i n - l a w ,

1
w i t h h i s g r a n d c h i l d r e n , s t a y e d in o n e house.

A 2 . C O M I T A T I V E A N D R E C I P R O C A L . C o m i t a t i v e is a c o r e a r g u m e n t w i t h r e c i p r o c a l v e r b s

m a r k e d w i t h a suffix -kaka ( s e e § 1 3 . 2 ) . W h e n t h e r e c i p r o c a l m a r k e r is a d d e d to

transitive v e r b s w i t h p l u r a l A , it m a k e s t h e v e r b intransitive, a n d i n d i c a t e s that A is

i d e n t i c a l t o O a n d t h e a c t i o n is s y m m e t r i c a l . T h i s is a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e c i p r o c a l . O n e o f

t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s (in S f u n c t i o n ) t h e n is m a r k e d w i t h suffix -ne 'comitative'. C o m p a r e t h e

transitive v e r b in 7 . 4 7 a n d its r e c i p r o c a l v e r s i o n in 7.48.

7 . 4 7 n e - p i d a n a y a w a r u d i - k o l o t a d h i p a

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P Y a w a r u 3 s g n f - m e e t 3 s g n f + t a k e

d i - n a e : t a - n u k u

3 s g n f - O B J e a g l e - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n Y a w a r u g r a b b e d (lit. ' m e t - t o o k ' ) t h e eagle.'

7 . 4 8 d i - w e - f i - n e n a - k o l o t a - k a k a - s i n a

3 s g n f - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - M A S C - C O M 3 p l - m e e t - R E C - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e y m e t e a c h other, w i t h his y o u n g e r b r o t h e r (i.e. o l d e r b r o t h e r a n d y o u n g e r

b r o t h e r m e t e a c h other; t h e o l d e r b r o t h e r m e t t h e y o u n g e r brother, a n d n o t

s o m e b o d y else).'

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 152 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

B . I N S T R U M E N T A L - C O M I T A T I V E A S A N O N - C O R E A R G U M E N T

W h e n i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e is n o t part o f a c o r e a r g u m e n t , it is a s e p a r a t e c o n s t i t u e n t

(i.e. i n a n e x a m p l e like 'he c a m e w i t h a dog', t h e t w o n o u n s b e l o n g to t w o different n o u n

p h r a s e s ) . T h e r e a r e n o restrictions o n t h e a n i m a c y o r h u m a n n e s s o f n o u n s m a r k e d w i t h

i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e a s a n o n - c o r e a r g u m e n t . L i k e a n y n o n - c o r e a r g u m e n t , t h e

i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e is n o t c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e v e r b , a n d t h e r e are n o o r d e r i n g

restrictions. T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s illustrate t h e m e a n i n g s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l -

c o m i t a t i v e : ( B l ) c o m i t a t i v e ; ( B 2 ) i n s t r u m e n t ; ( B 3 ) a s s i s t a n c e a n d r e a s o n ; ( B 4 ) l o c a t i o n

'all o v e r ' , 'by, along'; ( B 5 ) p r e d i c a t e m a r k i n g ; a n d ( B 6 ) s i m u l t a n e o u s activity. U n l i k e t h e

'core' c o m i t a t i v e d i s c u s s e d u n d e r A a b o v e , t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a n b e o m i t t e d

(see § 7 . 4 ) .

B l . C O M I T A T I V E ' T O G E T H E R W I T H ' . In 7 . 4 9 c o m i t a t i v e is u s e d o n a n o u n w i t h a h u m a n

referent, a n d in 7 . 5 0 o n a n o u n w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent.

7 . 4 9 d i h a n a h a na-ketfi-ni-ne d i - e m a - k a - p i d a n a

h e A R T . P L 3 p l - r e l a t i v e - M A S C - C O M 3 s g n f - s t a n d - S U B - R E M . P . R E P

' W h i l e h e s t o o d t o g e t h e r w i t h their relatives (at t h e port).'

7 . 5 0 d i - w a p a m a w i p i - n e d i h a p u p a w a

3 s g n f - w a i t h o o k - C O M A R T p o i s o n

d i - s u e - t a - n i p e - n e

3 s g n f - l a y + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - N O M - C O M

' H e ( t h e M a k i i m a n ) w a s w a i t i n g (for t h e " d e m o n " ) w i t h t h e stick ( a n d ) w i t h t h e

p o i s o n w h i c h h e h a d p r e p a r e d . '

B 2 . I N S T R U M E N T A L ' B Y , W I T H T H E H E L P O F , T H R O U G H ' . T h i s is illustrated w i t h 7.51

('instrument') a n d 7 . 5 2 ('material'); also s e e 7.9 ('with pari').

7.51 n e i t a w h y a - n e d i - u k a d i - r a h t a

t h e n c a n o e - I N S 3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3sgnf-sail

' T h e n h e w e n t b y c a n o e . '

7 . 5 2 h a - a m a k u s a w a l i - n e

D E M i I N A N - H A M M O C K t h r e a d - C O M

d i - n i - n i - k u - k a

3 s g n f - m a k e - T O P . A D V - C L : H A M M O C K - R E C . P . V I S

'This h a m m o c k h a s b e e n m a d e o f thread.'

T h i s c a s e is a l s o u s e d w i t h v e r b s o f s p e a k i n g to indicate t h e l a n g u a g e 'with w h i c h '

o n e s p e a k s , a s in 7.53 (it a l s o c o n t a i n s -ne in its n o n - c o r e c o m i t a t i v e u s a g e ('with

father')).

7 . 5 3 k w a n a y a r u p e - n e (piha) p i - s a p e p i h a h a n i f i - n e

I N T E R t h i n g - I N S ( y o u ) 2 s g - t a l k y o u r f a t h e r - C O M

' W h a t l a n g u a g e (lit. w i t h w h a t t h i n g ) d o y o u s p e a k w i t h y o u r father?'

T h e w o r d y a r u p e 'thing, w a y , m a n n e r ' c a n also refer to t h e m a n n e r o f action, a s in

7 . 5 4 ; t h e n it a l s o a c q u i r e s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l m a r k i n g .

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 7.3 The semantics and function of oblique cases 153

7 . 5 4 y a w i y a r u p e - n e d i - k a n a - k a

j a g u a r t h i n g . m a n n e r - I N S 3 s g n f - w a l k - R E C . P . V I S

' H e (a little b a b y ) is c r a w l i n g . ' (lit. w a l k i n g in a j a g u a r m a n n e r )

T h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a s e m a r k s t h e o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t o f a n e x t e n d e d

intransitive v e r b - h e n i t a 'remarry' (see 12.47), a n d o f t h e e x t e n d e d transitive -hipaneta

' e x c h a n g e ( s o m e t h i n g for s o m e t h i n g ) ' , a s s h o w n in 7 . 5 5 .

7 . 5 5 n h u e p a n e t a - k a y e m a - n u k u k u p h e - n e

1 s g + e x c h a n g e - R E C . P . V I S t o b a c c o - T O P . N O N . A / S fish-INS

'I e x c h a n g e d t o b a c c o for fish.'

I n s t r u m e n t a l m a r k s t h e o b j e c t o f a n e x t e n d e d intransitive v e r b keru 'be angry', a s in

7.56. T h i s is attested o n l y w i t h y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s a n d m a y result f r o m P o r t u g u e s e

i n f l u e n c e (cf. P o r t u g u e s e e s t a r z a n g a d o c o m 'be a n g r y with').

7 . 5 6 d i n e k i a k u k e r u - k a

3 s g n f + I N S s t r o n g b e . a n g r y - R E C . P . V I S

' H e w a s v e r y a n g r y w i t h h i m . '

T h e y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s u s e o f i n s t r u m e n t a l w i t h abstract n o u n s - s u c h as s e w i w a n i

' q u i c k n e s s , s p e e d ' in 7 . 5 7 - c o u l d a l s o b e d u e t o P o r t u g u e s e i n f l u e n c e (cf. P o r t u g u e s e

c o m p r e s s a 'with s p e e d , hurry').

7 . 5 7 s e w i - w a n i - n e - m h a ira p a - d a n a n u - n a

q u i c k - C L : A B S T R - I N S - P R E S . N O N V I S n e e d I M P - w r i t e l s g - O B J

'I h a v e t o w r i t e quickly.' (lit. (it) n e e d s to m e w r i t e w i t h s p e e d )

B 3 . A S S I S T A N C E A N D R E A S O N . T h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e m a r k s t h e 'agent' t h r o u g h

w h o s e a s s i s t a n c e t h e a c t i o n m a y b e c o m p l e t e d , as in 7.58. T h i s c a s e is n e v e r u s e d to

m a r k t h e d e m o t e d A o f p a s s i v e - s e e § 1 3 . 1 .

7 . 5 8 m h a l d a p i - m u s u te n u - i n e i n a r u - n u k u p i - k e t a - k a

P R O H 2 s g - g o . o u t until l s g - C O M w o m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - m e e t - S U B

' D o n o t g o o u t until y o u m e e t a w o m a n w i t h m y a s s i s t a n c e (lit. b y m e ) . '

It c a n m a r k a n i n a n i m a t e 'agent' t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f w h i c h s o m e t h i n g

h a p p e n s , a s i n 7 . 5 9 .

7 . 5 9 d i h a - p u k w i - n e - k a p i - n a w i n

A R T - C L : R O U N D . H O L L O W - I N S - R E C . P . V I S 2 s g - O B J a p h r o d i s i a c

n h u p a n h u a

1 s g + g r a b I

' W i t h t h e h e l p o f this r i n g I h a v e g o t y o u a n a p h r o d i s i a c '

R e a s o n c a n b e m a r k e d w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e , as in 7.60.

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 154 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

7 . 6 0 hi n a - p i r y a - n a - n e

D E M : A N I M 3 p l - Y u m p a r y . f l u t e - P O S S - I N S

n a - n a l i t a - k a k a - n h i - n a

3 p l - q u a r r e l - R E C - A N T - R E M . P . V I S

T h e y ( T a r i a n a tribes) q u a r r e l l e d b e c a u s e o f t h e Y u r u p a r y flute.'

B 4 . L O C A T I O N . I n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e is u s e d to m a r k location. U n l i k e t h e l o c a t i v e -se

w h i c h m a r k s l o c a t i o n in s o m e t h i n g , i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e is u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g 'all

o v e r t h e location', a s in 7 . 6 1 .

7.61 h i u n i - n e a l i a - m h a m a w a r i

D E M : A N I M w a t e r - I N S E X I S T - P R E S . N O N V I S s n a k e

' S n a k e s a r e t h e r e all o v e r t h e water.' ( S a i d w h e n a m e n s t r u a t i n g w o m a n g o e s into

t h e j u n g l e a n d t h u s a n g e r s t h e evil spirits.)

B 5 . P R E D I C A T E M A R K I N G . T h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a s e is u s e d t o m a r k a p r e d i c a t e

o f SJO t y p e ( p h y s i c a l states), t o i n d i c a t e a t e m p o r a r y state. T h i s u s a g e is p r o b a b l y related

t o t h e c o m i t a t i v e m e a n i n g 'with' ( c o m p a r e dai n u - n a ( s l e e p 1sg-OBJ) w h i c h m e a n s 'I a m

sleepy' o v e r a l o n g e r p e r i o d , o r 'this is t h e w a y I a m ' : s e e also C u n d e r § 1 2 . 1 . 2 ) .

7 . 6 2 d a i - n e - m h a n u h a

s l e e p - C O M - P R E S . N O N V I S I

'I a m g e t t i n g s l e e p y ( n o w ) . ' (lit. I a m w i t h sleep)

B 6 . S I M U L T A N E O U S A C T I V I T Y . T h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a n b e u s e d o n t e m p o r a l

c o n s t i t u e n t s , a n d t h e n it d e s c r i b e s a n activity w h i c h h a p p e n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h

a n o t h e r o n e , a s in 7 . 6 3 . T h i s is a l s o a n e x a m p l e o f a c a s e m a r k e d s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e (a

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , like all s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s in T a r i a n a ) .

7 . 6 3 [halia d i - s w a - n e ] d u - a r a - k h a

[early 3 s g n f - s t a y - I N S ] 3 s g f - f l y - A W A Y

' S h e f l e w a w a y w i t h t h e d a w n . ' (lit. w i t h its d a w n i n g )

7.4 O m i s s i o n o f o b l i q u e c a s e m a r k e r s

O b l i q u e c a s e m a r k e r s , l o c a t i v e a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l , c a n b e o m i t t e d f r o m a n o u n u n d e r t h e

f o l l o w i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

(a) If a c o n s t i t u e n t is r e p e a t e d , t h e c a s e gets m a r k e d o n t h e first o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e

c o n s t i t u e n t a n d c a n b e o m i t t e d f r o m t h e s e c o n d . In 7.64, t h e l o c a t i v e m a r k e r -se

is o m i t t e d o n t h e s e c o n d o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e l o c a t i v e constituent, 'big-CL:HOLE',

w h e n t h e c l a u s e is r e p e a t e d .

7 . 6 4 d i h a d h e - k a d i - a - p i d a n a m a k a - y a w a - s e ,

h e 3 s g n f + e n t e r - S U B 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P b i g - C L : H O L E - L O C

m a k a - y a w a d h e - k a d i - a - p i d a n a

b i g - C L : H O L E 3 s g n f + e n t e r - S U B 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' S o h e (the turtle) e n t e r e d t h e h o l e , t h e h o l e h e entered.'

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 7.5 M a r k i n g c a s e m o r e t h a n o n c e 1 5 5

(b) A n o b l i q u e c a s e m a r k e r m a y b e o m i t t e d if t h e m e a n i n g c a n b e r e c o v e r e d f r o m

t h e c o n t e x t . 7 . 6 5 illustrates t h e o m i s s i o n o f t h e locative m a r k e r ; this e x a m p l e

c o m e s f r o m a text a b o u t a m e n s t r u a t i n g girl w h o b r e a c h e d a t a b o o - w h i l e h e r

p a r e n t s w e n t to t h e g a r d e n s h e e s c a p e d f r o m h e r ritual s e c l u s i o n - a n d w a s

k i d n a p p e d b y a n evil spirit. In 7 . 6 5 , h e r father is c o m i n g b a c k f r o m t h e g a r d e n ,

s e e s h e r w a s h i n g h e r c l o t h e s o n a h e a p o f s t o n e s a n d realises that s o m e t h i n g is

a m i s s . ' G a r d e n ' is n o t m a r k e d w i t h l o c a t i v e c a s e , s i n c e it h a s a l r e a d y b e e n said

at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e story that h e r p a r e n t s w e n t to t h e g a r d e n ; t h e a b l a t i v e

r e a d i n g is o b v i o u s f r o m t h e c o n t e x t .

7 . 6 5 h a - n i r i h i n i p u k u k a : - k a r i

p a r e n t - M A S C g a r d e n R E L + g o - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G

d i - d i a - k a d i - n u - p i d a n a d i - k a

3 s g n f - r e t u r n - S U B 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s e e

p a m u f i a - s a w a - s e h i p a - d a - s a w a - s e

m i d d l e - C L : G R O U P - L O C g r o u n d - C L : R O U N D - C L : G R O U P - L O C

y a r u - m a k a - s i - p e d h u p a - k a - p i d a n a

t h i n g - C L : C L O T H - N P O S S - P L 3 s g f + w a s h - S U B - R E M . P . R E P

' W h e n t h e father w h o h a d g o n e r e t u r n e d f r o m t h e g a r d e n , h e s a w that s h e w a s

w a s h i n g c l o t h e s o n t h e m i d d l e h e a p o f stones.'

(c) A n o b l i q u e m a r k e r m a y b e o m i t t e d i f it r e f e r s to a n a r g u m e n t typically u s e d in a

c e r t a i n activity. In 7 . 6 6 , a 'typical' o b l i q u e ( o b l i g a t o r y w i t h a n i-ta d e r i v a t i o n o f

a transitive v e r b 'wait' - s e e C h a p t e r 13) is a c o m i t a t i v e ; t h e c o m i t a t i v e m a r k e r

is o m i t t e d f r o m 'fish-net'.

7 . 6 6 m a v p u k u - p e n a - w a p e t a - s i n a

fish.net-PL 3 p l - w a i t + C A U S - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e y w a i t (for fish) ( w i t h ) fish-net.'

T h e l o c a t i v e c a s e m a r k e r is o f t e n o m i t t e d f r o m i n h e r e n t l y locational n o u n s , e.g. a

p l a c e - n a m e , a s in 7 . 6 7 .

7 . 6 7 p a p u r i - n u k u n a - w a n a : - p i d a n a

P a p u r i - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - e n t e r 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y ( T a r i a n a forefathers) c a m e o n t o t h e P a p u r i river.'

7.5 M a r k i n g c a s e m o r e t h a n o n c e

W e h a v e s e e n that, a s a rule, c a s e s are m a r k e d o n c e in a n N P (e.g. 7 . 2 2 a n d 7 . 4 9 - 5 0 ) .

H o w e v e r , u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e s a m e c a s e m a y b e m a r k e d m o r e t h a n o n c e

w i t h i n a n N P ( A ) o r w i t h i n a c l a u s e ( B a n d C ) . T h i s is c o m p a r a b l e to c a s e c o n c o r d

f o u n d in m a n y l a n g u a g e s . M a r k i n g t h e s a m e c a s e m o r e t h a n o n c e is distinct f r o m

d o u b l e c a s e m a r k i n g d i s c u s s e d in § 7 . 6 , s i n c e t h e s e p r o c e s s e s t a k e p l a c e u n d e r different

c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

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 156 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

A . C A S E M A R K E D M O R E T H A N O N C E I N O N E N P : S T R O N G C O N T R A S T O R

C O U N T E R E X P E C T A T I O N . T h e s a m e c a s e c a n b e m a r k e d m o r e t h a n o n c e in o n e N P ( o n a

m o d i f i e r a n d o n t h e h e a d ) if t h e N P refers to a n u n e x p e c t e d o r s t r o n g l y c o n t r a s t i v e

participant. In 7 . 6 5 , t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e is m a r k e d t w i c e o n the locative c o n s t i t u e n t

(pamufia-sawa-se h i p a - d a - s a w a - s e ( m i d d l e - C L : GROUP-LOC g r o u n d - C L : R O U N D -

C L : G R O U P - L O C ) 'the m i d d l e h e a p o f stones') - a c o m p l e t e l y u n e x p e c t e d p l a c e for t h e

father to s e e h i s d a u g h t e r w h o w a s s u p p o s e d to b e in ritual seclusion. Similarly, in 7 . 6 8 ,

t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e is m a r k e d o n t h e h e a d n o u n ('poison') a n d o n its m o d i f i e r ( ' m a d e

b y t h e m ' ) b e c a u s e t h e m e m b e r s o f a s e n i o r T a r i a n a s u b g r o u p (Itfirimhene) w e r e

s h o o t i n g a r r o w s at their e n e m y (a m e m b e r o f a n o t h e r , j u n i o r , tribe) w i t h t h e p o i s o n t h e y

(the j u n i o r tribe) m a d e ( a n d n o t a n y o n e else; n o t e that traditionally n e i t h e r T a r i a n a n o r

t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g T u c a n o tribes m a n u f a c t u r e t h e p o i s o n , this b e i n g a skill k n o w n o n l y to

M a k u ) . T h e n o u n p h r a s e is in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s . T h e a b s e n c e o f p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e t w o

n o u n s w i t h i n s q u a r e b r a c k e t s i n d i c a t e s that this is o n e N P , a n d n o t t w o .

7 . 6 8 [ p u p a w a - n e n a - n i - n i p e - n e ] na-ita-tephi

p o i s o n - I N S 3 p l - d o - N O M - I N S 3 p l - s h o o t . a r r o w - T O . W A T E R

n a - p e - p i d a n a

3 p l - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P

' W i t h t h e p o i s o n t h e y m a d e , t h e y s h o t a r r o w s into water.'

B . T H E S A M E C A S E M A R K E D T W I C E I N A D J A C E N T N P S : ' A F T E R T H O U G H T ' O R

C L A R I F I C A T I O N . T W O a d j a c e n t N P s (or n o u n p h r a s e h e a d s ) in t h e s a m e syntactic f u n c t i o n

c a n r e c e i v e t h e s a m e c a s e m a r k i n g if o n e s e r v e s to 'clarify' t h e other, a s in 7 . 9 2 ; o r

a p p e a r s a s a k i n d o f ' a f t e r t h o u g h t ' , a s in 7 . 6 9 a - b . T h e r e is a p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e a d j a c e n t

c a s e m a r k e d N P s w h i c h i n d i c a t e s that t h e y c a n n o t b e l o n g to t h e s a m e c o n s t i t u e n t

( s h o w n w i t h [...]). 7 . 6 9 b is a n e x a m p l e o f afterthought.

7 . 6 9 a d i h a [ t u i s i w h e r i - n e ] [...] [ m a w a r i - n e ] i n a - m h a

A R T T u i s i w h e r i - F O C . A / S s n a k e - F O C . A / S w o m a m P L - P R E S . N O N V I S

d i - a - p i d a n a d h i m e - n i k i

3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + t h i n k - C O M P L

'This T u i s i w h e r i [ P A U S E ] t h e s n a k e o n e , t h o u g h t i n d e e d : t h e y (the d i s g u i s e d

T a r i a n a ) a r e w o m e n . '

7 . 6 9 b d i - y e k a - p i d a n a d i h a fkuite-ne]

3 s g n f - k n o w - R E M . P . R E P A R T I N T E R + N C L : A N I M - F O C . A / S

[...] [ p u w e - n e ]

m o n k e y - F O C . A / S

' T h e w h a t ' s h i s n a m e , [ P A U S E ] t h e m o n k e y , k n e w (all).'

C . D O U B L E O B J E C T C O N S T R U C T I O N S . If a n i t e m , m o s t often, a b o d y part, o r s o m e o t h e r

i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d i t e m , s u c h as -ipitana 'name', is in t h e n o n - s u b j e c t function, t h e

d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s to b e u s e d . T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n is s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r to

' p o s s e s s o r raising' f o u n d in o t h e r l a n g u a g e s (cf. E v a n s 1 9 9 6 o n M a y a l i ) in that b o t h

p o s s e s s o r a n d i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s a c q u i r e t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e m a r k i n g . In

7 . 7 0 , 'he t h e b i g o n e ' is t h e p o s s e s s o r o f 'the head'; b o t h t a k e t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t

m a r k e r - n u k u .

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 7.5 M a r k i n g c a s e m o r e t h a n o n c e 1 5 7

7 . 7 0 d i h a - p a s i - n u k u d i - w h i d a - n u k u

h e - A U G - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - h e a d - T O P . N O N . A / S

d u - p i s a - t a k a d u - p e

3 s g f - c u t - O F F 3 s g f - l e a v e

' S h e c u t o f f t h e h e a d o f h i m - t h e b i g one...'

In 7 . 7 1 , t h e p o s s e s s o r ('he') is m a r k e d w i t h t h e c a s e - n a , a n d the p o s s e s s e d n o u n {disa

'his w o u n d ' ) - w h i c h is t h e t o p i c - is m a r k e d w i t h -nuku.

7.71 n e s e d i - n a n a k u - p i d a n a [diha

t h e n 3 s g n f - O B J 3 p l + s e w - R E M . P . R E P A R T

d i s a - n u k u ]

3 s g n f + w o u n d - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n t h e y s e w h i s w o u n d (lit. t o h i m t h e w o u n d ) . '

T h e p o s s e s s o r is m a r k e d t w i c e - o n c e w i t h t h e prefix (since t h e n o u n s s u c h as 'head'

a n d ' w o u n d ' in 7 . 7 1 - 2 are i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d a n d r e q u i r e a p o s s e s s i v e prefix), a n d

o n c e w i t h t h e ' s e c o n d object'. In y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h , t h e d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n

is a l s o u s e d if t h e p o s s e s s e d i t e m is a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d a n d refers to s o m e i m p o r t a n t

p o s s e s s i o n - for i n s t a n c e , 'field', a s in 7.72. H e r e , p o s s e s s i o n is m a r k e d t w i c e : o n c e w i t h

a n i n d e p e n d e n t p r o n o u n n h u a , a n d o n c e w i t h t h e s e c o n d object.

7 . 7 2 n u h u a - n u k u [ n h u a h i n i p u k u - n u k u ] a p i a

I - T O P . N O N . A / S I field-TOP.NON.A/S p e c c a r y

m a : t f i - p e n i w a - k e s i - p e n a - n h a t h u y - n i h k a - n i k i

b a d - P L : A N I M l p l - r e l a t i v e - P L 2 p l - e a t a l l - A N T + R E C . P . V I S - C O M P L

' T h e n a u g h t y p e c c a r i e s , o u r relatives, ate all m y field (lit. t o m e m y field).'

If t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n , o r a n o n - p r o n o m i n a l p o s s e s s o r , o r b o t h , are n o t topical, n e i t h e r

o f t h e m t a k e s t h e - n u k u m a r k e r . In 7 . 7 3 , di-sipi 'his tail' is u n m a r k e d for c a s e ( d o e s n o t

t a k e - n u k u ) b e c a u s e it is t h e a r m a d i l l o w h o is the t o p i c ( a n d n o t his tail). 5.80 is a

s i m i l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n ( ' m e b y m y foot').

7 . 7 3 d i - n a di-sipi d h i p a

3 s g n f - O B J 3sgnf-tail 3 s g n f + g r a b

' H e ( j a g u a r ) g r a b b e d h i m ( a r m a d i l l o ) b y t h e tail (lit. g r a b b e d his (armadillo's)

tail).'

If t h e p o s s e s s o r is topical, b u t t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n is not, -nuku a p p e a r s o n l y o n c e .

7 . 7 4 w a l i k i - r u - m a - p e - n u k u d i - w a n a - k a n e p i t a n a

y o u n g s t e r - F E M - C L : F E M - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - c a l l - S U B 3 p l + n a m e

' H e (the m y t h i c a l m a n K a d a w a ) w a s calling t h e y o u n g w o m e n b y their n a m e (lit.

c a l l i n g t h e n a m e to y o u n g e r w o m e n ) . '

D o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s f o r m t w o N P s , s i n c e b o t h p o s s e s s o r a n d p o s s e s s e d c a n

h a v e m o d i f i e r s o f their o w n (e.g. d i h a 'specifier article' in 7.71); t h e y d o n o t h a v e to b e

c o n t i g u o u s (as in 7.74). If t h e y are c o n t i g u o u s , t h e r e m a y b e a p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e m ; t h e y

m a y r e c e i v e i n d e p e n d e n t c a s e m a r k i n g . P o s s e s s i v e N P s a n d d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s

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 158 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y their p e r s o n m a r k i n g . W e s a w in C h a p t e r 6 that i n a l i e n a b l y

p o s s e s s e d n o u n s a l m o s t a l w a y s t a k e t h e indefinite p o s s e s s o r c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r in

p o s s e s s i v e N P s , e.g. w a l i k i r u m a p e i-pitana ' w o m e n ' s n a m e ' .

T h e e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f t h e 'possessed' b e i n g t h e 'real' O c o m e s f r o m p a s s i v i s a t i o n .

If a c o n s t r u c t i o n like t h e o n e i n 7 . 7 3 is p a s s i v i s e d , t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n is m o r e likely to

b e c o m e t h e d e r i v e d S; a n d t h e p o s s e s s o r c a n b e o p t i o n a l l y a d d e d ( m a r k e d w i t h t h e n o n -

s u b j e c t c a s e ) , in a b e n e f i c i a r y o r m a l e f i c i a r y - l i k e function, to f o c u s o n t h e effect o n t h e

p o s s e s s o r - s u c h a s t h e i n c o n v e n i e n c e c a u s e d b y h a v i n g h i s tail t r a p p e d . T h i s is s h o w n

in 7 . 7 5 . T h i s s e n t e n c e is a m b i g u o u s - t h e n o n - s u b j e c t m a r k e d c o n s t i t u e n t d i - n a m a y

refer either t o t h e b e n e f i c i a r y ('to h i m ' ) , o r to t h e u n d e r l y i n g A ('by h i m ' ) . T h i s

a m b i g u i t y is a l w a y s r e s o l v e d b y c o n t e x t .

7 . 7 5 di-sipi k h e p a - k a n a d i - a - p i d a n a (di-na)

3sgnf-tail 3 s g n f + g r a b - P A S S I V E 3 s g n f - A U X - R E M . P . R E P ( 3 s g n f - O B J )

'Hisj tail w a s g r a b b e d (to himj)', o r 'Hisj tail w a s g r a b b e d b y h i m / .

7 . 7 6 , w i t h t h e p o s s e s s o r a s d e r i v e d S, w a s j u d g e d less felicitous; n o s u c h e x a m p l e s o f

this k i n d o c c u r r e d s p o n t a n e o u s l y .

7 . 7 6 ? d i h a k h e p a - k a n a di-a d i - s i p i - n u k u

h e 3 s g n f + g r a b - P A S S I V E 3 s g n f - A U X 3 s g n f - t a i l - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e w a s g r a b b e d b y his tail.'

M a r k i n g c a s e m o r e t h a n o n c e is u n g r a m m a t i c a l in o n e i n s t a n c e . If a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n is n o m i n a l i s e d a n d c a s e m a r k e d , t h e c a s e m a r k e r c a n n e v e r a p p e a r m o r e

t h a n o n c e p e r c o n s t r u c t i o n ; this is o n e o f t h e a r g u m e n t s in f a v o u r o f its m o n o p r e d i c a t i v e

r e a d i n g ( s e e § 1 8 . 2 a n d e x a m p l e 18.5).

7.6 D o u b l e c a s e m a r k i n g a n d d o u b l e m a r k i n g o f s y n t a c t i c f u n c t i o n

T w o distinct c a s e m a r k e r s c o - o c c u r w i t h i n o n e n o u n p h r a s e in T a r i a n a in t w o k i n d s o f

situations. First, t w o c a s e m a r k e r s c a n ' d o u b l e u p ' o n c o d i n g t h e s a m e syntactic f u n c t i o n

o f a n N P w i t h i n a c l a u s e . F o r i n s t a n c e , if a n N P is in a l o c a t i v e o r i n s t r u m e n t a l f u n c t i o n

( a n d is, a c c o r d i n g l y , m a r k e d w i t h l o c a t i v e -se o r i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e -(i)ne) it c a n

a l s o b e t o p i c a l , t h u s satisfying t h e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y to b e m a r k e d w i t h - n u k u 'topical

n o n - A / S ' . T h i s is c a l l e d ' d o u b l e case' m a r k i n g , a n d is d i s c u s s e d in § 7 . 6 . 1 .

S e c o n d , t h e s a m e c a s e m o r p h e m e s c a n b e i n v o l v e d , w i t h related f u n c t i o n s , at

different s y n t a c t i c levels. T h a t is, a n N P c a n h a v e a n A / S f u n c t i o n in a c o m p l e m e n t

c l a u s e , a n d t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e c a n itself h a v e a n o n - A / S f u n c t i o n in a h i g h e r c l a u s e .

T h e s a m e N P , in a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e , c a n b e m a r k e d (a) for its o w n f u n c t i o n ; a n d , in

a d d i t i o n , (b) for t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e w h o l e c l a u s e . T h i s m a r k i n g o f t w o distinct c l a u s a l

f u n c t i o n s is c a l l e d ' d o u b l e m a r k i n g o f syntactic function' a n d is c o n s i d e r e d in § 7 . 6 . 2 .

7.6.1 D o u b l e c a s e m a r k i n g

T h e r e a r e t w o possibilities o f ' d o u b l i n g u p ' t h e m a r k i n g o f a syntactic f u n c t i o n o f a n N P .

A n N P c a n b e m a r k e d w i t h a n i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e , o r w i t h a locative c a s e , a n d r e c e i v e a n

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 7.6 Double case marking and double marking of syntactic function 159

a d d i t i o n a l - n u k u , if it satisfies t h e c o n d i t i o n s for t h e u s e o f - n u k u listed a b o v e (see B

u n d e r § 7 . 2 . 2 ) .

T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story in w h i c h a m o t h e r is h i d i n g h e r c h i l d

f r o m evil spirits; s h e t a k e s a w o o d e n pestle a n d p u t s it i n t o t h e h a m m o c k in t h e child's

p l a c e . T h e p e s t l e is t h e t o p i c o f this stretch o f t h e narrative, a n d is m a r k e d w i t h - n u k u in

7.77a. I n t h e n e x t s e n t e n c e , 7 . 7 7 b , s h e a c t u a l l y p u t s t h e pestle into t h e child's h a m m o c k

i n s t e a d o f t h e child, t h u s e x c h a n g i n g t h e c h i l d w i t h t h e pestle; t h e pestle, m a r k e d w i t h

i n s t r u m e n t a l - n e , is still h i g h l y t o p i c a l a n d t a k e s - n u k u f o l l o w i n g -ne.

7 . 7 7 a n e - p i d a n a d u - a d h u t a y e d a - n u k u

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g f - g o 3 s g f + t a k e p e s t l e - T O P . N O N . A / S

d h u t a d u - k a d u - r i - n u k u d u - p i

3 s g f + t a k e 3 s g f - s e e 3 s g f - s o n - T O P . N O N . A / S 3sgf-pull

h o t h o d h u t a - p i d a n a

O U T 3 s g f + t a k e - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e n s h e t o o k t h e pestle, s h e carefully t o o k (lit. t o o k - s a w ) h e r s o n , a n d p u l l e d

h i m o u t ( o f a h a m m o c k ) . '

7 . 7 7 b d i h a - d a v e : d a - n e - n u k u d h u e p a n e t a

A R T - C L : R O U N D p e s t l e - I N S - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g f + e x c h a n g e

d u - k w e - t a - p i d a n a

3 s g f - h a n g + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P

' S h e e x c h a n g e d (the c h i l d ) w i t h t h e pestle a n d h u n g it (i.e. p u t b a c k into t h e

h a m m o c k ) . '

In 7 . 7 8 a h u n t e r is t a l k i n g a b o u t g o i n g b a c k to his o w n h o u s e ( m a r k e d w i t h l o c a t i v e

-se). T h e s t o r y is a b o u t t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e h o u s e ; s i n c e this locative c o n s t i t u e n t is

t o p i c a l , it r e c e i v e s - n u k u in a d d i t i o n to t h e locative c a s e .

7 . 7 8 n u - n h a n u - d i a n h u a n u - y a - d a p a n a - s e - n u k u

l s g - e a t l s g - r e t u r n I l s g - P O S S - C L : H A B - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I'll g o b a c k t o eat ( m y c a t c h ) in m y v e r y h o u s e . '

If a n N P - w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f a h e a d n o u n a n d o n e o r t w o m o d i f i e r s - a c q u i r e s d o u b l e

c a s e m a r k i n g , t h e m a r k e r s are n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n t i g u o u s (as t h e y a r e in 7 . 7 7 b ) . A l l c a s e

m a r k e r s u s u a l l y g o o n t o t h e last w o r d o f a n N P ( w h i c h t e n d s to b e t h e h e a d ) ; if t h e r e is

i n v e r s i o n w i t h i n a n N P (that is, a m o d i f i e r is p l a c e d after t h e h e a d : s e e C h a p t e r 2 1 ) a n d

t h e N P is c a s e m a r k e d for i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e , o r locative, a n d for t h e t o p i c a l n o n -

s u b j e c t - n u k u , t h e f o r m e r m a y r e m a i n o n t h e h e a d , a n d t h e latter g o e s o n t o t h e m o d i f i e r ,

a s in 7 . 7 9 . T h e n o u n p h r a s e ('with t h e o l d p a i r g i v e n b y h i m ' ) is u n d e r l i n e d .

7 . 7 9 u p i - p a - n e d i h a d i - a - n i - p a - n u k u

o l d - C L : P A I R - I N S A R T 3 s g n f - g i v e - T O P . A D V - C L : P A I R - T O P . N O N . A / S

n h e p a n e t a n a - k w e - t a - p i d a n a

3 p l + c h a n g e 3 p l - h a n g + C A U S 1- C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P

T h e y ( t h e T a r i a n a ) e x c h a n g e d (the p a i r o f m a g i c e a r r i n g s b e l o n g i n g to their

g r a n d f a t h e r T h u n d e r ) w i t h t h e o l d o n e ( p r e v i o u s l y ) g i v e n b y h i m ( T h u n d e r ) . '

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 160 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

D o u b l e c a s e m a r k i n g c a n o c c u r t o g e t h e r w i t h c a s e m a r k i n g m o r e t h a n o n c e in a n N P

( d i s c u s s e d in § 7 . 5 ) . In 7.80, f r o m t h e story a b o u t a k i d n a p p e d girl also q u o t e d in 7 . 6 5 ,

t h e l o c a t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t ('in t h e c a n o e ' ) is h i g h l y topical - it is t h e i n s t r u m e n t for

k i d n a p p i n g . A t t h e s a m e t i m e it is h i g h l y u n e x p e c t e d b e c a u s e it is a m o t o r b o a t w i t h

t h r e e n o n - I n d i a n s , o r w h i t e m e n (that is, evil spirits w h o typically t a k e t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f

w h i t e m e n ) i n it. T h e N P 'in this c a n o e ' r e c e i v e s t w o c a s e m a r k e r s .

7 . 8 0 y a l a n a m a d a r i p a - p i d a n a n a - n a

w h i t e . m a n t h r e e + N U M . C L : A N I M - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - s t a y

[ d i h a - w h y a - s e i t a - w h y a - s e - n u k u ]

A R T - C L : C A N O E - L O C c a n o e - C L : C A N O E - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h r e e m e n w e r e in this v e r y c a n o e . '

7.6.2 D o u b l e m a r k i n g of s y n t a c t i c f u n c t i o n

D o u b l e m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e w h e n a n N P h a s a certain, c a s e

m a r k e d , f u n c t i o n in a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e , w h i l e t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e itself is c a s e

m a r k e d for a syntactic f u n c t i o n in a h i g h e r clause. A s will b e s h o w n in C h a p t e r 2 4 ,

c o m p l e m e n t a n d s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s in T a r i a n a c a n t a k e c a s e m a r k e r s ; a c o m p l e m e n t o r

a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e c a n a l s o b e topical. 7.81 illustrates a topical s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e

w h i c h t a k e s t h e - n u k u m a r k e r (it is t o p i c a l b e c a u s e t h e a c t i o n o f p u t t i n g a m a g i c shirt o n

is w h a t c h a n g e s t h e w h o l e c o u r s e o f t h e story). T h e A o f this s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e is

m a r k e d w i t h t h e f o c u s s e d A / S m a r k e r , a clitic -ne, b e c a u s e the p a r t i c i p a n t s w h o are

s u p p o s e d t o b e w a t c h i n g are in c o n t r a s t to o t h e r participants o f t h e story. S q u a r e

b r a c k e t s i n d i c a t e t h e s c o p e o f - n u k u w h i c h is h e r e the w h o l e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e .

7.81 d i h a d h i t a d i - n a - p i d a n a

h e 3 s g n f + t a k e 3 s g n f - p u t . o n - R E M . P . R E P

[ n h a - n e n a - k a - k a - n u k u ]

t h e y - F O C . A / S 3 p l - s e e - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e (the m a n ) t o o k (the m a g i c shirt) a n d p u t it o n , w h i l e t h e y (the girls, N O T

a n y o n e else) w e r e looking.'

T h e t o p i c a l n o n - s u b j e c t m a r k e r - n u k u is n o t u s e d if the c o m p l e m e n t o r s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e is n o t topical, a s in 7.82.

7 . 8 2 d i h a - n e d i - k a - k a k u p h e - p i d a n a

h e - F O C . A / S 3 s g n f - s e e - S U B fish-REM.P.REP

' W h e n h e (the m a n , c o n t r a s t e d to evil spirit) l o o k e d , it w a s a fish.'

T h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e t o p i c a l s u b o r d i n a t e o r c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e is o f t e n o m i t t e d i f it is

r e t r i e v a b l e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . If its A / S is contrastive, it c a n t a k e f o c u s s e d A / S m a r k e r

-ne f o l l o w e d b y - n u k u , t h u s c r e a t i n g t h e situation o f a d o u b l e m a r k i n g o f syntactic

f u n c t i o n o n o n e n o u n p h r a s e . T h i s is illustrated w i t h 7.83 a n d 7.84. S q u a r e b r a c k e t s

i n d i c a t e t h e s c o p e o f c a s e m a r k i n g .

7 . 8 3 [ [ d i h a - n h e ] - n u k u ] h e m a r i - p i d a n a

[ [ h e - F O C . A / S ] - T O P . N O N . A / S ] p i q u i a . f r u i t - R E M . P . R E P

'For h i m (for t h e evil spirit) ( l o o k i n g ) it w a s p i q u i a fruit.'

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 7.6 Double case marking and double marking of syntactic function 161

7 . 8 4 [ [ d i h a i y h e d a - n e ] - n u k u ] m a : m i

[ [ A R T b e e t l e - F O C . A / S ] - T O P . N O N . A / S ] t i n a m o u . b i r d

d i - w e t a - n i - w a i - p i d e n a

3 s g n f - c a t c h + C A U S - T O P . A D V - C L : T R A P - R E M . P . R E P

'For t h e b e e t l e ( l o o k i n g ) it w a s a t r a p for t i n a m o u bird.'

T h e f o l l o w i n g criteria h e l p d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e d o u b l e c a s e m a r k i n g - n e - n u k u

' - I N S - T O P . N O N . A / S ' (as in 7 . 7 7 ) a n d t h e d o u b l e m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n - n e - n u k u

' - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S ' (as in 7 . 8 3 - 4 ) :

(a) p h o n o l o g i c a l f o r m : (i) s i n c e -ne ' f o c u s s e d A / S ' is a clitic ( u n l i k e -ne

' i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e ' ) , it gets a s e c o n d a r y stress - s e e § 2 . 6 ; a n d (ii) -ne

' f o c u s s e d A / S ' h a s a n a l l o m o r p h - n h e , as in 7.83 ( u n l i k e -ne ' i n s t r u m e n t a l -

c o m i t a t i v e ' ) ;

(b) m o r p h o l o g i c a l f o r m ( w i t h a p r o n o u n ) : i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e f o r m w i t h p r o n o u n s

( w i t h a h u m a n o r a n a n i m a t e referent) c o n s i s t s o f a c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefix +

-ine, w h i l e t h e f o c u s s e d A / S c a s e f o r m c o n s i s t s o f a s u b j e c t f o r m p l u s -ne. T h a t

is, t h e f o r m d i n e - n u k u c a n o n l y b e '3sgnf-iNS-TOP.NON.A/s'; a n d t h e f o r m d i h a -

n e - n u k u c a n o n l y b e '3sgnf-FOC.A/s-TOP.NON.A/s'.

D o u b l e m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in stories a n d in e v e r y d a y

c o n v e r s a t i o n s . T h e m i s s i n g p r e d i c a t e is u s u a l l y retrievable f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . In 7 . 8 5 ,

w h i c h d e s c r i b e s 'eating', t h e o m i t t e d v e r b is u n d e r s t o o d as t h e v e r b o f eating. T h e

c o n s t i t u e n t m a r k e d for d o u b l e syntactic f u n c t i o n is u n d e r l i n e d .

7 . 8 5 d i s a d i - a d i - m i a d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f + c l i m b 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - p i c k 3 s g n f - g i v e - R E M . P . R E P

y a w i - n u k u iri-peri, d i h a - n e - n u k u ,

j a g u a r - T O P . N O N . A / S r e d - C O L L h e - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S

n e r i - n e - n u k i u h i p o l e - p e r i - n e

d e e r - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S g r e e n - C O L L - C O M

d i - d i a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s t a y - R E M . P . R E P

' H e ( t h e d e e r ) c l i m b e d a n d p i c k e d ( b a n a n a s ) , h e g a v e t h e r e d (ripe) o n e s to t h e

j a g u a r , for h i m , for t h e d e e r (to eat), h e (the d e e r ) r e m a i n e d w i t h g r e e n ones.'

In 7 . 8 6 t h e o m i t t e d v e r b is t h e v e r b o f s p e e c h (this is a c o m m e n t o n a story told b y a

s p e a k e r j u d g e d n o t v e r y c o m p e t e n t b e c a u s e h e c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e d t h e n o n - f e m i n i n e

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r i n s t e a d o f f e m i n i n e ) .

7 . 8 6 i n a r u - n e - n u k u tfari d i - a - k a

w o m a n - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S m a n 3 s g n f - s a y - R E C . P . V I S

'For h i m (talking) a b o u t a w o m a n , h e s a y s "a m a n " (that is, h e calls a w o m a n a

m a n ) . '

T h e s p e c i f i c p r e d i c a t e m a y b e h a r d to r e c o v e r , a s in 7.87, said b y J o v i n o w h e n h e

w a s e x p l a i n i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e in t i m e b e t w e e n A u s t r a l i a a n d B r a z i l to o t h e r s (after I h a d

s h o w n t h e d i f f e r e n c e o n a w a t c h ) .

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 162 7 Case marking and grammatical relations

7 . 8 7 w h a - n e - n u k u i k a s u - n a k a

w e - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S t o d a y - P R E S . V I S

n h a - n e - n u k u d e s u - n a k a

t h e y - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S t o m o r r o w - P R E S . V I S

' F o r u s , it is t o d a y , for t h e m , it is t o m o r r o w . '

E l a b o r a t e story-tellers - for i n s t a n c e , I s m a e l B r i t o - w o u l d s o m e t i m e s a v o i d

o m i t t i n g t h e s e l f - e v i d e n t p r e d i c a t e , for a d i s c o u r s e effect. In t h e f o l l o w i n g extract f r o m

a s t o r y a b o u t a m a n w h o w a s l u r e d b y a n evil spirit's w i f e to stay w i t h h e r a n d d o j o b s

for h e r t h e p r e d i c a t e 'see' gets o m i t t e d o n l y in t h e last c l a u s e (7.91). First, t h e w i t c h

s e n d s h i m t o f e t c h t h e m a n i o c b r e a d w h i c h is s u p p o s e d t o b e in t h e g a r d e n . H e c a n n o t

find a n y - t h e e x p l a n a t i o n for this is in 7.88.

7 . 8 8 [ d i h a n a w i k i d i - k a - k a ] - n u k u

A R T m a n 3 s g n f - s e e - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S

d u k u r i p h e - n a - p i d a n a d i h a - n a

g r a s s . s p e c i e s - C L : V E R T - R E M . P . R E P A R T - C L : V E R T

' F o r t h e m a n l o o k i n g , it w a s a t y p e o f tall grass.'

S h e s e n d s h i m o u t a g a i n , to fetch m a n i o c b r e a d o f a n o t h e r k i n d . A g a i n , h e c a n n o t get

it, a n d t h e r e a s o n is stated in 7.89. T h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e is topical, a n d t h e enclitic -ne

' f o c u s s e d A / S ' is a t t a c h e d to t h e e n d o f t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e - t h e m a n is n o w

c o n t r a s t e d to t h e evil spirits.

7 . 8 9 d i h a n a w i k i d i - k a - k a - n e - n u k u ,

A R T m a n 3 s g n f - s e e - S U B - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S

m a y a w i - t h a - p i d a n a

g r a s s . s p e c i e s - F R - R E M . P . R E P

'For t h e m a n ( n o t a n evil spirit) l o o k i n g , it w a s u s e l e s s grass.'

S h e c o m e s b a c k into t h e h o u s e , a n d p u t s w h a t w a s m a n i o c b r e a d to h e r o n t h e table;

b u t t h e m a n - a s c o n t r a s t e d t o evil spirits - still c a n n o t s e e a n y t h i n g b u t t h e w e e d s .

7 . 9 0 d i h a - n e d i - k a - k a - n u k u d u k u l i p h e

h e - F O C . A / S 3 s g n f - s e e - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S g r a s s . s p e c i e s

m a y a w i - t h a - p i d a n a

g r a s s . s p e c i e s - F R - R E M . P . R E P

' W h e n h e w a s l o o k i n g , it w a s grass.'

In c o n t r a s t , w h a t w a s w e e d for t h e m a n , w a s m a n i o c b r e a d for t h e m , t h e evil spirits,

a s s t a t e d in 7 . 9 1 . O n l y h e r e d o e s t h e v e r b 'see' g e t o m i t t e d .

7.91 n h a - n e - n u k u p a i t h e - p i d a n a

t h e y - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S m a n i o c . b r e a d - R E M . P . R E P

n u - a - k a n h u a

l s g - s a y - S U B I

' F o r t h e m ( l o o k i n g ) , it w a s m a n i o c b r e a d , I a m saying.'

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 7.7 Summary 1 6 3

T h e p r i n c i p l e o f ' d o u b l e ' m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n - that w i t h i n a l o w e r c l a u s e ,

a n d t h a t w i t h i n a h i g h e r c l a u s e - is s i m i l a r to t h e 'multiple-layered' c a s e m a r k i n g in

A u s t r a l i a n l a n g u a g e s d e s c r i b e d b y D e n c h a n d E v a n s ( 1 9 8 8 ) . H o w e v e r , in A u s t r a l i a n

l a n g u a g e s s u c h a s K a y a r d i l d , M a r t u t h u n i r a a n d P a n y j i m a n o u n p h r a s e s r e g u l a r l y r e c e i v e

m u l t i p l e inflection. T h a t is, t h e c a s e suffixes ' c o d e r e c u r s i v e d e p e n d e n c i e s : c a s e v a l u e s

c a n b e p e r c o l a t e d d o w n f r o m m a i n c l a u s e to s u b o r d i n a t e clause' ( D e n c h a n d E v a n s

1 9 8 8 : 4 4 ) . In c o n t r a s t , m u l t i p l e inflection o f a n o u n p h r a s e in T a r i a n a - w h e r e b y

structural p o s i t i o n s 1 4 a n d 15 in D i a g r a m 4.1 are filled s i m u l t a n e o u s l y - is t h e result o f

ellipsis o f t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a n o m i n a l i s e d c l a u s e . T h a t is, ' d o u b l e case' in T a r i a n a is a

m o r e superficial p h e n o m e n o n t h a n it is i n A u s t r a l i a n l a n g u a g e s .

B o t h d o u b l e c a s e m a r k i n g a n d d o u b l e m a r k i n g o f syntactic f u n c t i o n s h o u l d b e

d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e situation w h e n a c o m p l e x N P - w h i c h r e c e i v e s a c a s e m a r k i n g -

a l s o c o n t a i n s a c a s e m a r k e d m o d i f i e r o r adjunct. In 7 . 9 2 , t h e N P , 'the fried egg', c o n t a i n s

t w o c a s e m a r k e r s - n u k u , o n e o n t h e 'egg' a n d t h e o t h e r o n t h e 'fried': it is h i g h l y topical

n o n - A / S , a n d u n u s u a l , a n d , a s it t u r n s out, a d a n g e r o u s k i n d o f f o o d to b e c o n s u m e d in

t h e j u n g l e . T h e a d j u n c t , ' w i t h ( a n i m a l ) fat' ( u s e d for frying), t a k e s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e

m a r k e r . T h e N P is t r a n s l a t e d as ' ( w e ate) this v e r y e g g fried w i t h ( a n i m a l ) fat'. If there

h a d b e e n ' d o u b l e c a s e m a r k i n g ' o n t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l disi 'his fat', t h e t r a n s l a t i o n w o u l d b e

' ( w e ate) a n e g g fried w i t h this v e r y fat'. S q u a r e b r a c k e t s in 7.92 i n d i c a t e that disi-ne is

a n a d j u n c t t o t h e m o d i f i e r 'fried', a n d n o t t h e w h o l e N P .

7 . 9 2 d i h a d i - e w h e - n u k u [disi-ne

A R T 3 s g n f - e g g - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + f a t - I N S

d i - k w a - n i p e - n u k u ] w a - f i h a d e i n u - n a

3 s g n f - f r y - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - e a t a f t e r n o o n - R E M . P . V I S

' W e ate this v e r y e g g fried w i t h fat in t h e afternoon.'

7.7 S u m m a r y

T a r i a n a h a s a c o m p l i c a t e d s y s t e m o f c o r e a n d o b l i q u e c a s e m a r k e r s . C o r e c a s e s o p e r a t e

in t e r m s o f a n o m i n a t i v e - a c c u s a t i v e s y s t e m ; their u s e d e p e n d s o n t h e d i s c o u r s e status o f

t h e a r g u m e n t . A f o c u s s e d A / S ('subject') r e c e i v e s a m a r k e r , clitic -ne9 w h i l e a topical

n o n - A / S ('non-subject') r e c e i v e s a clitic - n u k u . P r o n o m i n a l a r g u m e n t s h a v e a n

o b l i g a t o r y n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e ( m a r k e d w i t h t h e suffix -nd)\ if a p r o n o u n is f o c u s s e d a n d in

A / S f u n c t i o n , o r is t o p i c a l a n d is in a n o n - A / S function, c o r r e s p o n d i n g c a s e m a r k e r s (-ne

a n d - n u k u r e s p e c t i v e l y ) are a d d e d o n t o t h e s u b j e c t f o r m o f a p r o n o u n .

O b l i q u e c a s e s a r e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e {-ne w i t h n o u n s , -ine w i t h p r o n o u n s ) a n d

l o c a t i v e ( u s u a l l y j u s t o n n o u n s ) . N o t e that t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n c o r e a n d o b l i q u e c a s e s

is n o t w a t e r t i g h t , s i n c e - n u k u c a n also m a r k o b l i q u e c o n s t i t u e n t s , a n d in certain

c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e c o m i t a t i v e c a s e refers to a c o r e a r g u m e n t . O b l i q u e c a s e m a r k e r s c a n

b e o m i t t e d if r e c o v e r a b l e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . T h e y c a n b e u s e d several t i m e s in a n N P .

O b l i q u e c a s e s c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h - n u k u in a single N P . T h e r e is also a possibility o f

d o u b l e m a r k i n g t h e syntactic f u n c t i o n in a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e o r in a s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e . T h i s i n v o l v e s s i g n a l l i n g t w o distinct clausal f u n c t i o n s o f a n N P : i.e. s i g n a l l i n g a

c l a u s a l f u n c t i o n o f a n a r g u m e n t i n a c o m p l e m e n t o r s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y

w i t h t h e m a r k i n g o f a clausal f u n c t i o n o f a c o m p l e m e n t o r a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e itself

w i t h i n t h e m a i n c l a u s e . T h i s h a p p e n s w h e n t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e o r o f

t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e is o m i t t e d a n d is r e t r i e v a b l e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t .

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N u m b e r

S i m i l a r l y t o m o s t A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s , T a r i a n a d i s t i n g u i s h e s s i n g u l a r a n d n o n - s i n g u l a r

n u m b e r s . T h e T a r i a n a n u m b e r s y s t e m is u n u s u a l in that (i) n u m b e r o p p o s i t i o n s a n d

n u m b e r d i s t i n c t i o n s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f referent, a n d (ii) n u m b e r c a n b e m a r k e d

m o r e t h a n o n c e w i t h i n a g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d .

8.1 N u m b e r m a r k i n g

T a r i a n a n o m i n a l s fall into six g r o u p s w i t h r e s p e c t to their n u m b e r o p p o s i t i o n s a n d

n u m b e r m a r k i n g : c o u n t a b l e n o u n s w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent ( § 8 . 1 . 1 ) , a n i m a t e n o u n s

( § 8 . 1 . 2 ) , k i n s h i p n o u n s ( § 8 . 1 . 3 ) , u n c o u n t a b l e n o u n s (§8.1.4), p l u r a l i a t a n t u m ( § 8 . 1 . 5 ) ,

a n d s i n g u l a t i v e s ( § 8 . 1 . 6 ) . A s s o c i a t i v e p l u r a l is d i s c u s s e d in § 8 . 1 . 7 .

8.1.1 I n a n i m a t e n o u n s

M o s t c o u n t a b l e n o u n s w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent h a v e t h r e e n u m b e r distinctions. T h e y

a r e f o r m a l l y a n d f u n c t i o n a l l y u n m a r k e d w h e n n u m b e r is n o t specified, a n d a l s o h a v e a

c o l l e c t i v e s e n s e . E x p l i c i t s i n g u l a r o r n o n - s i n g u l a r r e f e r e n c e is a c h i e v e d b y t h e a d d i t i o n

o f a classifier in a d e r i v a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n (as w e l l a s plural m a r k e r s - C h a p t e r 5) to t h e

u n m a r k e d f o r m . ( T h i s u n u s u a l n u m b e r s y s t e m is f o u n d in n e i g h b o u r i n g l a n g u a g e s , s u c h

a s T u c a n o a n d G u a h i b o f a m i l i e s : s e e A i k h e n v a l d a n d D i x o n 1 9 9 9 ; it is m o s t p o s s i b l y a n

a r e a l l y d i f f u s e d feature.) T h u s , t h e n u m b e r d i s t i n c t i o n s c o v e r :

(i) 'general', o r c o l l e c t i v e : u n m a r k e d ;

(ii) n o n - p l u r a l : s i n g u l a r / p a u c a l , m a r k e d w i t h a classifier in a d e r i v a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n ;

(iii) p l u r a l : m a r k e d w i t h a suffix -pe a d d e d to t h e classifier.

F o r i n s t a n c e , p a p e r a m e a n s 'paper', p a p e r a - p h e (paper-CL:LEAF.LlKE) m e a n s 'sheet o f

paper', a n d c a n b e p l u r a l i s e d : p a p e r a - p h e - p e 'sheets o f paper'; deri m e a n s ' b a n a n a s , ' o r

' b a n a n a in g e n e r a l (as a k i n d o f fruit)', deripa ( b a n a n a + C L : L A R G E ) m e a n s '(one) b a n a n a ' ,

a n d c a n b e p l u r a l i s e d : deripa-pe ' b a n a n a s ' (*papera-pe o r *de:/i-pe a r e u n g r a m m a t i c a l ) .

T h e n o u n n u - t h i refers to ' m y eye(s)' a s o r g a n s o f sight, n u - t h i - d a ( l s g - e y e - C L : R O U N D )

is t h e w a y o f r e f e r r i n g to ' m y eye', a n d t h e plural f o r m is nu-thi~da-pe m e a n s ' m y

( m a n y ) eyes'. I n 8 . 1 , h e k u 'tree' refers to 'all t h e trees' a s a c o l l e c t i v e n o t i o n . A n

i n d i v i d u a l tree is h e k u - n a 'tree-CL:VERT'.

8.1 n a - k a n a - p e - p i d a n a h e k u y e w h e - s e

3 p l - s e e 3 p l - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P tree m i d d l e - L O C

' T h e y l o o k e d in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e trees (to s e e if t h e spirit w a s there).'

In 8.2, h e k u is u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f 'tree' as a g e n e r i c ('tree root', as o p p o s e d to

a n o t h e r k i n d o f root).

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 8.1 Number marking 165

8.2 n e - p i d a n a h e k u i-sawi-se d i - n a - p i d e n a

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P tree I N D F - r o o t - L O C 3 s g n f - h i t - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e n h e (the spirit) hit o n t o a tree r o o t ( a n d fish a p p e a r e d ) . '

T h e u n m a r k e d f o r m o f a n o u n is u s e d as a d e r i v a t i o n a l b a s e for l e x e m e s d e r i v e d w i t h

a classifier, e.g. h e k u - n a (tree-CL:VERT) 'a tree', heku-(i)ta (tree-CL:iNAN) 'a p a d d l e ' ,

h e k u - d a ('tree-CL:ROUND) 'fruit'. P l u r a l m a r k e r -ne (see §8.1.2) c a n also b e u s e d to

d e r i v e 'pluralia t a n t u m ' o f t h e k i n d ' p e o p l e b e l o n g i n g to s o m e t h i n g ' , e.g. h e k u - n e (tree-

A N I M : P L ) ' m y t h i c a l tree p e o p l e ' .

A f e w n o u n s w h i c h i n c l u d e n a m e s for d w e l l i n g s a n d artefacts - e.g. p a n i s i 'house',

p a n i s a m ' a b a n d o n e d settlement', y a k a r e 'village, c o m m u n i t y ' , a m a k u ' h a m m o c k ' , p u a r i

'frying p a n ' - h a v e t w o n u m b e r s distinctions: s i n g u l a r ( u n m a r k e d ) a n d p l u r a l ( m a r k e d

w i t h -pe), e.g. p a n i s i - p e 'houses', y a k a r e - p e 'villages', amaku-pe ' h a m m o c k s ' . J u s t o n e

n o u n p a n i s a m ' a b a n d o n e d settlement' m a r k s plural w i t h -nipe: p a n i s a m - n i p e

' a b a n d o n e d s e t t l e m e n t s ' (in y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h , t h e f o r m p a n i s a m - p e also o c c u r s ) .

T o e m p h a s i s e plurality, a clitic p a 'all' ( s e e 1 5 . 1 3 5 ) c a n b e a d d e d after t h e n o u n m a r k e d

for plural, e.g. y a k a r e - p e - p a '(very) m a n y villages'.

O v e r t m a r k i n g o f plural is o b l i g a t o r y o n l y w i t h a n i m a t e n o u n s . A n o u n w i t h a n

i n a n i m a t e r e f e r e n t c a n refer to o n e o r m o r e t h a n o n e object, e s p e c i a l l y w h e n t h e

plurality is n o t i m p o r t a n t in t h e d i s c o u r s e c o n t e x t ; e.g., hipa-da ( g r o u n d - C L : R O U N D )

'stone' c a n refer to o n e s t o n e , o r to a c o u p l e o f stones. S i n g u l a t i v e -seri is u s e d if it is

i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e referent is s i n g u l a r - s e e §8.1.6.

U n c o u n t a b l e n o u n s c a n n o t t a k e a n y plural m a r k i n g , e.g. iwi 'salt', i d 'blood'; t h e y

r e q u i r e p l u r a l a g r e e m e n t w i t h i n a n o u n p h r a s e (see §8.4). T h e y m a y t a k e a d i m i n u t i v e

m a r k e r t h a t a l s o c o d e s plurality (see §8.1.4).

8.1.2 A n i m a t e n o u n s

A n i m a t e n o u n s d i s t i n g u i s h s i n g u l a r ( u n m a r k e d ) a n d plural ( m a r k e d ) (see § 8 . 2 , o n h o w

o b l i g a t o r y p l u r a l m a r k i n g is). P l u r a l is m a r k e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y s .

A . P L U R A L O F A N A N I M A T E N O U N W I T H N O D E R I V A T I O N A L S U F F I X is m a r k e d w i t h t h e

suffix - n e , e.g. y a w i 'jaguar', y a w i - n e 'jaguars'; p u : w e ' c a p u c h i n m o n k e y ' , p u : w e - n e

' c a p u c h i n m o n k e y s ' . W i t h h u m a n referents, t h e -ne plural h a s a s s o c i a t i v e m e a n i n g , e.g.

B r i t o ' o n e m e m b e r o f B r i t o family'; B r i t o - n e 'the Britos'. T h e suffix -ne c a n b e a d d e d to

a n y n o u n t o d e r i v e a pluralia t a n t u m 'kind o f p e o p l e ' - s e e § 8 . 1 . 5 . It c a n b e u s e d o n

a d v e r b s to d e r i v e p l u r a l n o m i n a l s , e . g . payapese 'long t i m e ago', p a y a p e s e - n e ' p e o p l e o f

l o n g ago'.

B . P L U R A L O F A N I M A T E N O U N S ( A N D P E R S O N A L P R O N O U N S : §8.2) W H I C H C O N T A I N

D E R I V A T I O N A L A F F I X E S ( i n c l u d i n g a n y specific classifier in a d e r i v a t i o n a l function, w i t h

t h e e x c e p t i o n o f -ite ' h u m a n ' ) t a k e t h e plural suffix -pe, e.g. k a - b u e t a - m a (REL-teach-

C L : F E M ) ' f e m a l e teacher', k a - b u e t a - m a - p e ' f e m a l e teachers'; p e d a r i a - m a 'old w o m a n ' ,

p e d a r i a - m a - p e 'old w o m e n ' . A clitic p a 'all' c a n b e u s e d to e m p h a s i s e plurality.

T h e m a s c u l i n e c o u n t e r p a r t o f p e d a r i a - m a 'old w o m a n ' , p e d a r i a 'old m a n ' , also f o r m s

its p l u r a l w i t h -pe: p e d a r i a - p e 'old m e n ' . T h i s h a p p e n s b e c a u s e e t y m o l o g i c a l l y p e - d a r i is

d e r i v e d f r o m p e 'old' (cf. P i a p o c o p e - 'old', T a r i a n a upe 'long ago') a n d a (fossilised)

classifier -dari w h i c h is still p r o d u c t i v e l y u s e d in B a n i w a o f l9ana.

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 1 6 6 8 N u m b e r

N o u n s w i t h a n a n i m a t e referent w h i c h c o n t a i n a n o m i n a l i s e r -ite 'CL:HUMAN' f o r m

p l u r a l in -peni w h i c h r e p l a c e s -ite. M o s t o f t h e s e n o u n s are n o m i n a l i s e d a d j e c t i v e s (see

§8.2), e.g. m a - t h i - p e n i ( N E G - e y e - P L : H U M A N ) 'the o n e s w i t h o u t eyes'.

N u m e r o u s n o u n s w i t h a h u m a n referent w h i c h c o n t a i n n o m i n a l i s e r s -ri ' m a s c u l i n e '

a n d - r u ' f e m i n i n e ' h a v e irregular p l u r a l s m a r k e d w i t h :

(i) s u b t r a c t i o n o f t h e n o m i n a l i s e r , f o u n d o n l y in i:na-ru ' w o m a n ' , i:na ' w o m e n ' ;

m a l i e - r i ' s h a m a n ' , pi. m a l i e ' s h a m a n s ' (in t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect, t h e plural o f

' s h a m a n ' is m a l i e - p e , or malie-pe p a ) ;

(ii) s u b t r a c t i o n o f t h e n o m i n a l i s e r , a d d i t i o n o f a p r e - r o o t v o w e l a n d n a s a l shift,

f o u n d o n l y in pari 'man', atfa ' m e n ' (the p r e - r o o t v o w e l u s e d t o b e p a r t o f t h e

root, cf. B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a a t / a n 'man', pi. atfa) (in t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect, t h e

p l u r a l o f ' m a n ' tfan-pe, o r tfari-pepa)\

(iii) a d d i t i o n o f a classifier f o l l o w e d b y plural -pe, e.g. w a r i - k i - m ( y o u n g - N O M - F E M )

'a y o u n g w o m a n ' , pi. w a r i - k i - r u - m a - p e ( y o u n g - N O M - F E M - C L : F E M - P L ) ;

(iv) s u b t r a c t i o n o f a n o m i n a l i s e r a n d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a plural m a r k e r , e.g. plural -pe

i n w a r i - k i - d ( y o u n g - N O M - M A S C ) 'a y o u n g m a n ' , pi. wari-ki-pe ( y o u n g - N O M - P L )

' y o u n g m e n ' ; p l u r a l -ne in - m i n a - r i ' m a s t e r of, pi. - m i n a - n e ' m a s t e r s of; o r o f 0 ,

a s in t h e n o m i n a l p a s t clitic -miki-ri 'late o n e ( m a s c u l i n e ) ' ; - m i k i - r u 'late o n e

( f e m i n i n e ) ' , pi. - m i k i ( P e r i q u i t o s -mikie-se) ( S e e §8.3 a n d §9.1).

S u b t r a c t i o n o f t h e suffix - n a a n d a d d i t i o n o f t h e plural -ne is f o u n d in j u s t o n e i t e m :

d i - k h o l e n a 'his s e r v a n t (male)', d i - k h o l e - s a - d o ( 3 s g n f - s e r v a n t - s p o u s e - F E M ) 'his s e r v a n t

(female)', d i - k h o l e - n e 'his servants'.

S u b t r a c t i o n o f a n o m i n a l i s e r - m i is f o u n d in t h e plural f o r m o f i h e m i 'a m i n o r evil

spirit'; p e j o r a t i v e n a m e u s e d to refer to t h e W a m i a r i k u n e b y o t h e r T a r i a n a g r o u p s , plural

i n e - n e (devil-PL) 'devils'.

8.1.3 K i n s h i p n o u n s

K i n s h i p n o u n s d i s t i n g u i s h s i n g u l a r a n d plural. T h e m a r k i n g , a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e

m e a n i n g , o f n o n - s i n g u l a r f o r m s o f k i n s h i p n o u n s m a y b e different f r o m that o f o t h e r

n o u n s . L i k e n o n - k i n s h i p n o u n s , t h e plural suffix -pe is often u s e d to f o r m a plural o n

k i n s h i p n o u n s w h i c h c o n t a i n a n o m i n a l i s i n g g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e suffix. S o m e k i n s h i p

n o u n s a l s o u s e t h e p l u r a l suffix -ne. U n l i k e o t h e r n o u n s , s o m e k i n s h i p n o u n s u s e a

suffix -nipe (either u n m a r k e d for g e n d e r , o r m a s c u l i n e ) , a n d -ni-ma-pe 'feminine', a n d a

f e w n o u n s u s e a suffix -sini. T h e clitic p a is n o t u s e d .

W h e n p l u r a l i s e d , m a s c u l i n e k i n s h i p n o u n s a c q u i r e t h e a d d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g o f

a s s o c i a t i v e plural. F o r i n s t a n c e , n u - h a - n i r i ( l s g - p a r e n t - M A S C ) m e a n s ' m y father; m y

classificatory father' ( s e e § 1 0 . 2 ) w h i l e nu-ha-niri-nipe (or its v a r i a n t nu-ha-niri-pe)

( l s g - p a r e n t - M A S O P L ) ' m y (classificatory) fathers' a n d ' m y (classificatory) p a r e n t s (i.e.

father, m o t h e r , father's e l d e r b r o t h e r s a n d sisters)'. T h a t is, t h e m a s c u l i n e k i n s h i p n o u n s

1
w h e n p l u r a l i s e d refer to b o t h m a l e s a n d females.

1
T h e s t u d y o f plural f o r m s o f k i n s h i p n o u n s in T a r i a n a p r e s e n t e d a d d i t i o n a l difficulties. A s w a s

m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r 1, T a r i a n a is a n o b s o l e s c e n t l a n g u a g e , a n d k i n s h i p t e r m s h a v e b e e n the t e r m s m o s t

a f f e c t e d b y l a n g u a g e loss. T h i s e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n s rarely u s e d t e r m s , s u c h a s 'mother's sister'

( h a d o t h e r u ) , o r c h i l d o f a d a u g h t e r o f a paternal g r a n d f a t h e r n u - t e d u a - r u ( f e m i n i n e ) , n u - t e d u a - r i

( m a s c u l i n e ) . It t o o k s p e a k e r s a l o n g t i m e t o r e m e m b e r h o w t h e s e t e r m s are u s e d . F o r k i n s h i p n o u n s in

g e n e r a l , e v e n t h e m o s t familiar o n e s , t h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f variation in plural a f f i x e s u s e d .

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 8.1 Number marking 167

A . P L U R A L W I T H S U F F I X -pe. N u m e r o u s k i n s h i p n o u n s f o r m their plural w i t h t h e suffix

-pe ( s i m i l a r to B in §8.1.2). It f o l l o w s t h e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix (e.g. a g e n d e r sensitive

n o m i n a l i s e r ) a l r e a d y p r e s e n t (this is s i m i l a r to t h e p a t t e r n s o f n u m b e r m a r k i n g w i t h

a n i m a t e s d i s c u s s e d i n § 8 . 1 . 2 ) , e.g. n u - s a - n i r i ( l s g - s p o u s e - M A S C ) ' ( m y ) h u s b a n d ' , n u - s a -

niri-pe ' ( m y ) h u s b a n d s ; m y m a r r i g e a b l e c o u s i n s ' ; n u - d a l i n a 'wife's sister's brother', pi.

n u - d a l i n a - p e .

K i n s h i p n o u n s w i t h a f e m i n i n e referent o f t e n a d d t h e classifier - m a to f o r m plural,

e.g. n u - d a k i - r u ( l s g - g r a n d c h i l d - F E M - C L : F E M ) ' m y g r a n d d a u g h t e r ' , pi. n u - d a k i - m - m a - p e ;

n u - k u i - r u 'father's sister', pi. n u - k u i - r u - m a - p e ; n u - w e - d u ' m y y o u n g e r sister', pi. n u - w e -

du -ma-pe; n u - p h e - d u ' m y o l d e r sister', nu-phe-ru-ma-pe; nu-pherisa-do ( f r o m nu-phe-

ri-i-sa-do) ' m y e l d e r b r o t h e r ' s wife', p i . nu-phen'-sa-du-ma-pe. F o r y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s a n d

L e o n a r d o B r i t o ( o f t h e e l d e r g e n e r a t i o n ) , t h e plural o f n u - k e s i - d o ( l s g - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e -

F E M ) ' m y b l o o d relative' m a y b e nu-kesi-do-nipe o r n u - k e s i - d u - n i - m a - p e .

T h e w o r d 'daughter' itu (also u s e d for f e m a l e c h i l d o f m a l e e g o ' s b r o t h e r , a f e m a l e

c h i l d o f f e m a l e e g o ' s sibling, a n d a f e m a l e c h i l d o f o n e ' s h u s b a n d ' s b r o t h e r ) f o r m s a n

i r r e g u l a r p l u r a l , w i t h t h e suffix -kanape: n u - i t u ' m y daughter', n u - i t u - k a n a p e ' m y

d a u g h t e r s ' . In t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect, this suffix is u s e d w i t h a f e w o t h e r k i n s h i p t e r m s ,

e.g. du-enipe-kanape (3sgf-child-PL) 'her children'.

B . P L U R A L W I T H S U F F I X -nipe. T h i s suffix is u s e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g k i n s h i p t e r m s : n u -

w a s a d o ' m a s c u l i n e e g o ' s sister's son', pi. nu-wasado-nipe; h a - n i r i 'father', pi. ha-niri-

nipe 'fathers'; h a - d u (or ha-do) 'mother', pi. h a - d u - n i p e , ha-dua-nipe ' m o t h e r s ' ; n u - k h i r i

' m o t h e r ' s brother', pi. nu-khiri-nipe; n u - w h e - r i ' m y grandfather', pi. n u - w h e - r i - n i p e ; n u -

s a - d u ' m y s p o u s e ' , pi. nu-sa-du-nipe; nu-tfimari ' m y s o n in law', pi. nu-tfimari-nipe\ n u -

n h a w e - r i ' m y father in law', n u - n h a w e - r i - n i p e ' m y p a r e n t s in l a w ( m a l e , o r either sex)';

n u - n h a w e - r u ' m y m o t h e r in law', n u - n h a w e - m - n i p e ' m y f e m a l e p a r e n t s in law'. S o m e

s p e a k e r s u s e -nipe w i t h n u - w e - d u ( l s g - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - F E M ) ' m y y o u n g e r sister',

y i e l d i n g n u - w e - d u - n i p e ' m y y o u n g e r sisters'. T h e f o r m ha-niri-pe 'fathers; m e m b e r s o f

o n e ' s father's g e n e r a t i o n ' is in free a l t e r n a t i o n w i t h ha-niri-nipe (for i n s t a n c e , C a n d i d o ,

t h e m o s t traditional s p e a k e r , u s e s b o t h f o r m s ) .

T h e f o l l o w i n g f e m a l e k i n s h i p t e r m s u s e -ni-ma-pe: n u - w a s a - d o ' d a u g h t e r o f

m a s c u l i n e e g o ' s sister', o r ' d a u g h t e r o f o n e ' s wife's sibling', pi. n u - w a s a - d o - n i - m a - p e ;

h i r o ' g r a n d m o t h e r ' , pi. h i r o - n i - m a - p e ; n u - n u - d u a ' m y wife's sister', pi. n u - n i d u a - n i - m a -

p e \ n u d n u (nuri-inu) 'son's wife', nurinu-ma-pe.2

C . P L U R A L W I T H SUFFIX -ne. T h i s suffix is u s e d w i t h n u - n a m i 'father's y o u n g e r brother',

pi. n u - n a m i - n e . In a d d i t i o n to this, w i t h s o m e k i n s h i p n o u n s w h i c h c o n t a i n a

n o m i n a l i s e r -ri t h e n o m i n a l i s e r gets r e p l a c e d w i t h - n e , e.g. n u - d a k i - h ' m y g r a n d s o n ' , pi.

n u - d a k i - n e ; n u - i d u a - r u ' m y brother's daughter', pi. n u - i d u a - n e ; n u - s a - n i r i ' m y h u s b a n d ' ,

pi. n u - s a - n i r i - n e ( g i v e n a s a v a r i a n t o f nu-saniri-pe). T h e t e r m n u - w e - r i ' m y y o u n g e r

This is t h e o u t c o m e o f language attrition w h i c h results in the increase o f variation a n d simplification o f

the system.
2
T h e e t y m o l o g y o f -nipe a n d its c o n n e c t i o n with the m a r k e r of object nominalisation -nipe (see §20.2.1)

is obscure. It is possible that -nipe is a c o m p l e x m o r p h e m e w h i c h consists o f -ni- and -pe, since its

feminine counterpart tends to b e -ni-ma-pe.

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brother' a n d n u - p h e - r i ' m y o l d e r brother' f o r m a slightly irregular plural w i t h -ne: n u - w e -

n e - n e a n d n u - p h e - n e - n e .

T h e p l u r a l o f pheritfi 'first-born son' i n v o l v e s -ni affixation: t h e plural f o r m is p h e - n i -

tfi\ t h e f e m i n i n e c o u n t e r p a r t is phecutfi a n d its plural i s pherutfi-ma-pe. T h e s e t e r m s

h a v e a c o m p l e x m o r p h o l o g i c a l structure {-phe 'elder sibling?' -ri ' m a s c u l i n e ' / - / ^

' f e m i n i n e ' - ^ (?)) (see § 1 0 . 2 ) .

D . P L U R A L W I T H -sini. T h e plural m a r k e r s i n i ( r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g clitic

s i n i 'also' d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 9, a n d o f t h e a s s o c i a t i v e plural - s i n i - s e e § 8 . 1 . 7 ) is u s e d

w i t h a f e w t e r m s , e.g. p a i d u a - r i ' f e m a l e ego's brother's son', pi. p a i d u a - r i s i n i \ n u - n a m i

' m y father's y o u n g e r brother', pi. n u - n a m i - s i n i ( u s e d a l o n g s i d e n u - n a m i - n e ) .

V a r i a t i o n in p l u r a l m a r k i n g i n v o l v e s o v e r u s e o f -nipe (for m a s c u l i n e t e r m s ) a n d -ni-

ma-pe (for f e m i n i n e o n e s ) b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o f t h e l a n g u a g e . T h i s o v e r u s e p r o v i d e s
3
s o m e e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f -nipe a n d -ni-ma-pe a s t h e least m a r k e d plural suffixes.

T h e n o u n n u r i ' m y son' h a s a plural nu-ie-nipe ' m y children' (also u s e d for y o u n g e r

g e n e r a t i o n , g e n e r a t i o n o f m y s o n ) ; this is t h e o n l y c a s e o f fully s u p p l e t i v e n u m b e r

m a r k i n g .

B a n i w a a n d o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e r e g i o n d o n o t h a v e s p e c i a l plural

m o r p h e m e s u s e d o n l y w i t h k i n s h i p n o u n s . R a t h e r , this is a p r o p e r t y o f t h e E a s t T u c a n o

l a n g u a g e s ( s e e W e s t 1 9 8 0 ) . T a r i a n a d e v e l o p e d irregular plural f o r m s for k i n s h i p n o u n s

a s t h e result o f areal diffusion f r o m T u c a n o ( w i t h o u t b o r r o w i n g t h e actual f o r m s f r o m

T u c a n o ) .

8.1.4 Uncountable n o u n s

S o m e n o u n s d o n o t h a v e s i n g u l a r vs. n o n - s i n g u l a r n u m b e r distinctions. T h e y i n c l u d e

s u b s t a n c e s , e.g. uni 'water', isa ' s m o k e , smell', kana-peri (grass-CL.COLL) 'grass', hape-

p e r i (cold-CL:COLL) 'cold, ice', n h a k a s i 'food'. T h e y often trigger a g r e e m e n t in the

c o l l e c t i v e classifier -peri, e.g. uni hape-peri 'cold water', o r c o n t a i n -peri a s a

d e r i v a t i o n a l m a r k e r . T h e s e n o u n s are o v e r t l y m a r k e d as plural w h e n t h e y o c c u r w i t h the

d i m i n u t i v e , to refer to a s m a l l q u a n t i t y o f t h e s u b s t a n c e , e.g. isa-tupe ( s m o k e - D i M : P L ) 'a

3
F o r nu-idua-ri 'my son o f father's brother', pi. nu-idua-ri-nipe w a s a form used b y y o u n g e r speakers,

while the older p e o p l e used nu-idua-ne. A rarely r e m e m b e r e d form nu-tedua-ru 'my child of a daughter of

a paternal grandfather' w a s pluralised as nu-tedua-ru-nipe by y o u n g e r people; later it w a s corrected b y

Olivia - w h o is e x t r e m e l y careful a n d traditional as far as kinship forms are concerned - to nu-teduaru-

mape with nu-tedua-ru-ni-ma-pe as a variant; nu-daki-ri 'my grandson', p i . nu-daki-ne w a s pluralised by

y o u n g e r p e o p l e a s nu-daki-ri-nipe a n d di-daki-nipe. In a similar way, y o u n g people hesitated b e t w e e n nu-

we-ne-ne and nu-we-ri-nipe, and nu-phe-ri-ne and nu-phe-ri-nipe as plural forms for nu-we-ri 'my

y o u n g e r brother' a n d nu-phe-ri 'my older brother'. T h e term nu-saru 'husband's sister' w a s pluralised by

y o u n g e r p e o p l e as nu-saru-ni-ma-pe, while C a n d i d o insisted on nu-saru-ma-pe. For nu-idua-ru 'female

ego's brother's daughter', pi. nu-idua-ru-ni-ma-pe w a s used by y o u n g e r speakers, and nu-idua-ru-ma-pe

w a s u s e d b y older people.

W i t h s o m e female kinship terms, -ni-ma-pe w a s used instead o f -nipe b y younger people, e.g. ha-du

' m o t h e r 1 , hadu(a)-nipe, hadu-ni-ma-pe.

S o m e rarely used terms ( r e m e m b e r e d with difficulty) have t w o co-existing plurals ha-do-the-ru

'mother's sister', p i . ha-do-the-m-ni-ma-pe, a n d ha-do-the-ru-ma-pe. Similarly, the frequently used forms

nu-we-do 'my younger s i s t e r ' ( p i . nu-we-do-ma-pe) a n d nu-phe-do ( p i . nu-phe-du-ma-pe) were pluralised

by younger people a s nu-we-do-ni-ma-pe a n d nu-phe-do-ni-ma-pe respectively.

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 8. J Number marking 169

little s m o k e ' , n h a k a s i - t u p e (food-DlM:PL) 'a little food' a n d iwi-tupe (salt-DlM:PL) 'a little

salt', a s in 8.3.

8.3 i w i - t u p e asi n h u t a - n a n u - h n a - k a r u - p e n a

s a l t - D I M : P L p e p p e r l s g + b r i n g - R E M . P . V I S l s g - e a t - P U R P . V I S - F O R

'I b r o u g h t p e p p e r a n d a little salt for m e to eat.'

S i m i l a r l y , a c t i o n a n d o b j e c t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s m a r k e d w i t h -nipe (see C h a p t e r 2 0 )

c a n n o t b e p l u r a l i s e d ; t h e y also t a k e a plural f o r m o f t h e d i m i n u t i v e , a s illustrated in 8.4

( f r o m a v e r y a r c h a i c s t o r y a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g feast t o l d b y A m e r i c o Brito). T h e

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n is r e f e r r e d to u s i n g t h e s i n g u l a r f o r m o f t h e specific article d i h a (since

t h e p l u r a l n a h a c a n o n l y b e u s e d w i t h a n i m a t e s ; s e e §8.2).

8.4 d i h a - t u p e - n u k u i - s a p e t a - n i p e - t u p e - n u k u

A R T - D I M . P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 p l - s u f f e r - N O M - D I M : P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

n h u a n u - k a - h y u m e

I l s g - s e e - A F T E R : S S

'After I s a w t h e s e little ( o n e s ) , y o u r little sufferings...'

N o u n s d e n o t i n g n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a o r abstract c o n c e p t s ( m a r k e d w i t h t h e classifier

- w a n i in d e r i v a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n ) also h a v e n o s i n g u l a r / n o n - s i n g u l a r distinctions, e.g.

4
h a m u - w a n i (hot-CL.NAT.PHEN) 'heat'; k a r u n a - w a n i 'danger'. T h e u n c o u n t a b l e n o u n s

o c c u r w i t h t h e q u a n t i f i e r hanu-pe ' m a n y , m u c h ' (see §8.1.5), e.g. d u - a k u hanupe (3sgf-

s p e e c h m a n y , m u c h ) 'her m a n y l a n g u a g e s ' . N o u n s w h i c h d e n o t e celestial o b j e c t s o r

p h e n o m e n a w i t h a u n i q u e referent h a v e n o n u m b e r distinctions, e.g. e n u k w a 'sky'; e : n u

'thunder', n a w i k i - p u (lit. p e r s o n - C L : H O L L O W , i.e. p e r s o n ' s g r a v e ) 'a c o n s t e l l a t i o n n e a r t h e

M i l k y W a y ' . N o t e that k e r i 'sun, m o o n ' c a n b e pluralised, b e c a u s e this n o u n refers to

t w o o b j e c t s - s u n a n d m o o n - w h i c h c a n a p p e a r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

T h e g e n e r i c n o u n for p e r s o n n a w i k i h a s n o plural f o r m . It c a n h a v e a s i n g u l a r

referent (e.g. p a i t a n a w i k i ( o n e + N U M . C L : A N i M p e r s o n ) 'one p e r s o n , o n e m a n ' ) , a plural

r e f e r e n t (as in 8.5), o r a c o l l e c t i v e referent - 'people' (as in 8.6). T h i s t e r m is u s e d to

refer to s o m e n e i g h b o u r i n g g r o u p s , e.g. napirikuri n a w i k i ' Y u r u p a r i - t a p u y a ' (a g r o u p o f

B a n i w a o f I ? a n a ) .

8.5 k w a k a y a p h i n i n a - n i - k a n h a h i n a w i k i

w h a t t h i n g 3 p l - d o - D E C L t h e y D E M : A N I M p e r s o n

' W h a t a r e t h e s e p e o p l e d o i n g ? '

8.6 w e m h a n i - n i k i n a w i k i i - e w h e - n u k u

1 p l + w a l k - C O M P L p e o p l e I N D F - a m o n g - T O P . N O N . A / S

' W e w a l k c o m p l e t e l y a m o n g p e o p l e ( b e i n g evil spirits in disguise).'

H i s t o r i c a l l y , n a w i k i c o n s i s t s o f t h e r o o t n a w i 'people' ( w h i c h h a s c o g n a t e s in m a n y

A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o ) a n d a fossilised n o m i n a l i s e r -ki\ a l s o f o u n d

4
N o t e that other classifiers used to form collective nouns, e.g. -sawa: 'a g r o u p of animals/birds' (as in

yawi-sawa "a g r o u p of jaguars') can be pluralised, e . g . yawi-sawa-pe 'groups of jaguars', and singularised

( § 8 . 1 . 6 ) , e . g . yawi-sawa-seri 'an individual (jaguar) from a group'.

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in s u c h f o r m a t i o n s a s -dalipa-ki ( - n e a r - N O M ) ' m a n ' s in laws', wali-ki-ri ( n e w - N O M -

M A S C ) ' y o u n g m a n ' ; cf. also -mi-ki-ri ' n o m i n a l p a s t ( m a s c u l i n e ) ' (see § 9 . 1 ) w h i c h m a y

g o b a c k t o a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m i 'pejorative, past' (also f o u n d in B a r e , B a n i w a , P i a p o c o ,

A c h a g u a ) -ki ' n o m i n a l i s e r ' + -ri 'masculine'.

G e n e r i c n o u n s y a p h i n i 'thing ( a n i m a t e o r i n a n i m a t e ) ' ( 8 . 2 2 - 3 ) a n d y a r u p e 'thing

( i n a n i m a t e ) ; b e l o n g i n g s , g o o d s ' (also u s e d a s a p o s s e s s i v e classifier - s e e § 6 . 5 ) c a n n o t

b e p l u r a l i s e d ; y a p h i n i c a n trigger plural a g r e e m e n t o n a m o d i f i e r (see § 8 . 2 ) if it h a s a n

a n i m a t e referent. (In § 8 . 1 . 5 w e will s e e that y a r u p e is e t y m o l o g i c a l l y a p l u r a l i a t a n t u m . )

A c t i o n n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n n o t b e p l u r a l i s e d (but t h e y m a y trigger s i n g u l a r o r plural

a g r e e m e n t ) , e.g. p a - n i - n i p e matfite ( i M P - d o - N O M g o o d + N C L : A N i M ) ' g o o d action'; p a - n i -

nipe matfia-peni ' g o o d actions' (also s e e 9 . 1 2 w h e r e a plural enclitic - m i k i - ' n o m i n a l

past' is u s e d o n a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n u n m a r k e d for plural).

8.1.5 P l u r a l i a t a n t u m

P l u r a l i a t a n t u m a r e a s m a l l g r o u p o f n o u n s w h i c h h a v e n o s i n g u l a r f o r m . M o s t o f t h e m

refer t o h u m a n classification, especially, t o n a m e s o f tribes a n d subtribes. T h e s e c o n t a i n

a p l u r a l m a r k e r -ne u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f a s s o c i a t i v e plural ('those b e l o n g i n g to') w i t h

h u m a n s ( a n d a l s o s o m e a n i m a t e s ) . T h e s e are d e r i v e d f r o m a n o u n d e n o t i n g t h e o r i g i n

( o r s o m e t y p i c a l p r o p e r t y ) o f a g r o u p . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e a u t o d e n o m i n a t i o n o f t h e T a r i a n a

is Iri-ne 'blood-PL', i.e. t h e o n e s o f t h e b l o o d . T h i s d e n o m i n a t i o n is l i n k e d to t h e

T a r i a n a ' s o r i g i n m y t h ( w h i c h relates h o w T a r i a n a s e m e r g e d o u t o f T h u n d e r ' s b l o o d ) .

S i m i l a r l y , t h e n a m e for T u c a n o is Yase-ne (tucano.bird-PL), i.e. t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

T u c a n o bird; t h e n a m e for P i r a t a p u y a ( w h i c h m e a n s 'fish p e o p l e ' in L i n g u a G e r a l ) is

K u p h e - n e , K u p h e m e - n e (lit. fish-PL), i.e. ' p e o p l e o f t h e fish'; a n d t h e n a m e for T u y u c a is

S u r u p e - n e 'clay-PL', i.e. p e o p l e o f c l a y (Tuyuca is t h e w o r d for c l a y in r e g i o n a l

P o r t u g u e s e ) . J u s t o n e n a m e c o n t a i n s t h e suffix -pe: P a - n u m a - p e ( o n e - m o u t h - P L ) 'the

G u a n a n o p e o p l e ' .

T h e suffix - n e is f o u n d in a n u m b e r o f n a m e s o f T a r i a n a s u b t r i b e s (see §1.4), e.g.

K a l i - n e ( p o s s i b l y , d e s c e n d a n t s o f K a l i , t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l h e r o - c r e a t o r : Kali-PL);

K u m a n d e - n e ( D u c k s ; p e o p l e o f t h e D u c k ) ; Mali-ne (the J a c u - b i r d s ) ; P h i f l - n e 'one o f

T a r i a n a s u b g r o u p s ; lit. A g o u t i s ' ; o t h e r n a m e s h a v e -pe, e.g. Phitfi-kawa-pu-pe ' o n e o f

T a r i a n a s u b g r o u p s ; lit. b i g feet o f agouti', w h i l e o t h e r s h a v e n o m a r k e r , e.g. K a b a n a

' C a b a n a ' .

S o m e e t h n o n y m s c o n t a i n - n e , b u t it is d i f f i c u l t a n d s o m e t i m e s i m p o s s i b l e to interpret

t h e m e a n i n g o f a c t u a l parts, e.g. m a y a n a k u - n e ' B a n i w a ' , mayhe-ne 'an e x t i n c t p e o p l e

s u p p o s e d t o b e s e r v a n t s o f t h e Tariana'; itfiri-mhene a n d p a i p h e n e ( n a m e s for t w o s e n i o r

T a r i a n a s u b t r i b e s ) (see a list o f n a m e s for T a r i a n a s u b g r o u p s in §1.4).

T h e suffix -ne c a n b e a d d e d to s o m e o t h e r c o m m o n n o u n s to d e r i v e t h e n a m e o f

p e o p l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it, e.g. y a k a r e - n e (village-PL) 'villagers' ( f o r m a l l y distinct b u t

s e m a n t i c a l l y identical to y a k a r e - p e n i (village-CL:ANlM:PL) 'those w h o b e l o n g to t h e

v i l l a g e o r c o m e f r o m t h e village'), p a n i s i - n e ( h o u s e - P L ) ' p e o p l e o f t h e h o u s e h o l d ' , or

h e k u - n e (tree-PL) (see §8.1.1) 'tree-people'. T h e s e f o r m a t i o n s are f o u n d m a i n l y in

t r a d i t i o n a l stories; a p p a r e n t l y , this d e r i v a t i o n is n o t p r o d u c t i v e .

A n u m b e r o f n a m e s o f e t h n i c g r o u p s c o n t a i n n o -ne\ t h e y are either z e r o - m a r k e d o r

c o n t a i n a suffix - n a , e.g. tafia, t a r i a - n a 'Tariana'; m a k u ' M a k u ' (there is a l s o a n

1
a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m , maki-ne); d e s a - n a 'Desano , bare TSfheengatu-speaking tribes',

d i e p o s a n a , y e p o s a n a ' C u b e o ' , y a l a n a 'non-Indians'. S i n g u l a t i v e s c a n b e f o r m e d o n s o m e

o f t h e s e n o u n s - s e e §8.1.6.

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 8. J N u m b e r m a r k i n g 171

If t h e r e is a z e r o - m a r k e d f o r m , it is t y p i c a l l y u s e d to refer to t h e l a n g u a g e , e.g. taria

y a r u p e ' T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e ' , bare y a r u p e ' N h e e n g a t u ' ( w h i l e for p e o p l e s w h o s e n a m e s are

f o r m e d w i t h - n e , this f o r m is a l s o u s e d to refer to t h e l a n g u a g e , e.g. y a s e n e y a r u p e

T u c a n o l a n g u a g e ' , y a s e n e i-sa-do T u c a n o w o m a n ' ) .

T h e o n l y e t y m o l o g i c a l 'pluralia t a n t u m ' w i t h a suffix -pe is t h e w o r d y a r u - p e 'thing,

l a n g u a g e , m a n n e r ' ; t h e r o o t y a m d o e s n o t a p p e a r b y itself, b u t is u s e d w i t h suffixes, e.g.

y a m - m a k a - s i (thing-CL:CLOTH-NPOSS) a n d y a m - s i (thing-NPOSS) ' g o o d s , h o l d i n g s ,

p o s s e s s i o n s ' . T h i s n o u n t a k e s t h e plural d i m i n u t i v e m a r k e r tupe, e.g. d i - y a m p e - t u p e

( 3 s g n f - t h i n g - D i M : P L ) 'his f e w p o s s e s s i o n s ' ; b u t n o t e t h e s i n g u l a r a g r e e m e n t - cf. 8.7.

8.7 d i - y a r u p e - t u p e d i - s w a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - t h i n g - D I M : P L 3 s g n f - l i e - R E M . P . R E P

'His f e w p o s s e s s i o n s w e r e lying (there).'

A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f a n e t y m o l o g i c a l p l u r a l i a t a n t u m is t h e quantifier hanu-pe 'many',

f r o m h a n u 'big' ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n in § 1 1 . 6 ) .

8 . 1 . 6 S i n g u l a t i v e s

T h e suffix - s e n m a r k s s i n g u l a t i v e s (it d o e s n o t c o m b i n e w i t h a n y n o u n ) . S i n g u l a t i v e s

c a n b e f o r m e d o n p l u r a l i a t a n t u m ( § 8 . 1 . 5 ) t o refer to a single i n d i v i d u a l a s a m e m b e r o f

a g r o u p , e.g. t a d a - s e r i ' T a r i a n a m a n ' , y a s e - n e - s e r i (tucano.bird-PL-SlNGL) ' T u c a n o m a n ' ,

Iri-ne-seri ' T a r i a n a m a n ' (i.e. t h e o n e o f b l o o d ) is s h o w n in 8.8.

8.8 k a y u - m a k a d i h a i r i - n e - s e r i - n u k u

s o - A F F A R T b l o o d - P L - S I N G L - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i h a iri n a : - m h a

A R T b l o o d 3 p l + s a y - P R E S . N O N V I S

' S o t h e y c a l l e d this Irine o n e " b l o o d " (i.e. g a v e t h e n a m e o f b l o o d to this Irine

one).'

S i n g u l a t i v e is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d w i t h o t h e r n o m i n a l s w i t h a c o l l e c t i v e m e a n i n g , e.g.

e h k w a p i - n e - s e r i ( w o r l d - P L - s i N G L ) 'the o n e o f t h e w o r l d s ' (translated a s 'the m a s t e r o f t h e

w o r l d , creator'), m a w a r i - n e - s e / i (snake-PL-siNGL) 'one o f the s n a k e p e o p l e ' . It c a n b e

u s e d o n k i n s h i p n o u n s (if a k i n s h i p n o u n refers to o n e m e m b e r o f a set), e.g. n a - w h e - r i -

n e - s e r i ( 3 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - P L - S l N G L ) 'one o f their ( T a r i a n a forefathers')

g r a n d f a t h e r s ' .

T h e p l u r a l o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s i n g n o m i n a l i s e r -seii is -seni, e.g. n u - p h u n e - s e h ( l s g -

a c c o m p a n y - s i N G L ) ' m y f o l l o w e r ; m y e n e m y ' , pi. n u - p h u n e - s e n i ' m y e n e m i e s ' ; cf. 8.9-10.

8.9 n h a - m i s i n i w a m i a r i k i n i - s e n i - n a k a

t h e y - T O O W a m i a r i k u n i - S I N G L . P L - P R E S . V I S

' T h e y ( p e o p l e f r o m P e r i q u i t o s ) are a l s o W a m i a r i k u n e . '

8 . 1 0 w a h a - s a w a - s e n i w a - r a d a - s i n a

w e - C L : G R O U P - S I N G L : P L l p l - p o w e r - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h i s w a s t h e p o w e r o f t h e o n e s ( i n d i v i d u a l l y ) f r o m o u r g r o u p . '

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 1 7 2 8 N u m b e r

T h i s m a r k e r c a n also b e u s e d o n m o d i f i e r s ( n u m e r a l s or deictics) w h i c h c o n t a i n

classifiers; in this c a s e -seri d o e s n o t f o l l o w a plural m a r k e r . It is u s e d to refer to a n

i n d i v i d u a t e d m e m b e r o f a set, e.g. d i h a - m a k a - s e r i ( A R T - C L : C L O T H - S I N G L ) 'this ( m a s k )

( s p e a k i n g o f o n e p a r t i c u l a r m a s k o u t o f a set o f funeral m a s k s ) ' . T h i s m o r p h e m e c a n c o -

o c c u r w i t h n u m e r a l 'one', referring t o o n e m e m b e r o f a g r o u p : p a i t a - s e r i

( o n e + N U M . C L : A N i M - S l N G L ) ' o n e o f a g r o u p ' . In 8 . 1 1 , -seri is u s e d to refer to 'one

m e m b e r o f a g r o u p ' a n d is u s e d o n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a n u m e r a l w i t h a classifier - s a w a

'group'.

8.11 d i h a p a i t a - m h a

A R T o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M - P R E S . N O N V I S

p a - s a w a - s e r i - m h a k e t e m i

o n e - C L : G R O U P - S I N G L - P R E S . N O N V I S r e m a i n

' T h i s o n e w a s t h e r e m a i n i n g m e m b e r o f t h e g r o u p . '

If a n o u n d e n o t e s t i m e , the suffix -seri is u s e d to refer to a p e r i o d o f t i m e ; it t h e n

a t t a c h e s t o t h e n o u n w h i c h is n o t m a r k e d w i t h - n e , as s h o w n in 8.12. ( T h e n o u n m a r k e d

w i t h -seri is u n d e r l i n e d . )

8.12 p a : - p i ke:ri-seri-sina

o n e - C L : L O N G m o o n - S I N G L - R E M . P . I N F R

d i - r a - s i n a d i - w h a

3 s g n f - o r d e r - R E M . P . I N F R 3sgnf-sit

' H e (father) o r d e r e d h e r (a m e n s t r u a t i n g girl) to sit (inside a c l o s e d h o u s e ) for a

m o n t h . '

T h i s suffix c a n a l s o b e u s e d w i t h a n u m e r a l p l u s a classifier, as in 8.13.

8.13 n a m a - k a p i - k a d a - p e - s e r i - s i n a d i - w h e - t a

t w o - h a n d - C L : D A Y - P L - S I N G L - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g n f - s t a y + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

' H e (father) p u t t h e m ( p a r e n t s o f a n e w - b o r n child) (into s e c l u s i o n ) for t e n (days).'

T h i s m o r p h e m e c a n b e u s e d , in a m e a n i n g s i m i l a r to that in 8.12 a n d 8 . 1 3 , w i t h

n o u n s o f o t h e r s e m a n t i c g r o u p s , e.g. p a : - i t a w h y a - s e r i ( o n e - C A N O E - s i N G L ) '(I killed

e n o u g h fish) for a w h o l e c a n o e ' , h a m a - k h i - s e r i ( t w o - C L : T H i N . c u R V E D - s i N G L ) 'a story

w h i c h g o e s o v e r t w o tapes' ( c o n s i d e r e d rope-like), a n d kwaka-seri d i - b u e t a - m h a d e ?

( w h a t - s i N G L 3 s g n f - s t u d y - F U T ) ' W h a t p r o f e s s i o n will h e s t u d y for?' (lit. w h i c h o n e will

h e s t u d y t o b e c o m e ) .

8 . 1 . 7 A s s o c i a t i v e p l u r a l

A s s o c i a t i v e p l u r a l c a n o n l y b e f o r m e d o n n o u n s w i t h a h u m a n referent, k i n s h i p t e r m s

a n d p r o p e r n a m e s , e.g. n a m i - s i n i ' m a t e r n a l u n c l e a n d w h o e v e r is w i t h h i m ' , Mario-sini

' M a r i o a n d others', B a r b o s a - s i n i ' B a r b o s a a n d others', e.g. 8.14 a n d 8.15.

8.14 w a - p h e - n i - s a w a - n a k a hi M a r i n o - s i n i

l p l - e l d e r . s i b l i n g - P L - C L : G R O U P - P R E S . V I S D E M : A N I M M a r i n o - A S S . P L

' M a r i n o a n d h i s f a m i l y (that is, t h e M u n i z f a m i l y f r o m P e r i q u i t o s ) are t h e g r o u p o f

o u r e l d e r brothers.'

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 8.2 Plural marking on modifiers 173

8.15 kristina-sini n a - m a r a - k a n a - n u

C r i s t i n a - A S S . P L 3 p l - g o . d o w n - R E C . P . V I S 3 p l - c o m e

'Cristina a n d h e r lot ( c o n s i s t i n g o f h e r h u s b a n d a n d c h i l d r e n ) are c o m i n g d o w n

( f r o m t h e g a r d e n s ) . '

A s s o c i a t i v e p l u r a l c a n refer j u s t to t w o p e o p l e ; 8.16 w a s u s e d to a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n :

' W h e r e is m y p a t e r n a l u n c l e ? '

8.16 n a m i - s i n i n a - p i t a - n a k a

m a t e r n a l . u n c l e : V O C - A S S . P L 3 p l - b a t h e - P R E S . V I S

' P a t e r n a l u n c l e a n d w h o e v e r is w i t h h i m (in this c a s e , his little g r a n d s o n ) are

b a t h i n g . '

T h e m a r k e r -sini a t t a c h e s to t h e last c o m p o n e n t o f a c o o r d i n a t e d n o u n p h r a s e , as in

8.17.

8.17 B a t i M a r i n o - s i n i n h a p a n i s a r u a l i a - n a

B a t i M a r i n o - A S S . P L t h e y a b a n d o n e d . s e t t l e m e n t E X I S T - R E M . P . V I S

'This is ( a n d h a s a l w a y s b e e n ) t h e a b a n d o n e d s e t t l e m e n t o f B a t i a n d M a r i n o a n d

their families.'

8.2 P l u r a l m a r k i n g o n m o d i f i e r s

N u m b e r is m a r k e d , a s a n a g r e e m e n t c a t e g o r y , o n a d j e c t i v e s a n d d e v e r b a l m o d i f i e r s ;

i n t e r r o g a t i v e k u i 'what, w h i c h ' ; distributive kwe a n d gestural deictic khi 'this (size a n d

s h a p e ) ' ; specifiers (also u s e d a s third p e r s o n p r o n o u n s ) ; quantifiers; a n d s o m e n u m e r a l s

( s e e § 2 1 . 1 ) .

T h e s e m o d i f i e r s typically t a k e -peni to a g r e e w i t h a plural h u m a n o r a n i m a t e

referent, -peri to a g r e e w i t h a collective referent, a n d a classifier +-pe to m a r k

a g r e e m e n t w i t h a n i n a n i m a t e referent.

T h e a d j e c t i v e h a n u 'big, w i d e , long' h a s s u p p l e t i v e plural m a r k i n g : t h e s t e m male

'thick, h e a v y ' is u s e d a s t h e plural t e r m . N o t e that m a l e c a n b e u s e d w i t h a s i n g u l a r

referent w h i l e h a n u c a n n o t refer to a plural, e.g. h e m a l i - d a m a l e - d a (abiu.fruit-

C L : R O U N D t h i c k - C L : R O U N D ) 'thick, h e a v y a b i u fruit'. T h i s is a m o r p h o l o g i c a l irregularity

o f h a n u . O n e c o u l d s a y that t h e m e a n i n g s 'big' a n d 'thick, h e a v y ' are d i s t i n g u i s h e d o n l y

in s i n g u l a r b u t n o t in plural. T h e f o r m hanu-pe (big-PL) exists, b u t o n l y in t h e m e a n i n g

' m a n y ' ( s e e § 1 1 . 6 ) . T h e f o l l o w i n g p a i r s illustrate h a n u a s s i n g u l a r a n d m a l e for plural.

napu h a n u - p u a napu-pe male-pua-pe

s t r e a m big-CL: S T R E T C H s t r e a m - P L thick-CL:STRETCH-PL

'a b i g s t r e a m ' 'big s t r e a m s '

episi-da h a n u - d a episi-da-pe male-da-pe

m e t a l - C L : R O U N D b i g - C L : R O U N D m e t a l - C L : R O U N D - P L thick-CL:ROUND-PL

'a b i g m o t o r ' 'big m o t o r s '

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 174 8 Number

i t a - w h y a h a n u - w h y a ita-whya-pe m a l e - w h y a - p e

c a n o e - C L : C A N O E b i g - C L : C A N O E c a n o e - C L : C A N O E - P L thick-CL:CANOE-PL

'a b i g c a n o e ' 'big c a n o e s '

In e a c h o f t h e s e e x a m p l e s , t h e plural m a r k e r -pe o n t h e n o u n a n d o n t h e adjective is

o p t i o n a l .

F o r n o u n s w i t h a n a n i m a t e referent, m a l e r e q u i r e s t h e a n i m a t e classifier -ita b e f o r e

t h e a n i m a t e p l u r a l m a r k e r -peni, e.g. tfari h a n u - i t e ( m a n big-NCL:ANiM) 'a b i g m a n ' , atfa

m a l e t a - p e n i ( m a n : t h i c k + C L : A N i M - P L : A N l M ) 'big, i m p o r t a n t m e n ' . T h u s , a n i m a c y is

m a r k e d t w i c e ( s e e § 5 . 1 . 2 , o n d o u b l e m a r k i n g o f n o u n classification). If m a l e , w i t h a

classifier o f a r e p e a t e r t y p e , is u s e d w i t h a plural i n a n i m a t e referent, s o m e y o u n g e r

s p e a k e r s a t t a c h t h e r e p e a t e r to t h e classifier -da ' C L : R O U N D ' , e.g. p u a r i m a l e - d a -

p u a a ( - p e ) ( f r y i n g . p a n thick-CL:ROUND-CL:FRYiNG.PAN(-PL)) 'big frying p a n s ' ; o t h e r s

p r e f e r t h e f o r m w i t h o u t - d a , e.g. p u a r i male-puah(-pe) ( f r y i n g . p a n thick-

C L : F R Y I N G . P A N ( - P L ) ) 'big frying pans'. T h e r e are t w o m o r e i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e plural

m a r k e r c a n n o t a t t a c h directly to t h e s t e m : w i t h t h e adjective tsu 'small' a n d w i t h t h e

i n t e r r o g a t i v e k u i 'what, w h i c h ' , e.g. tsu-ita-peni (small-CL:ANiM-PL:ANiM) 'small a n i m a t e

ones', tsu-phe-pe (small-CL:LEAF.LiKE-PL) 'small (leaves)'; ku-ita-pe ( w h i c h - N C L : A N i M -

PL) ' w h i c h ones'. If t h e g e s t u r a l deictic khi is u s e d w i t h a n a n i m a t e plural referent, it

t a k e s t h e classifier -da b e f o r e -peni, t h e a n i m a t e plural m a r k e r , a s illustrated in 8.18.

8.18 k h i - d a - p e n i - t u p e - n a k a

l i k e . t h i s - C L : R O U N D - P L : A N I M - D I M : P L - P R E S . V I S

' T h e little o n e s (the colibri b i r d s ) are this size ( s h o w i n g t h e p a l m o f t h e h a n d ) . '

P l u r a l m a r k i n g o n n o u n s a n d o n a d j e c t i v e s is o b l i g a t o r y in n o u n p h r a s e s w i t h a

h u m a n h e a d ( s e e § 8 . 4 ) . A s s h o w n in C h a p t e r 5, a n i m a t e n o u n s r e q u i r e t h e classifier -tie

to a p p e a r o n their m o d i f i e r s . Its plural c o u n t e r p a r t is -peni, e.g. tfari matfi.te ( m a n

g o o d + N C L : A N i M ) 'a g o o d m a n ' , atfa matfa-peni ( m a n : P L g o o d - P L : A N i M ) ' g o o d m e n ' .

A n o u n w i t h a f e m i n i n e referent c a n trigger a g r e e m e n t in f e m i n i n e classifier - m a (see

C h a p t e r 5); in p l u r a l t h e a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r o n a n adjective is t h e n - m a - p e , e.g. i n a ka-

b u e t a - m a - p e ( w o m a n : P L REL-teach-CL:FEM-PL) ' w o m e n w h o are teaching'; i n a p u i - m a -

p e ( w o m a n i P L m e n s t r u a t i n g - C L : F E M - P L ) ' m e n s t r u a t i n g w o m e n ' .

If a n i n a n i m a t e n o u n w i t h a classifier is pluralised, t h e adjective a g r e e s w i t h it in

n u m b e r ; t h e a d j e c t i v e t a k e s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e classifier a n d t h e plural m a r k e r -pe

( f o l l o w i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e o u t l i n e d in §8.1.1), a s in 8.19 w h i c h illustrates t h e gestural

deictic k h i 'like this (size a n d s h a p e ) ' w i t h a classifier (see § 1 1 . 5 ) .

8.19 k i h p e - y a w a - p e - s e - p i d a n a n a - t h a k u - p e

L I K E . T H I S + P L - C L : H O L E - P L - C O N T R - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - n o s e - P L

' T h e i r n o s e s w e r e hole-like, like this ( s h o w i n g t h e shape).'

If a n o u n h a s a n a n i m a t e b u t n o t a h u m a n referent, a g r e e m e n t in n u m b e r is

o b l i g a t o r y , w h i l e t h e h e a d m a r k i n g is not. T h e n o u n m a m i ' t i n a m o u bird' is u n m a r k e d

for n u m b e r in 8.20. N o u n s t e n d to b e m a r k e d for n u m b e r if t h e y are i n d i v i d u a l i s e d ,

w h i c h is n o t t h e c a s e in 8.20. N o t e that t h e interrogative kui- a l w a y s t a k e s t h e classifier

-ita.

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 8.2 Plural marking on modifiers 175

8.20 k u - i t a - p e - n u k u m a : m i - n u k u

w h i c h - N C L : A N I M - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S i n a m b u . b i r d - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i m i : t a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f + s m o k e - R E M . P . R E P

' H e s m o k e d w h a t ' s its n a m e , t i n a m o u birds.'

O t h e r m o d i f i e r s a l s o t a k e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g classifier f o l l o w e d b y t h e plural m a r k e r

-pe t o a g r e e w i t h t h e h e a d n o u n . W h e n a third p e r s o n p r o n o u n is u s e d a s a specificity

m a r k e r , it a g r e e s in n u m b e r w i t h t h e a n i m a t e h e a d o n l y if t h e n o u n it m o d i f i e s h a s a

h u m a n referent, e.g. n a h a atfa ( A R T . P L m a n : P L ) 'the (specific) m e n ' ; o t h e r w i s e t h e third

p e r s o n n o n - f e m i n i n e article d i h a is u s e d , a c c o m p a n i e d b y a classifier a n d t h e plural -pe,

a s i n § 8 . 2 1 . ( A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a third p e r s o n p r o n o u n a n d specificity m a r k e r s c a n b e

c o n s i d e r e d different h o m o p h o n o u s m o r p h e m e s . ) T h e f o r m o f t o p i c a d v a n c i n g v o i c e o f

t h e v e r b 'see' in this e x a m p l e a l s o t a k e s t h e classifier - n a Vertical'. T h e h e a d n o u n ,

hyapa-na ( m o u n t a i n - C L : V E R T ) ' m o u n t a i n ' , is o m i t t e d .

8.21 d i h a - n a - p e w a h a w a - k a - n i - n a - p e

A R T - C L : V E R T - P L w e l p l - s e e - T O P . A D V - C L : V E R T - P L

a l i a - p i d e n a

E X I S T - R E M P . R E P

' H e (the c r e a t o r o f m a n i o c ) w a s o n t h e s e ( m o u n t a i n s ) w h i c h w e see.'

T h e g e n e r i c n o u n y a p h i n i 'thing' ( a n i m a t e o r i n a n i m a t e ) c a n n o t b e m a r k e d for

n u m b e r b u t it triggers n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t o n a m o d i f i e r . In 8.22, y a p h i n i refers to

u n k n o w n h u m a n s , w h i l e in 8.23 it r e f e r s to i n a n i m a t e objects.

8.22 k u i t a - p e n i y a p h i n i - t h a - n h a

I N T E R + C L : I N A N I M - P L : A N I M t h i n g - F R - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

' W h a t ( h u m a n - l i k e ) t h i n g s are (these)?'

8.23 k u i t a - p e y a p h i n i h a - s o

I N T E R + C L : I N A N I M - P L t h i n g D E M : I N A N - D O U B T . I N T E R

h a - n e

D E M : I N A N - D I S T

' W h a t t h i n g s c o u l d t h e o n e s o v e r t h e r e b e ? '

A n a d j e c t i v e m a y t a k e 'collective' classifier -peri to a g r e e w i t h t h e h e a d n o u n if t h e

h e a d n o u n h a s a c o l l e c t i v e referent u n m a r k e d for n u m b e r , a s in 8.24 {kana 'maize'), o r

8.25 {yarumakasi 'clothing').

8.24 m a t f a - p e r i k a n a d i - t a w i n a - p i d a n a

g o o d - C L : C O L L m a i z e 3 s g n f - g r o w - R E M . P . R E P

' G o o d m a i z e g r e w (in t h e garden).'

8.25 y a r u - m a k a - s i m a t f a - k a d a - p e r i k a - n a - p a - p i d a n a

t h i n g - C L : C L O T H - N P O S S g o o d - b l a c k - C L : C O L L R E L - w e a r - a l l - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y w e r e all w e a r i n g really b l a c k clothes.'

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 176 8 Number

N o u n s w i t h a n a n i m a t e , b u t n o t w i t h a h u m a n , referent, c a n trigger adjective

a g r e e m e n t i n -peri if t h e y refer to a g r o u p , a s in 8.26.

8.26 d i - k e t a - p i d a n a a p i a k e s a - n i - p e r i - n u k u

3 s g n f - f i n d - R E M . P . R E P w i l d . p i g R E L + s m e l l - A F F - C O L L - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e f o u n d w i l d p e c c a r i e s (lit. s m e l l y w i l d pigs).'

W h e n t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e kwe a g r e e s w i t h the i n a n i m a t e h e a d n o u n in n u m b e r , it t a k e s

-peri ( i f it a g r e e d w i t h a n a n i m a t e n o u n , it w o u l d t a k e -peni), e.g. 8.27.

8 . 2 7 k w e - p e r i k u m a r i - d a - p e n a : p i - k u s u

D I S T R J B U T I V E - C L : C O L L t u c u m a . f r u i t - C L : R O U N D - P L 3 p l + p u l l - O U T S I D E

T h e y p u l l e d (the s t o n e o u t of) all t h e t u c u m a fruit.'

A l l q u a n t i f i e r s r e q u i r e t h e plural f o r m s o f n o u n s t h e y m o d i f y ; o f t h e quantifiers

d i s c u s s e d in § 1 1 . 9 , o n l y kanapada ' h o w m a n y , h o w m u c h ' a n d t h e gestural deictic khi

( s e e a b o v e ) o c c u r w i t h t h e plural m a r k e r -pe. N u m e r a l s b i g g e r t h a n t h r e e m a y b e

m a r k e d for p l u r a l if t h e y are u s e d in N P s w i t h o u t n o m i n a l h e a d s , as in 8.28.

8.28 p e m e - k a p i - d a - p e k a m u y

o n e + S I D E - H A N D - C L : R O U N D - P L s u m m e r

d i - e m e - t a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s t a n d + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P

' H e (traditional g o d ) m a d e s u m m e r (i.e. h e a t ) for five (days).'

In stories t o l d b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s h i g h e r n u m b e r s a n d the n o u n s t h e y m o d i f y are

p l u r a l - m a r k e d , a s in 8.29 (a n u m b e r is in b r a c k e t s , a n d the plural m a r k e r o n it is

u n d e r l i n e d ) . H o w e v e r large t h e n u m b e r o f i n a n i m a t e objects, t h e p r e d i c a t e t a k e s

s i n g u l a r a g r e e m e n t - s e e §8.4.

8 . 2 9 i t a - w h y a - p e [ n a m a - k a p i n a m a - d a

c a n o e - C L : C A N O E - P L t w o - h a n d t w o - C L : R O U N D

d y a n a t a - w h y a - p e - p i d a n a ] di -r a h t a

3 s g n f f p a s s - C L : C A N O E - P L - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-float

T w e l v e c a n o e s w e r e afloat.'

8.3 M u l t i p l e m a r k i n g o f n u m b e r

A n u n u s u a l p r o p e r t y o f T a r i a n a n u m b e r m a r k i n g is t h e possibility o f d o u b l e , a n d e v e n

triple m a r k i n g o f n u m b e r w i t h i n o n e g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d . T h i s m u l t i p l e m a r k i n g t a k e s

p l a c e ( A ) if g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r distinctions h a v e to b e m a d e o n p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s o r

t h e g e s t u r a l deictic khi; ( B ) if a p l u r a l - m a r k e d n o u n w i t h a n a n i m a t e referent t a k e s a

classifier, o r ( C ) if t h e n o u n a p p e a r s w i t h a clitic w h i c h h a s a n o b l i g a t o r y n u m b e r

distinction.

A . D O U B L E M A R K I N G O F N U M B E R O N P E R S O N A L P R O N O U N S A N D T H E G E S T U R A L D E I C T I C .

P l u r a l p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s ( u s e d a s h e a d s ) c a n o p t i o n a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h g e n d e r s (see § 1 1 . 1 ) .

T h e n t h e y t a k e t h e f e m i n i n e classifier suffix -ma f o l l o w e d b y t h e plural m a r k e r -pe (in

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 8 . 3 M u l t i p l e m a r k i n g of n u m b e r 1 7 7

a g r e e m e n t w i t h §8.1.1). P e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s are g i v e n in T a b l e 8.1. N o t e that i m p e r s o n a l

p a h a / p h a d o e s n o t t a k e p l u r a l ( a n d is n o t i n c l u d e d in this table).

T A B L E 8.1 P E R S O N A L P R O N O U N S I N T A R I A N A

S G P L

M A S C U L I N E | F E M I N I N E U N M A R K E D F E M I N I N E

n u h a w a h a w a h a - m a - p e
l p
2 p p i h a iha iha-ma-pe

3 p d i h a | d u h a n a h a n a h a - m a - p e

G e n d e r m a r k e d p l u r a l p r o n o u n s are e m p l o y e d if t h e s e x o f plural referents h a s to b e

c o n t r a s t e d ( o t h e r w i s e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g m a s c u l i n e p r o n o u n is u s e d ) . In 8.30, f r o m a

s t o r y a b o u t f e m a l e initiation, ' t h e y - w o m e n ' ( w h o are initiated) are c o n t r a s t e d to t h e rest

( m e n a n d w o m e n ) w h o are p e r f o r m i n g t h e initiation rites.

8 . 3 0 d i - p u - m i n h a - m a - p e - n u k u m a i n i - n e n a - n a p a

3 s g n f - f o l l o w - N O M 3 p l - C L : F E M - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S t a r - I N S 3 p l - b l e s s

'After that (they, i.e. t h e rest o f t h e village) b l e s s t h e m - t h e f e m i n i n e o n e s (i.e. t h e

initiated w o m e n ) w i t h tar.'

T h e n u m b e r gets m a r k e d t w i c e o n a gestural deictic khi 'this size, shape', w h i c h t a k e s

a classifier, e.g. kihpe-yawa-pe (like.this+PL-CL:HOLE-PL) n a - t h a k u - p e ( 3 p l - n o s e -

C L : H O L E - P L ) 'their nostrils this big' ( e x a m p l e 8.19).

B . P L U R A L - M A R K E D N O U N S W I T H A C L A S S I F I E R . If a p l u r a l - m a r k e d n o u n w i t h a n a n i m a t e

referent t a k e s a classifier, plural n u m b e r is m a r k e d for the s e c o n d t i m e o n t h e classifier

w i t h t h e m a r k e r -pe ( s e e T a b l e 5.1 for classifiers u s e d w i t h a n i m a t e n o u n s ) .

T h i s m a r k i n g m a y n o t b e r e d u n d a n t , if t h e n o u n itself a n d t h e classifier c a n refer to

different n u m b e r s . In w a - p h e - n e - s a w a - p e (lpl-elder.sibling-PL-CL:GROUP-PL) 'the

g r o u p s o f o u r e l d e r b r o t h e r s ' n o u n a n d t h e classifier b o t h h a v e plural r e f e r e n c e , w h i l e in

8.31 t h e n o u n , 'brothers', refers to m o r e t h a n o n e p e r s o n , a n d - s a w a ' C L : G R O U P ' refers to

j u s t o n e g r o u p . W h e n t h e classifier - s a w a a t t a c h e s to t h e specific article (see C h a p t e r

11), t h e s i n g u l a r f o r m is u s e d , y i e l d i n g d i h a - s a w a - p e ( A R T - C L : G R O U P - P L ) 'the g r o u p s ' ,

a n d n o t * n a h a - s a w a - p e (they-CL:GROUP-PL).

8.31 k a r i - n e i - w e - n i n i p e - s a w a - s e - s i n a

K a l i - P L I N D F - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - P L - C L : G R O U P - C O N T R - R E M . P . I N F R

p a i p h e n e

P a i p h e n e

' T h e g r o u p o f K a l i n e ' s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r s are P a i p h e n e . '

D o u b l e m a r k i n g is r e d u n d a n t in t h e f o r m ina-ma-pe attested in t h e a r c h a i c story

a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g feast told b y A m e r i c o .

8.32 hi i n a - m a - p e p e d a l i e - m a - p e

D E M : A N I M w o m a n : P L - C L : F E M - P L o l d - C L : F E M - P L

d i h a - t u p e - n a k u n a m a n a - n h a

A R T - D I M : P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l + f m d 3pl-eat

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 1 7 8 8 N u m b e r

n a - n i - s i d a n h a

3 p l - d o - Y E T . P R O X t h e y

' T h e s e a d u l t w o m e n find this little ( f o o d ) i m m e d i a t e l y . '

C . C L I T I C S W I T H A N O B L I G A T O R Y N U M B E R D I S T I N C T I O N . T h e f o l l o w i n g c l i t i c s

o b l i g a t o r i l y d i s t i n g u i s h s i n g u l a r a n d plural, a n d a g r e e w i t h t h e h e a d n o u n i n n u m b e r :

(a) d i m i n u t i v e : s i n g u l a r -tuki, plural -tupe;

(b) p e j o r a t i v e : s i n g u l a r - y a n a , plural -yana-pe.

T h e a u g m e n t a t i v e -pasi, - s i m a y o p t i o n a l l y t a k e a plural affix: -pasi(-pe), -si(-pe).

N o m i n a l p a s t clitic ( s e e § 9 . 1 ) d i s t i n g u i s h e s m a s c u l i n e a n d f e m i n i n e i n t h e singular, a n d

h a s o n e f o r m f o r plural: s g . n o n - f e m . -miki-ri 'late, late'; s g . f e m . - m i k i - r u , p i . -miki.

W h e n t h e clitic - m i k i a t t a c h e s t o k i n s h i p n o u n s , t h e y also r e c e i v e n u m b e r m a r k i n g w i t h

-nipe a n d - n i - m a - p e , e . g . h i r u - m i k i - r u ( g r a n d m o t h e r - N O M . P A S T - F E M ) 'late g r a n d m o t h e r ' ,

pi. h i r u - n i - m a - p e - m i k i (grandmother-PL-FEM-PL-NOM.PAST:PL), n u - w h e - r i - n i p e - m i k i

( l s g - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - P L - N O M . P A S T : P L ) ' m y late g r a n d f a t h e r s o r g r a n d p a r e n t s ' ( s e e

§ 8 . 3 o n a s i m i l a r status o f t h e plural -pe f o r o t h e r g r o u p s o f n o u n s ) .

T h e a g r e e m e n t i n n u m b e r is o b l i g a t o r y i f t h e h e a d is h u m a n , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

e x a m p l e s : tfari-tuki ( m a n - D l M ) 'a s m a l l m a n ' , atfa-tupe (man:PL-DIM:PL) 'small m e n ' ;

tfari-yana ( m a n - P E J ) 'a n a u g h t y m a n ' , atfa-yana-pe (man:PL-PEJ-PL) ' n a u g h t y m e n ' ;

p e d a r i e - m i k i - r i (old-NOM.PAST-NF) 'late o l d m a n ' , p e d a r i e - p e - m i k i (old-PL-NOM.PAST:PL)

'late o l d p e o p l e , ancestors'. T h e y c a n attach t o p r o n o u n s , e . g . nha-yana-pe (they-PEJ-PL)

'they t h e n a u g h t y ones'.

P e j o r a t i v e - y a n a is u s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y w i t h a n i m a t e h e a d s , w h i l e - m i k i a n d -tuki

' d i m i n u t i v e ' c a n b e u s e d w i t h a n y h e a d . W h e n -yana is u s e d w i t h i n a n i m a t e n o u n s , it

m e a n s 'useless', e . g . h e k u - n a - y a n a (tree-CL:VERT-PEJ) 'useless p i e c e o f tree'. T h e clitic

m i k i - i s u s e d w i t h a n i m a t e h e a d s m o r e often t h a n w i t h i n a n i m a t e o n e s , a n d c a n a c q u i r e a

m e a n i n g o f ' p o o r thing', e . g . A v e - m i k i r i 'poor A v e ' ( w h o d o e s n o t s p e a k T a r i a n a ) ; w i t h

a n i n a n i m a t e h e a d n o n - f e m i n i n e f o r m is u s e d , e . g .p a n i s a r u - m i k i - r i ( a b a n d o n e d . v i l l a g e -

N O M . P A S T - N F ) 'a c o m p l e t e l y f o r g o t t e n a b a n d o n e d village', kera:pi-miki-ri ( m o o n l i g h t -

N O M . P A S T - N F ) ' e x t i n g u i s h e d m o o n l i g h t ' , a n d a j o k i n g a d - h o c f o r m a t i o n b y G r a c i l i a n o :

c o r e i u - m i k i - r i (post.office-NOM.PAST-NF) 'former, a b a n d o n e d post-office'.

N u m b e r - s e n s i t i v e clitics c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h e a c h other, c r e a t i n g u p t o triple o r e v e n

q u a d r u p l e n u m b e r m a r k i n g . T h e o r d e r t h e n is: P E J - N O M . P A S T - D I M I N U T I V E , e . g . n h a -

y a n a - p e - t u p e (they-PEJ-PL-DlM:PL) 'they-the n a u g h t y little ones', p e d a l i e - p e - y a n a - p e -

m i k i - t u p e (old-PL-PEJ-PL-NOM.PAST:PL-DiM:PL) ' t h e n a u g h t y o l d little o n e s w h i c h a r e

g o n e ' ( s e e D i a g r a m 4 . 1 ) . T h i s m u l t i p l e n u m b e r m a r k i n g c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s m u l t i p l e
5
' n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t ' w i t h i n o n e g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d .

T h e a u g m e n t a t i v e -pasi o n l y r e q u i r e s 'multiple n u m b e r m a r k i n g ' i f t h e n u m b e r is i n

f o c u s a n d i s v e r y large, e . g . ina:-pasi ( w o m a n : P L - A U G ) ' b i gbeautiful w o m e n ' , ina:-pasi-

p e ( w o m a n : P L - A U G - P L ) 'very m a n y b i g beautiful w o m e n ' . T h i s clitic c a n n o t c o - o c c u r

w i t h o t h e r n u m b e r s e n s i t i v e clitics. It c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y b e u s e d w i t h i n a n i m a t e h e a d s ,

5
T h e i r b e h a v i o u r is r e m i n i s c e n t o f ' g e n d e r a g r e e m e n t ' b e t w e e n t h e n o u n a n d d i m i n u t i v e enclitic - z i n h o i n

the c o l l o q u i a l P o r t u g u e s e s p o k e n i n t h e n o r t h o f Brazil, e . g e s s e 'this:MASC', e s s e - z i n h o 'this.MASC-

D i M : M A S C \ e s s a 'this:FEM', e s s a - z i n h a 'this:FEM-DlM:FEM' 'this little f e m i n i n e o n e ' . M u l t i p l e n u m b e r a n d

g e n d e r r e a l i s a t i o n i n o n e g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d is u n u s u a l f o r a n A r a w a k l a n g u a g e , b u t is f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t

t h e T u c a n o f a m i l y (cf. W e s t 1 9 8 0 ) .

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 8.3 Multiple marking of number 179

e.g. y a k a r e - p a s i ( v i l l a g e - A U G ) 'big village', yakare-pe-pasi(-pe) (village-PL-AUG-PL)

' m a n y b i g villages'.

If t h e d i m i n u t i v e -tuki o r t h e n o m i n a l p a s t m a r k e r -miki- are u s e d o n a n o n - s i n g u l a r

n o n - h u m a n h e a d , t h e d o u b l e m a r k i n g o f n u m b e r is n o t obligatory. N u m b e r is a l w a y s

m a r k e d o n t h e clitic, b u t n o t o n t h e h e a d itself, if t h e referent is collective a n d n o n -

i n d i v i d u a l i s e d . In 8.33 kuphe-tupe 'small fish' refers to a s c h o o l o f fish; a n d isa-tupe in

8.34 refers t o little p a t c h e s o f s m o k e .

8.33 k u p h e - t u p e k a y u - p e n i - p i d a n a n a - r a h t a n h a m e p a

f i s h - D I M : P L l i k e - P L : A N I M - R E M . P . R E P 3pl-float t w o + N U M . C L : A N I M

T h e t w o o f t h e m w e r e floating like a s c h o o l o f little fish.'

8 . 3 4 h i w e k a : s i w a i s a - t u p e - p i d a n a n h e p a

lizard c r o c o d i l e s m o k e - D I M : P L - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + t a k e

' T h e lizard a n d t h e c r o c o d i l e t o o k s m a l l p a t c h e s o f s m o k e (to find w h e r e t h e fire

w a s ) . '

If t h e referent is p l u r a l a n d i n d i v i d u a l i s e d , 'double' plural m a r k i n g is r e q u i r e d . S i n c e

i n d i v i d u a l i s a t i o n is m a r k e d w i t h classifiers, 'double' plural is typically f o u n d w h e n t h e r e

is a classifier, a s in 8.35 a n d in 8 . 4 3 . ( N o t e that in 8 . 4 3 , t h e i n a n i m a t e s u b j e c t triggers

s i n g u l a r a g r e e m e n t o n t h e v e r b . )

8.35 n e - k w a k a m a r i e m a r i e t a - p e s e d e - p i d a n a n a - n a

N E G - w h a t k n i f e k n i f e + C L : I N A N - P L N E G . E X I S T - R E M P . R E P 3 p l - O B J

t s u - i t a - p e - t u p e - n u k u - p i d a n a n a - d e

s m a l l - C L : I N A N - P L - D I M : P L - T O P . N O N . A / S - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - h a v e

T h e y didn't h a v e , w h a t ' s its n a m e , k n i v e s o r a x e s , t h e y d i d h a v e s m a l l o n e s

( k n i v e s ) . '

E x a m p l e 8.36, f r o m t h e story o f t h e o r i g i n o f p e a c h p a l m ( p u p u n h a ) fruit, s h o w s h o w

t h e s a m e o b j e c t c a n b e l o o k e d at f r o m different a n g l e s - as a set o f i n d i v i d u a l little

s t o n e - l i k e r o u n d fruit ( t h e n t h e d o u b l e plural m a r k i n g is u s e d , in tsu-da-pe-tupe 'small

r o u n d o n e s ' ) a n d a s a n o n - i n d i v i d u a l i s e d , 'collective' b u n c h o f fruit (referred to as d i h a -

tupe 'these little ones').

8 . 3 6 t s u - d a - p e - t u p e d i h a - t u p e - t h a - p i d a n a n a - d e

s m a l l - C L : R O U N D - P L - D I M : P L A R T - D I M : P L - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - h a v e

n a - y a - n h i

3 p l - s t a y - A N T

T h e y ( s n a k e - p e o p l e ) p r e v i o u s l y h a d t h e s e little o n e s ( p e a c h p a l m fruit a s

b u n d l e s ) , t h e s m a l l r o u n d little o n e s ( p e a c h p a l m stones).'

If d i m i n u t i v e is a d d e d to a n adjective, -tupe f o l l o w s t h e plural a g r e e m e n t suffix;

t h e r e is u s u a l l y o n e d i m i n u t i v e o r p e j o r a t i v e p e r n o u n p h r a s e , a n d it typically g o e s o n

t h e h e a d , b u t m a y g o o n a m o d i f i e r , e.g. tiya-pe kwe-peri-tupe (plate-PL I N T E R - C O L L -

D I M : P L ) 'all t h e plates, e v e r y plate'. T h e f o r m s m a r k i n g pejorative, a u g m e n t a t i v e a n d

- m i k i - 'late, late' a l w a y s g o o n t o t h e n o m i n a l h e a d .

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 180 8 Number

8.4 N u m b e r a g r e e m e n t

N u m b e r a g r e e m e n t is o b l i g a t o r y w i t h h u m a n h e a d s in h e a d - m o d i f i e r n o u n p h r a s e s , a n d

in p r e d i c a t e - a r g u m e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n s (subject a g r e e m e n t is m a r k e d w i t h c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s o n A / S a p r e d i c a t e s ) . S e e e x a m p l e s in § 8 . 2 ; 8.34 illustrates s u b j e c t -

p r e d i c a t e n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t . If t h e a n i m a t e ( n o n - h u m a n ) p a r t i c i p a n t s h a v e collective

r e f e r e n c e (as in 8.37, w h e r e t h e turtles are c o n s i d e r e d as 'one lot') o r are n o t

i n d i v i d u a l i s e d (as in 8.38), s i n g u l a r a g r e e m e n t is u s e d .

8 . 3 7 d i - y a p i di-fiha t h u y

3 s g n f - b o n e 3 s g n f - e a t all
1
T h e y (a lot o f turtles) ate all h i s (deer's) bones.

8.38 d i - n u - p i d a n a p u : w e n a m a i t a

3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P c a p u c h i n . m o n k e y t w o + N U M . C L : A N I M

T h e r e c a m e t w o c a p u c h i n m o n k e y s (into the hunter's trap).'

If a n o u n w i t h a n o n - h u m a n a n i m a t e referent is m a r k e d for plural, it typically also

triggers p l u r a l a g r e e m e n t o n t h e p r e d i c a t e , as in 8.39.

8.39 n e s e e n u - k w a - s e - n u k u itfida-pe

t h e n t h u n d e r - C L : F L A T . S U R F A C E - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S t u r t l e - P L

n a - y e n a - p i d a n a

3 p l - e x c e e d - R E M . P . R E P

T h e r e a r e t o o m a n y turtles in h e a v e n (lit. t u r t l e s e x c e e d ) . '

A n o u n w i t h a n o n - h u m a n referent - e v e n if u n m a r k e d for plural - c a n trigger plural

a g r e e m e n t i f it r e f e r s to a n u m b e r o f different species, as in 8.40.

8.40 n a p u i-heni m a n a p i n a - y e n a - n a k a n a - n h a

s t r e a m I N D F - f i s h kind.of.fish 3 p l - e x c e e d - P R E S . V I S 3 p l - e a t

'Little fishes, (other) k i n d s o f f i s h are e a t i n g excessively.'

If a n o u n w i t h a plural referent triggers n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t o n t h e p r e d i c a t e , a n d t h e

p r e d i c a t e c o m e s first, t h e plural m a r k i n g is o p t i o n a l - it is o m i t t e d in 8 . 4 1 .

8.41 n e s e - n u k u n a - y e n a - k a n a - y a - k a n a m u

t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - e x c e e d - R E C . P . V I S 3 p l - s t a y - R E C . P . V I S evil.spirit

T h e r e are t o o m a n y evil spirits ( n a m u ) (lit. e v i l spirits e x c e e d ) . '

N o u n s w i t h i n a n i m a t e referents a l m o s t n e v e r trigger plural a g r e e m e n t o n p r e d i c a t e s ,

e v e n if t h e y are i n d i v i d u a l i s e d a n d c o n t a i n o v e r t m a r k i n g for n u m b e r (cf. 8.29). In 8.42,

kera-da-pe-tupe c o n t a i n s d o u b l e m a r k i n g for n u m b e r b e c a u s e this n o u n refers to

i n d i v i d u a l s p a r k s o f m o o n l i g h t w h i c h b e c a m e i n d i v i d u a l stars.

8.42 p a t h i n a k e r a - d a - p e - t u p e

s u d d e n l y m o o n l i g h t - C L : R O U N D - P L - D I M : P L

d i s a - b a l a d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f + g o . u p - E V E R Y W H E R E 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

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 8.4 Number agreement 181

e n u - k w a - s e d i - w h a d e : r u - p i d a n a

t h u n d e r - C L : S P R E A D - L O C 3 s g n f - s t a y 3 s g n f + g e t . s t u c k - R E M . P . R E P

'All o f a s u d d e n s m a l l s p a r k s o f m o o n l i g h t w e n t u p a n d s t a y e d in t h e sky.'

I n a n i m a t e n o u n s a g r e e w i t h m o d i f i e r s in n u m b e r o n l y if t h e y a r e i n d i v i d u a l i s e d , a s in

8 . 4 3 ; b u t t h e r e is n o n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t o n v e r b s . 8.43 d e s c r i b e s h o w all t h e p l a t e s in t h e

evil spirit's h o m e w e n t to t h e river b y t h e m s e l v e s , o n e b y o n e . T h e n o u n tiya 'plate' is

m a r k e d for n u m b e r a n d triggers n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t o n t h e m o d i f i e r ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e is

n o n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t o n t h e v e r b .

8.43 t i y a - p e k w e - p e r i - t u p e d i - s i w a - p i d a n a

p l a t e - P L I N T E R - C O L L - D I M : P L 3 s g n f - d o . b y . i t s e l f - R E M . P . R E P

d i - k o l o k a d i - r u k u di-a u l - s e

3 s g n f - r o l l 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - g o p o r t - L O C

' E v e r y s i n g l e p l a t e (i.e. w h a t e v e r p l a t e s t h e r e w e r e ) rolled a n d w e n t d o w n b y

t h e m s e l v e s to t h e port.'

S i m i l a r l y , e v e n if a n u n c o u n t a b l e n o u n is p l u r a l - m a r k e d w i t h t h e d i m i n u t i v e -tupe,

t h e r e is n o p l u r a l a g r e e m e n t o n t h e v e r b .

8 . 4 4 d u - s a l e - t u p e - m i a - p i d a n a d i - s w a ,

3 s g f - h a i r - D I M : P L - O N L Y - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-lie

d u - k a p i - d a - p e - t u p e k a i d a - p i d a n a d i - s w a

3 s g f - h a n d - C L : R O U N D - P L - D I M : P L t h u s - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-lie

' O n l y a bit o f h e r hair, h e r little fingers w e r e lying (in the h a m m o c k after t h e

w o m a n h a d b e e n e a t e n b y a jaguar).'

N u m b e r is n e v e r m a r k e d o n p r o x i m a l a n d distal d e m o n s t r a t i v e s ( c f 8.3, a n d § 1 1 . 3 ) ,

a n d quantifiers, s u c h a s m h a i d a 'few', t h u i m e , thuya 'all', hanupe 'many', o r t h e

d i s t r i b u t i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s e r napada (see § 1 1 . 6 a n d § 1 1 . 9 ) . T h e quantifiers r e q u i r e t h e u s e

o f a p l u r a l m a r k e r o n t h e n o u n , e.g. de:pi-pe napada (night-PL e a c h ) 'every night',

h e k u n a - p e napada (tree-PL e a c h ) ' e a c h tree', a n d 8.45.

8.45 e h k w a p i - p e n a p a d a - p i d a n a dhilitu d i - e m h a n i

d a y - P L e v e r y - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + f i s h 3 s g n f - w a l k

' H e w e n t a r o u n d fishing e v e r y day.'

T h e q u a n t i f i e r hanupe m a y c o m b i n e w i t h a classifier, to f o c u s o n t h e specific

referent, e.g. n u - i t u - k a n a p e hanupe ( l s g - d a u g h t e r - P L m a n y ) ' m y m a n y d a u g h t e r s ' , a n d

n u - i t u - k a n a p e hanupe-ma-pe ( l s g - d a u g h t e r - P L m a n y - C L : F E M - P L ) ' m y d a u g h t e r s w h o are

m a n y ' - s e e § 1 1 . 9 . T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e k w a n a ' w h o ' a n d its n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t ne k w a n a

'no o n e ' a l w a y s r e q u i r e p l u r a l a g r e e m e n t , a s in 8.46 a n d 8.47.

8.46 k w a n a - n i h k a h i - n u k u n a : n a p i

w h o - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R t h i s : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l + c a r r y . o n . b a c k

' W h o b r o u g h t this o n e , c a r r y i n g (her) o n their b a c k ? '

8.47 n u - n a n e k w a n a p a i t a m a - m a y a n a - k a s u

l s g - O B J N E G w h o o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M N E G - c h e a t - I N T

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 182 8 Number

n a - y e k a - m h a

3 p l - k n o w - P R E S . N O N V I S

' N o o n e is a b l e to c h e a t m e . '

N u m e r a l s b i g g e r t h a n o n e , if u s e d in a h e a d l e s s N P , m a y r e q u i r e a p l u r a l m a r k e r t o

a g r e e in n u m b e r w i t h their ( o m i t t e d ) referent (cf. 8.28 a n d 8.29). O n v a r i a t i o n in n u m b e r

m a r k i n g a n d o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s o f n u m e r a l s as t h e result o f l a n g u a g e attrition s e e § 1 1 . 8 .

P l u r a l a g r e e m e n t is t h e m a j o r d i a g n o s t i c feature u s e d to d i s t i n g u i s h different

m e a n i n g s o f p a - 'one, a n o t h e r , t h e other, s o m e ' : w h e n it h a s t h e m e a n i n g ' s o m e ' , it t a k e s

a p l u r a l m a r k e r . T h i s m a r k e r is -pe, s i n c e it f o l l o w s a classifier, a s in p a i t a - p e a:pi

( o n e + N U M . C L : A N i M - P L s n a k e ) ' s o m e snakes'. N o t e that s i n c e the h e a d n o u n , 'snakes',

d o e s n o t h a v e i n d i v i d u a l i s e d r e f e r e n c e , it d o e s n o t t a k e plural a g r e e m e n t ( s e e § 11.7).

8.5 S u m m a r y

T h e T a r i a n a n u m b e r m a r k i n g s y s t e m is u n u s u a l in t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y s . T h e r e are

different sets o f n u m b e r d i s t i n c t i o n s for i n a n i m a t e a n d a n i m a t e n o u n s . K i n s h i p n o u n s

h a v e a distinct s y s t e m o f n u m b e r m a r k i n g ; s i n c e this s e m a n t i c field e x h i b i t s t h e greatest

i m p a c t f r o m l a n g u a g e attrition, t h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n in n u m b e r m a r k i n g h e r e .

O n l y n o u n s w i t h a h u m a n referent a n d p r o p e r n a m e s h a v e a n a s s o c i a t i v e plural. F o u r

enclitics a r e o b l i g a t o r i l y m a r k e d for n u m b e r ( o n e o f t h e m is a l s o m a r k e d for t w o

g e n d e r s ) ; their c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a n o u n - w h i c h c a n also b e n u m b e r - m a r k e d - a n d w i t h

e a c h o t h e r c r e a t e s t h e c u r i o u s situation o f m u l t i p l e n u m b e r m a r k i n g w i t h i n a single

g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d .

A g r e e m e n t in n o u n p h r a s e s a n d in c l a u s e s is o b l i g a t o r y o n l y w i t h h u m a n n o u n s .

N o n - h u m a n a n i m a t e s trigger n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t - u n l e s s t h e y refer to a c o l l e c t i v e entity

o r a r e n o t i n d i v i d u a l i s e d . I n a n i m a t e h e a d s trigger plural a g r e e m e n t w i t h i n a n N P if

i n d i v i d u a l i s e d . T h e r e is n o n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n a v e r b a n d its i n a n i m a t e subject.

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 9

Further n o m i n a l categories

T h i s c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h further n o m i n a l c a t e g o r i e s o f n o u n s in T a r i a n a m a r k e d w i t h

p h r a s a l clitics. T h e s e are: t e n s e ( § 9 . 1 ) , extralocality (§9.2), c o n t r a s t ( § 9 . 3 ) , c o o r d i n a t i o n

( § 9 . 4 ) , d e g r e e ( a p p r o x i m a t i v e i n § 9 . 5 , d i m i n u t i v e a n d a u g m e n t a t i v e i n § 9 . 6 ) a n d

' e v a l u a t i o n ' ( § 9 . 7 ) . T h e o r d e r o f t h e s e p h r a s a l clitics w i t h i n a n o m i n a l w o r d w a s

d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 4.

9.1 T e n s e

T h e t e n s e s y s t e m o n n o u n s in T a r i a n a is m u c h s i m p l e r t h a n that o n v e r b s (see C h a p t e r s

1 2 a n d 14), w i t h a f o u r - t e r m o p p o s i t i o n s h o w n in T a b l e 9 . 1 . T h e r e are n o evidentiality

d i s t i n c t i o n s .

T A B L E 9.1 T E N S E I N T A R I A N A N O U N S

U N M A R K E D F U T U R E P A S T

m a s c . -miki-ri

0 -pena fern, - m i k i - r u

pi. - m i k i ( P e r i q u i t o s -mikie-se)

If a n o u n is u n m a r k e d , it m e a n s that t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e t e n s e o r locality v a l u e

is i r r e l e v a n t o r o b v i o u s f r o m t h e c o n t e x t ; this is s i m i l a r to t h e o m i s s i o n o f e v i d e n t i a l

( s e e § 1 4 . 2 . 8 ) . A b o u t 4 0 p e r c e n t o f n o u n s in t h e c o r p u s are m a r k e d for t e n s e .

9.1.1 N o m i n a l f u t u r e

T h e suffix -pena is u s e d t o m a r k 'future' o n n o u n s , that is 'the o n e w h o is g o i n g to b e X',

e.g. wa-tfimari-pena ( l p l - s o n . i n . l a w - N O M . F U T ) 'our future son-in-law', p i - y a - d a p a n a -

p e n a ( 2 s g - P O S S - C L : H A B - N O M . F U T ) 'your future h o u s e ' . T h e s a m e suffix is a l s o u s e d to

m a r k f u t u r e relative f o r m s o f a v e r b (there it a c c o m p a n i e s t h e relativising p r e f i x ka-\ s e e

C h a p t e r s 2 0 a n d 2 3 ) . E t y m o l o g i c a l l y , -pena m a y b e related to P i a p o c o -pind 'general

future' ( K l u m p p 1 9 9 5 : 1 6 8 ) , cf. a l s o B a r e ka-pena ' w h y , w h a t for'.

T h i s suffix c a n g o o n t o a n o u n in a n y syntactic function, in a m a i n , o r s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e . A n o u n m a r k e d w i t h -pena in S f u n c t i o n is s h o w n in 9.1 ( f r o m t h e o r i g i n m y t h ) .

T h i s a r g u m e n t is in c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s , a n d t a k e s t h e f o c u s s e d A / S m a r k e r -ne.

9.1 k a l e - p e n a - n e h i k a r e d i - e k u di-a

w i n d - N O M . F U T - F O C . A / S D E M : A N I M w i n d 3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3 s g n f - g o

T h e o n e w h o w a s g o i n g to b e c o m e t h e w i n d , this w i n d , arrived.'

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 184 9 Further nominal categories

A n o u n m a r k e d w i t h -pena c a n b e in t h e O function. In 9.2, it is m a r k e d w i t h - n u k u

'topical n o n - A / S ' s i n c e it is t h e topic: this c o m e s f r o m t h e text a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f

m a n i o c .

9 . 2 d i h a k a r i - y a n a k i n i k i d i - p a n a - k a - p i d e n a

A R T K a l i - P E J m a n i o c 3 s g n f - s o w - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P

hT k i n i k i - p e n a - n u k u

D E M : A N I M m a n i o c - N O M . F U T - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n a u g h t y K a l i ( t h e c r e a t o r o f m a n i o c ) w a s s o w i n g m a n i o c w h i c h w a s g o i n g t o

b e t h i s f u t u r e m a n i o c . '

I n 9 . 3 , a n o u n m a r k e d w i t h - p e n a ( f u t u r e f l o o d ) is i n a n O f u n c t i o n a n d is n o t t o p i c a l .

9.3 k a y u - m a k a h i w a r i p e r e

s o - A F F D E M : A N I M W a l i p e r e

u n y a n e - p e n a d i - k a k w a - p i d a n a

f l o o d - N O M . F U T 3 s g n f - p l a n - R E M . P . R E P

' T h u s W a l i p e r e w a s p l a n n i n g t h e future flood.'

A n o u n m a r k e d w i t h -pena c a n b e a c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t , as in 9.5. H e r e it h a s a n

a d p o s i t i o n a l N P a s its h e a d ; this is s h o w n w i t h s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

9.4 d i - d i a - p i d e n a [ d i h a n a w i k i

3 s g n f - b e c o m e - R E M . P . R E P A R T p e o p l e

i - t h a n i ] - p e n a - k a - p i d e n a d i h a

I N D F - a t . b e g i n n i n g - N O M . F U T - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P h e

' H e b e c a m e t h e future starting p o i n t o f t h e s e p e o p l e (i.e. o f the ancestors).'

It c a n a l s o b e t h e a r g u m e n t o f a p o s t p o s i t i o n , as in 9.5.

9.5 d i h a d i - s a - d o - p e n a d a l i p a di-a

h e 3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M - N O M . F U T n e a r 3 s g n f - g o

d i - k a - t h a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s e e - F R - R E M . P . R E P

' H e w e n t (in v a i n ) to l o o k at his w i f e - t o - b e ( b u t o n l y s a w t h e s n a k e s b e c a u s e s h e

w a s o n e o f t h e s n a k e - w o m e n ) . '

T h e r e are n o restrictions o n t h e u s e o f -pena in m a i n o r s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s . In 9.6,

t h e n o u n m a r k e d w i t h -pena is t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a s u b o r d i n a t e clause.

9.8 p a y a r u - p e n a - k a n a : n h e t a n a : - p i d a n a

m a n i o c . b e e r - N O M . F U T - S U B 3 p l + g o 3 p l + t a k e 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P

' S i n c e t h e r e is g o i n g to b e m a n i o c b e e r (i.e. a d r i n k i n g feast), t h e y ( o u r p a r e n t s )

w e n t t o t a k e (the d o w n o f f t h e e a g l e t o m a k e festive decorations).'

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 9.1 Tense 185

T h e n o m i n a l future m a r k e r -pena is a l s o u s e d w i t h future participles, as illustrated in

9.9 ( t h e relative c l a u s e is in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) . Participles h a v e t h e s a m e set o f t e n s e

d i s t i n c t i o n s a s n o u n s , b u t t h e s e are m a r k e d s o m e w h a t differently, as s h o w n in T a b l e 9.2.

T A B L E 9.2 T E N S E I N T A R I A N A P A R T I C I P L E S

U N M A R K E D F U T U R E P A S T

m a s c . k a - . . . - k a n

ka- ka-... -pena f e m . k a - . . . - k a r u

pi. ka-...-kani

9.7 i h y a n u - n a m a t f a - p u - m h a

y o u : P L 1s g - O B J g o o d - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S

i-ni i - w a k e - t a

2 p l - d o 2 p l - j o i n + C A U S 1- C A U S 2

[ n u h a a w a k a d a - s e k a - n a l e - p e n a - n u k u ]

I j u n g l e - L O C R E L - g e t . l o s t - N O M . F U T - T O P . N O N . A / S

' Y o u h e l p e d m e v e r y w e l l i n d e e d , m e , w h o w a s g o i n g t o get lost in t h e j u n g l e . '

9.1.2 N o m i n a l p a s t

T h e n o m i n a l p a s t t e n s e enclitic - m i k i - is g e n d e r - a n d n u m b e r - s e n s i t i v e ; it t a k e s

n o m i n a l i s e r s m a s c u l i n e -ri a n d f e m i n i n e -ru t o m a r k g e n d e r in singular; -miki, w i t h z e r o

m a r k i n g , is a p l u r a l f o r m . ( S e e § 8 . 3 o n m u l t i p l e plural m a r k i n g w i t h - m i k i - a n d o t h e r

p h r a s a l clitics.)

T h e clitic - m i k i - is u s e d t o refer to a p r e v i o u s state o f t h e h e a d n o u n ( a n d c o u l d b e

t r a n s l a t e d w i t h E n g l i s h ex-, as in ex-husband). It is m o r e often u s e d w i t h a n i m a t e s t h a n

w i t h i n a n i m a t e s ; t h e n o n - f e m i n i n e f o r m is u s e d w i t h i n a n i m a t e n o u n s , e.g. p a n i s a r u -

m i k i - i i 'old a b a n d o n e d s e t t l e m e n t , t h e site that u s e d to b e a settlement'. ( N o s u c h

t e n d e n c y h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d for -pena ' n o m i n a l future'.) It is v e r y often u s e d to refer to

d e a d p e o p l e , e.g. d i - p h e - r i - m i k i - d (3sgnf-elder.sibling-MASC-NOM.PAST-NF) 'his late

1
e l d e r brother', d u - s a - d o - m i k i - r u ( 3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M - N O M . P A S T - F ) 'his late spouse' a n d is

o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f 'poor one', e.g. A v e - m i k i - r i 'poor A v e ' , t a l k i n g

a b o u t A b e l a r d o B r i t o w h o c o u l d n ' t s p e a k T a r i a n a (see §1.9). In 9.8, -miki- d e s c r i b e s the

evil spirit a s b e i n g a n 'ex-person'.

9.8 k a y u - m a k a d i h a n a w i k i - n h a n a m u

s o - A F F h e p e r s o n - P A U S evil.spirit

1
Functionally a n d etymologically, this clitic is r e l a t e d to B a n i w a - m i , Piapoco -mi, Bare -minali (masc),

-minyawa (fem) 'late'. T h e r e is a l s o a d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix -mi (see §10.2) which m e a n s 'gone", or 'extinct'. In

Tariana, unlike B a n i w a , this suffix is r e s t r i c t e d t o a f e w semantic d o m a i n s , e.g. cut-off trees. It c a n n o t co-

occur with -miki-. In other N o r t h A r a w a k languages of the region, -mi is used to m a r k past tenses: in

A c h a g u a ( W i l s o n 1992: 1 0 7 ) -mi is u s e d to m a r k r e m o t e past, and in R e s i g a r o it m a r k s recent past (Allin

1975: 342).

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 186 9 Further nominal categories

n a - n i t e n a w i k i - m i k i - f i - m h a

3 p l + s a y - T 0 P . A D V + N C L : A N I M p e r s o n - N O M . P A S T - N F - P R E S . N O N V I S

' S o this m a n c a l l e d evil spirit ( n a m u ) h e is t h e o n e w h o u s e d to b e a p e r s o n (i.e. a n

" e x - p e r s o n " ) . '

T h a t - m i k i - is a n enclitic a n d n o t a suffix is c o r r o b o r a t e d b y t h e possibility o f its

v a r i a b l e p l a c i n g w i t h a p r e d i c a t i v e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y enclitic - p i d a n a , a s in 9.9.

H o w e v e r (as p o i n t e d o u t in §2.6), -pidana a n d -miki- b e l o n g to different c l a s s e s o f

enclitics: -pidana is a floating enclitic (that is, it c a n a t t a c h to a n y f o c u s s e d c o n s t i t u e n t

in a c l a u s e ) , w h i l e - m i k i - c a n o n l y a t t a c h to a n o m i n a l h e a d ( w h i c h , in its turn, c o u l d b e

u s e d a s a p r e d i c a t e , a s in 9.8). In 9.9 -pidana c o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d o n t h e p r e d i c a t e (di-

e m h a n i ) . T h i s is a w a r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e evil spirit n a m u w a l k i n g a r o u n d in t h e j u n g l e .

9.9 d i h a n a w i k y a - t h a - p i d a n a - m i k i - r i

h e p e r s o n + E M P H - F R - R E M . P . R E P - N O M . P - N F

p a - d a l i p a - t h a - p i d a n a d i - e m h a n i - n i k i a w a k a d a - s e - n u k u

I M P - n e a r - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - w a l k - C O M P L j u n g l e - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h i s real e x - p e r s o n d o e s g o r o u n d c l o s e to u s all in t h e v e r y jungle.'

T h e enclitic - m i k i - c a n a p p e a r o n a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , in a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e . 9 . 1 0

e x p l a i n s w h y t h e evil spirit n a m u g e t s a n g r y w h e n h e s m e l l s b u r n t food.

9 . 1 0 d i h a y a t u d i - e m e - n i p e - m i k i - r i - s e - p i d a n a

A R T s n u f f 3 s g n f - s m e l l - N O M - N O M . P A S T - N F - L O C - R E M . P . R E P

d i - w h a d i - s w a

3 sgnf-fall 3 s g n f - s t a y

' H e falls b a c k into t h e o l d e n t i m e s w h e n h e (evil spirit) w a s sniffing t h e s n u f f (lit.

w h e n h i s e x - s m e l l i n g w a s ) . '

T h e enclitic - m i k i - o n a n obligatorily p o s s e s s e d n o u n m a y refer to t h e 'extant' state o f

t h e p o s s e s s o r . T h e c h i l d r e n o f a h u n t e r w h o h a d b e e n e a t e n u p b y t h e evil spirit w e r e

l o o k i n g for h i m , a n d :

9.11 n e s e - p i d a n a i:ha-da d i - s w a

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P f a e c e s - C L : R O U N D 3 s g n f - s t a y

n h a n i r i i h a - d a - m i k i - r i

3 p l + f a t h e r f a e c e s - C L : R O U N D - N O M . P A S T - N F

' T h e n t h e f a e c e s w e r e there, their d e a d father's faeces.'

N o u n s m a r k e d w i t h - m i k i - c a n b e in a n y syntactic f u n c t i o n - S, a s in 9 . 1 1 , o r object,

a s in 9 . 1 2 , o r directional, a s in 9 . 1 3 .

9 . 1 2 t h e p i d i - m a r e - p i d e n a

T O . W A T E R 3 s g n f - t h r o w + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

e t a - m i k i - f i - n u k u

e a g l e - N O M . P - N F - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e t h r e w t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e e a g l e (lit. w h a t u s e d to b e t h e e a g l e ) into water.'

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 9.1 T e n s e 1 8 7

9 . 1 3 p i - r u k u p i - u k a hi

2 s g - c o m e . d o w n 2 s g - a r r i v e D E M : A N I M

p a n i s a r u - m i k i - f i - n a k u p i r a p i - k a t h a - n h a

a b a n d o n e d . v i l l a g e - N O M . P A S T - N F - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g + o r d e r 2 s g - v o m i t - I M P V

' W h e n y o u c o m e to a n a b a n d o n e d e x - v i l l a g e , o r d e r ( h i m ) to v o m i t . '

In 9 . 1 4 , - m i k i - a p p e a r s o n a m o d i f i e r ( u s e d w i t h o u t a h e a d ) to refer to a n a l r e a d y n o n -

e x i s t e n t p r o p e r t y o f t h e h e a d . T h e m o d i f i e r is d o u b l e - m a r k e d for plural - s e e § 8 . 3 . T h i s

e x a m p l e c o m e s from a story a b o u t t w o sisters a n d a t i n a m o u - b i r d ; t h e t w o sisters ( a n d

h e n c e all t h e w o m e n ) b e c a m e s t i n k i n g after t h e y h a d slept w i t h t h e 'naughty' m u c u r a - r a t .

9 . 1 4 i:-peni n a k a n a - d i a - n i k i w a l i k a s u

s t i n k i n g - P L : A N I M 3 p l + a r r i v e 3 p l - b e c o m e - C O M P L a t . b e g i n n i n g

k e s a - n i - m a - p e - m i k i

R E L + s m e l l - A F F - C L : F E M - P L - N O M . P A S T : P L

' T h e y b e c a m e s t i n k i n g (the w o m e n ) w h o at t h e b e g i n n i n g u s e d to s m e l l nice.'

9.1.3 N o m i n a l a n d c l a u s a l t e n s e m a r k i n g : a c o m p a r i s o n

A h i g h l y u n u s u a l p r o p e r t y o f T a r i a n a is t h e e x i s t e n c e o f o p t i o n a l m a r k i n g for t e n s e -

e v i d e n t i a l i t y o n n o u n s ( m o r e precisely, N P h e a d s ) . T h i s p r o p e r t y is n o t u n i q u e in

A m a z o n i a n l a n g u a g e s ; s e e D e r b y s h i r e ( 1 9 9 9 ) o n t e n s e m a r k i n g o n n o u n s in C a r i b

l a n g u a g e s . N o m i n a l t e n s e is a l s o f o u n d in s o m e A u s t r a l i a n l a n g u a g e s ( Y u k u l t a a n d

Pitta-Pitta: D i x o n 1 9 8 0 : 5 1 ) .

C l a u s a l t e n s e c a t e g o r i e s in T a r i a n a i n c l u d e p r e s e n t , r e c e n t past, r e m o t e p a s t - f u s e d

w i t h e v i d e n t i a l i t y - a n d t w o futures (see C h a p t e r 14, a n d T a b l e 14.1); t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s

a r e e x p r e s s e d w i t h c l a u s a l clitics w h i c h a t t a c h o n t o t h e p r e d i c a t e o r o n t o a n y o t h e r

f o c u s s e d c o n s t i t u e n t . N o m i n a l t e n s e is m u c h s i m p l e r . Participles ( p r e d i c a t e s o f relative

c l a u s e s ) a l s o d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e t e n s e s a n d n o evidentiality; b u t t h e s e are m a r k e d

differently ( T a b l e 9.2).

A n o u n i n t h e p r e d i c a t e slot c a n t a k e t h e clausal t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k i n g o n t o p o f

n o m i n a l t e n s e , e.g. p i - y a - d a p a n a - p e n a - n a k a (2sg-POSS-CL:HABiTAT-NOM.FUT-

P R E S E N T . V I S U A L ) 'this is y o u r future h o u s e (I c a n s e e it)', o r p i - y a - d a p a n a - m i k i - r i - n a k a

(2sg-POSS-CL:HABiTAT-NOM.PAST-NF-PRES.vis) 'this is w h a t u s e d to b e y o u r h o u s e ' . 9.15

is a n e x a m p l e o f n o m i n a l future u s e d o n a n o u n in t h e p r e d i c a t e slot w i t h t h e p r e s e n t

n o n - v i s u a l t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification, a n d in 9 . 1 6 t h e n o m i n a l p a s t is u s e d in a

c l a u s e w i t h r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d specification.

9 . 1 5 n e k w a k a - p e n a - k a d e - p u - m h a n h u a

N E G w h a t - N O M . F U T - N E G - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S I

h a - e h k w a p i - n u k u

D E M : I N A N - C L : D A Y - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I a m t h e o n e w h o is to b e g o o d for n o t h i n g in this world.'

9 . 1 6 n a - v a m i - n i - d a p a n a - m i k i - f i - p i d a n a d i h a - d a p a n a .

3 p l - d i e - T O P . A D V - C L : H A B - N O M . P A S T - N F - R E M . P . R E P A R T - C L : H A B

' T h i s h o u s e w a s ( r e p o r t e d l y ) t h e h o u s e w h e r e t h e y u s e d to die.'

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 188 9 Further nominal categories

T a r i a n a h a s m u l t i p l e t e n s e specification o f yet a n o t h e r sort. If a participle is u s e d as

t h e p r e d i c a t e , t h e ' d o u b l e m a r k i n g ' o f t e n s e c a n also o c c u r , e.g. k a - i n u - k a i i - n a k a ( R E L -

kill-PAST.REL.NF-PRES.vis) 'he is t h e o n e w h o h a d killed1. A p a s t participle c a n t a k e a

d o u b l e p a s t t e n s e specification, a s in 9.17: h e r e , -kaii 'past participle' refers to t h e fact

that h e u s e d t o m i x s n u f f b e f o r e t h e m o m e n t o f s p e e c h , a n d - m i k i i m p l i e s that h e h a s

s t o p p e d d o i n g so.

9 . 1 7 y a t u k a - p u s u k u - k a r i - m i k i - r i - m h a d i h a

s n u f f R E L - m i x - P . R E L . N F - N O M . P A S T - N F - P R E S . N O N V I S h e

' H e is t h e o n e w h o u s e d to m i x u p s n u f f a l o n g t i m e a g o ( a n d is n o t d o i n g it a n y

m o r e ) . '

9.2 E x t r a l o c a l i t y a n d restrictivity m a r k e r s

T h e suffix -wya 'extralocal' is u s e d o n a n o u n o r a n o m i n a l h e a d if t h e p a r t i c i p a n t

r e f e r r e d to is in a different p l a c e , o r at a different t i m e , or is the o n l y o n e n o t to d o

s o m e t h i n g . E t y m o l o g i c a l l y , -wya p r o b a b l y results f r o m g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f t h e

adjectival r o o t wya ( u s e d w i t h a n d w i t h o u t a n affix -ka) 'far a w a y ' . 9 . 1 8 c o m e s f r o m a

t e x t a b o u t a n u n l u c k y f i s h e r m a n w h o is telling his w i f e a b o u t his e x p e r i e n c e o n a

p r e v i o u s d a y ; t h e s p e a k e r is n o t s a y i n g that h e is a l w a y s u n l u c k y in fishing ( w h i c h

w o u l d b e v e r y s h a m e f u l ) , b u t o n l y that t h a t - d a y - h e h a p p e n e d to b e u n l u c k y in fishing.

9 . 1 8 n u h u a - w y a k a y u - m a h k a k u p h e h u s a - n i k i

1 s g - E X T R A L s o - R E C . N O N V I S fish b e . b a d . h u n t e r - C O M P L

d i - a - p i d a n a k a m - n a - p u - k a u:ni-se p i m a - n i k i

3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P f e a r - A F F - A U G - S U B w a t e r - L O C s o u n d - C O M P L

'I w a s c o m p l e t e l y u n l u c k y in fishing (yesterday), h e said, since t h e r e w a s a

d a n g e r o u s s o u n d in t h e water.'

In 9 . 1 9 , from a story a b o u t t h e T a r i a n a m a r r i a g e c u s t o m s , -wya is u s e d w i t h 'the

1
D e s a n o - w h o are e x c e p t i o n a l a m o n g t h e V a u p e s g r o u p s in that t h e T a r i a n a c a n n o t

m a r r y t h e m .

9 . 1 9 h i d e s a n a - w y a - n u k u w a - k e t f i - p e

D E M : A N I M D e s a n o - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - P L

k a y u - p e n i - n h i n a n h a

l i k e - P L : A N I M - A N T + R E M . P . V I S t h e y

' A s for D e s a n o , t h e o n l y o n e s (left out), t h e y h a v e a l w a y s b e e n like o u r b l o o d

relatives.'

In 9 . 2 0 t h e c o n s t i t u e n t w i t h -wya t a k e s t h e f o c u s s e d A / S m a r k e r ; this e x a m p l e is f r o m

a n ' a n i m a l ' s t o r y a b o u t a q u a r r e l b e t w e e n a s h r i m p a n d a c r a b . A h a r d - w o r k i n g s h r i m p

r e f u s e s to live t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e l a z y c r a b (this e x a m p l e c o n t a i n s a c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b :

s e e § 1 8 . 2 ) .

9 . 2 0 p i - n a i n a s u - i t e - n u k u n u h u a - w y a - n e

2 s g - O B J b e . l a z y - N C L : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S 1s g - E X T R A L - F O C . A / S

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 9.3 Contrastive marker 189

m a : - k a s u n u - n h a

N E G + l e t - I N T l s g - e a t

'I-the o n l y o n e ( w h o ) will n o t n o t f e e d y o u the lazy o n e . ' (lit. w i l l n o t let y o u eat)

T h e enclitic -wya is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d o n t e m p o r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s . In 9 . 2 1 , k a s i n a m e a n s

'now', a n d k a s i n a - w y a in 9 . 2 2 m e a n s ' n o w a n d n o t a n y o t h e r time'.

9.21 k a s i n a - n u k u p u p i r i - k u d a - m i a l i a - n a k a

n o w + A F F - T O P . N O N . A / S p e a c h p a l m - t r e e . t r u n k - U S E L E S S E X I S T - P R E S . V I S

' N o w t h e r e exists a c u t - o f f tree t r u n k o f p e a c h p a l m . '

9 . 2 2 k a s i n a - w y a - n u k u p h i a h a n u p e - n e - m h a d e

n o w + A F F - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S y o u m u c h - I N S - F U T

p i - d i a h a - y a k a l e - n u k u

2 s g - s t a y D E M : I N A N - V I L L A G E - T O P . N O N . A / S

' " R i g h t n o w y o u will r e m a i n w i t h m u c h (i.e. y o u will b e c o m e rich) in t h e village

(as a r e w a r d for w h a t y o u h a v e d o n e , " said t h e c h i e f to t h e "soldier").'

T h e enclitic -wya c a n o c c u r o n m o r e t h a n o n e c o n s t i t u e n t in a c l a u s e . O n e d a y , w h e n

J o s e a n d J o v i n o m i s s e d a f i e l d w o r k s e s s i o n h a v i n g s p e n t a n i g h t d r i n k i n g , G r a c i l i a n o

c o m m e n t e d :

9 . 2 3 J u v i - w y a J u s e - w y a n a - k a m a n a h a - w y a

J o v i n o - E X T R A L J o s e - E X T R A L 3 p l - d r i n k t h e y - E X T R A L

k a p e m a n i n a - r e n a - k a

s h a m e 3 p l - f e e l - R E C . P . V I S

' J o v i n o a n d J o s e are d r u n k ( u n l i k e others), t h e y ( u n l i k e o t h e r s ) are feeling

a s h a m e d . '

T h e restrictivity m a r k e r - m i a 'just, b e j u s t t h e o n e ' c a n n o t c o - o c c u r w i t h - w y a . T h e

t w o enclitics a r e c o n t r a s t e d in 9.24.

9 . 2 4 m e d a h i d i - p e - w v a - n u k u

C O U N T E R E X D E M : A N I M 3 s g n f - m e a t - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S

m a - n h a - k a d e - n a k a n a w i k i i - p e - n a k u

N E G - e a t - N E G - P R E S . V I S p e o p l e I N D F - m e a t - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i h y a n a p i - p e - s e - m i a - n a k a w a - i r a - n a k a

A R T b o n e - P L - C O N T R - J U S T - P R E S . V I S l p l - d r i n k - P R E S . V I S

' " B u t ( w e ) d o n o t eat their flesh (the o n l y t h i n g w e don't eat), h u m a n flesh. It is

j u s t their b o n e s , w e d r i n k ( f r o m t h e m ) , " (said t h e Y a n o m a m i p e o p l e ) . '

9.3 C o n t r a s t i v e m a r k e r

C o n t r a s t i v e m a r k e r -se ( a n enclitic) c a n b e o n l y u s e d w i t h a n o m i n a l h e a d to m a r k

c o n t r a s t ( w i t h a n o t h e r , often o v e r t l y stated constituent). A n o m i n a l h e a d c a n b e in a n y

s y n t a c t i c f u n c t i o n . In 9 . 2 4 a n d 9 . 2 5 , -se a p p e a r s o n a n N P in the O function.

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 190 9 F u r t h e r n o m i n a l c a t e g o r i e s

9 . 2 5 k e h u r i - i k u r u - n a n a - i i h a - m h a k u p h e - s e

s a u v a . a n t - q u e e n - P O S S 3 p l - e a t - P R E S . N O N V I S f i s h - C O N T R

itffi-se m a - n h a - k a d e - m h a

g a m e - C O N T R N E G - e a t - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

' ( W h e n t h e y fast b e f o r e h u n t i n g ) , t h e y eat t h e q u e e n o f s a u v a ants, b u t fish o r

g a m e t h e y d o n o t eat.'

In 9 . 2 6 , -se a p p e a r s o n t h e S constituent; this is a w a r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e s a m e b a d t h i n g

h a p p e n i n g t o t h e listener that h a p p e n e d t o s o m e o n e in a story.

9 . 2 6 p h i m e t a pi-fiha fiapi h a n u p e - p e n i - k a

2 s g + t h i n k 2 s g - e a t b o n e m a n y - C L : A N I M - S U B

p i - k a m a - d a p h i a - s e

2 s g - c h o k e - A P P R y o u - C O N T R

'Eat carefully (lit. think-eat), s i n c e t h e r e are m a n y b o n e s (in t h e fish), lest it is y o u

w h o m i g h t c h o k e . '

In 9 . 2 7 , -se is u s e d o n t h e A constituent. T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t h o w

t h e W a r e k e n a p e o p l e w h o u s e d to b e T a r i a n a s ' 'slaves' killed t h e d a n g e r o u s traira fish.

9 . 2 7 n a h a - s e - p i d a n a n a - i n u d i - n a i n i r i - n u k u

t h e y - C O N T R - R E M . P . R E P 3pl-kill 3 p l - O B J t r a i r a - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e y (the W a r e k e n a ) killed h i m , t h e traira fish.'

T h e c o n t r a s t i v e -se c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h a n y c a s e m a r k e r , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of-ne/-nhe

' f o c u s s e d A / S ' . T h i s m a y b e d u e to their s e m a n t i c o v e r l a p : -ne/-nhe o f t e n i m p l i e s

c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s - s e e C h a p t e r 7.

C o n t r a s t i v e -se c o - o c c u r s w i t h t h e l o c a t i v e -se in 9 . 2 8 ( n o t e that l o c a t i v e -se is a

suffix a n d c o n t r a s t i v e -se is a n enclitic, a n d it t a k e s s e c o n d a r y stress; this is h o w t h e y

c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d ) . T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t t h e status o f t h e

W a m i a r i k u n e s u b t r i b e a m o n g T a r i a n a tribes, t h e p o i n t b e i n g that t h o s e w h o a p p e a r e d

after t h e m e r r o n e o u s l y call t h e m y o u n g e r b r o t h e r a n d treat t h e m b a d l y .

9 . 2 8 w a - p h u m i - s e - s e k a - m i n a - k a n i k a y a w a - n a

l p l - a f t e r - L O C - C O N T R R E L - a p p e a r - P . R E L : P L s o l p l - O B J

n u e r i n a : - m h a

y o u n g e r . b r o t h e r : V O C 3 p l + s a y - P R E S . N O N V I S

' T h o s e w h o a p p e a r e d after u s call u s y o u n g e r brothers.'

I n 9 . 2 9 , s e 'contrastive' c o - o c c u r s w i t h - n u k u 'topical n o n - A / S ' . T h e m a n is s u p p o s e d

to g i v e h i s c a t c h t o t h e y o u n g e r sister o f t h e s n a k e m a n (his b r i d e - t o - b e ) , n o t to a n y o n e

else.

9 . 2 9 n u - w e - d o k e t e m i t e - s e - n u k u

l s g - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - F E M l a s t + N C L : A N I M - C O N T R - T O P . N O N . A / S

hi itjiri-nuku pi-die-ta

D E M : A N I M g a m e - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - r e t u r n + C A U S l - C A U S 2

' G i v e this g a m e ( b a c k ) t o m y y o u n g e r sister.'

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 9. 4 C o n j o i n i n g m o r p h e m e s 1 9 1

If a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n w i t h a h u m a n referent t a k e s c o n t r a s t i v e -se , a n d is a n o n -

s u b j e c t a n d t o p i c a l , -se is a t t a c h e d to a s u b j e c t f o r m - e.g. d u h u a - s e - n u k u , a n d n o t *du-

n a - s e ( s e e C h a p t e r 7), a s in 9.30.

9 . 3 0 d i - k a p u k u d i - k a d i - m a r e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - t u r n 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

d u h u a - s e - n u k u

s h e - C O N T R - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e t u r n e d a n d l o o k e d d o w n at h e r (a w o m a n w h o u n e x p e c t e d l y a p p e a r e d ) . '

9.4 C o n j o i n i n g m o r p h e m e s

T a r i a n a h a s t w o c o n j o i n i n g enclitics, - m i s i n i a n d -sini 'too, also'. T h e y g o e x c l u s i v e l y o n

n o m i n a l h e a d s a n d i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e t h e c o r e c a s e m a r k e r s (-neAnhe ' f o c u s s e d A / S '

a n d - n u k u 'topical n o n - A / S ' ) . T h e clitics are m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n

t h e t w o is subtle. T h e f o r m - m i s i n i is u s e d w h e n t h e fact that t h e similarity o f

p a r t i c i p a n t s w h o d i d (or u n d e r w e n t ) s i m i l a r t h i n g s is m o r e i m p o r t a n t in the d i s c o u r s e

c o n t e x t t h a n t h e a c t u a l h a p p e n i n g s . T h i s enclitic typically refers to s o m e activity or

activities b e i n g r e p e a t e d b y t h e s a m e , o r c o m p a r a b l e participants. T h e f o r m -sini is u s e d

w h e n t h e fact t h a t s i m i l a r t h i n g s h a p p e n e d are m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e similarity o f

p a r t i c i p a n t s , a n d refers t o s i m i l a r activities r e p e a t e d b y different, o r u n r e l a t e d

p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h e f o r m -sini is h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h t h e a s s o c i a t i v e plural m a r k e r ; t h e t w o

c o u l d b e o f t h e s a m e o r i g i n ( s e e §8.1.7).

T h i s is illustrated w i t h t h e e x a m p l e s b e l o w . 9.31 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a m a n

w h o w e n t to live w i t h s n a k e s ( s i n c e h e c o u l d n o t find a suitable w o m a n to m a r r y ) ; w h e n

h e c o m e s b a c k to s e e h i s m o t h e r , s h e greets h i m w i t h 9 . 3 1 , telling h i m w h a t h a d

h a p p e n e d to t h e t w o i m p o r t a n t p a r t i c i p a n t s ( h i m s e l f a n d his m o t h e r ' s brother's d a u g h t e r )

w h i l e h e w a s a w a y ; t h e f o c u s is o n t h e similarity o f the participants' fate, n o t o n w h a t

h a p p e n e d to t h e m ; - m i s i n i 'TOOrPART.CONTR' is u s e d o n t h e S o f ' d i s a p p e a r ' a n d O o f ' e a t

c o m p l e t e l y ' ( u n d e r l i n e d ) .

9.31 p h i a - m i s i n i p i - n a r e p i - a

y o u - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R 2 s g - d i s a p p e a r 2 s g - g o

p i - t e d u a - f u - m i s i n i - n u k u

2 s g - m o t h e r ' s . b r o t h e r ' s . d a u g h t e r - F E M - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R - T O P . N O N . A / S

p a t h e s e d a p e m a w a r i d i - h n a - n i h k a - n i k i

t h e . d a y . b e f o r e . y e s t e r d a y s n a k e 3 s g n f - e a t - A N T + R E C . P . V I S - C O M P L

' Y o u , t o o , d i s a p p e a r e d , a s n a k e d e v o u r e d y o u r m o t h e r ' s brother's d a u g h t e r , t o o , t h e

d a y b e f o r e yesterday.'

T h e enclitic - m i s i n i i m p l i e s that t h e p a r t i c i p a n t is contrastive. In T 2 . 2 5 , f r o m t h e

story a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f t o b a c c o a n d o f snuff, t h e C r e a t o r g i v e s t h e s n u f f to t h e b o y in

e x a c t l y t h e s a m e w a y a s h e h a d g i v e n h i m t o b a c c o ; h e (the b o y , n o t a n y o n e else) is

s u p p o s e d t o v o m i t t h e s n u f f w h e n h e arrives b a c k o n earth. T h i s is w h y d i h a 'he' t a k e s

t h e enclitic.

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 192 9 Further nominal categories

In 9 . 3 2 , t h e o w n e r o f a fish p o n d tells t h e w i d o w that s h e s h o u l d g o w i t h t h e o t h e r s to

t h e feast, b u t s h e s h o u l d n o t d o w h a t t h e y are g o i n g to d o , i.e. drink.

9 . 3 2 p h i a - m i s i n i pi-a n a - i n e m h a l d a p i r a

y o u - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R 2 s g - g o 3 p l - C O M P R O H 2 s g + d r i n k

' Y o u g o , t o o , don't d r i n k w i t h t h e m . '

In contrast, in 9 . 3 3 s i m i l a r a c t i o n s are e n u m e r a t e d ; a c t i o n s rather t h a n p a r t i c i p a n t s are

i m p o r t a n t , a n d -sini ' T O O : A C T . C O N T R ' is u s e d .

9 . 3 3 d i h a n a w i k i d i - w e t a - y a m i t h u y

A R T m a n 3 s g n f - p u t . t r a p - A F T E R : D S all

d i - e m e - t a d i - y a r u p e k u l e - n u k u

3 s g n f - s t a n d + C A U S 1- C A U S 2 3 s g n f - t h i n g fishing.gear-TOP.NON. A / S

d i h a f i a m u n a m u - s i n i d i - y a r u p e k u l e :

A R T evil.spirit e v i l . s p i r i t - T O O : A C T . C O N T R 3 s g n f - t h i n g fishing.gear

d i - w e t a d i s a d i - n u - p i d a n a - n h a

3 s g n f - p u t . t r a p 3 s g n f + g o . u p s t r e a m 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P - P A U S

'After t h e m a n p u t a trap, t h e evil spirit p u t all his fishing gear, t h e evil spirit, t o o ,

p u t a t r a p o f his fishing g e a r g o i n g u p s t r e a m . '

A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is 7 . 3 2 w h e r e t h e s e q u e n c e o f similar a c t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n the

p a r t i c i p a n t s is i m p o r t a n t , a n d s o -sini, a n d n o t -misini is u s e d .

T h e c o n j o i n i n g clitics - m i s i n i a n d -sini differ f r o m the c o n j o i n i n g 'core a r g u m e n t '

c o m i t a t i v e ( s e e § 7 . 3 . 2 ) in a n u m b e r o f w a y s . Firstly, c o n j o i n i n g c o m i t a t i v e is e m p l o y e d

o n l y w i t h t h e A / S constituent. S e c o n d l y , its u s e i m p l i e s s i m u l t a n e o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f

t h e r e f e r e n t s o f t h e c o n j o i n e d n o u n s - this is n o t t h e c a s e w i t h t h e c o n j o i n i n g clitics

- m i s i n i a n d -sini.

9.5 A p p r o x i m a t i v e

T h e a p p r o x i m a t i v e - i h a 'a bit, a l m o s t ' is a p h r a s a l clitic. T h e m o r p h e m e -iha c a n b e a

clitic o r a suffix w h e n u s e d w i t h a d j e c t i v e s (see §3.1.3). W i t h n o u n s , - i h a is a l w a y s a

clitic: t h e r e are n o suffix-specific p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e o n its b o u n d a r y

(see § 2 . 4 . 1 , T a b l e 2.4 a n d §2.5.2), a n d it h a s a s e c o n d a r y stress. It is n o t u s e d w i t h

specifier articles a n d o t h e r m o d i f i e r s f r o m t h e c l o s e d classes d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 1 1 .

S o m e e x a m p l e s are depiha ( f r o m depi-iha (night-APPROX)) ' a l m o s t at night, t h e e n d o f

t h e e v e n i n g ' , p e d a r i a - i h a (old-APPROX) ' a l m o s t a n o l d m a n ' , tfariha ( f r o m tfari-iha ( m a n -

APPROX)) ' a l m o s t a m a n ' , kuitfiiha ( f r o m kuitfi-ihd) ' a l m o s t a c u r a s s o w ' (i.e. a b i r d

s i m i l a r t o c u r a s s o w , b u t n o t quite), a n d also 9.34.

9 . 3 4 p a : - k a d a - y a n a :

o n e - C L : D A Y - E M P H 3 p l + g o

h a n i p a - i h a - s e - y a n h e k a

l a r g e + C L : O P E N . S P A C E - A P P R O X - L O C - E M P H 3 p l + d i g

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 9.6 Diminutive and augmentative 193

n h e p a - p i d a n a h a n u p e - p i d a n a n a - i n u

3 p l + g e t - R E M . P . R E P m a n y - R E M . P . R E P 3pl-kill

' O n e d a y t h e y w e n t , after d i g g i n g in a largish s p a c e , t h e y killed m a n y (fish).'

T h e a p p r o x i m a t i v e c a n b e f o l l o w e d b y a d i m i n u t i v e -tiki, e.g. h e k u - i h a - t i k i

( t i m e . p a s t - A P P R O X - D I M ) 'rather little t i m e ago'; n o c o m b i n a t i o n s o f - i h a w i t h t h e

a u g m e n t a t i v e o r w i t h t h e p e j o r a t i v e h a v e b e e n attested. T h e a p p r o x i m a t i v e clitic -iha

c a n a l s o b e u s e d w i t h v e r b s (see 1 5 . 1 8 4 ) - t h e n it h a s a v a r i a n t -whya (see § 15.3).

9.6 D i m i n u t i v e a n d a u g m e n t a t i v e

T h e d i m i n u t i v e a n d a u g m e n t a t i v e are m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . T h e d i m i n u t i v e -tiki o r -tuki is

c o n s i d e r e d in § 9 . 6 . 1 , a n d t h e a u g m e n t a t i v e s -pasi, -si are in §9.6.2. T h e i r p r o p e r t i e s are

c o m p a r e d t h r o u g h o u t this section. T h e d i m i n u t i v e w i t h v e r b s is d i s c u s s e d in § 1 5 . 3 .

9.6.1 D i m i n u t i v e

T h e d i m i n u t i v e -tuki, o r -tiki - in free v a r i a t i o n - h a s a s e m i - s u p p l e t i v e plural f o r m

-tupe, t h u s r e q u i r i n g m u l t i p l e plural m a r k i n g - s e e § 8 . 3 . It is u s e d o n n o m i n a l h e a d s a n d

m o d i f i e r s , t o i n d i c a t e s m a l l size o r y o u n g a g e r a t h e r t h a n e n d e a r m e n t . 9 . 3 5 s h o w s that

-tiki f o l l o w s a n o u n class a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r , b u t p r e c e d e s t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t - n u k u .

T h e n o u n p h r a s e is u n d e r l i n e d .

9 . 3 5 d u - i t u - n u k u k e t e m i - m a - t i k i - n u k u

3 s g f - d a u g h t e r - T O P . N O N . A / S r e s t - C L : F E M - D I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

d u - k a p i d h u t a d u - k a d u - y a - n h i - p i d e n a

3 s g f - h a n d 3 s g n f + t a k e 3 s g n f - s e e 3 sgf-stay- A N T - R E M . P. R E P

' S h e ( m o t h e r ) t o o k h e r d a u g h t e r , t h e r e m a i n i n g little o n e , b y t h e h a n d to s e e

( w h e t h e r t h e r e w a s dirt o n h e r nails).'

In 9 . 3 6 , c o n t r a s t i v e -se (see §9.3) f o l l o w s -tiki.

9 . 3 6 n h a - t u p e n h a n a - k e s i - d u - t i k i - s e p a : - y a w a

t h e y - D I M : P L t h e y 3 p l - r e l a t i v e - F E M - D I M - C O N T R o n e - C L : H O L E

' T h e y t h e s m a l l o n e s ( a n d ) e v e n their little sister ( u n e x p e c t e d l y ) ( w e r e d i g g i n g ) a

h o l e each.'

W h e n u s e d w i t h a p r e d i c a t e , t h e d i m i n u t i v e h a s different p r o p e r t i e s : for i n s t a n c e ,

t h e r e is n o n u m b e r m a r k i n g (the plural f o r m -tupe is n o t u s e d w i t h v e r b s ) . T h e f o r m tuki

c a n a l s o b e u s e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l a n d g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d (in a n a d v e r b i a l

f u n c t i o n ) ; in this c a s e it h a s n o n u m b e r m a r k i n g , a n d is n o t in v a r i a t i o n w i t h -tiki; it c a n

b e r e p e a t e d a s tuki-tuki, tuki-tiki, tiki-tiki. T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e d i m i n u t i v e are

s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 9 . 3 .

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 194 9 Further nominal categories

T A B L E 9.3 P R O P E R T I E S O F T H E D I M I N U T I V E M A R K E R W I T H D I F F E R E N T W O R D C L A S S E S

P R O P E R T I E S O F W H E N U S E D W I T H A W H E N U S E D A S A N
W H E N U S E D W I T H A V E R B
D I M I N U T I V E N O M I N A L I N D E P E N D E N T A D V E R B

E N C L I T I C y e s y e s n o

H A S S I N G U L A R A N D

P L U R A L F O R M S ( s g . y e s n o n o
-tuki, plural -tupe)

F R E E V A R I A T I O N W I T H
y e s y e s n o
-tiki

C A N B E R E P E A T E D :
n o n o y e s
-tuki-tuki or tiki-tiki

9.6.2 A u g m e n t a t i v e

T h e a u g m e n t a t i v e -pasi, s i is u s e d o n l y o n n o m i n a l h e a d s a n d m o d i f i e r s (see § 8 . 3 o n

m u l t i p l e n u m b e r m a r k i n g w i t h this clitic). Y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s s p o n t a n e o u s l y r e p l a c e

-pasi w i t h s i o r w i t h -pi. U s i n g - p i is c o n s i d e r e d e x t r e m e l y b a d T a r i a n a ( b e c a u s e o f t h e

/ s o u n d r e m i n i s c e n t o f T u c a n o ) . T h e u s e o f -pasi is illustrated w i t h 9 . 3 6 - 7 . In 9.36, -pasi

refers to a l a r g e g r o u p o f s t o n e s (the p r e d i c a t e t a k e s a s i n g u l a r a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r , as is

u s u a l l y t h e c a s e w h e n t h e subject, e v e n if o v e r t l y m a r k e d as plural, h a s i n a n i m a t e

r e f e r e n c e : s e e § § 8 . 4 a n d 8.2).

9 . 3 6 h i p a - d a - p e - p a s i - n a k a d i - w h a

g r o u n d - C L : R O U N D - P L - A U G - P R E S . V I S 3 s g n f - s t a y

' H e r e is a l a r g e g r o u p o f stones.'

I n 9 . 3 7 , t h e a u g m e n t a t i v e , u s e d o n a specifier article f o l l o w e d b y t h e classifier, refers

to a b i g tree.

9 . 3 7 d i h a - n a - p a s i - n u k u di-pisa

A R T - C L : V E R T - A U G - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - c u t

' H e c u t t h e b i g vertical o n e (tree).'

In t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect o f T a r i a n a , t h e v a r i a n t s i is c o n s i d e r e d a r c h a i c a n d is n o t

o f t e n u s e d ; -pasi is u s e d instead. In contrast, in t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect t h e c o u n t e r p a r t o f

s i , - 0 , is t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e f o r m , e . g . yawi-tfi (jaguar-AUG) 'a b i g jaguar'.

T h e a u g m e n t a t i v e -pasi a g r e e s in n u m b e r w i t h t h e h e a d , e s p e c i a l l y if its referent is

h u m a n , e.g. ina:-pasi-pe ( w o m e n - A U G - p l ) ' h u g e w o m e n ' . U n l i k e -pasi, - p i d o e s n o t

a g r e e in n u m b e r w i t h t h e n o m i n a l h e a d . N e i t h e r -pasi n o r - p i c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h

d i m i n u t i v e o r w i t h a p p r o x i m a t i v e in o n e n o u n p h r a s e . A n a u g m e n t a t i v e m e a n i n g c a n

a l s o b e e x p r e s s e d w i t h t h e a u g m e n t a t i v e - i n t e n s i v e floating c l i t i c -pu (see 1 5 . 1 8 2 - 3 ) . T h e

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n -pu a n d -pasi is subtle. G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , -pasi refers to b i g size,

w h i l e -pu s e r v e s a s a n a u g m e n t a t i v e a n d intensifier: inaru-pasi m e a n s 'big w o m a n '

( g e n e r a l l y c o n c e i v e d a s beautiful a s w e l l , b e c a u s e o f t h e a p p r e c i a t i o n o f large size), a n d

i n a r u - p u is a m b i g u o u s : it m a y m e a n a b i g w o m a n , a n d a real w o m a n , o r 'really a

w o m a n ' a s o p p o s e d to s o m e t h i n g else w h i c h is n o t a w o m a n . W i t h y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s , - p i

c a n b e u s e d i n s t e a d o f either -pasi o r -pu. In t h e m e a n i n g 'real', t h e enclitic -pu c a n c o -

o c c u r w i t h t h e d i m i n u t i v e , e.g. inaru-tiki-pu ( w o m a n - D i M - R E A L L Y ) 'a really s m a l l

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 9.7 Pejorative 195

w o m a n ' , a n d w i t h t h e a u g m e n t a t i v e -pasi, e.g. hanu-ite-pu-pidana m a w a l i - p a s i (big-

NCL:ANIM-REALLY-REM.P.REP s n a k e - A U G ) 'it w a s really a v e r y b i g snake'. In P e r i q u i t o s ,

-tfi ' a u g m e n t a t i v e ' c a n a l s o b e e m p l o y e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f real', e.g. k a d a w a - w a n i - tfi

( d a r k n e s s - C L : A B S T R - A U G ) 'real d a r k n e s s ; really t h i c k d a r k n e s s ' .

9 . 7 P e j o r a t i v e

P e j o r a t i v e - y a n a / - n a n a 'bad o n e , s m a r t alec' is a p h r a s a l c l i t i c ; it a g r e e s w i t h t h e n o u n in

n u m b e r , t h u s r e q u i r i n g m u l t i p l e n u m b e r m a r k i n g (see §8.3). L i k e d e g r e e m a r k e r s , it c a n

g o o n n o u n s , a d j e c t i v e s , d e m o n s t r a t i v e s a n d p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s , a n d t h e specifier article.

9 . 3 8 s h o w s - y a n a o n a n o u n , 9 . 3 9 o n a d e m o n s t r a t i v e , a n d 9 . 4 0 o n p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s .

9 . 3 8 a t f a - v a n a - p e - p i d a n a k a y i - n a - n i - k a i r i - n e - p i d a n a

m a n : P L - P E J - P L - R E M . P . R E P s o - 3 p l - d o - S U B b l o o d - P L - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e b a d m e n w e r e d o i n g like that, t h e Tariana.'

9 . 3 9 h a - n e - y a n a - p e - n u k u n u h u a n u - i n u

D E M : I N A N - D I S T - P E J - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S I 1 sg-kill

'I ( w i l l ) kill t h o s e n a u g h t y ones.'

9 . 4 0 i - y a m i i h y a - y a n a - p e

2 p l - d i e 2 p l - P E J - P L

' Y o u t h e n a u g h t y o n e s will die.'

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 10

D e r i v a t i o n a n d c o m p o u n d i n g

N o m i n a l d e r i v a t i o n a l d e v i c e s in T a r i a n a fall into the f o l l o w i n g g r o u p s :

(a) p r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes - s e e § 1 0 . 1 ;

(b) s e m i - p r o d u c t i v e a n d n o n - p r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes - s e e § 1 0 . 2 ;

(c) d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s i n g suffixes - s e e § 1 0 . 3 ;

(d) n o u n classifiers as d e r i v a t i o n a l d e v i c e s - s e e §5.1.3 a n d § 1 0 . 4 .

C o m p o u n d i n g is c o n s i d e r e d in § 1 0 . 5 . D e r i v a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s o f ka- 'relative,

attributive' a n d m a - 'negative' are d i s c u s s e d in § 1 7 . 4 .

1 0 . 1 P r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l s u f f i x e s

T w o p r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes, -peri 'old:MASCULlNE' a n d -pent 'old:FEMiNiNE',

o c c u r o n l y o n n o u n s w i t h h u m a n referents w h i c h often also c o n t a i n a g e n d e r sensitive

suffix (see § 1 0 . 2 ) o r a classifier, t h u s c r e a t i n g a c u r i o u s situation w h e r e b y g e n d e r is

m a r k e d o n t h e h e a d n o u n m o r e t h a n o n c e , e.g. <#-w/ze-/7-/?e/7 ( 3 s g n f - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C -

O L D i M A S C ) 'his o l d grandfather'; na:ka-peru ( m o t h e r - O L D : F E M ) 'old m o t h e r ' , m a w a r i - s a -

do-peru ( s n a k e + i N D F - s p o u s e - F E M - O L D : F E M ) 'the o l d w i f e o f a snake', p e d a l i a - m a - p e r u

(old-CL:FEM-OLD:FEM) 'an o l d a d u l t w o m a n ' . U n l i k e a n y o t h e r suffixes, t h e s e suffixes

c a n o c c u r o n v o c a t i v e f o r m s o f k i n s h i p n o u n s , e.g. nuito-peru ( d a u g h t e r . V O C - O L D . F E M )

' m y o l d d a u g h t e r ! ' In 1 0 . 1 , -pern is u s e d o n a n o m i n a l i s e d m o d i f i e r after t h e a n i m a t e

classifier -ite:

10.1 d u h u a k e w e d o n i t e - p e r u d u - s i s e t a - p i d e n a

A R T p r e g n a n t + N C L : A N I M - O L D : F E M 3 s g f - g e t . t r a p p e d - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e o l d p r e g n a n t o n e g o t trapped.'

U n l i k e t h e suffixes d i s c u s s e d u n d e r § 1 0 . 2 , b u t like classifiers, -peri a n d -pent c a n

o c c u r o n t h e specifier article, a s in 10.2.

10.2 d u h a - p e r u - n e k a i n i d u - n i t u - k a - p i d a n a

s h e - O L D : F E M - F O C . A / S m a n i o c 3 s g f - t e a r - S U B - R E M . P . R E P

' W h i l e s h e t h e o l d o n e w a s t e a r i n g t h e m a n i o c out...'

A n o t h e r p r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix is - m i ' r e m a i n s ; s o m e t h i n g u s e l e s s o r g o n e ' ,

e.g. h e k u - k u d a - m i (tree-CL:TRUNK-USELESS) 'a cut-off tree trunk', d i r a - n i t e - m i

( 3 s g n f + d r i n k - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N l M - U S E L E S S ) 'the r e m a i n s o f his drink', d i - n h a - n i t e - m i

( 3 s g n f + e a t - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N i M - u s E L E S S ) 'the o n e w h o h a s b e e n e a t e n a n d is n o w gone'.

T h i s suffix is p r o b a b l y c o g n a t e to - m i - in -miki- ' n o m i n a l past' (§9.1.2), a n d to -mi

'object a n d resultative n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' (see § 2 0 . 2 . 2 ) . It is f o u n d in all t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g

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 10.2 Semi-productive and non-productive derivational suffixes 197

N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 a , b a n d 1 9 9 8 a ) . U n l i k e classifiers, t h e

s u f f i x e s d i s c u s s e d h e r e n e v e r m a r k a g r e e m e n t w h e n u s e d a s m o d i f i e r s . T h e y f o l l o w

classifiers e m p l o y e d a s d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes.

1 0 . 2 S e m i - p r o d u c t i v e a n d n o n - p r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l s u f f i x e s

N o n - p r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes are listed in T a b l e 1 0 . 1 . T h e y are n e v e r u s e d as

classifiers. T h e y m o s t l y o c c u r w i t h n o u n roots. S o m e c a n also o c c u r w i t h t h e adjectival

r o o t w a n , w a l i ' n e w , y o u n g ' a n d w i t h t h e a d p o s i t i o n a l r o o t dalipa 'near'.

T A B L E 10.1 D E R I V A T I O N A L S U F F I X E S

S U F F I X E S S E M A N T I C S

1. -du 'feminine' ( u s e d in k i n s h i p n o u n s )

2 . -ru 'feminine' ( k i n s h i p n o u n s a n d s o m e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s )

3. - n i d ' m a s c u l i n e ' ( u s e d in k i n s h i p n o u n s )

4. -ri ' m a s c u l i n e ' ( k i n s h i p n o u n s a n d s o m e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s )

5. -ni ' m a s c u l i n e ' , ' h u m a n u n m a r k e d for g e n d e r '

6. -ki ' h u m a n n o n - f e m i n i n e ' , ' h u m a n u n m a r k e d for g e n d e r '

7. - d a n ' a n i m a t e ' (see C h a p t e r 5)

8. - m i n a n e ' p e o p l e o f

9. - n a ' p e o p l e o f

10. -riku 'place'

1 1 . - / * 'place'

12. - u k u 'place'

13. - a n 'rivers, h y d r a n t s '

14. -pani 'rapids'

T h e s e suffixes fall into t h e f o l l o w i n g m a j o r g r o u p s .

A . G E N D E R - S E N S I T I V E S U F F I X E S ( 1 - 4 I N T A B L E 10.1). O f t h e f o u r g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e

s u f f i x e s ( t w o f e m i n i n e a n d t w o m a s c u l i n e ) s o m e are m a i n l y u s e d w i t h k i n s h i p n o u n s ,

a n d s o m e a r e u s e d w i t h k i n s h i p n o u n s only.

F e m i n i n e -du ( w i t h a v a r i a n t -do: s e e §2.3.5) o c c u r s in j u s t a f e w k i n s h i p n o u n s : - h a -

d u , - h a - d o ( p a r e n t - F E M ) 'mother', - s a - d u , -sa-do ( s p o u s e - F E M ) 'wife', uphe-du, uphe-do

(upi-ha-do) ( b e f o r e - m o t h e r - F E M ) ' w i d o w ' , h i - d u , h i - d o ( g r a n d p a r e n t - F E M ) ' g r a n d m o t h e r ' ,

k e s i - d u , - k e s i - d o (relative-FEM) 'a k i n s w o m a n ' . In t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect this suffix h a s

t h e f o r m -doa.

F e m i n i n e - m o c c u r s m o r e often, i n c l u d i n g n o u n s w i t h h u m a n referent w h i c h are n o t

k i n s h i p t e r m s , e.g. w a l i k i - m ( y o u n g s t e r - F E M ) ' y o u n g w o m a n ' , d a k i - m ' g r a n d d a u g h t e r ' ,

n u - t e d u a - r u ' m o t h e r ' s brother's daughter', i n a r u ' w o m a n ' .

S i n c e d a n d r in i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n b e f o r e o r after a h i g h v o w e l c a n b e

i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e , -du a n d -ru c a n b e u s e d s o m e w h a t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y w i t h s o m e roots,

e.g. h i - d u , h i - m ' g r a n d m o t h e r ' , b u t b y n o m e a n s w i t h all roots, e.g. h a - d u 'mother', b u t

n o t * h a - n t . E t y m o l o g i c a l l y , t h e t w o m a r k e r s h a v e different origins; -du/do c o r r e s p o n d s

to P r o t o - l 9 a n a - V a u p e s *-du, c f -dua in B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a -ha-dua 'mother', daki-dua

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 198 10 Derivation and compounding

' g r a n d d a u g h t e r ' , a n d -du/-/n c o r r e s p o n d s to *-/!/, e.g. B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a inaju ' w o m a n '

( f r o m P r e - B a n i w a inaru).

M a s c u l i n e - n i d is u s e d to m a r k m a s c u l i n e c o u n t e r p a r t s o f s o m e n o u n s m a r k e d w i t h

- d u , e.g. h a - n i d ( p a r e n t - M A S C ) 'father', - s a - n i d ( s p o u s e - M A S C ) ' h u s b a n d ' , u p h e - n i d (upi-

h a - n i d ) ( b e f o r e - f a t h e r - M A S C ) ' w i d o w e r ' . T h i s suffix a r o s e a s t h e result o f a

r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e t e r m for 'father' in T a r i a n a - see § 2 6 . 1 . 2 .

M a s c u l i n e - d is u s e d m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n -nid, a n d is o f t e n u s e d to m a r k

m a s c u l i n e c o u n t e r p a r t s o f n o u n s m a r k e d w i t h -ru, e.g. w a l i k i - d ( y o u n g s t e r - M A S C )

' y o u n g m a n ' , d a k i - d 'grandson', n u - t e d u a - d 'mother's brother's son'. ( F e m i n i n e -ru a n d

m a s c u l i n e - d a p p e a r o n t h e m a r k e r s o f n o m i n a l p a s t - m i k i - d , -miki-ru: § 9 . 1 . 2 ; a n d in

participles: § 2 0 . 1 . )

B . M A S C U L I N E A N D H U M A N S U F F I X E S U N M A R K E D F O R G E N D E R , A N D A N I M A T E S U F F I X E S

( 5 - 7 I N T A B L E 10.1). M a s c u l i n e -ni is f o u n d in a f e w k i n s h i p t e r m s . In o n e c a s e , n u - k e s i -

ni ( l s g - r e l a t i v e - M A S C ) ' m y relative', -ni c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e -du (cf. t h e f e m i n i n e

c o u n t e r p a r t n u - k e s i - d u ) . In t h e t e r m n u - d a k i - n i ( l s g - g r a n d c h i l d - P L ) ' m y g r a n d c h i l d r e n ' it

refers t o a h u m a n u n s p e c i f i e d for s e x (cf. n u - d a k i - d ' m y m a l e grandchild', n u - d a k i - r u

' m y f e m a l e g r a n d c h i l d ' ) .

T h e h u m a n n o n - f e m i n i n e suffix -ki o c c u r s in nu-dalipa-ki ( l s g - n e a r - M A S C / H U M ) 'the

o n e w h o is n e a r m e ; a wife's relative' - w h i c h d o e s n o t h a v e a f e m i n i n e c o u n t e r p a r t -

a n d a p p e a r s i n w a l i - k i ( n e w - M A S C / H U M ) 'youngster' a l w a y s f o l l o w e d b y a g e n d e r

s e n s i t i v e suffix o f t h e g r o u p A : w a l i - k i - d ' y o u n g m a n ' , w a l i - k i - r u ' y o u n g w o m a n ' .

T h e suffix - d a d ' a n i m a t e ' is p r e s e r v e d in t w o n o u n s : k a d a - d a d 'black ant' a n d p e - d a d

( a g o - A N i M ) 'adult o r o l d ( p e r s o n ) ' (variant: S a n t a R o s a p e d a d e , P e r i q u i t o s p e d a d a ) . (In

B a n i w a o f I $ a n a it is p r o d u c t i v e l y u s e d a s a n o u n class m a r k e r for a n i m a t e n o u n s - s e e

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 c . )

C . S U F F I X E S M E A N I N G ' P E O P L E ' ( 8 - 9 I N T A B L E 10.1). T h e suffixes - m i n a n e a n d - n a m e a n

' p e o p l e of. M o s t f o r m a t i o n s w i t h - m i n a n e ' P E O P L E . O F ' a p p e a r in a r c h a i c texts, e.g.

- m i n a n e in y e k a - m i n a n e (sap-PEOPLE.OF) ' p e o p l e o f sap', i.e. ' r u b b e r trees in t h e t i m e s

w h e n t h e y w e r e p e o p l e ' , a w a k a d a - m i n a n e (jungle-PEOPLE.OF) ' p e o p l e o f t h e j u n g l e ' ,

k a m u - m i n a n e (sun-PEOPLE.OF) ' p e o p l e o f t h e s u n (a s u b g r o u p o f T u c a n o ? ) ' , adaru-

m i n a n e (parrot-PEOPLE.OF) ' p e o p l e o f parrot; a s u b g r o u p o f Tariana'. P o s s i b l y , - m i n a n e

is a p l u r a l f o r m o f - m i n a d : s e e C h a p t e r 8 a n d § 1 0 . 5 . T h e f o r m - m i n a n e is f o u n d in

n u m e r o u s N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s , e.g. B a n i w a - m i n a n a i ' p e o p l e o f (as in K u m a d a -

m i n a n a i ' K u m a n d e n e ; p e o p l e o f D u c k ' ) , P a l i k u r k a m u w - m i n y e n e ' s u n - p e o p l e ' ( n a m e o f

o n e o f t h e s u r v i v i n g s u b c l a n s : D i a n a G r e e n p . c ) ; cf. P i a p o c o m i n a n a i 'inhabitants of,

p l u r a l o f m i n a l i ' m a s c . i n h a b i t a n t ' a n d m i n a l u ' f e m i n i n e inhabitant' ( K l u m p p 1 9 9 5 ) .

S o m e n a m e s o f tribes c o n t a i n a suffix -na ' p e o p l e of, e.g. t a d a , t a d a - n a 'Tariana',

d e s a - n a ' D e s a n o ' , y e p o s - a n a ' C u b e o ' , y a r a - n a , y a l a - n a ' n o n - I n d i a n s ' (a l o a n f r o m L i n g u a

G e r a l y a r n - s e e § 2 6 . 1 . 3 ) . S i n g u l a t i v e s w i t h - s e n c a n b e f o r m e d o n t h e s e - s e e §8.1.6.

D . S U F F I X E S M E A N I N G ' P L A C E S ' ( 1 0 - 1 4 I N T A B L E 10.1). T h e suffix - d k u o c c u r s in a f e w

l o c a t i o n a l n o u n s , e.g. h i p e - d k u 'ground' (hipe 'land'), w a - d k u 'the inside' (lit. belly-

P L A C E ) , i e - d k u 'the i n s i d e o f t h e anus'.

It is a l s o f o u n d in a f e w n a m e s a s a fossilised d e r i v a t i o n a l m o r p h e m e , e.g. N a p i - d k u -

d 'the T r a d i t i o n a l G o d ' (lit. b o n e - P L A C E - M A S C , i.e. t h e o n e w h o is related to t h e b o n e ) ,

W a m i a - d k u - n e (lpl+float-PLACE-PL) 'the n a m e o f t h e T a r i a n a s u b c l a n to w h i c h t h e

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 10.2 Semi-productive and non-productive derivational suffixes 199

B r i t o s b e l o n g ' (lit. 'the p e o p l e o f t h e p l a c e w h e r e w e floated') (see § § 1 . 4 - 5 ) , a p i a - i i k u

'Itaya9u; a p o r t o n t h e V a u p e s ' , lit. ' p i g - P L A C E ' . ( T h i s suffix c o r r e s p o n d s , e t y m o l o g i c a l l y ,

t o B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a d i r e c t i o n a l c a s e m a r k e r -riku ' t o w a r d s , on' - s e e §7.3.1.) T h e m a r k e r

- k a - r i k u is a l s o u s e d a s a s e q u e n c i n g enclitic - s e e § 2 2 . 1 .

T h e s u f f i x e s -re a n d - u k u are v e r y rare; t h e y are f o u n d o n l y in y a - k a - r e 'place, village'

( f r o m -ya- 'dwell') a n d k a i d - u k u 'beach' ( f r o m kaida 'sand'). (In t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect, t h e

w o r d 'beach', k a i d o - k w a , c o n t a i n s t h e classifier -kwa 'flat surface' in a d e r i v a t i o n a l

f u n c t i o n . ) T h e w o r d k a i d u k u (also realised a s kaidoko) in t h e S a n t a R o s a variety m u s t

h a v e u n d e r g o n e s p u r i o u s v o w e l a s s i m i l a t i o n in t h e final syllables. T h e suffix - u k u is

e t y m o l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e m a r k e r -uku in B a r e a l s o u s e d a s a

d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix, cf. B a r e u n i - u k u ( w a t e r - L O C ) 'in water', d a m a k a r - u k u 'jungle'

( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 a ) .

T h e suffix - a d is f o u n d o n l y in h y d r o n y m s ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 b ) , e.g. m a k w a - a r i 'river

o f M a k u ' . T h i s suffix a p p e a r s t o b e s y n o n y m o u s w i t h - p u a , a l s o u s e d a s a classifier for

rivers. S o m e p l a c e - n a m e s h a v e t w o v a r i a n t s - o n e w i t h t h e suffix - a n , a n d t h e o t h e r

w i t h -pua 'CL:STRETCH OF RIVER, R O A D ' , e.g. a w a d u - a n , awadu-pua 'river o f a w a d u -

bird'.

T h e suffix -pani 'rapids', f r o m a n o u n hipani 'rapids', o c c u r s o n l y in p l a c e n a m e s , e.g.

i n a r i - p a n i ' M u c u r a r a p i d s ' (lit. R a p i d o f M u c u r a rat), p u p e r i - p a n i ' B a c a b a ' (Lit. R a p i d o f

B a c a b a fruit). T h e r e are a f e w m o r e n o n - p r o d u c t i v e suffixes w h i c h o c c u r j u s t w i t h o n e

o r t w o r o o t s . T h e suffix -ki 'the art o f o c c u r s i n m a m - k i ( m a s t e r . o f . d a n c e - A R T . O F ) 'the

art o f a m a s t e r o f d a n c e ' . T h e suffix - s a n i ' m a n n e r o f a p p e a r s in S a n t a R o s a p e d a r i e -

s a n i , P e r i q u i t o s p e d a r i a - s a n i ( o l d / a d u l t - M A N N E R . O F ) ' w a y s , m a n n e r o f b e i n g o l d a n d

w i s e ; w i s d o m , a d u l t h o o d ' . T h e suffix -sipe o c c u r s in ma.tfi-peri-sipe ( b a d - c o L L - v o i C E )

'bad s o u n d i n g voice'.

T h e reflex o f B a n i w a -// in T a r i a n a ( w h e r e it b e c o m e s -si, b y r e g u l a r p h o n o l o g i c a l

c h a n g e ) s u r v i v e s in j u s t a f e w n o u n s , a n d c a n b e treated a s a d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix, e.g.

y a r u - s i ' g o o d s ' (thing-NPOSS) (cf. -yaru-pe (thing-PL: §6.5), y a r u - m a k a - s i (thing-

CL:CLOTH-NPOSS) 'clothing'), hiti-si (tear-NPOSS) 'tear', hini-si (breast.milk-NPOSS) 'breast

m i l k ' (cf. -ini 'breast' in B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a ) , i-aku-si (iNDF-speech-NPOSS) 'speech' a n d

p a n i - s i ' h o u s e ' - s e e § 6 . 4 . 1 . A n o t h e r suffix -si (variant: -tfi) a p p e a r s in t h e t e r m for

'firstborn child': m a s c u l i n e s i n g u l a r phe-ri-tfi 'firstborn m a l e ' , phe-ru-tfi 'firstborn

f e m a l e ' , phe-ni-tfi 'firstborn children'. It is u n u s u a l in that it f o l l o w s a g e n d e r - s e n s i t i v e

d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix in t h e s i n g u l a r a n d f o l l o w s a plural suffix -ni in plural (the s a m e

suffix, -ni, o c c u r s in n u - d a k i - n i ' m y g r a n d c h i l d r e n ' a n d n u - k e s i - n i ' m y b l o o d relatives').

A suffix - a m o c c u r s j u s t in p a n i s - a r u ' a b a n d o n e d village' related Xopanisi 'house'. S o m e

k i n s h i p t e r m s c o n t a i n n o n - p r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes, e.g. -niri in h a - d o a - n i r i

( p a r e n t - F E M - A F F ) ' s t e p m o t h e r ' ( p o s s i b l y also f o u n d in h a n u i n i i i 'stepfather', related to

h a - n i r i ( p a r e n t - M A S C ) 'father'), - t h e m , a s in h a - d o - t h e m (parent-FEM-AFF) ' m o t h e r ' s

sister'.

T h e r e a r e n o s p e c i a l d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes w h i c h f o r m n o u n s f r o m a d v e r b s o r

p o s t p o s i t i o n s , w i t h o n e e x c e p t i o n : - n a d e r i v e s -pumi-na ' p u n i s h m e n t ' , f r o m t h e

p o s t p o s i t i o n - p u - m i 'after' (this a d p o s i t i o n itself e t y m o l o g i c a l l y c o n s i s t s o f t h e v e r b a l

r o o \ p u 'follow' f o l l o w e d b y t h e n o m i n a l i s i n g - m i 'locative n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' - s e e § 1 1 . 1 1 ) .

T h e s a m e suffix - n a a p p e a r s in t h e p o s t p o s i t i o n - w h i d a - n a 'at (one's) e n d ' (see u n d e r C

in § 1 1 . 1 1 ) , d e r i v e d f r o m - w h i d a 'head'. O n e suffix, - w a , d e r i v e s a n o u n f r o m a n

adjectival root: kada 'black, dark', k a d a - w a 'darkness' ( n o u n class suffixes are

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 2 0 0 10 Derivation and compounding

p r o d u c t i v e l y u s e d for this p u r p o s e - see C h a p t e r 5). T h e r e are a f e w n o n - p r o d u c t i v e

d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes w h i c h f o r m a d v e r b s f r o m n o u n s (see §3.2).

1 0 . 3 D e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s i n g affixes

T h e list o f d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s i n g suffixes - n o n e o f w h i c h are u s e d a s classifiers - is

g i v e n in T a b l e 10.2. P r o d u c t i v e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s a n d c o n v e r b s (1-3) are d i s c u s s e d in

§ 2 0 . 2 .

T A B L E 10.2. N O M I N A L I S I N G A F F I X E S

S U F F I X E S P R O D U C T I V I T Y S E M A N T I C S

1. -nipe fully p r o d u c t i v e o b j e c t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n

2. - m i fully p r o d u c t i v e o b j e c t a n d resultative n o m i n a l i s a t i o n

3. -ri fully p r o d u c t i v e o b j e c t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , c o n v e r b

4 . -57 n o n - p r o d u c t i v e o b j e c t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n

5. - k a n i n o n - p r o d u c t i v e a g e n t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n

6. - k a s i n o n - p r o d u c t i v e a g e n t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n

T h e n o n - p r o d u c t i v e suffix -si ( s e e § 6 . 4 . 1 ) o c c u r s in six o b j e c t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s . T w o

o f t h e s e r e q u i r e a t h e m a t i c syllable -ka-\ - h h a 'eat' - - n h a k a - s i 'food', ira 'drink' - irakasi

'(a) drink'; a n d o n e c a n o c c u r w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e t h e m a t i c suffix: h e r e n a - s i 'illness' h a s a

m o r e a r c h a i c v a r i a n t h e r e n a - k a - s i (the v e r b a l r o o t h e r e n a d o e s n o t exist o n its o w n ) . A

-57 n o m i n a l i s a t i o n o n t h e v e r b -whya 'breathe, s p e l l ' , hiwyasi 'evil b r e a t h , spell', d o e s n o t

r e q u i r e a t h e m a t i c suffix. T h e fifth -si n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , kali-si 'story, g o s s i p , talk', is

u n u s u a l i n t h a t t h e r o o t -kali d o e s n o t exist in t h e l a n g u a g e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is a f o r m a t i o n

w i t h a n o n - p r o d u c t i v e suffix -te, -kalite 'tell' ( s e e § 1 2 . 3 ) . T h e sixth n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , ka-

d u - s i 'fan', f r o m -du 'fan (fire)', is u n u s u a l in that it t a k e s t h e relative-attributive prefix

ka-.

T h e n o n - p r o d u c t i v e suffix - k a n i d e r i v e s a g e n t i v e n o u n s f r o m a f e w v e r b s , e.g. di-

d a n a - k a n i '(his) painter, writer', f r o m -dana 'write, paint', di-tape-kani '(his) curer', f r o m

-tape ' r e m e d y ; cure'. T h e suffix -kasi o c c u r s in a f e w c a s e s , i n c l u d i n g the f o r m a t i o n di-

t u d e - t a - k a s i ( 3 s g n f - h i t + - C A U S l - C A U S 2 - A G E N T l V E ) . T h i s t e r m is u s e d to refer to a n o l d

m a n o r w o m a n w h o is p e r f o r m i n g t h e initiation ritual (often translated as ' g o d m o t h e r ' , o r

'godfather'; f r o m - t u d e t a 'hit ( w i t h a ritual stick at t h e initiation ritual)').

1 0 . 4 C l a s s i f i e r s a n d n o m i n a l d e r i v a t i o n

A s s h o w e d in § 5 . 1 . 3 , n o u n class m a r k e r s in T a r i a n a are w i d e l y u s e d a s d e r i v a t i o n a l

suffixes o n n o u n s . A l l t h e classifiers listed in T a b l e 5.1 are u s e d this w a y ( w i t h t h e o n l y

e x c e p t i o n o f -hipa ' C L : H U M A N ' u s e d o n l y as a n u m e r a l classifier).

A n o u n , o r a m o d i f i e r u s e d as N P h e a d , m a y c o n t a i n several classifiers in a

d e r i v a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n (see C h a p t e r 5), e.g. hipa-da (land-CL:ROUND) 'stone', hipa-da-na

( l a n d - C L : R O U N D - C L : V E R T ) 'a s t o n y tree' (a n a m e for t h e tree A n d i r a a n t h e l m i a , f a m .

L e g u m i n o s a e - P a p i l i o n o i d e a e , k n o w n for its h a r d w o o d ) , hipa-da-da ( l a n d - C L : R O U N D -

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 J 0.5 Compounding 201

C L : R O U N D ) 'a s m a l l r o u n d s t o n e ' , hipa-da-kwana (land-CL:ROUND-CL:FLAT.SURFACE) 'the

flat s u r f a c e o f a stone'.

T h e o r d e r o f classifiers f o l l o w s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f structural iconicity, i.e. affixes a r e

o r d e r e d in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e s e m a n t i c relations b e t w e e n t h e m . V a r i a t i o n in m o r p h e m e

o r d e r i n g entails c h a n g e s o f m e a n i n g , a s in t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s : nu-kapima-da ( l s g -

h a n d + C L : s i D E - C L : R O U N D ) 'a f i n g e r o f m y p a l m ' (lit. a r o u n d o n e o f a side o f m y h a n d ) ;

n u - k a p i - d a m a ( l s g - h a n d - C L : R O U N D + s i D E ) 'the s i d e o f m y finger' (lit. a side o f a r o u n d

o n e o f m y h a n d ) .

1 0 . 5 C o m p o u n d i n g

T a r i a n a h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g structural t y p e s o f n o m i n a l c o m p o u n d s , n o n e o f w h i c h are

p r o d u c t i v e .

A . P O S S E S S I V E C O M P O U N D S . T h e s e c o m p o u n d s h a v e t h e s a m e structure a s p o s s e s s i v e

n o u n p h r a s e s , i.e. t h e p o s s e s s o r p r e c e d e s t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n , e.g. u : n i - d u m e n i ( w a t e r -

s n a k e ) ' w a t e r s n a k e ' , p u a l i - s y a w a (oven-fire) ' o v e n fire', k a n a l i t h i - d a ( m i r r o r + e y e -

C L : R O U N D ) 'spectacles', di-tft-numa ( 3 s g n f - h a i r - m o u t h ) 'his b e a r d , m o u s t a c h e ' , nentfiri-

p u s i t a ( d e e r + g a m e - c l e a r i n g ) 'a large c l e a r i n g in t h e j u n g l e ' (lit. t h e c l e a r i n g o f d e e r a n d

g a m e ) . P o s s e s s i v e c o m p o u n d s a r e f o u n d in n u m e r o u s n a m e s for insects, flora a n d f a u n a

d i s c u s s e d in § 6 . 4 . 3 , e.g. d i w i - m a p a - n i ( 3 s g n f + f l o w e r - b e e - P O S S ) 'flower bee' (lit. b e e o f

f l o w e r ) , k e r i - y a k a - n i ( m o o n - s h r i m p - P O S S ) 'type o f s m a l l s h r i m p ' (lit. s h r i m p o f t h e

m o o n ) , a w i n a - w a r u - n i ( w a c u . t r e e - p a r r o t - P O S S ) (also a w i n a - w a r u ) ' m e a l y parrot'

( A m a z o n a f a r i n o s a ) (lit. p a r r o t o f w a c u - t r e e ) .

A f e w c o m p o u n d s i n c l u d e -ha-niri ( p a r e n t - M A S C ) 'father', p o s s i b l y , a s t h e result o f

c a l q u i n g f r o m P o r t u g u e s e o r T u c a n o (cf. P o r t u g u e s e p a i de p a c i e n c i a 'a p a t i e n t m a n ' , lit.

'father o f p a t i e n c e ' ) , e.g. d a i - h a - n i r i ( s l e e p - p a r e n t - M A S C ) 'a s l e e p y p e r s o n ' , y a r u - s i - h a -

niri ( t h i n g - N P O S S - p a r e n t - M A S C ) 'a r i c h m a n ' (cf. also § 2 6 . 1 . 2 ) .

T h e n o u n - m i n a d ' m a s t e r o f o c c u r s i n a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f s i m i l a r c o m p o u n d s , e.g.

a w a k a d a - m i n a r i ( j u n g l e - m a s t e r . o f ) ' m a s t e r o f t h e j u n g l e ' , p u . d a r i - m i n a r i (offering-

m a s t e r . o f ) ' m a s t e r o f t h e offering, t h e o n e in c h a r g e o f offering', y a r u - s i - m i n a r i ( t h i n g -

N P O S S - m a s t e r . o f ) 'a rich m a n ' . T h e s e f o r m a t i o n s are rare a n d c a n n o t b e pluralised;

- m i n a r u w h i c h is a f e m i n i n e f o r m o f - m i n a r i (attested in o t h e r N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s )

d o e s n o t o c c u r in T a r i a n a . T h e e t y m o l o g i c a l plural o f - m i n a r i , - m i n a n e ' p e o p l e o f is a

s e m i - p r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix (see 8 in T a b l e 10.1). T h e p r e f i x e d n o u n - m i n a r i is

u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f 'master, t h e o n e in charge', e.g. hinipuku i-minari ( g a r d e n I N D F -

m a s t e r ) 'the o n e in c h a r g e o f t h e g a r d e n , t h e o w n e r o f t h e garden'. T h e v e r b a l root, - m i n a

m e a n s 'be b y oneself, b e a l o n e ' ( s e e 2 6 . 9 ) .

T h e k i n s h i p n o u n - s a - d o ( s p o u s e - F E M ) 'wife o f f o r m s c o m p o u n d s w i t h e t h n o n y m s to

refer t o f e m a l e s , e.g. Taria-sa-do 'a T a r i a n a w o m a n ' , K u p h e m e n e - s a - d o 'a P i r a t a p u y a

w o m a n ' ( t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e r m s for m a l e s c o n t a i n t h e s i n g u l a t i v e - s e n - s e e §8.1.6), as

in Taria-seri 'a T a r i a n a m a n ' o r K u p h e m e n e - s e r i 'a P i r a t a p u y a m a n ' .

B . C O M P O U N D S W H I C H C O N S I S T O F A N O U N A N D A M O D I F I E R . T h e r e is j u s t o n e c o m p o u n d

c o m p r i s e d o f a n o u n a n d a m o d i f i e r . T h e r e s u l t i n g f o r m is a stative v e r b , s a - k a m u , f r o m

* i s a - k a m u ( s m o k e - h o t ) ' l u k e - w a r m ' .

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 2 0 2 10 Derivation and compounding

T e r m s for 'right' a n d 'left' are c o m p o u n d s o f a different structure: p a s o l e - k e m a ( b o x -

TH+CL.'SIDE) 'left', lit. 'side for b o x e s ' ( u s e d for c a r r y i n g ) , a n d m a y a k a n i - k e m a (straight-

TH+CL'.SIDE) 'right', lit. ' s t r a i g h t side' (a c a i q u e o f T u c a n o d i a k M 'straight, right').

W e s h o w e d i n C h a p t e r 5 t h a t a n y n o u n p h r a s e o r e v e n a c l a u s e c a n b e u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r

w h e n it t a k e s a n o u n class suffix a s a n a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r (see e x a m p l e s u n d e r B in

§ 5 . 1 . 2 ) , e.g. tfari w e s t hanupite ( m a n m u c u s m u c h + N C L : A N l M ) 'a m a n w h o h a s m u c h

m u c u s ' ( o r 'a m a n w i t h a r u n n i n g nose') o r tjari k a - k a m a hanupite ( m a n R E L - d r i n k m u c h -

N C L : A N I M ) 'a m u c h - d r i n k i n g m a n , a d r u n k a r d ' . A n y m o d i f i e r c a n b e u s e d a s a h e a d o f

n o u n p h r a s e ( s e e C h a p t e r 3); for i n s t a n c e , w e s i hanupite ( m u c u s - m u c h + N C L : A N i M ) is

t y p i c a l l y u s e d to refer t o a p e r s o n w i t h a r u n n i n g n o s e , a n d k a - k a m a hanupite (REL-drink

m u c h + N C L : A N l M ) t o refer to a d r u n k a r d . N o m i n a l i s e d m o d i f i e r s o f this sort c a n b e

c o n s i d e r e d c o m p o u n d s s i n c e n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n b e i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n their

c o n s t i t u e n t s ( * w e s i - m i s i n i hanupite ( m u c u s - t o o - m u c h + N C L : A N l M ) 'the o n e w h o h a s

m u c h m u c u s , t o o ' is u n g r a m m a t i c a l ) . U n l i k e t h e c o m p o u n d s in A a n d B a b o v e , t h e y d o

n o t f o r m o n e p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d , s i n c e all their c o n s t i t u e n t s retain i n d e p e n d e n t stress.

T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o m p o u n d i n g a n d d e r i v a t i o n is n o t a l w a y s clear-cut in T a r i a n a .

I s h o w e d i n C h a p t e r 5 t h a t classifiers a r e p o t e n t i a l l y a n o p e n c l a s s d u e to t h e e x i s t e n c e

o f 'repeaters' w h i c h t e n d to f u n c t i o n a s classifiers. A r e p e a t e r c a n b e u s e d o n a m o d i f i e r ,

s u c h a s a n a d j e c t i v e , a n d this c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n b e u s e d a s a n N P h e a d . C o n s i d e r t h e

f o l l o w i n g N P w i t h a r e p e a t e r a s a n a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r : ehkwapi h a m u - e h k w a p i ( d a y h o t -

CL:DAY) 'a h o t day'. If h a m u - e h k w a p i (hot-CL:DAY) is u s e d as t h e h e a d o f a n o u n p h r a s e

it m e a n s either a 'hot day', o r s i m p l y 'heat' (since h e a t n o r m a l l y o c c u r s d u r i n g t h e d a y ) .

W e s a w i n 5 . 7 8 h o w this r e p e a t e r -ehkwapi 'day' c a n b e u s e d a s a n a d h o c classifier for

p e r i o d s o f t i m e ( d a y , n i g h t ) a n d n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a (e.g. a c l o u d ) . In a s i m i l a r w a y ,

t a r a d a - e h k w a p i ( b e . a l i v e - D A Y ) is t h e w a y o f s a y i n g 'life'.

It c a n b e a r g u e d that 'repeaters' are u s e d similarly to n o u n classifiers in a d e r i v a t i o n a l

f u n c t i o n ( s e e § 5 . 1 . 3 ) ; o r that f o r m a t i o n s like h a m u - e h k w a p i a n d tarada-ehkwapi are

further e x a m p l e s o f p o s s e s s i v e c o m p o u n d s ( d i s c u s s e d in A a b o v e ) . H o w e v e r , s i n c e in

p r i n c i p l e t h e y h a v e t h e s a m e structure a s n o u n + n o u n classifier c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( s i m i l a r to

k e p i r a - m a k a (bird-CL:CLOTH.LlKE) 'birdnest' o r k u w h e - y a w a ( w o o d p e c k e r - C L . ' H O L E ) 'a

h o l e for a w o o d p e c k e r t o live'), this s o l u t i o n a p p e a r s m o r e e c o n o m i c a l .

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 11

C l o s e d w o r d c l a s s e s

I n this c h a p t e r w e c o n s i d e r c l o s e d w o r d c l a s s e s w h i c h s h a r e s o m e p r o p e r t i e s w i t h n o u n s

b u t d o n o t t a k e t h e full r a n g e o f n o u n m o r p h o l o g y d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r s 5 - 1 0 . T h i s

justifies their r e c o g n i t i o n a s s e p a r a t e classes. M o s t o f t h e m c a n b e u s e d as h e a d s o f N P s ,

a s m o d i f i e r s a n d a s a r g u m e n t s ; h o w e v e r , t h e y differ in t h e a m o u n t o f n o u n m o r p h o l o g y

t h e y c a n take.

P e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s are d i s c u s s e d in § 1 1 . 1 . T h e o t h e r c l o s e d c l a s s e s are specifier

articles ( § 1 1 . 2 ) , d e m o n s t r a t i v e s ( § 1 1 . 3 ) , interrogative-distributive k w a ( § 1 1 . 4 ) , g e s t u r a l

d e i c t i c k h i ( § 1 1 . 5 ) , distributive i n d i v i d u a l i s e r napada ( § 1 1 . 6 ) , g e n e r a l indefinite p a : -

( a l s o u s e d a s n u m e r a l 'one') ( § 1 1 . 7 ) , n u m e r a l s ( § 1 1 . 8 ) , quantifiers ( § 1 1 . 9 ) . A l l t h e s e

c l a s s e s a r e s i m i l a r t o n o u n s in that t h e y c a n b e u s e d a s m o d i f i e r s a n d a s t h e h e a d o f a

n o u n p h r a s e . C o n n e c t i v e s ( § 1 1 . 1 0 ) c a n n o t b e u s e d a s m o d i f i e r s ; t h e y c a n f u n c t i o n as

a r g u m e n t s , a n d a s n o m i n a l d e r i v a t i o n a l b a s e s . T a b l e 11.1 s u m m a r i s e s t h e

m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f c l o s e d c l a s s e s w h i c h c a n b e u s e d as m o d i f i e r s a n d a s

h e a d s i n attributive N P s c o n s i d e r e d in § § 1 1 . 1 - 1 1 . 1 0 . R e s t r i c t i o n s o n t h e c o - o c c u r r e n c e

o f m o d i f i e r s from c l o s e d c l a s s e s in a n o u n p h r a s e are c o n s i d e r e d in C h a p t e r 2 1 .

A d p o s i t i o n s ( § 1 1 . 1 1 ) a r e a c l o s e d w o r d class historically d e r i v e d f r o m v a r i o u s

s u b c l a s s e s o f n o u n s , a n d o f v e r b s . T h e y c a n o n l y b e u s e d a s N P h e a d s , a n d t a k e little

n o u n m o r p h o l o g y : t h e y are s u b d i v i d e d into a n u m b e r o f c l a s s e s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e

a m o u n t o f n o u n m o r p h o l o g y t h e y take. A d p o s i t i o n s ( § 1 1 . 1 1 ) are u s e d a s h e a d s o f

p o s s e s s i v e N P s .

1 1 . 1 P e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s

A list o f free p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s w a s g i v e n in T a b l e 8.1. P e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s are a

c o m b i n a t i o n o f a p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x ( f r o m t h e v e r b a l set: s e e T a b l e 6.1)

w i t h a d e m o n s t r a t i v e e l e m e n t - h a ( o n their realisation s e e § 2 . 4 . 4 , T a b l e 2.6), e.g. n u - h a

(lsg-/*a), n u h u a T , p i - h a , p h i a ' y o u sg', p a - h a , p h a ' i m p e r s o n a l ; w e (inclusive)' (as is

typical for A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s ; s e e A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) .

P r o n o u n s d i s t i n g u i s h t w o n u m b e r s a n d f o u r p e r s o n s (first, s e c o n d , third a n d

i m p e r s o n a l ) . T h e r e a r e n o n u m b e r d i s t i n c t i o n s in t h e i m p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n w h i c h is a l s o

u s e d w i t h t h e m e a n i n g o f first p e r s o n i n c l u s i v e , a s in 6.13 a b o v e . P r o n o u n s c a n n o t b e

p o s s e s s e d a n d c a n n o t t a k e m o d i f i e r s . ( N o t e thai p h a n a w i k i ' w e , p e o p l e ' in 6.13 s h o u l d

b e c o n s i d e r e d t w o c o n s t i t u e n t s (rather t h a n t h e p r o n o u n b e i n g a m o d i f i e r o f t h e n o u n )

b e c a u s e o f a n o b l i g a t o r y p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e t w o . ) I n d e p e n d e n t p r o n o u n s c a n b e u s e d a s
1
p o s s e s s o r s ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 6, a n d e x a m p l e 6.26: p h i a h a - n i i i 'your father').

1
This is i m p o s s i b l e in other N o r t h A r a w a k languages, such as B a n i w a or W a r e k e n a .

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 2 0 4 / / Closed word classes

T A B L E 11.1 P R O P E R T I E S O F C L O S E D C L A S S E S

P L A C E W I T H A L W A Y S R E Q U I R E
H E A D O R N U M B E R
R E S P E C T T O T H E C L A S S I F I E R S P L U R A L F O R M O F
M O D I F I E R D I S T I N C T I O N
H E A D H E A D

p r o n o u n s ( § 1 1 . 1 ) h e a d only n/a yes n o n o

articles (§11.2) both prehead yes yes n o

demonstratives
both prehead n o yes no
(§11.3)

A w a ( § 1 1 . 4 ) both pre- a n d posthead yes yes n o

A/ii(§11.5) both pre- a n d posthead yes yes n o

napada (§ 11.6) both pre- a n d posthead yes yes yes

idiosyncratic
p a . - ( § 1 1 . 7 ) both pre- and posthead yes no
semantics

^ • # ( § 1 1 . 7 ) both pre- a n d posthead no n o no

n u m e r a l s (§11.8) both pre- a n d posthead n/a yes n o

quantifiers (§ 11.9)

thuy- both pre- a n d posthead n o n o yes

hldapada both pre- a n d posthead n o n o yes

mhaTda, hcmupe both pre- and posthead n o n o yes

kanapada both prehead yes yes yes

ne (§11.10) both pre- and posthead yes no n o

nese, diwese
h e a d n/a no no n/a
(§11.10)

P r o n o u n s c a n b e u s e d a s a r g u m e n t s a n d h a v e a s y s t e m o f c a s e m a r k i n g different f r o m

that o f n o u n s (see C h a p t e r 7). P r o n o u n s w i t h a h u m a n referent m a r k o b j e c t c a s e w i t h t h e

suffix -na. A l l p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s f o r m t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a s e b y a t t a c h i n g a

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x to -ine ( w h e r e a s n o u n s t a k e t h e clitic -ne). P r o n o u n s h a v e n o

l o c a t i v e c a s e ( s e e §7.3.1). P l u r a l m a r k i n g in p r o n o u n s is distinct f r o m that in n o u n s (see

§8.3): g e n d e r d i s t i n c t i o n s are m a d e in third p e r s o n s i n g u l a r (but n o t in first a n d s e c o n d

p e r s o n s i n g u l a r ) a n d , o p t i o n a l l y , in all p e r s o n s in t h e plural (also s e e C h a p t e r 11 o f

A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 a ) . T o e x p r e s s a p r o n o m i n a l a r g u m e n t o f a n a d p o s i t i o n , i n d e p e n d e n t

p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s o r c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s c a n b e u s e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e

a d p o s i t i o n t y p e ( s e e § 1 1 . 1 1 ) .

1 1 . 2 S p e c i f i e r articles

S p e c i f i e r articles a r e h o m o n y m o u s w i t h free third p e r s o n p r o n o u n s ( T a b l e 8.1), w i t h o n e

d i f f e r e n c e : u n l i k e third p e r s o n p r o n o u n s , articles d o n o t h a v e d o u b l e plural m a r k i n g for

f e m i n i n e f o r m s a n d c a n c o m b i n e w i t h classifiers. A l s o s e e B u n d e r § 5 . 1 . 6 , a n d D i a g r a m

5 . 1 , for t h e s e m a n t i c s a n d f o r m o f specifier articles, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t to h o w t h e y

c o m b i n e w i t h classifiers. T h e y c a n b e e m p l o y e d a s p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r s a n d a n a p h o r i c a l l y

a s h e a d s o f n o u n p h r a s e s ; t h e y c a n n o t b e m o d i f i e d o r p o s s e s s e d . A r t i c l e s are n e v e r u s e d

w i t h n o u n s w h i c h are m o d i f i e d b y a d e m o n s t r a t i v e , the gestural deictic khi, t h e

d i s t r i b u t i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s e r n a p a d a , t h e g e n e r a l indefinite p a : - , w i t h n u m e r a l s , o r w i t h

quantifiers.

T h e article is u s e d if t h e referent o f t h e h e a d n o u n h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d

a n d is identifiable. I n 1 1 . 1 , t h e referent, ' w o m a n ' , h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i n t r o d u c e d w i t h t h e

indefinite p a : - 'one'; w h e n s h e is referred to for t h e s e c o n d t i m e t h e article is u s e d (the

N P w h i c h c o n s t i s t s o f t h e article + n o u n is u n d e r l i n e d ) .

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 1 1 . 2 Specifier a r t i c l e s 2 0 5

11.1 p a i t a tfari k a - s a - d o - p i d a n a

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M m a n R E L - s p o u s e - F E M - R E M . P . R E P

p a : - m a i n a r u - n u k u d u h a i n a m

o n e - C L : F E M w o m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S A R T . F E M w o m a n

k a n a p e r i - p i d a n a n h a m e p a e m i - p e n i

g i v e . b i r t h - R E M . P . R E P t w o + N U M . C L : H U M y o u n g - P L : A N I M

' A m a n m a r r i e d a w o m a n . T h i s w o m a n g a v e birth to t w o children.'

In t h e e x a m p l e b e l o w y a w i 'jaguar' is i n t r o d u c e d in 11.2a; a n d is m e n t i o n e d a g a i n in

1 1 . 2 b w h e n it t a k e s t h e specifier article. A n e w referent d o e s n o t h a v e to b e i n t r o d u c e d

w i t h / ? < r - 'one' (see § 1 1 . 7 ) .

1 1 . 2 a y a w i d h e p u w i k a - s e d i - w h a - p i d a n a

j a g u a r h e + C L : B U N D L E o n . t o p - L O C 3 s g n f - s i t - R E M . P . R E P

' A j a g u a r w a s sitting o n t o p o f t h e b u n d l e ( o f c a r a n a leaves).'

1 1 . 2 b d i h a y a w i d i - w a p a - p i d a n a p u n e p u

A R T j a g u a r 3 s g n f - w a i t - R E M . P . R E P c a r a n a + C L : B U N D L E

w i k a - s e

o n . t o p - L O C

' T h e j a g u a r w a s w a i t i n g (for t h e m a n , to eat h i m u p ) o n t o p o f t h e b u n d l e o f p a l m

leaves.'

T h e article c a n b e u s e d w i t h a n indefinite n o u n , p r o v i d e d it refers to a n identifiable

class o f r e f e r e n t s w h i c h h a s b e e n i n t r o d u c e d in the narrative, a n d is topical. In 11.3a,

f r o m a s t o r y a b o u t t a b o o s o n e h a s to o b s e r v e in o r d e r to h u n t successfully, h e m a 'tapir',

t h e o b j e c t o f h u n t i n g , a n d hinipu 'road', are m e n t i o n e d for t h e first t i m e . B o t h n o u n s are

m e n t i o n e d for t h e s e c o n d t i m e in 1 1 . 3 b , a n d t h e n t h e y are a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e article

( u n d e r l i n e d ) . It is n o t t h e referents p e r se b u t t h e class t h e y b e l o n g to ('tapir', o r 'road'),

that is identifiable.

1 1 . 3 a h e m a p a - w e t a - k a s u - k a - n a k a n h u a sTpi n h u t a

tapir I M P - t r a p - I N T E R - S U B - P R E S . V I S I b l o w . g u n l s g + t a k e

a w a k a d a - s e n u - a - k a h i n i p u i-thirikuna-se n u - a - k a

j u n g l e - L O C l s g - g o - S U B r o a d I N D F - a t . e d g e - L O C l s g - g o - S U B

' T h i s is t o t r a p a tapir. I t a k e a g u n , I g o to t h e j u n g l e , I g o to t h e e d g e o f a road.'

1 1 . 3 b d i h a h e m a h i p a - m a - p e n u - k a d i h a h i n i p u - n u k u

A R T tapir I N D F + I e g - C L : P A 1 R - P L l s g - s e e A R T r o a d - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I s e e a tapir's footprints o n t h e road.'

T h e articles are o f t e n u s e d w i t h p e r s o n a l n a m e s , in the m e a n i n g o f ' p r e v i o u s l y

m e n t i o n e d ' , 'the o n e w e h a v e b e e n t a l k i n g about'. K u i , t h e c r e a t o r o f s n u f f ( a n d t h e

g u a r d i a n o f s h a m a n s w h o get their m a g i c p o w e r f r o m sniffing snuff), is first m e n t i o n e d

in 11.4 ( w i t h o u t t h e article). In s u b s e q u e n t stretches o f t h e n a r r a t i v e t h e article is u s e d

w i t h K u i , a s s h o w n in 11.5.

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 2 0 6 / / Closed word classes

1 1 . 4 hi k u i - s e - n u k u d i - a - n h a

D E M : A N I M K u i - C O N T R - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - g i v e - P A U S

' H e (the c r e a t o r ) g a v e it ( t h e p o w e r o f snuff) to K u i ( u n e x p e c t e d l y ) . '

1 1 . 5 d i h a k u i - s e - s i n a d i h a n a w i k i - n u k u

A R T K u i - C O N T R - R E M . P . I N F R A R T m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S

y a t u d i - e m e t a - n h a

s n u f f 3 s g n f - s n i f f + C A U S - P A U S

T h i s a f o r e m e n t i o n e d K u i ( n o t a n y o n e else) m a d e t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d p e o p l e sniff

t h e snuff.'

A r t i c l e s a c c o m p a n i e d b y classifiers ( s e e B in § 5 . 1 . 6 ) a r e often u s e d a n a p h o r i c a l l y , a s

in 11.6.

1 1 . 6 d i h a - d a p a n a - s e n e - p a i t a

A R T - C L : H A B - L O C N E G - o n e + N U M . C L : A N l M

n e - m a - k e t a - d e - p i d a n a

N E G - N E G - m e e t - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

'In t h e p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d ( h o u s e ) h e d i d n o t find a n y b o d y . '

1 1 . 3 D e m o n s t r a t i v e s

T a r i a n a h a s a t h r e e - t e r m d e m o n s t r a t i v e s y s t e m : p r o x i m a t e , distal, a n d p r o x i m a t e

e m p h a t i c . D e m o n s t r a t i v e s d o n o t inflect for n u m b e r o r g e n d e r ; t h e y c a n b e u s e d a s a

p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r a n d a s a n N P h e a d . T h e p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e d i s t i n g u i s h e s a n

a n i m a t e a n d a n i n a n i m a t e f o r m , w h i l e t h e distal d e m o n s t r a t i v e d o e s not; s e e A in § 5 . 1 . 6

for t h e s e m a n t i c s o f d e m o n s t r a t i v e s a n d h o w t h e y are u s e d w i t h classifiers, a n d D i a g r a m

11.1 for their f o r m s .

D I A G R A M 1 1 . 1 . S E M A N T I C S A N D F O R M O F D E M O N S T R A T I V E S W I T H C L A S S I F I E R S

a n i m a t e i n a n i m a t e

+ f e m g e n e r i c g e n e r i c + s h a p e
y
P R O X I M A T E h a - m a h T ' ha-CLASSlFiER

DISTAL h a n e - m a h a n e hane-CLASSiFiER

T h e p r o x i m a t e e m p h a t i c d e m o n s t r a t i v e hihi 'this v e r y o n e ' d o e s n o t h a v e a n i m a t e or

i n a n i m a t e f o r m s , a n d d o e s n o t c o m b i n e w i t h classifiers.

P r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e s are u s e d to refer to o b j e c t s w h i c h are c l o s e to t h e s p e a k e r ,

t o t h e h e a r e r o r to b o t h , e.g. hi pari 'this m a n ' ; a n d distal d e m o n s t r a t i v e s are u s e d to refer

to o b j e c t s far a w a y f r o m either, o r f r o m b o t h , e.g. h a n e tfad 'that m a n ' ( s e e further

e x a m p l e s u n d e r A in §5.1.6). T h e e m p h a t i c p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e is u s e d to refer t o a

p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d referent w i t h i n i m m e d i a t e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r a n d t h e

h e a r e r ; it o f t e n i n v o l v e s p o i n t i n g o u t a t h i n g (e.g. hihi tfad 'this v e r y m a n right here'). In

11.7 hihi is u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r , a n d in 11.8 a s t h e h e a d .

11.7 d i - p u m i di-ni-sina-pita h i h i

3 s g n f - a f t e r 3 s g n f - d o - R E M . P . I N F R - A G A I N D E M . P R O X . E M P H

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 11.3 Demonstratives 2 0 7

a w a k a d a - n u k u

j u n g l e - T O P . N O N . A / S

'After that h e (the C h r i s t i a n G o d ) m a d e this v e r y j u n g l e . '

1 1 . 8 hihT-tiki p i - n a n u - k a l i t e - d a k a

D E M . P R O X . E M P H - D I M 2 s g - O B J 1 s g - t e l l - Y E T

' Y e t I a m telling y o u this v e r y little (bit).'

T h e r e is a n o t h e r set o f p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e s w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h f e m i n i n e a n d

m a s c u l i n e g e n d e r s a n d c a n n o t t a k e classifiers: f e m i n i n e h u i k a , m a s c u l i n e h i k a 'this o n e

h e r e ' ( s e e A in § 5 . 1 . 6 ) . T h e y a r e e x t r e m e l y rare a n d are c o n s i d e r e d 'old l a n g u a g e ' ; s o m e

y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s d o n ' t e v e n r e c o g n i s e t h e m (see 5.50-1).

H e a d l e s s d e m o n s t r a t i v e s c a n n o t b e in t h e p o s s e s s e e o r p o s s e s s o r slot in a n o u n

p h r a s e . N e i t h e r c a n t h e y b e m o d i f i e d b y m e m b e r s o f o t h e r c l o s e d c l a s s e s d i s c u s s e d in

this c h a p t e r . T h e y c a n b e u s e d a d v e r b i a l l y , e.g. hi 'here', h a n e 'there', hihi 'right here'.

Hane 'there' is illustrated in 11.9.

1 1 . 9 h a n e - s i k a n u - n u

D E M . D I S T - P R E S . I N F R l s g - c o m e

'I a m p r o b a b l y c o m i n g f r o m t h e r e (said t h e m a n ) . '

T h e a n i m a t e p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e hi c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e u n m a r k e d t e r m in t h e

s y s t e m o f d e m o n s t r a t i v e s for t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s . First, as w e h a v e s h o w n a b o v e , hi is

u s e d w h e n t h e s h a p e o r s e x o f t h e referent is u n s p e c i f i e d . S e c o n d , hi, a n d n o t h a , is u s e d

in t h e s i t u a t i o n o f a z e r o - a n t e c e d e n t , e.g. hi-kayu ( D E M : A N I M like) 'like this' (e.g. 'do it

like this').

O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h e f u n c t i o n a l l y u n m a r k e d p r o x i m a t e d e m o n s t r a t i v e hi c a n b e u s e d as a

d e r i v a t i o n a l b a s e , e.g. kite ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m hi-ite 'this-NCL:ANiM) 'the o n e f r o m here', a s

in 1 1 . 1 0 , f r o m a s h o r t story told b y R a f a e l (the y o u n g e s t s p e a k e r o f T a r i a n a w h o is

fluent b u t n o t t o o c o n f i d e n t a b o u t h i s g r a m m a r : s e e C h a p t e r 1). M o s t s p e a k e r s c o n s i d e r

t h e s e f o r m s 'mistakes'; R a f a e l w a s t o l d to u s e aite ( f r o m aT-ite 'this-NCL:ANlM' 'the o n e

f r o m here') i n s t e a d o f kite. T h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e - l o c a t i v e aT 'here' (see § 3 . 2 ) is a l s o

illustrated i n 1 1 . 1 0 . A n alternative f o r m is a i a 'here'.

l l . l O n h u a h i n u - s a p e - d e . n h u a R a f a e l

I D E M : A N I M l s g - t e l l - F U T . C E R T I R a f a e l

h l t e n u h u a h i k u - n h i n a al

D E M : A N I M + N C L : A N I M I a p p e a r - A N T + R E M . P . V I S h e r e

'I w i l l t e l l t h i s . I a m R a f a e l , t h e o n e f r o m h e r e , I w a s b o r n (lit. a p p e a r e d ) here.'

T h i s d e m o n s t r a t i v e a d v e r b c a n b e c a s e - m a r k e d , a s in 1 1 . 1 1 , w h e r e it t a k e s t h e

i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e -ne in a p e r l a t i v e m e a n i n g 'along' (see C h a p t e r 7), a n d in 1 1 . 1 2 , w h e r e

it t a k e s t h e l o c a t i v e -se.

1 1 . 1 1 n u h u a a l - n e n u - r u k u n u - a

I h e r e - I N S l s g - g o . d o w n l s g - g o

'I a m g o i n g d o w n a l o n g here.'

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 2 0 8 7 / Closed word classes

l l . l l n u - a n u - e m h a n i at-se pai

l s g - g o l s g - w a l k h e r e - L O C D a d i V O C

'I a m g o i n g to w a l k h e r e , D a d . '

I n t h e P e r i q u i t o s v a r i e t y o f T a r i a n a hihi, o r hT-se is r e g u l a r l y u s e d i n s t e a d o f a i

'locative d e m o n s t r a t i v e ' (here), a s i n 1 1 . 1 2 , f r o m a story told b y M a r i n o M u n i z . I w a s

t o l d b y t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e B r i t o f a m i l y that h i h i - n u k u h e r e s h o u l d b e r e p l a c e d b y ai-

n u k u t o m a k e it s o u n d c o r r e c t in t h e S a n t a R o s a variety.

1 1 . 1 2 h i h i - n u k u n u - p h e - r i

P R O X . D E M - T O P . N O N . A / S 1 s g - e l d e r . s i b l i n g - M A S C

p a i t a - n a k a

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M - P R E S . V I S

' M y o n e e l d e r b r o t h e r is here.'

I n t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a v a r i e t y h i is s o m e t i m e s u s e d i n s t e a d o f ai, a s in 1 1 . 1 3 , f r o m a

story t o l d b y R o n i L o p e s . A s a n e q u i v a l e n t o f h i in t h e S a n t a R o s a v a r i e t y a i w a s

s u g g e s t e d . H o w e v e r , a i is also u s e d in t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a dialect a s w e c a n s e e in

1 1 . 1 4 , f r o m t h e s a m e story a s 1 1 . 1 3 . N o t e that n e i t h e r hi n o r a i is f o u n d in t h e

H o h o d e n e dialect o f B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a ( w h i c h h a s a n a h a 'here' a n d a t a h d 'there').

1 1 . 1 3 p a i t a h i - k i n e k a li-a-ka li-ka

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M this-like R E L + g o 3 s g n f - g o - S U B 3 s g n f - s e e

' H e s a w s o m e o n e a r r i v i n g a s i f it w e r e f r o m there.'

2
1 1 . 1 4 k e : p i - k a w a - n i ai w a - n u - k a

t h u s - S U B l p l - d o h e r e l s g - c o m e - R E C . P . V I S

te w a - p a t u aT-tse3

until l p l - e m b a r k h e r e - L O C

'After this (lit. h a v i n g d o n e t h u s ) , w e a r r i v e d h e r e , until w e e m b a r k e d right here.'

1 1 . 4 I n t e r r o g a t i v e - d i s t r i b u t i v e k w a - / k w e -

T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e - d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o n o u n kwa-/kwe- ' w h i c h ? , every' d i s t i n g u i s h e s s i n g u l a r

a n d p l u r a l , a n d c a n t a k e classifiers (see C u n d e r §5.1.6). T a b l e 11.2 s u m m a r i s e s its

a g r e e m e n t f o r m s .

T h e f o r m k w a o r kwe b y itself d o e s n o t c o m b i n e w i t h classifiers. It c a n b e u s e d a s a n

a r g u m e n t , w i t h t h e m e a n i n g 'what' (see §2.6, o n h o w this f o r m c a n b e u s e d a s a proclitic

a n d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t w o r d d e p e n d i n g o n its d i s c o u r s e role). T h e difference b e t w e e n

k w a k a 'what' a n d kwa-/kwe- i n v o l v e s referentiality: kwaka is u s e d w h e n a s k i n g a

q u e s t i o n a b o u t s o m e specific referent t h e s p e a k e r h a s in m i n d , w h i l e kwa-/kwe- is u s e d

w h e n t h e s p e a k e r d o e s n o t h a v e a c l u e a b o u t specific p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e referent. T h i s

2
Santa R o s a kaida-ka 'thus-SUB'.
3
Santa R o s a -se ' l o c a t i v e ' ; cf. Chapter 1 on s-ts correspondence between the Tariana of Santa R o s a and of

Santa Terezinha.

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 11.4 Interrogative-distributive kwa-/kwe- 2 0 9

d i f f e r e n c e m a y b e c o m p a r a b l e to t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o i n t e r r o g a t i v e s in Y i d i n y

( D i x o n 1 9 8 2 : 9 1 ) : w a n y i 'what, s o m e t h i n g ' u s e d 'to refer to a n o b j e c t c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h

n o t h i n g is k n o w n - it e n q u i r e s a b o u t t h e g e n u s ' , a n d w a n y i r r a , w h i c h is u s e d ' w h e n it is

k n o w n w h i c h g e n e r i c classifier t h e o b j e c t c o m e s u n d e r , a n d t h e actual s p e c i e s n a m e is

b e i n g s o u g h t ' . 1 1 . 1 5 a n d 1 1 . 1 6 illustrate the c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n kwe 'what: g e n e r i c ' a n d

k w a k a ' w h a t : specific'. F u r t h e r e x a m p l e s o f kwe in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' h o w ' are g i v e n in

§ 2 1 . 4 . 3 .

T A B L E 1 1 . 2 A G R E E M E N T F O R M S O F kwa-/kwe-

A N I M A T E A N I M A T E I N A N I M A T E
A N I M A T E I N A N I M A T E I N A N I M A T E F O R M -
S I N G U L A R S I N G U L A R U N M A R K E D N O N -
P L U R A L P L U R A L S P E C I F I C
H E A D M O D I F I E R P L U R A L

kwaka-
kwana ku-ite ku-ita~peni kwaka kwe-peri
I N A N I M A T E C L

1 1 . 1 5 k w e p i - n i - k a s u p i - n u - n i h k a

w h a t 2 s g - d o - I N T 2 s g - c o m e - P A S T . V I S . L N T E R

' W h y d i d y o u c o m e ? ' (lit. ' Y o u c a m e to d o w h a t ? ' )

1 1 . 1 6 k w a k a - n u k u p i - n i - k a s u p i - n u - n i h k a

w h a t - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - d o - I N T 2 s g - c o m e - P A S T . V I S . L N T E R

' W h a t h a v e y o u c o m e to m a k e ? ' (e.g. f o o d )

K w a - / k w e - c a n h a v e a n indefinite m e a n i n g 'what, w h a t e v e r ' , a s in 11.17.

1 1 . 1 7 k w e p i - n a - n i p e - n u k u

w h a t e v e r 2 s g - w a n t - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

h a - p u k w i - n u k u p i - s a t a

D E M : I N A N - C L : R O U N D . H O L L O W - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - a s k

' W h a t e v e r y o u w a n t , a s k t h e r i n g for it.'

K w e - / k w a - is h a r d l y e v e r u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r ; 1 1 . 1 8 , f r o m a story told b y L e o n a r d o

B r i t o , o v e r a l l a traditional s p e a k e r , is a rare e x a m p l e : h e r e kwe is u s e d w h e r e kwe-peri

' w h i c h e v e r ' is e x p e c t e d .

1 1 . 1 8 k a i k a d i - m a t a r a - k a - p i d a n a d i h a

i n . v a i n 3 s g n f - l e a v e - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P h e

d i h p a n i - n i p e - n u k u k w e d i h a

3 s g n f + w o r k - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S w h a t e v e r h e

d i - n i - n i p e - n u k u

3 s g n f - d o - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e (sloth) left all h i s w o r k , w h a t e v e r h e w a s doing.'

1 1 . 1 9 illustrates t h e i n a n i m a t e n o n - p l u r a l kwaka a s a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r to kalisi

'story'.

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 2 1 0 77 Closed word classes

1 1 . 1 9 k w a k a kalisi alia-na

I N T E R . I N A N s t o r y E X I S T - R E M . P . V I S

' N o m a t t e r w h a t story t h e r e i s ( w e will tell you).'

T h i s p r o n o u n c a n c o m b i n e w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e ne a s in 1 1 . 2 0 .

1 1 . 2 0 n e - k w a k a m a r i e m a r ieta-pe

N E G - I N T E R . I N A N k n i f e k n i f e + C L : I N A N - P L

s e d e - p i d a n a n a - n a

N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - O B J

' T h e y h a d n o t a s i n g l e k i n d o f k n i f e o r axe.'

D e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n t e x t , w h e n u s e d as t h e h e a d , kwaka m a y m e a n 'what', as in

1 1 . 2 1 , o r ' w h a t e v e r , all' ( w i t h a specific referent), a s in 1 1 . 2 2 .

1 1 . 2 1 n u - i n i p e - n u k u k w a k a - m h a d e n u - a nu-fiha n h u a

l s g - c h i l d r e n - T O P . N O N . A / S I N T E R . I N A N - F U T . U N C E R T lsg-let l s g - e a t I

' W h a t a m I g o i n g t o g i v e to m y c h i l d r e n to eat?'

1 1 . 2 2 k w a k a - m h a k e t e m i

I N T E R . I N A N - P R E S . N O N V I S r e m a i n

' ( W e a r e g o i n g t o tell y o u ) w h a t e v e r r e m a i n s ( o f t h e story).'

T h e i n a n i m a t e p l u r a l k w e - p e n c a n b e u s e d a s a p o s t h e a d m o d i f i e r in t h e m e a n i n g 'all,

w h a t e v e r ' :

1 1 . 2 3 d i h a t i y a - p e - t u p e k w e - p e r i-tupe

h e p l a t e - P L - D I M + P L I N T E R - P L : I N A N - D I M : P L

d i - m a k h a t h u y - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - b r e a k a l l - R E M . P . R E P

' H e b r o k e w h a t e v e r little p l a t e s t h e r e w e r e . '

In 1 1 . 2 4 k w e - p e n is u s e d in t h e p r e h e a d position. T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a

traditional s t o r y (told b y C a n d i d o B r i t o ) a b o u t t h e m i s c h i e v e o u s a c t i o n s o f t h e T a r i a n a ' s

a n c e s t o r s : kwe-peri in f o c u s m e a n i n g 'all ( t h e shells o f t u c u m a fruit w e r e there)'.

1 1 . 2 4 k w e - p e r i k u m a r i-da-pe n a : p i - k u s u

I N T E R - P L : I N A N t u c u m a - C L : R O U N D - P L 3 p l + p u l l - P U L L . O U T

n h e n a : n a - k a n e m a n a - y a - n h i

3 p l + e n t e r 3 p l + g o 3 p l - s e e 3 p l + s t a n d 3 p l - s t a y - A N T

' T h e y (the m i s c h i e v o u s a n c e s t o r s ) p u l l e d o u t (the " m e a t " ) o u t o f e v e r y single o n e

t u c u m a fruit, e n t e r e d a n d w e r e w a t c h i n g ( w o m e n ) . '

T h e f o r m k w e - p e r i h a s to b e u s e d a s a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r in a q u e s t i o n - in a g r e e m e n t

w i t h t h e p r e f e r r e d clause-initial p o s i t i o n for interrogatives (see § 2 1 . 4 . 3 ) , e.g. kwe-peri

y a p h i n i - t h a hi (iNTER-PL.iNAN t h i n g - P R E S . N O N VIS. INTER DEM.ANIM) ' W h a t sort o f t h i n g s

a r e t h e s e (that h e l o v e s s o m u c h ) ? '

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 11.4 Interrogative-distributive kwa-/kwe- 211

K w e - p e r i c a n b e u s e d a s a sort o f r e s u m p t i v e p r o n o u n , a s in 1 1 . 2 5 , f r o m a d e s c r i p t i o n

o f t h e O f f e r i n g ritual.

1 1 . 2 5 y u w a p i k a i n a h u n a y y a p e k a s i w a - p e

l o n g . t i m e w o m a m P L p o t a t o j u i c e c a n e . w h i s k e y - P L

k w e - p e r i n a - d e - n i p e , n h e t a n a - n u - n a n h a

I N T E R - P L : I N A N 3 p l - h a v e ~ N O M 3 p l + t a k e 3 p l - c o m e - R E M . P . V I S t h e y

' F o r a l o n g t i m e w o m e n w e r e b r i n g i n g p o t a t o j u i c e (a t y p e o f f e r m e n t e d d r i n k ) ,

c a n e w h i s k e y , w h a t e v e r t h e y had.'

T h e a n i m a t e p l u r a l f o r m , k w e - p e n i ( I N T E R - P L : A N I M ) (instead of kuitapeni - s e e T a b l e

1 1 . 2 ) is e x t r e m e l y rare, a n d is j u s t o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e d b y y o u n g e r i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s

( s u c h a s J o v i n o B r i t o , t h e a u t h o r o f 11.26). It is m o s t p r o b a b l y b a s e d o n a n a l o g y w i t h

k w e - p e r i . T h e f o r m k u i t a p e n i is a l s o u s e d in this s e n t e n c e , t h o u g h in a different m e a n i n g

' w h a t is its n a m e ' ( s e e b e l o w ) .

1 1 . 2 6 d i - e m h a n i k w e - p e n i d i n u d i - n a - n h i - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - w a l k I N T E R - P L : A N I M 3 s g n f + k i l l 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T - R E M . P . R E P

itfiri k u i t e k u i t a - p e n i , kuisi k a i k a

g a m e I N T E R + N C L : A N I M I N T E R + C L : A N I M - P L : A N I M m u t u m a n d

yasiri h e m a , d i n u d i - n a - n h i - p i d a n a

k i n g f i s h e r tapir 3 s g n f + k i l l 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T - R E M . P . R E P

' H e w e n t a r o u n d , h e killed w h o e v e r t h e r e w a s , g a m e , w h a t ' s its n a m e (singular),

w h a t ' s their n a m e (plural), c u r a s s o w , a n d kingfisher, tapir, h e killed.'

T h e f o r m k w a n a ' w h o , a n y o n e , w h o e v e r ' is u s e d a s t h e h e a d , as in 1 1 . 2 9 , 8.46 a n d

8.47 ( s e e § 8 . 4 ) . In t h e dialect o f S a n t a T e r e z i n h a , k w a n a r e q u i r e s s i n g u l a r a g r e e m e n t o n

t h e v e r b , a s in 1 1 . 2 7 .

1 1 . 2 7 k w a n a - w i t h a i n a w i k i h i k u d i t e l i - e m h a n i

w h o - C O N D p e o p l e n o t . a p p e a r + N C L : A N I M 3 s g n f - w a l k

' W h o is w a l k i n g i n t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e r e a r e n o p e o p l e ? '

W h e n k w a n a is a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e ne ' n e g a t i v e ' it m e a n s 'no o n e ' (see C h a p t e r 17).

1 1 . 2 8 d i - n a d i - y a - n h i n e - k w a n a s e d e - w a n i - s e

3 s g n f - l i v e 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T N E G - w h o N E G . E X - C L . A B S T R - L O C

' H e l i v e d in t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e r e w a s n o one.'

K w a n a c a n a l s o b e u s e d a s a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r , as in 1 1 . 2 9 .

1 1 . 2 9 k w a n a - n i h k a n a w i k i n a : k a

w h o - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R p e o p l e 3 p l + a r r i v e

' W h a t p e o p l e a r r i v e d ? '

T h e f o r m k w a n a ' w h o e v e r ' m a y b e u s e d a s a relative p r o n o u n (see § 2 3 . 2 ) , a s in 11.30.

E x a m p l e s o f this k i n d are o n l y f o u n d w i t h y o u n g e r p e o p l e a n d m a y b e d u e to

i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m P o r t u g u e s e .

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 2 1 2 / / C l o s e d w o r d c l a s s e s

1 1 . 3 0 k w a n a p i n e k a - k w a - k a r i

w h o 2 s g + C O M R E L - h a n g - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G

p e d a l i - m a - p e - m i a - p i d a n a n a - d i a

o l d - C L : F E M - P L - O N L Y - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - r e t u r n

' W h o e v e r h u n g (in t h e h a m m o c k , i.e. slept) w i t h y o u , t h e y b e c a m e o l d w o m e n . '

T h e o r i g i n o f t h e suffix - n a in k w a - n a is n o t k n o w n ; it m i g h t b e related to t h e

a g e n t i v e - n a f o u n d in W a r e k e n a (see A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 8 b ) . T h e s a m e root, k w a - , a p p e a r s

in i n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b s , k w a m e 'almost, h o w ' a n d k w e m a k a 'when'. S e e § 2 1 . 4 . 3 .

T h e f o r m kuite (kwa+ite\ s e e T a b l e 11.2) is m o s t often u s e d as a m o d i f i e r , in t h e

m e a n i n g o f 'which', or, m o s t frequently, 'what's its n a m e (of s o m e o n e a n i m a t e ) ' , as in

11.31 (in this e x a m p l e kuite is a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n interrogative clitic) a n d 1 1 . 2 6 . It is

n o r m a l l y f o l l o w e d b y a p a u s e . It is n e v e r u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' w h o ' or ' w h o e v e r ' .

11.31 p a m u n a k u i t e - n h a ne:ri

m i d d l e I N T E R + N C L : A N I M - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R d e e r

h a : l i t e - p i d a n a d i - e m a

w h i t e + N C L : A N I M - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s t a n d

'In t h e m i d d l e ( o f it), w h a t ' s its n a m e , a w h i t e d e e r w a s standing.'

K u i t e , m e a n i n g 'what's its n a m e ' , c a n b e i n s e r t e d in t h e m i d d l e o f a n o u n p h r a s e

c o n s i s t i n g o f a n article a n d a n o u n , a s in 11.32.

1 1 . 3 2 d i - y e k a - p i d a n a d i h a k u i t e - n e

3 s g n f - k n o w - R E M . P . R E P A R T I N T E R + N C L : A N I M - F O C . A / S

p u : w e - n e

m o n k e y - F O C . A / S

'He, w h a t ' s h i s n a m e , m o n k e y , k n e w (it all).'

T h e f o r m k w a k a , t h e i n a n i m a t e c o u n t e r p a r t o f k w a n a , c a n also b e u s e d in t h e

m e a n i n g o f ' w h a t it's n a m e ' , if a s p e a k e r c a n n o t r e m e m b e r t h e correct w o r d , a s in 1 1 . 3 3 .

1 1 . 3 3 h a - p u a - n a w e s a

D E M : I N A N - C L : R I V E R - R E M . P . V I S l p l + g o . u p s t r e a m

w a - n a te k w a k a - s e - n a w a - p a t u

l p l + g o - R E M . P . V I S until w h a t - L O C - R E M . P . V I S l p l - e m b a r k

' W e w e n t u p t h a t (river), until w e e m b a r k e d at w h a t ' s its n a m e . '

W h e n u s e d a s a 'specific indefinite' m o d i f i e r , kwaka often t a k e s a classifier.

1 1 . 3 4 h a - p u a n u m a n a - s i n a

D E M : I N A N - C L : R I V E R m o u t h - R E M . P . I N F R

d u - r u k u - s i n a , k w a k a - p a n i h i p a - n u k u

3 s g f - g o . d o w n - R E M . P . I N F R w h a t - C L : R A P I D r a p i d - T O P . N O N . A / S

'At t h e m o u t h o f that river s h e c a m e d o w n , to t h e rapid, w h a t ' s its n a m e . '

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 ] 1.5 Gestural deictic khi 2 1 3

T h e p l u r a l f o r m k u i t a p e n i c a n also b e u s e d a s a specific indefinite w i t h t h e m e a n i n g

o f 'what's their n a m e ? ' , a s in 1 1 . 2 6 . A plural f o r m kuita-pe is o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e d in the

s a m e w a y , a s in 1 1 . 3 5 .

1 1 . 3 5 n e s e n h a k u i t a - p e y e p o s a n a w a l i k i - p e

t h e n t h e y I N T E R + C L : A N I M - P L I n d i a n y o u n g . m a n - P L

h a n u p e n e h p a n i - p i d a n a

m a n y 3 p l + w o r k - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e n t h e y , w h a t ' s their n a m e , I n d i a n s , m a n y y o u n g o n e s , w o r k e d there.'

T h e f o r m k u - i t a - p e n i is n o r m a l l y u s e d in the interrogative m e a n i n g ' w h i c h ones', as a

p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r ; cf. 1 1 . 3 6 .

1 1 . 3 6 k u i t a - p e n i y a p h i n i - t h a - n h a

I N T E R + C L : A N I M - P L t h i n g - F R - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

k a y u k w a k a i m h e n i - p e n i

t h u s I N T E R . I N A N m o a n - P L : A N I M

' W h a t sort o f a n i m a t e s are, w h a t , m o a n i n g ? '

T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e k a n i ' w h e r e ' (see § 2 1 . 4 . 3 ) c a n also b e u s e d a s a relative p r o n o u n

' w h i c h , w h i c h e v e r ' a n d a n i n t e r r o g a t i v e 'a p e r s o n f r o m w h i c h place'. In t h e s e c a s e s it

t a k e s t h e s a m e set o f classifiers a s t h e interrogative-distributive; s e e 1 1 . 3 7 a n d 5 . 6 3 .

1 1 . 3 7 p i - a p i - k a pi-Ita k a n i t e - n e

2 s g - g o 2 s g - s e e 2 s g - g o . u p w h e r e - K N C L : A N I M - I N S

h i k u h i k u - m h a d e

a p p e a r a p p e a r - F U T

' G o h a v e a l o o k u p there, w h i c h ( w o m a n ) c o u l d (this o n e ) b e s i m i l a r to.'

In 1 1 . 3 8 k a n i is u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f 'where', a n d in 1 1 . 3 9 it m e a n s 'wherever'.

1 1 . 3 8 k a n i - m h a d e w a - r u k u - s o w h a

w h e r e - F U T . C E R T 1p l - g o . d o w n - D O U B T . I N T E R w e

' W h e r e ( o n earth) a r e w e g o i n g to g o d o w n ? '

11.3 9 k a n i n u - k e t a - k a n u - i n u nu-hfia-de

w h e r e l s g - m e e t - S U B Isg-kill l s g - e a t - F U T . C E R T

' W h e r e ( e v e r ) I find ( g a m e ) , I will kill (it) a n d eat (it).'

1 1 . 5 G e s t u r a l d e i c t i c k h i

G e s t u r a l d e i c t i c k h i ' h a v i n g a f o r m like this ( a c c o m p a n i e d b y a p o i n t i n g / d e i c t i c gesture)'

is u s e d t o refer t o o b j e c t s at a n y d i s t a n c e f r o m the s p e a k e r a n d f r o m t h e hearer. It is

u n u s u a l in t h a t its u s e i n v o l v e s t h e actual d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f a f o r m ( n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e

size o f t h e o b j e c t is). T h i s m o d i f i e r d i s t i n g u i s h e s t w o n u m b e r s , a n d c a n o c c u r w i t h

classifiers ( s e e D u n d e r § 5 . 1 . 6 , a n d T a b l e 11.3); a n d it h a s d o u b l e p l u r a l m a r k i n g . S e e

1 1 . 4 0 , a n d 5 . 6 4 - 6 .

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 2 1 4 / / Closed word classes

T A B L E 11.3 A G R E E M E N T F O R M S O F khi-

U N M A R K E D S H A P E - A N D S E X - S P E C I F I C S I N G U L A R F O R M - S P E C I F I C P L U R A L

k h i - d a k h i - d a ^ CLASSIFIER khi-pe-CLASSlFlER(-pe)

1 1 . 4 0 k h i - p e - y a w a - p e - s e - p i d a n a n a - t h a k u - p e

l i k e . t h i s - P L - C L : H O L E - P L - C O N T R - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - n o s e - P L

n a - d e n a - t h a k u - y a w a - p e

3 p l - h a v e 3 p l - n o s e - C L : H O L E - P L

' T h e y ( w i l d p i g s ) h a d nostrils o f this f o r m (gesturing).'

T h e g e s t u r a l deictic is m o s t o f t e n u s e d a s a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r ; b u t it c a n a l s o o c c u r a s

a p o s t h e a d m o d i f i e r , a s in 1 1 . 4 1 . H e r e maka-pina is t h e h e a d (see § 5 . 3 . 4 o n t h e ' d u m m y '

r o o t maka).

11.41 a l i a - n a k a m a k a - p i n a w y a k a - p i n a

E X - P R E S . V I S d u m m y . r o o t - C L : S W A M P f a r - C L : S W A M P

k h i - d a - p i n a

t h i s . b i g - C L : R O U N D - C L : S W A M P

' T h e r e is a f a r - a w a y s w a m p o f this f o r m (gesturing).'

1 1 . 6 D i s t r i b u t i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s e r napada

D i s t r i b u t i v e i n d i v i d a l i s e r napada 'each; e v e r y ( i n s t a n c e o f different k i n d s ) , o n e b y o n e '

d i s t i n g u i s h e s t w o n u m b e r s a n d c a n c o m b i n e w i t h classifiers; s e e E in § 5 . 1 . 6 , a n d T a b l e

11.4.

T A B L E 1 1 . 4 A G R E E M E N T F O R M S O F napada

U N M A R K E D S E X - A N D S H A P E - S P E C I F I C S I N G U L A R F O R M - S P E C I F I C P L U R A L

n a p a d a n a p a d a ^ CLASSIFIER napada-CLASSlFiER-pe

It is c a n b e e m p l o y e d a s a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r , a s in 1 1 . 4 2 , o r p o s t h e a d , a s in 1 1 . 4 3 ( o t h e r

e x a m p l e s a r e u n d e r 5.67-9). S i n c e napada m e a n s ' e a c h i n s t a n c e o f different kind', it c a n

o n l y b e e m p l o y e d w h e n different k i n d s o f t h e s a m e referent are c o n c e i v a b l e for t h e

T a r i a n a , e.g. n a w i k i napada 'every t y p e o f p e o p l e e a c h o f a different kind', kuphe

napada 'every t y p e o f fish e a c h o f a different kind', kepira napada 'every t y p e o f bird

e a c h o f a different kind'. H o w e v e r , tfinu napada 'every t y p e o f d o g e a c h o f a different

k i n d ' w a s r e j e c t e d s i n c e d o g s a r e c o n s i d e r e d o n e g r o u p , to w h o m 'there are n o g r o u p s '

( m a k a - s a w a s e d e - k a ( d u m m y . r o o t - g r o u p N E G . E X - S U B ) 'since t h e r e is n o group').

1 1 . 4 2 n a p a d a - p i d a n a e:ni i n i p e n a - y a n a - n a

o n e . b y . o n e - R E M . P . R E P c h i e f I N D F + c h i l d 3 p l - s t a y 3 p l - O B J

T h e r e w e r e c h i l d r e n o f t h e c h i e f ('princes'), o n e for e a c h (princess).'

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 11.7 General indefinite pa: - 2 1 5

Napada r e q u i r e s p l u r a l a g r e e m e n t o n t h e h e a d n o u n , a s in 1 1 . 4 3 .

1 1 . 4 3 d e p i - p e n a p a d a - p i d a n a n a : n a - r a p a

n i g h t - P L o n e . b y . o n e - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + g o 3 p l - d a n c e

' T h e y w e n t d a n c i n g e v e r y night.'

T h e q u a n t i f i e r hidapada ( § 1 1 . 9 ) is s o m e t i m e s u s e d i n s t e a d o f napada b y y o u n g e r

s p e a k e r s . Napada is c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e d b y o l d e r p e o p l e . T h i s variability m a y b e d u e to

l a n g u a g e o b s o l e s c e n c e .

1 1 . 7 G e n e r a l i n d e f i n i t e p a : -

I n d e f i n i t e p a : - c o v e r s a w i d e r a n g e o f m e a n i n g s , s u c h as n u m e r a l 'one', 'only', 'another,

t h e other', a n d ' s o m e o n e , s o m e b o d y , a n y o n e ' . It a l w a y s o c c u r s w i t h a n u m e r a l classifier;

it d i s t i n g u i s h e s s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l o n l y i n s o m e o f t h e s e m e a n i n g s . It c a n b e u s e d a s a

p r e h e a d a n d a s a p o s t h e a d m o d i f i e r (see § 2 1 . 1 ) . A s a n u m e r a l 'one', p a : - is u s e d in

c o u n t i n g , e.g. p a : - d a , n a m a - d a , m a d a l i - d a ( o n e - C L : R O U N D , t w o - C L : R O U N D , t h r e e -

C L i R O U N D ) 'one, t w o , three'. W h e n u s e d for c o u n t i n g it c a n n o t b e pluralised. T h e f o r m

p a i t a ( o n e + C L : A N l M ) 'one' is o f t e n u s e d to i n t r o d u c e a n e w referent in d i s c o u r s e , a s in

11.1.

T h e f o r m p a ; - is o f t e n u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' o n e , a n o t h e r , (the) o t h e r ( o f t h e s a m e

kind)'. In 1 1 . 4 4 t h e first o c c u r r e n c e o f p a ; - m e a n s 'one, t h e s a m e one'; t h e s e c o n d is also

t r a n s l a t e d a s 'one', a n d t h e third a s 'another'. T h e f o u r t h o c c u r r e n c e of p a : - a g a i n m e a n s

'one, t h e s a m e o n e ' ( s u m m a r i s i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n ) .

1 1 . 4 4 p a : - d a p a n a - p i d a n a n a - y a y a w i neri

o n e - C L : H A B - R E M . P . R E P 3pl-live j a g u a r d e e r

n e r i p a : - d a w a - s e y a w i p a : - d a w a

d e e r o n e - C L : R O O M - L O C j a g u a r o n e - C L : R O O M

n a - y a - p i d a n a p a : - d a p a n a - y a

3 p l - l i v e - R E M . P . R E P o n e - C L : H A B - E M P H

' A j a g u a r a n d a d e e r l i v e d in o n e h o u s e , t h e d e e r in o n e r o o m , t h e j a g u a r in

a n o t h e r , (it w a s ) o n e h o u s e . '

W h e n t h e r e a r e t w o o c c u r r e n c e s of p a : - w i t h t h e s a m e classifier w i t h i n t h e s a m e

s e n t e n c e , t h e first o n e c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d a s 'one', a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e as ' a n o t h e r ( o f t h e

s a m e kind)', e.g. 1 1 . 4 5 .

1 1 . 4 5 p a i t a d i - m a t f i - k a - p i d a n a h a l o

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M 3 s g n f - b a d - T H - R E M . P . R E P b l o n d . m o n k e y

d i h a a:pia d i - m a t f i - k a - p i d a n a paita

A R T p i g 3 s g n f - b a d - T H - R E M . P . R E P o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M

' O n e ( p e r s o n w h o c o u l d n o t fast) t r a n s f o r m e d into a t y p e o f m o n k e y , a n o t h e r o n e

t r a n s f o r m e d into this ( k i n d of) p i g ( w e w e r e t a l k i n g about).'

A s m e n t i o n e d in § 5 . 2 , w h e n p a ; - is u s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to a d a y , different classifiers

are u s e d t o m e a n ' o n e d a y ' a n d 'another, s o m e o t h e r day': p a : - k a d a ehkwapi ( o n e - C L : D A Y

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 2 1 6 11 C l o s e d w o r d c l a s s e s

d a y ) m e a n s ' o n e d a y , o n c e u p o n a time', w h i l e p a : - d a ekwhapi ( o n e - C L : R O U N D d a y )

m e a n s 'next d a y , a n o t h e r day'. P a : - e h k w a p i ( o n e - W O R L D ) m e a n s ' a n o t h e r w o r l d ' ; a n d it

is u s e d t o refer to t h e culturally i m p o r t a n t n o t i o n o f t h e w o r l d o f f i s h - p e o p l e a n d evil

spirits ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n in A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 a ) , a s in 11.46.

1 1 . 4 6 p a : - e h k w a p i - s e - p i d e n a d i - u k a di-dia-niki

o n e - W O R L D - L O C - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3 s g n f - r e t u r n - C O M P L

k u p h e - n e - y a - e h k w a p i - s e - p i d e n a d i - d i a

fish-PL-POSS-WORLD-LOC-REM.P.REP 3 s g n f - r e t u r n

' H e (the m a n ) a r r i v e d b a c k into a n o t h e r w o r l d , h e c a m e into t h e w o r l d w h i c h

b e l o n g e d t o fishes.'

T h e f o r m p a : - c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e n e - (see C h a p t e r 17). T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n

m e a n s 'no one', a s in 1 1 . 4 7 .

1 1 . 4 7 n e - p a i t a m a - i n u - k a d e - p i d a n a

N E G - o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M N E G - k i l l - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

' H e (the h u n t e r ) d i d n o t kill a n y o n e . '

T h e form p a i t a ( o n e + N U M . C L : A M M ) 'one ( p e r s o n ) ' if p l u r a l i s e d c h a n g e s its m e a n i n g :

p a i t a - p e ( o n e + N U M . C L : A N i M - P L ) m e a n s ' s o m e (people)'.

It w a s s h o w n in A u n d e r §5.1.1 that p a : - c a n c o m b i n e w i t h t h e h u m a n n u m e r a l

classifier -hipa\ t h e n p a : - h i p a —• p h e p a m e a n s 'alone' (see 5.10) a n d c a n also b e

p l u r a l i s e d , b u t w i t h a different m e a n i n g (see 5 . 1 1 ; phepa-pe m e a n s ' m a n y p e o p l e a l o n e ,

m a n y l o n e l y ones').

P a : 0 ' a n o t h e r ( o f a different k i n d ) ' also c o n t a i n s t h e r o o t p a : - 'one' (the m e a n i n g o f

-tfi is n o t k n o w n ) . It is e m p l o y e d b o t h as a h e a d a n d as a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r in a n

indefinite m e a n i n g ' s o m e , s o m e b o d y , s o m e t h i n g else (different f r o m t h e o n e s w e k n o w

s o m e t h i n g a b o u t ) ' , e.g. pa.tfi n a w i k i ' s o m e p e r s o n ( o f different kind)' ( 1 1 . 4 8 ) , o r p a tfi

y a p h i n i ' s o m e t h i n g ( o f a different k i n d ) ' ( 1 1 . 4 9 ) . ( T h e difference b e t w e e n p a : - 'other o f

t h e s a m e ' a n d pa:tfi in T a r i a n a is r e m i n i s c e n t o f the difference b e t w e e n ' a n o t h e r ( t o k e n

o f t h e s a m e k i n d ) ' a n d ' a n o t h e r ( t o k e n o f a different kind)' in Y i d i n y : D i x o n 1 9 7 7 : 4 9 7 . )

Pa.tfi d o e s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h n u m b e r ; n o r d o e s it t a k e classifiers; if u s e d w i t h a h u m a n

referent, it r e q u i r e s plural a g r e e m e n t o n t h e v e r b . In 1 1 . 4 8 - 9 pa.tfi is u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r ,

a n d in 1 1 . 5 0 - 1 a s h e a d .

11.48pa:tfl n a w i k i n a - k w i s a n a - k a - m h a d e

other.of.different.kind p e o p l e 3 p l - s c o l d 3 p l - s e e - F U T

' O t h e r p e o p l e ( o f t h e k i n d different f r o m us) will b e jealous.'

11.49pa:tfi y a p h i n i w a - n a p u a y a - m h a d e di-a

other.of.different.kind t h i n g l p l - O B J d i f f e r e n t - F U T 3 s g n f - g o

' ( W e m u s t n ' t g o to t h e j u n g l e ) , s o m e ( u n k n o w n ) a d v e r s i t y will h a p p e n to u s (lit.

s o m e ( u n k n o w n ) t h i n g will g o differently o n us).'

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 11.8 Numerals 2 1 7

W h e n p a . t f i is u s e d a s h e a d it a l w a y s h a s a h u m a n o r h i g h a n i m a t e referent.

1 1 . 5 0 p a : t f i y a r u - m a k a - s i s e d e - p i d a n a

o t h e r . o f . d i f f e r e n t . k i n d t h i n g - C L : C L O T H - N P O S S N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

T h e r e w a s n o o n e e l s e ( w i t h ) c l o t h i n g (apart f r o m t h e a n c e s t o r o f w h i t e m a n ) . '

T h i s f o r m is o f t e n u s e d to refer to a n u n k n o w n , a n d potentially d a n g e r o u s entity, as in

1 1 . 5 1 , w h e r e t h e referent of pa.tfi t u r n e d o u t to b e a n evil spirit.

1 1 . 5 1 y e d a - s e pa:tfi n h a l i t u - k a n a - r a h t a

d o w n s t r e a m - L O C other.of.different.kind 3 p l + f i s h - S U B 3pl-float

' S o m e o n e ( d a n g e r o u s ) f l o a t e d d o w n s t r e a m fishing.'

Pa.tfi 'other o f a different kind' c a n b e m o d i f i e d b y k w a k a 'what' a n d t h e n h a v e a n

i n a n i m a t e referent.

1 1 . 5 2 k w a k a - n i h k a pa:tji

w h a t - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R other.of.different.kind

' W h a t e l s e is left?'

1 1 . 8 N u m e r a l s

N u m e r a l s in T a r i a n a c a n b e t r e a t e d a s a class o n their o w n o n s e m a n t i c g r o u n d s .

M o r p h o l o g i c a l l y t h e y are h e t e r o g e n e o u s . C a r d i n a l n u m e r a l s fall into t h e f o l l o w i n g

s u b c l a s s e s : b a s i c ( u n d e r i v e d ) n u m e r a l s ( f r o m o n e to three), d e v e r b a l n u m e r a l Tour', a n d

c o m p o u n d n u m e r a l s ( f r o m five o n w a r d s ) . W h i l e t h e first t w o are o b v i o u s l y c l o s e d

c l a s s e s , t h e c o m p o u n d n u m e r a l s are h a r d to e v a l u a t e . A p p a r e n t l y , c o m p o u n d n u m e r a l s

'exist' o n l y u p to t w e n t y ; t h e y are, h o w e v e r , rarely u s e d , a n d t h e r e is a large a m o u n t o f

v a r i a t i o n in their t r e a t m e n t b y different s p e a k e r s . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f u n d e r i v e d c a r d i n a l

n u m e r a l s f r o m o n e to t h r e e is characteristic b o t h for A r a w a k a n d T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s (see

A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) .

N u m e r a l s m a y p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w t h e h e a d n o u n in a n N P (see § 2 1 . 1 . 1 ) . U n d e r i v e d

n u m e r a l s in T a r i a n a are: p a : - 'one', h a m a - (variant: y a m a ) 'two', m a d a l i - 'three'. T h e y

r e q u i r e o b l i g a t o r y a g r e e m e n t in n u m e r a l classifier. T h e set o f n u m e r a l classifiers

c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e set o f n o u n class m a r k e r s , e x c e p t for t h e a n i m a t e classifiers.

N u m e r a l s u s e -ita 'generic a n i m a t e ' a n d -hipa ' a n i m a t e ( h u m a n ) ' classifiers (see § 5 . 1 . 1 ;

§5.1.4).

N u m b e r f o u r in T a r i a n a is a d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n : ka-iphu-nipe —> kephunipe

( R E L - a c c o m p a n y - N O M ) 'four, lit. t h e o n e w h o h a s a c o m p a n i o n ' . T h i s n u m e r a l is a c a i q u e

f r o m T u c a n o ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 6 a ) . N u m e r a l f o u r is also a d e v e r b a l f o r m a t i o n in

B a n i w a , b u t it h a s a different structure a n d s e m a n t i c s : ri-kwa-da-ka ( 3 s g n f - b e e n o u g h -

C L . - R O U N D - D E R ) 'it is e n o u g h ; four'. 'Four' r e q u i r e s a plural a n d a classifier a g r e e m e n t

w i t h a h e a d n o u n ( o p t i o n a l w i t h i n a n i m a t e referents). T h e n it t a k e s t h e plural m a r k e r

-pe, e.g. kephunipe-phi-pe surupe-phi-pe (four-CL:HOLLOW-PL clay-CL:HOLLOW-PL) 'four

c l a y p o t s ' ; kephunipe-ma-pe k a - b u e t a - m a - p e (four-CL.FEM-PL REL-teach-CL:FEM-PL) 'four

f e m a l e teachers'. N u m e r a l s f r o m five o n w a r d s are c o m p o u n d s . T h e y are f o r m e d slightly

differently i n S a n t a R o s a dialect, a n d in P e r i q u i t o s dialect.

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 2 1 8 / / C l o s e d w o r d c l a s s e s

A s i n B a n i w a a n d in T u c a n o , t h e n u m e r a l five in S a n t a R o s a d i a l e c t is b a s e d o n t h e

w o r d for h a n d w i t h i m p e r s o n a l p r e f i x : p a - k a p i ' s o m e o n e ' s h a n d ' . It is o p t i o n a l l y

f o l l o w e d b y t h u y a 'all of, a n d t h e n b y h e a d n o u n , e.g. p a - k a p i t h u y a p u : w e ( i M P - h a n d all

m o n k e y ) 'lit. a l l h a n d - m o n k e y ; five m o n k e y s ' ( s e e e x a m p l e s 5 . 2 9 - 3 3 ) .

N u m e r a l s b i g g e r t h a n five a r e r a r e l y u s e d , a n d a r e o f t e n s u b s t i t u t e d b y l o a n n u m b e r s

f r o m P o r t u g u e s e . N u m e r a l s f r o m six t o n i n e are f o r m e d a s f o l l o w s :

o n e s i d e o f a h a n d ( a n d ) o n e + c l a s s i f i e r f o l l o w s (+classifier), e.g.:

p e m e - k a p i p a : - n a d i - a n a t a - n a 'six'

o n e + S I D E + I N D F - H A N D o n e - C L : V E R T 3 s g n f - f o l l 0 W - C L : V E R T

(lit. 'the s i d e o f o n e h a n d a n d o n e vertical o n e , i.e. finger, w h i c h f o l l o w s ' )

A v a r i a n t is p e m e k a p i p a : - n a d y a n a t a ( w i t h o u t t h e 'vertical' classifier - n a at t h e e n d ) .

N u m b e r t e n is literally '(all) t w o h a n d s ' , e.g. n a m a - k a p i t h u y a - n a - p e p u . w e ( t w o - h a n d

all-CL:VERT-PL m o n k e y ) 'ten m o n k e y s ' (lit. 'all t w o h a n d s m o n k e y ' ) , o r n a m a - k a p i - d a - p e

p u . w e ( t w o - h a n d - C L : R O U N D - P L m o n k e y ) 'ten m o n k e y s ' .

N u m b e r s f r o m e l e v e n t o f o u r t e e n a r e either ' t w o h a n d s a d d o n e ( t w o , t h r e e )

+classifier', e.g. n a m a - k a p i d i - y e n a p a : - n a ( t w o - h a n d 3 s g n f - b e c o m e o n e - C L : V E R T )

'eleven' (lit. ' t w o h a n d s p l u s o n e ' ) ; o r ' t w o h a n d s a n d o n e + c l a s s i f i e r o n o n e f o o t f o l l o w s ' ,

e.g. n a m a - k a p i - d a - p e p a : - d a p a : - h i p a m a d i - a n a t a ( t w o - h a n d - C L : R O U N D - P L o n e -

C L : R O U N D o n e - f o o t 3 s g n f - f o l l o w ) 'eleven'.

T h e n u m e r a l 'fifteen' c o n s i s t s o f ' t w o h a n d s a d d a foot', a s i n n a m a - k a p i d i - y e n a

h i p a m a ( t w o - h a n d 3 s g n f - b e c o m e foot) 'fifteen' (lit. ' t w o h a n d s p l u s a foot'), o r o f '(all)

t w o h a n d s o n e f o o t a r e over', a s in (thuya) n a m a - k a p i p a : - h i p a m a d i - s i s a ((all) t w o - h a n d

o n e - f o o t 3 s g n f - e n d ) 'fifteen'.

N u m b e r s f r o m s i x t e e n to n i n e t e e n h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g structure: '(all) t w o h a n d s a d d

o n e / t w o / t h r e e + c l a s s i f i e r o n o n e foot', e.g. n a m a - k a p i d i - y e n a p a : - d a p a : - h i p a m a ( t w o -

h a n d 3 s g n f + f o l l o w o n e - C L : R O U N D o n e - f o o t ) 'sixteen'. N u m b e r t w e n t y h a s t h e s t r u c t u r e

o f ' ( a l l ) t w o h a n d s t w o all feet': n a m a - k a p i t h u y a n a m a - h i p a m a t h u y a ( t w o - h a n d all t w o -

f o o t all) ' t w o h a n d s a n d t w o feet', or: 'all t w o h a n d s (all) t w o feet a r e over': n a m a - k a p i

t h u y a n a m a - h i p a m a d i - s i s a ( t w o - h a n d all t w o - f o o t 3 s g n f - e n d ) . T h e n u m b e r t w e n t y

r e s e m b l e s a T u c a n o t y p e , a n d n o t a B a n i w a t y p e : t w e n t y in B a n i w a is n a w i k i ' o n e

p e r s o n : t w e n t y ( p r e s u m a b l y , f i n g e r s a n d toes)'. T h e variability i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f

c o m p o u n d n u m e r a l s is p r o b a b l y d u e t o their o b s o l e s c e n c e (see A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g -

a o n P o r t u g u e s e n u m e r a l s u s e d in T a r i a n a ) .

N u m b e r s f r o m five t o fifteen i n t h e P e r i q u i t o s d i a l e c t a r e a s f o l l o w s :

• p a - k a p i i-sisa ( I M P - h a n d i N D F - e n d ) 'five'

• p a - k a p i p a - d a h i . p a ( I M P - h a n d o n e - C L : R O U N D ?) 'six'

• p a - k a p i n a m a - d a h i . p a ( I M P - h a n d t w o - C L : R O U N D ?) 'seven'

• p a - k a p i m a d a l i - d a h i . p a ( I M P - h a n d t h r e e - C L : R O U N D ?) 'eight'

• p a - k a p i k e h p u n i p e - d a - p e h i . p a ( I M P - h a n d four-CL:ROUND-PL ?) 'nine'

• n a m e m a p a - k a p i ( t w o + C L : s i D E I M P - h a n d ) o r n a m a - k a p i i-sisa ( t w o - C L : H A N D

I N D F - e n d ) 'ten'

• n a m a - k a p i i-sisa p a - h y u p a m a p a - d a ( t w o - C L : H A N D I N D F - e n d o n e - C L : F O O T o n e -

C L : R O U N D ) 'eleven'

• n a m a - k a p i i-sisa p a - h y u p a m a n a m a - d a ( t w o - C L : H A N D I N D F - e n d t w o - C L : F O O T

o n e - C L : R O U N D ) ' t w e l v e '

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 11.9 Quantifiers 2 1 9

• n a m a - k a p i i-sisa p a - h y u p a m a madali-da ( t w o - C L : H A N D INDF-end o n e - C L : F O O T

t h r e e - C L i R O U N D ) 'thirteen'

• n a m a - k a p i i-sisa p a - h y u p a m a kehpunipe-da-pe ( t w o - C L . H A N D INDF-end o n e -

C L : F O O T f o u r - C L : R O U N D - P L ) 'fourteen'

• n a m a - k a p i i-sisa p a - h y u p a m a i-sisa ( t w o - C L : H A N D INDF-end o n e - C L : F O O T INDF-

e n d ) 'fifteen'

T h e t e r m for t w e n t y is n a m a - k a p i i-sisa h a m a - h y u p a m a i-sisa ( t w o - C L : H A N D INDF-

e n d t w o - C L : F O O T INDF-end).

O r d i n a l n u m e r a l s are h e t e r o g e n o u s . S a v e r b s -peya 'be first, b e a h e a d ' a n d - k e n a

'begin' a r e u s e d for 'first'; - k e n a is u s e d in its relative f o r m (ka-kena 'first, b e g i n n e r ' ) ,

w h i l e -peya is u s e d in a n a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (see C h a p t e r 18). F o r 'second',

d i - p u m i - i t e —• dipumite ( 3 s g m a s c - f o l l o w - N O M + N C L : A N l M ) , literally, 'the f o l l o w i n g o n e '

is u s e d . A n o r d i n a l n u m e r a l is d e r i v e d f r o m 'three' w i t h -ite ' a n i m a t e n o u n class':

m a d a l i t e ( t h r e e + N C L : A N i M ) 'third o n e ' (this is different f r o m m a d a l i t a

( t h r e e + N U M . C L : A N i M ) 'three ( a n i m a t e beings)'). A n a d p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n is u s e d for

t h e rest, e.g. m a d a l i t e i-pu-mi ( t h r e e + N C L : A N l M i N D F - f o l l o w - N O M ) 'fourth; lit. after the

third one', kephunipe ipumi 'fifth, after four', p a k a p i thuya ipumi 'sixth; after five'.

O r d i n a l n u m e r a l s a r e h a r d l y e v e r u s e d i n traditional stories.

T h e r e a r e n o o t h e r n u m b e r s in T a r i a n a ; m e a n i n g s s i m i l a r to fractions etc. are

e x p r e s s e d w i t h quantifier-like classifiers (listed in C o f T a b l e 5.1), e.g. -iphina 'a

quarter', e.g. p e t h e - i p h i n a 'a q u a r t e r o f m a n i o c bread', cf. also -piu/-pia 'time', a s in

p a : - p i u , p a : - p i a 'once', n a m a - p i u , n a m a - p i a 'twice' a n d m a d a l i - p i u , m a d a l i - p i a 'three

times'.

1 1 . 9 Q u a n t i f i e r s

Q u a n t i f i e r s i n c l u d e thuy- ' a l l ' , hidapada 'all, e v e r y ' , hanupe 'many', m h a i d a 'few', a n d the

i n t e r r o g a t i v e - d e m o n s t r a t i v e kanapada ' h o w m a n y , h o w m u c h ; this m a n y , this m u c h ' . O f

t h e s e , o n l y kanapada t a k e s classifiers a n d h a s a plural (see u n d e r E in §5.1.6).

Thuy- 'all' is u s u a l l y a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r a n d it d i s t i n g u i s h e s t w o f o r m s : thuya 'all o f

o n e k i n d ' a n d t h u y m e 'all o f d i f f e r e n t kinds'. ( B o t h a r e related to t h e v e r b a l enclitic thuy

'all, e v e r y w h e r e ' - s e e § 1 5 . 2 . ) Thuyme is illustrated in 1 1 . 5 3 - w h e r e it r e f e r s to all t h e

different g r o u p s o f p e o p l e ; in 1 1 . 5 4 thuya refers to all t h e p e o p l e o f o n e g r o u p . ( W e

h a v e s e e n in § 11.8 t h a t t h u y a ( b u t n o t thuyme) is a l s o u s e d in c o m p l e x n u m b e r s , e.g. p a -

kapi t h u y a ( i M P - h a n d a l h i N A N ) 'five; all t h e hand'. T h e m o d i f i e r is p l a c e d after t h e h e a d . )

1 1 . 5 3 k a s i n a - n u k u t h u y m e s a w a - p e

n o w + A F F - T O P . N O N . A / S a l l : D I F F E R E N T . K I N D g r o u p - P L

d i h a y a : s e n i k u - n u k u n a - s a p e - n a k a

A R T T u c a n o . l a n g u a g e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - t a l k - P R E S . V I S

' N o w all t h e (different) g r o u p s s p e a k T u c a n o . '

1 1 . 5 4 t h u y a n a w i k i m a - d e - k a d e - m h a

a l l : O N E . K I N D p e o p l e N E G - h a v e - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

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 2 2 0 11 Closed word classes

h T - n a k u

D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

'All t h e p e o p l e (as a w h o l e ) d o n o t h a v e this ( Y u r u p a r y flute).'

Thuya a n d t h u y m e c a n b e u s e d a s r e s u m p t i v e p r o n o u n s , as in 11.55 a n d 11.56.

1 1 . 5 5 n a h a m e p u k u - p e - n u k u n h e - p i d e n a n a - y a - n h i

t h e y fish.trap-PL-TOP.NON.A/S 3 p l + e n t e r - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - s t a y - A N T

n a n a k e : m a l i p h e t h u y a k u p h e

m a d i . f i s h p e s c a d a . f i s h pirandira.fish all : O N E . K I N D fish

' M a d i fish, p i r a n d i r a fish, p e s c a d a - all t h e fish ( a n d t h u s o f t h e s a m e k i n d ) - w e r e

c o m i n g i n t o their traps.'

11.56itfiri p u : w e k a p a r u kwitfi m a r e

g a m e m o n k e y b e l l i e d . m o n k e y m u t u m g a r 9 a

t h u y m e itfiri-pu alia-na

a l l . D I F F E R E N T . K I N D g a m e - A U G E X I S T - R E M . P . V I S

' G a m e - m o n k e y , b e l l i e d m o n k e y , m u t u m , g a r $ a - all t h e (different) a n i m a l s

i n d e e d w e r e there.'

Thuyme c a n b e u s e d after t h e h e a d , a s in 1 1 . 5 7 (see § 2 1 . 1 ) .

1 1 . 5 7 w a h a t h u y m e w a - s a p e - m h a

w e a l l : D I F F E R E N T . K I N D l p l - t a l k - P R E S . N O N V I S

' W e all talk (different p e o p l e s a y i n g different t h i n g s at t h e s a m e time).'

HTdapada 'all, e v e r y ' c a n b e u s e d a s a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r , or a s a p o s t h e a d m o d i f i e r . It

d o e s n o t t a k e classifiers o r plural m a r k e r s . It r e q u i r e s plural a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e

p r e d i c a t e . T h i s is s h o w n in 1 1 . 5 8 .

1 1 . 5 8 p a - k a p i t h u y a h l d a p a d a - p i d a n a n a w i k i

I M P - h a n d a l l : I N A N e v e r y - R E M . P . R E P p e o p l e

pa:-putfita-se n e h p a n i - k a - p i d a n a

o n e - C L : C L E A R I N G - L O C 3 p l + w o r k - S U B - R E M . P . R E P

' W h i l e five p e o p l e , e v e r y o n e o f t h e m , w e r e w o r k i n g o n a clearing...'

Q u a n t i f i e r s m h a i d a 'few' a n d hanupe ' m a n y , m u c h , a lot o f are p o s t h e a d ; t h e y u s u a l l y

d o n o t t a k e classifiers o r plural m a r k e r s , a n d are u s e d w i t h c o u n t a b l e a n d u n c o u n t a b l e

n o u n s , e.g. u n i m h a i d a 'little water', uni hanupe ' m u c h water'; n a w i k i m h a i d a 'few

p e o p l e ' , n a w i k i hanupe ' m a n y p e o p l e ' . Hanupe is illustrated in 11.59.

1 1 . 5 9 i t f i d a - p e h a n u p e n u - p a n a n u - r u k u - i - t a - m h a d e

t u r t l e - P L m a n y 1s g - s e n d 1s g - d e s c e n d - C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - F U T . U N C E R T

'I w i l l s e n d ( y o u ) a lot o f turtles.'

S e e § 8 . 4 , o n h o w hanupe c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y c o m b i n e w i t h classifiers.

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 1 1 . 1 0 C o n n e c t i v e s 2 2 1

T h e f o r m h a n u - p e is d e r i v e d f r o m h a n u - 'big' p l u s -pe 'plural' (see §8.1.5); m h a i d a is

h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h t h e p r o h i b i t i v e m a r k e r d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 17. T h e s a m e f o r m ,

m h a i d a , is a l s o u s e d in t h e a d v e r b i a l t e m p o r a l e x p r e s s i o n m h a i d a p i a k a 'a little later'.

T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e quantifier kanapada t a k e s classifiers a n d t h e plural suffix -pe - s e e

T a b l e 11.5 ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r E in §5.1.6) a n d 5.72. It is a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r , a n d c a n

a l s o b e u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' w h a t e v e r ' , a s in 5 . 7 1 ; o r ' s o m e ' (indefinite quantity), as in

1 1 . 6 0 .

T A B L E 11.5 A G R E E M E N T F O R M S O F k a n a p a d a

U N M A R K E D S E X - A N D S H A P E - S P E C I F I C S I N G U L A R F O R M - S P E C I F I C P L U R A L

k a n a p a d a ( - p e ) k a n a p a d a kanapada-CLASSiFiER-pe

1 1 . 6 0 k a n a p a d a - d a - p e y a m i n a - t h a - s i n a di-a

h o w . m a n y . i n d e f m i t e . q u a n t i t y - C L : R O U N D - P L d a y - F R - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g n f - g o

'Indefinite q u a n t i t y o f d a y s w e n t b y ( b e f o r e t h e flood stopped).'

U n l i k e n a p a d a , kanapada d o e s n o t r e q u i r e t h e plural f o r m o f t h e h e a d n o u n ; plural

m a r k i n g d o e s a p p e a r s o m e t i m e s , as in 1 1 . 6 1 .

1 1 . 6 1 k a n a p a d a pif i-ne d i - d e - s i n a

h o w . m a n y . i n d e f i n i t e . q u a n t i t y Y u r u p a r y . f l u t e - P L 3 s g n f . h a v e - R E M . P . I N F R

' H e h a d m a n y Y u r u p a r y flutes.'

1 1 . 1 0 C o n n e c t i v e s

T a r i a n a h a s a s m a l l c l a s s o f c o n n e c t i v e s w h i c h c a n n o t b e u s e d as m o d i f i e r s ; b u t c a n

f u n c t i o n a s a r g u m e n t s , a n d a s n o m i n a l d e r i v a t i o n a l b a s e s . T h e c o n n e c t i v e ne 'then, a n d ,

a n d thus' c a n o c c u r a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t w o r d or a s a proclitic, d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r it is

f o c u s s e d o r n o t ( s e e 2 . 8 a n d 2.9 in §2.6). It c a n t a k e t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t m a r k e r

- n u k u , a s in 2 . 1 0 . T h e c o n n e c t i v e ne c a n also b e u s e d as a n o m i n a l d e r i v a t i o n a l b a s e ,

e.g. n e - p e n i (then-PL:ANIM) ' p e o p l e f r o m there, p e o p l e w h o w e r e there'. In 1 1 . 6 2 this

f o r m is u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r to t h e h e a d , n a w i k i 'people'.

1 1 . 6 2 n e - p e n i n a w i k i d i - n a m a t f a - w a n i - p i d a n a n a - k o l o t a

t h e n - A N I M : P L p e o p l e 3 s g n f - O B J g o o d - A B S T R - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - m e e t

' T h e p e o p l e f r o m t h e r e m e t h i m well.'

U n l i k e a n y o t h e r proclitic, e x c e p t for t h e n e g a t i v e n e , ne 'then' c a n f o r m a c l a u s e o n

its o w n , m e a n i n g s o m e t h i n g like 'hey!' (as a n attention getter). S o m e s p e a k e r s o f the

S a n t a T e r e z i n h a variety o f T a r i a n a u s e n e . n l 'then' i n s t e a d o f ne.

T h e c o n n e c t i v e n e s e 'then' is s e m a n t i c a l l y v e r y s i m i l a r t o ne (it is c o g n a t e to B a n i w a

o f h p a n a nhe[e 'then'); u n l i k e n e , it is n o t a proclitic. It c a n t a k e t h e - n u k u c a s e m a r k i n g ,

b u t c a n n o t b e u s e d a s t h e b a s e for d e r i v a t i o n . I n 1 1 . 6 3 n e s e is n o t c a s e - m a r k e d ; a n d in

1 1 . 6 4 it is t o p i c a l a n d d o e s t a k e t h e - n u k u m a r k e r .

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 2 2 2 7 / Closed word classes

1 1 . 6 3 n e s e n e n u h i k u - m h a n a n e s e

t h e n 3 p l + g o . u p a p p e a r - R E M . P . N O N V I S t h e n

k h a m e r i k u n a - n i - m h a n a n h a k a t a n a p i r i

m a k e . n o i s e 3 p l - d o - R E M . P . N O N V I S t h e y e a r t h w o r m s

T h e n t h e y w e n t u p a n d a p p e a r e d , t h e n t h e y m a d e n o i s e , t h e e a r t h w o r m s . '

1 1 . 6 4 n e s e - n a k u n h u p a n u m a - t h a - n a

t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S 1s g + g r a b 1 s g + t r y - F R - R E M . P . V I S

' A n d (it w a s ) t h e n t h a t I tried to g r a b ( w h a t I t h o u g h t w a s a fish b u t w h a t t u r n e d

o u t t o b e a m u c u r a rat w h o bit m e ) . '

T h e c o n n e c t i v e d i w e s e 'then, t h u s , so' c a n t a k e the topical n o n - s u b j e c t - n u k u a n d also

t h e e x t r a l o c a l i t y m a r k e r -wya (see C h a p t e r 9). L i k e n e s e it c a n n o t t a k e a n y n o m i n a l

d e r i v a t i o n . T h i s c o n n e c t i v e c o n t a i n s p r e f i x di- ' 3 s g n f ; h o w e v e r , t h e e t y m o l o g y o f - w e s e

is u n c l e a r . D i w e s e is illustrated in 1 1 . 6 5 . In 1 1 . 6 6 , w h e r e t h e logical s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s

is topical, it t a k e s - n u k u . In 1 1 . 6 7 , d i w e s e - w y a - n u k u m e a n s 'only j u s t then'.

1 1 . 6 5 d i w e s e - p i d a n a d i - k a l i t e - n h a

t h u s - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - t e l l - P A U S

' A n d t h u s (after s h e u r g e d h i m t o tell h e r e v e r y t h i n g ) h e told her.'

1 1 . 6 6 d i w e s e - n u k u k a m u y a p i a w i n a l e k a - k a n a

t h u s - T O P . N O N . A / S s u m m e r w a c u . f r u i t b r e a k - P A S S I V E

' A n d t h u s (for this r e a s o n ) , (since) it w a s s u m m e r , w a c u fruit w a s b r e a k i n g (that is,

it w a s e a s y t o h e a r noises).'

1 1 . 6 7 w a : - n a d i w e s e - w y a - n u k u k w e - m h a d e

1 p l - s p e a k - R E M . P . V I S t h e n - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S h o w - F U T

d i - a k u p h e s e d e - k a w a - n a

3 s g n f - g o fish N E G . E X - S U B p l - O B J

'Just t h e n w e talked: " H o w i s it g o i n g t o b e , if w e h a v e n o fish?'"

O t h e r c o n n e c t i v e s , e.g. kayumaka 'thus', c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s u b c l a s s o f a d v e r b s (see

C h a p t e r 3). T h e i r u s e in d i s c o u r s e is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2 5 . T h e c o n n e c t i v e kaika 'and'

is d i s c u s s e d in § 2 1 . 2 .

1 1 . 1 1 A d p o s i t i o n s

M o r p h o l o g i c a l l y , a d p o s i t i o n s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s u b c l a s s o f n o u n s ; h o w e v e r ,

e t y m o l o g i c a l l y t h e y c o m e f r o m n o u n s , o r f r o m v e r b s (as a part o f g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n - s e e C h a p t e r 18, a n d A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 c ) . S o m e a d p o s i t i o n s c a n t a k e

t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e m a r k e r a n d t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t m a r k e r - n u k u (but n o t o t h e r c a s e

m a r k e r s ) ; t h e y c a n n o t b e m o d i f i e d , o r trigger classifier a g r e e m e n t , o r t a k e a classifier;

t h e y a l s o h a v e n o n u m b e r distinctions. T h e y are a c l o s e d class u s e d a s t h e h e a d o f a n

a d p o s i t i o n a l n o u n p h r a s e (a s u b t y p e o f a p o s s e s s i v e N P ) . M o s t o f t h e m are

p o s t p o s i t i o n s ; t h e o n l y p r e p o s i t i o n is te 'until' (see H b e l o w ) . P o s t p o s i t i o n s c a n b e

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 11.11 A dpositions 2 2 3

p r e p o s e d to a n o u n o n l y if t h e n o u n is a d d e d as a n 'afterthought' (this is illustrated in

1 1 . 1 0 8 ) .

A d p o s i t i o n s fall into a n u m b e r o f c l a s s e s a c c o r d i n g to h o w m u c h n o u n m o r p h o l o g y

t h e y c a n t a k e , a n d w h a t s y n t a c t i c p r o p e r t i e s t h e y h a v e .

T h e c o m p l e t e list o f a d p o s i t i o n s is a s f o l l o w s :

A . -api ' t o g e t h e r with', -siu 'for';

B . -pu-mi ( f o l l o w - N O M ) 'after', -pu-mi-na ( f o l l o w - N O M - N O M ) ' b e c a u s e of;

C . - r u k u - i t a - k a 'near, d o w n w a r d s ' , - k w a - k a ( h a n g - S U B ) 'in t h e m i d d l e ' , - w e - t a - k a

' t o w a r d s t h e j u n g l e ' , -Tta-ka ' u p w a r d s f r o m ( g o i n g up)', - s e t a - k a ' u p w a r d s f r o m

( l o o k i n g up)', - t h a k e t a - k a 'across from'; -peya 'be first'; - w a r a k a 'less than', -yena

' m o r e than'; n u - s a m i s e ( l s g - b a c k ) ' b e h i n d m e ' (or: m y b a c k ) , nu-yapise ( l s g -

u n d e r n e a t h ) ' u n d e r m e ' (or t h e p a r t u n d e r n e a t h m e ) ; d i - t h i - r i k u - n a 'at, n e a r , at t h e

e d g e o f ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s b o t h -riku a n d -na), d i - w h i d a - n a 'on his e n d , at t h e end',

a n d ie-riku-se 'in t h e d e n s i t y ( o f a j u n g l e ) ' ;

D . -eda ' u p s t r e a m ' , -kwe ' u p s t r e a m from';-ewhe 'amidst, between';-zY/zaw 'near';

E . w a - r i k u - s e 'inside', n u m a - n a ( m o u t h - A F F ) 'at t h e m o u t h o f (a river)';

F. w i k a , w i k a - s e 'on t o p of, a n d dalipa 'near';

G . m a y a k a n i (be.straight/right) 'on t h e right side of, p a - s o l e - k e m a 'on t h e left h a n d

s i d e of, lit. 'the side o n w h i c h o n e carries (boxes)', p e k u r i 'in b e t w e e n t w o

things',

H . p a m u h a '(in t h e ) m i d d l e ' , mafia ' a m o n g , amidst', l e w h e 'about, m o r e o r less',

y a p h i n i ' l i k e , s i m i l a r t o ' , kayu 'like, thus', a n d p r e p o s i t i o n te 'until'.

T h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e e i g h t c l a s s e s o f a d p o s i t i o n s are s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 11.6 a n d

d i s c u s s e d b e l o w .

A . U N D E R I V E D ADPOSITIONS w h i c h t a k e a full set o f n o m i n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s (i.e.

t w o n u m b e r s a n d five p e r s o n s : first, s e c o n d , third s i n g u l a r a n d plural, i m p e r s o n a l a n d

i n d e f i n i t e - s e e T a b l e 6.1) are -api 'together w i t h ; about', a s in 1 1 . 6 8 , a n d -siu 'for t h e

b e n e f i t of; i n s t e a d o f s o m e o n e ' , a s in 1 1 . 6 9 , e.g.:

1 1 . 6 8 d i h a - p i d e n a Ina.-pil ka-iiha k e m h a n i

h e - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + w i t h R E L - e a t R E L + w a l k

n e k a n a - k a - p i d e n a d i h a

3 p l + c h i e f - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P h e

' T h e o n e w h o w a s e a t i n g a n d w a l k i n g w i t h t h e m w a s their c h i e f

1 1 . 6 9 p i - a p h i p a h a - p h e - n u k u

2 s g - g o 2 s g + t a k e D E M : I N A N - C L : L E A F - T O P . N O N . A / S

[ G a r a i-siu]

G a r a I N D F - f o r

' G o a n d b r i n g this b o o k for G a r a . '

I n 1 1 . 7 0 -siu m e a n s 'for y o u , in y o u r stead' (the o b j e c t c a s e f o r m (see C h a p t e r 7) p i -

n a refers t o t h e b e n e f i c i a r y ) .

1 1 . 7 0 m h a T d a k a w a l i k u p e d a , n h u a - d e p i - n a [pi-siu] n u - n i

P R O H b e . u p s e t I - F U T . C E R T 2 s g - O B J 2 s g - f o r l s g - d o

' D o n ' t b e u p s e t , I will d o (the j o b ) for y o u i n s t e a d o f you.'

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Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. New York University Libraries, on 21 Jan 2017 at 17:58:51, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107050952.015

T A B L E 11.6 P R O P E R T I E S O F A D P O S I T I O N S O F T H E T Y P E S A - H : A S U M M A R Y

F U L L S E T O F C O M P L E M E N T C A N
D E R I V A T I O N A L T O P I C A L N O N -
T Y P E N O M I N A L L O C A T I V E C A S E C L A U S E A S B Y
S T A T U S S U B J E C T C A S E
P R E F I X E S A R G U M E N T P R E

A u n d e r i v e d y e s n o n o n o

y e s ( e x c e p t y e s ( o n l y t h o s e w i t h
d e r i v e d
B y e s c o m p a r a t i v e directional/locative n o
( f r o m n o u n s )
a d p o s i t i o n s ) m e a n i n g )

d e r i v e d
n o
C ( f r o m v e r b s a n d y e s y e s y e s
( e x c e p t -peya)
b o d y - p a r t s )

D u n d e r i v e d y e s y e s y e s n o o

n o indefinite
E d e r i v e d y e s y e s n o
p r e f i x

n o indefinite
F u n d e r i v e d y e s y e s n o
prefix

G d e r i v e d n o y e s n o y e s

y e s y e s ( o n l y t h o s e w i t h

H u n d e r i v e d n o ( e x c e p t mafia, directional/locative o n l y kayu a n d te ( e x

kayu a n d te) m e a n i n g ) ka
 11.11 Adpositions 2 2 5

T h e s e a d p o s i t i o n s c a n n o t t a k e t h e locative c a s e m a r k e r -se; t h e y c a n n o t t a k e a

c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e a s their a r g u m e n t .

D e r i v e d a d p o s i t i o n s w h i c h t a k e a full set o f n o m i n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s ( i n c l u d i n g

t h e i n d e f i n i t e p r e f i x *-) c a n c o m e f r o m ( B ) d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , a n d ( C )

c o m p o n e n t s o f d i r e c t i o n a l a n d o t h e r serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , a n d b o d y parts. N o t e that

n e i t h e r d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s n o r v e r b s w i t h i n serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a n t a k e t h e

indefinite p r e f i x in M o d e r n T a r i a n a ; h o w e v e r , a d p o s i t i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s e c a n . T h i s

m e a n s t h a t their g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n as a d p o s i t i o n s o c c u r r e d b e f o r e t h e indefinite prefix

w a s lost in t h e s e c o n t e x t s (see § 6 . 1 . 2 , o n t h e s y n t a x o f the indefinite prefix in T a r i a n a

a n d in B a n i w a w h e r e it is u s e d in all c o n t e x t s ) .

B . A D P O S I T I O N S D E R I V E D f r o m d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s are -pu-mi ( f o l l o w - N O M ) 'after',

a s in d i h a - k a d a i-pu-mi ( A R T - C L : D A Y i N D F - f o l l o w - N O M ) 'after this day'; a n d -pu-mi-na

( f o l l o w - N O M - N O M ) ' b e c a u s e of, a s in 1 1 . 1 0 1 .

1 1 . 7 1 [ p i - y a r u p e i - p u m i n a ] u n i n u h u a

2 p l - t h i n g I N D F - b e c a u s e w a t e r I

i-tja-nuku d i - b o l e t a t h u y - n i k i

I N D F - h a i r - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - d e f e a t h e r a l l - C O M P L

' B e c a u s e o f y o u r t h i n g s (i.e. b e c a u s e o f w h a t y o u w e r e d o i n g ) w a t e r t o o k m y hair

all a w a y . '

B o t h a d p o s i t i o n s c a n t a k e - n u k u 'topical non-subject', a n d o n l y -pumi c a n t a k e t h e

l o c a t i v e -se.

C . A D P O S I T I O N S D E R I V E D F R O M C O M P O N E N T S O F D I R E C T I O N A L S E R I A L V E R B

C O N S T R U C T I O N S are - r u k u - i - t a - k a ( g o . d o w n - C A U S l - C A U s 2 - S U B ) 'near, d o w n w a r d s ' ,

- k w a - k a ( h a n g - S U B ) 'in t h e m i d d l e ' , - w e - t a - k a ( e n t e r + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - s u B ) ' t o w a r d s t h e

j u n g l e ' , - i t a - k a ( g o . u p + C A U S - S U B ) ' u p w a r d s f r o m ( g o i n g up)', - s e t a - k a (lift+CAUS-SUB)

' u p w a r d s f r o m ( l o o k i n g u p ) ' a n d - t h a k e - t a - k a ( g o . a c r o s s + C A U S l - C A U s 2 - s U B ) 'across

from'. A l l o f t h e s e a d p o s i t i o n s c o n t a i n s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka ( d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2 4 ) a n d

m o s t c o n t a i n a c a u s a t i v e affix (see C h a p t e r 1 3 ; a n d the d i s c u s s i o n o f directional serial

v e r b s in C h a p t e r 18). E x a m p l e 1 1 . 7 2 illustrates i-ruku-ita-ka ' d o w n w a r d s from'.

1 1 . 7 2 [ d i h a i-ruku-i-ta-ka] a l i a - p i d a n a k a i d o k o

A R T I N D F - g o . d o w n - C A U S l - C A U S 2 - S U B E X I S T - R E M . P . R E P b e a c h

' N e a r (lit. I N D F - g o d o w n + C A U S - C A U S 2 - S U B ) it (their h o u s e ) , t h e r e w a s a

b e a c h . '

T h e a d p o s i t i o n -peya 'be first, b e a h e a d o f c o m e s f r o m t h e v e r b 'be first' w h i c h is

n o r m a l l y u s e d i n a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s (e.g. 'do first' = 'be first to d o

s o m e t h i n g ' ; s e e C h a p t e r 18). Its u s e a s a n a d p o s i t i o n w i t h a p r o n o m i n a l a r g u m e n t is

illustrated in 1 1 . 7 3 ; cf. a l s o halite i-peya ( w h i t e + N C L : A N l M iNDF-be.first) 'before d a w n . '

1 1 . 7 3 [ n a - p e y a ] d i - n u d i h a

3pl-be.first 3 s g n f - c o m e h e

' H e c a m e b e f o r e t h e m . '

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 2 2 6 / 1 Closed word classes

U n l i k e t h e a d p o s i t i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f directional serial v e r b s -peya

c a n t a k e a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e a s its a r g u m e n t ( a n d t h u s b e c o n s i d e r e d a s u b o r d i n a t i n g

c o n j u n c t i o n : s e e C h a p t e r 2 4 ) ; t h e p r e d i c a t e o f the c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e is t h e n m a r k e d

w i t h - k a r u 'visual p u r p o s i v e ' , a s in 1 1 . 7 4 , or -hyu ' n o n - v i s u a l p u r p o s i v e ' , as in 2 4 . 1 9 .

C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s a r e i n s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

1 1 . 7 4 n a h a - y a n a - p e - t u p e - n u k u [di-dia-kar u

t h e y - P E J - P L - D I M : P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - r e t u r n - P U R P . V I S

i - p e y a - p i d a n a ] d u - a - p i d a n a d u - n a - n h i

I N D F - b e . f i r s t - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g f - s t a y - A N T

' B e f o r e h e r e t u r n e d , s h e u s u a l l y s a i d to t h e n a u g h t y little ones...'

T h e d i r e c t i o n a l a d p o s i t i o n s c a n t a k e t h e locative c a s e -se a n d t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t

- n u k u . T h e a d p o s i t i o n -peya c a n t a k e t h e t o p i c a l - n o n s u b j e c t m a r k e r b u t n o t t h e l o c a t i v e

c a s e , a n d it a l s o t a k e s c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s a s a r g u m e n t s .

T w o a d p o s i t i o n s c o m e f r o m c o m p o n e n t s o f c o m p a r a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s :

- w a r a k a 'less than' ( 1 1 . 7 5 ) , f r o m t h e v e r b - w a r a k a 'reduce, d i m i n i s h ' , a n d -yena ' m o r e

than' ( 1 1 . 7 6 ) , f r o m - y e n a 'pass, o v e r c o m e , surpass' (see d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e

g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f -yena in A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 b ) . T h e s u p e r l a t i v e serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d in § 1 8 . 3 .

1 1 . 7 5 [hi n a w i k i i - w a r a k a - n a k a ] n u - y e k a

D E M : A N I M p e r s o n I N D F - l e s s . t h a n - P R E S . V I S l s g - k n o w

'I k n o w less t h a n this m a n . '

1 1 . 7 6 p a t h i d a k h e p a - k a r i

e q u a l l y R E L + g e t - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G

[hi i - y e n a - n a k a ] d i - d e

D E M : A N I M I N D F - m o r e . t h a n - P R E S . V I S 3 s g n f - h a v e

' H a v i n g r e c e i v e d t h e s a m e (i.e. e q u a l p a y m e n t ) , h e h a s m o r e t h a n this ( m a n ) . '

S e m a n t i c a l l y , a d p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h - w a r a k a a n d -yena are v e r y s i m i l a r to

c o m p a r a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s (their f o r m a l differences are d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r

18). U n l i k e all o t h e r a d p o s i t i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m v e r b s , - w a r a k a a n d -yena c a n n o t t a k e a n y

c a s e m a r k e r s .

A D P O S I T I O N S D E R I V E D F R O M B O D Y P A R T S a r e - s a m i s e ( b a c k ) 'behind' (or: b a c k o f

s o m e o n e ) , -yapise ( u n d e r n e a t h ) 'under' (or: t h e part u n d e r n e a t h s o m e o n e ) , d i - t h i - r i k u - n a

( 3 s g n f - e y e - L O C N - A F F ) 'at, n e a r , at t h e e d g e o f ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s c o n t a i n s b o t h -riku a n d -

n a ) , d i - w h i d a - n a ( 3 s g n f - h e a d - A F F ) 'on h i s e n d , at t h e end', a n d ie-riku-se ( a n u s - L O C N -

L O C ) 'in t h e d e n s i t y o f (a jungle)'. T h e s e a r e illustrated in 1 1 . 7 7 - 9 .

1 1 . 7 7 [hinir i-na y a p i s e - p i d a n a ]

u k u k i . t r e e - C L : V E R T I N D F + u n d e r n e a t h - R E M . P . R E P

d i - w h e - t a

3 s g n f - f a l l + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

' H e p u t (the bottle) u n d e r n e a t h t h e ukuki-tree.'

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 1 1 . 1 1 A d p o s i t i o n s 2 2 7

1 1 . 7 8 [ h i n i p u k u i-thifikunal di-kulif a - p i d e n a

g a r d e n I N D F - n e a r 3 s g n f - p a i n t - R E M . P . R E P

' H e p a i n t e d ( h i m s e l f ) ( h a v i n g c o m e ) n e a r t h e garden.'

1 1 . 7 9 [ a w a k a d a ieriku-sel w a : - m i

j u n g l e I N D F + i n . t h e . d e n s i t y . o f - L O C l p l + s a y - N O M

w a - s a p e k a y u d i - a - k a - p i d a n a

l p l - s a y like 3 s g n f - g o - S U B - R E M . P . R E P

'After h e w e n t i n t o t h e d e p t h s o f t h e j u n g l e . '

A l l t h e s e a d p o s i t i o n s c a n t a k e t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e -se a n d t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t - n u k u \

t h e y a l s o t a k e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s a s their a r g u m e n t s . In 11.80, - t h i r i k u n a c o n t a i n s the

l o c a t i v e -se (it d o e s n o t in 1 1 . 7 8 w h e r e t h e l o c a t i o n is n o t contrastive).

1 1 . 8 0 p a : - k a d a n a - w h a - p i d a n a [uni i-thirikuna-se]

o n e - C L : D A Y 3 p l - f a l l - R E M . P . R E P w a t e r I N D F - n e a r - L O C

' O n e d a y t h e y fell d o w n n e a r t h e water.'

D . U N D E R I V E D A D P O S I T I O N S -eda ' d o w n s t r e a m from', -kwe ' u p s t r e a m from'; -ewhe

' a m i d s t , b e t w e e n ' , -ithani 'near' t a k e a full set o f n o m i n a l p o s s e s s i v e p r e f i x e s ( i n c l u d i n g

t h e i n d e f i n i t e p r e f i x /-) a n d t h e c a s e m a r k e r s . T h e y c a n n o t t a k e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s a s

their a r g u m e n t s . S e e 1 1 . 8 1 - 2 . T h e l o c a t i v e m a r k e r o n t h e s e a d p o s i t i o n s is u s e d w h e n t h e

l o c a t i o n is f o c u s s e d ; a l s o s e e § 7 . 4 .

1 1 . 8 1 Tdi-eda-sel di-a

3 s g n f - d o w n s t r e a m - L O C 3 s g n f - g o

' H e w e n t d o w n s t r e a m from it ( a place).'

1 1 . 8 2 [ w a h a alia-ri v e d a ] k w a k a [ n u m a r i - p a n i

w e E X I S T - R E L I N D F + d o w n s t r e a m w h a t ( n a m e ) - R A P I D S

i - k w e - s e ] k e p i t a n a - n a P u e r t o C o l o m b i a

I N D F - b y - L O C R E L + n a m e - R E M . P . V I S ( n a m e )

n h a na:-ri C o l o m b i a n o y a r u p e - n e

t h e y 3 p l + s a y - R E L C o l o m b i a n t h i n g - I N S

' D o w n s t r e a m f r o m w h e r e w e are, w h a t ' s its n a m e , at t h e R a p i d s " N u m a l i " , t h e r e is

a p l a c e c a l l e d P u e r t o C o l o m b i a in C o l o m b i a n l a n g u a g e ( S p a n i s h ) . '

T h e a d p o s i t i o n - e w h e in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' b e t w e e n ' is illustrated in 1 1 . 8 3 . In 1 1 . 8 4

- e w h e h a s t h e m e a n i n g o f ' a b o u t , m o r e o r less'; t h e r e it c o - o c c u r s w i t h t h e p r e p o s i t i o n te

i n t h e s a m e N P ( s e e H b e l o w , o n l e w h e 'about, m o r e o r less').

1 1 . 8 3 [ n a m a - s y a w a i - e w h e ] s a k a m u - r i d e r u - p i d a n a

t w o - C L : F I R E I N D F - b e t w e e n b e . w a r m - R E L 3 s g n f + s t a y - R E M . P . R E P

'It w a s w a r m t h e r e (lit. w a r m t h w a s there) b e t w e e n t h e t w o fires.'

1 1 . 8 4 [ t e q u a t r o o r a i - e w h e - n a k u ]

until f o u r o ' c l o c k I N D F - a b o u t - T O P . N O N . A / S

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 2 2 8 / 1 C l o s e d w o r d c l a s s e s

a l i a - k a - t h a - p i d a n a d i h a - n e

E X I S T - S U B - F R - R E M . P . R E P h e - F O C . A / S

' S i n c e h e w a s t h e r e until m o r e o r less four o'clock...'

E . D E R I V E D A D P O S I T I O N S w h i c h t a k e a full set o f n o m i n a l p o s s e s s i v e prefixes, b u t d o

n o t t a k e indefinite c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r /-, c o m e f r o m b o d y parts. ( P o s t p o s i t i o n s

d e r i v e d f r o m b o d y p a r t s d i s c u s s e d in C a b o v e d o t a k e t h e indefinite p r e f i x /-.) O n e o f

t h e s e , w a - r i k u - s e (belly-LOCN-LOC) 'inside s o m e t h i n g ' , c o n t a i n s t h e l o c a t i v e -se a n d is

d e r i v e d w i t h t h e suffix -riku 'location', as in 11.85 (direction). T h e o t h e r is n u m a - n a

( m o u t h - A F F ) 'at t h e m o u t h o f ( a river)' - s e e 11.86.

1 1 . 8 5 d h u a h l t u - k i t e - n u k u

s h e m e n s t r u a t e . f o r . t h e . f i r s t . t i m e - T H + N C L : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

p a : p i k e : r i - m h a d u - n a n a - w h e - t a

o n e + C L : L O N G m o n t h - P R E S . N O N V I S 3 s g f - O B J 3 p l - s t a y + C A U S l - C A U S 2

[pani-si w a r i k u - s e ] u p i t h a - s e - n u k u

h o u s e - N P O S S i n s i d e - L O C l o n g . t i m e . a g o - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h e y u s e d to p u t t h e o n e w h o w a s m e n s t r u a t i n g for t h e first t i m e i n s i d e a h o u s e a

l o n g t i m e ago.'

1 1 . 8 6 n e [ f i a m a - p u a n u m a - n a - n u k u ]

t h e n t w o - C L : R I V E R m o u t h - A F F - T O P . N O N . A / S

pani-si-tiki w a - n i

h o u s e - N P O S S - D I M l p l - d o

T h e n w e m a d e a s m a l l h o u s e at t h e m o u t h o f t w o streams.'

A d p o s i t i o n s o f this c l a s s c a n n o t t a k e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s as their a r g u m e n t s .

H o w e v e r , t h e y d o c o - o c c u r w i t h t h e locative a n d topical n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e m a r k e r s .

F . U N D E R I V E D A D P O S I T I O N S w h i c h t a k e a full set o f n o m i n a l p o s s e s s i v e prefixes, b u t d o

n o t t a k e t h e indefinite c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r i- are w i k a , w i k a - s e 'on t o p of, a n d

d a l i p a , dalipa-se 'near'. T h e y c a n t a k e locative -se a n d t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t - n u k u .

B u t t h e y d o n o t t a k e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s a s a r g u m e n t s . Wika is a c c o m p a n i e d b y

l o c a t i v e -se if t h e l o c a t i o n is topical, a s in 11.87.

1 1 . 8 7 y a w i [ d h e p u w i k a - s e ] d i - w h a - p i d a n a

j a g u a r A R T + C L : B U N D L E o n . t o p - L O C 3 s g n f - s i t - R E M . P . R E P

T h e j a g u a r w a s sitting o n t o p o f t h e b u n d l e ( o f p a l m leaves) ( w h i c h t h e m a n h a d
1
c o m e to get).

In 1 1 . 8 8 , w i k a is u s e d w i t h a prefix w h i c h refers to a p r o n o m i n a l a r g u m e n t .

1 1 . 8 8 Tdi-wika-se] d i - w a s a d i - s w a d i h a n a k i - n e

3 s g n f - o n . t o p - L O C 3 s g n f - j u m p 3 s g n f - s t a y A R T e v i l . s p i r i t - F O C . A / S

' T h e evil spirit j u m p e d o n t o p o f him.'

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 / / . / / A d p o s i t i o n s 2 2 9

T h e a d p o s i t i o n w i k a is a l s o u s e d in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t i m e w o r d s , e.g. d e k i n a w i k a

( a f t e r n o o n o n . t o p ) 'in t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e afternoon', a n d it c a n also m e a n 'upstream',

e.g. h a n u - p u a w i k a (big-CL:RiVER o n . t o p ) ' u p s t r e a m f r o m a b i g stream'.

T h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s that - w i k a shifted to class F ( f r o m B ) o n l y recently: s o m e o l d e r

s p e a k e r s d o u s e t h e indefinite p r e f i x w i t h it. H o w e v e r , e v e n t h e y v a r y : in 1 1 . 8 9

L e o n a r d o B r i t o , a traditional s p e a k e r , u s e d t h e indefinite prefix, a n d in 1 1 . 9 0 h e didn't.

T h i s v a r i a t i o n a l s o illustrates t h e o b s o l e s c e n c e o f t h e indefinite p r e f i x ( C h a p t e r 6).

1 1 . 8 9 n e - n u k u [ h a w a i - w i k a - s e ] d h i p a

t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S e a g l e I N D F - o n . t o p - L O C 3 s g n f + g r a b

d y u k a d h i n u r u - s e

3 s g n f + a r r i v e 3 s g n f + n e c k - L O C

' T h e n h e m a n a g e d t o g r a b t h e (eagle's) n e c k o n t o p o f t h e eagle...'

1 1 . 9 0 d i - m a n i k a d i - w h a - p i d a n a [ d i h a - k e n a w i k a - s e ]

3 s g n f - p l a y 3 s g n f - s i t - R E M . P . R E P A R T - C L : B R A N C H o n . t o p - L O C

' H e p l a y e d sitting o n t o p o f t h e b r a n c h . '

1 1 . 9 1 illustrates dalipa 'near' w i t h a p r o n o m i n a l prefix c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g a

p r o n o m i n a l a r g u m e n t .

1 1 . 9 1 [ n u - d a l i p a ] p i - n u p i - e m a

l s g - n e a r 2 s g - c o m e 2 s g - s t a n d
1
' C o m e a n d stay n e a r m e .

G . D E R I V E D A D P O S I T I O N S w h i c h d o n o t t a k e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s are mayakani

(be.straight/right) ' o n t h e right s i d e of, p a - s o l e - k e m a (iMP-carry+CAUS-TH+CL:SlDE) 'on

t h e left h a n d side o f (lit. 'the side o n w h i c h o n e carries (boxes)') a n d p e k u - r i ( i M P + o p e n -

REL) 'in b e t w e e n ( t w o things)' (lit. 'the o p e n i n g ' ) ; t h e y are d e r i v e d f r o m v e r b s . T h e y t a k e

c a s e m a r k e r s , b u t c a n n o t h a v e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s as their a r g u m e n t s . P e k u r i is

illustrated in 1 1 . 9 2 ( s e e H , o n m a n a ) .

1 1 . 9 2 s e w i - w a n i d i - s i t a - k h a n i - p i d a n a d i - n a - n h a

q u i c k - C L : A B S T R 3 s g n f - s h o o t - A W A Y - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J - P A U S

m a t f a [[di-thi-da-pe p e k u r i ] m a n a ]

g o o d 3 s g n f - e y e - C L : R O U N D - P L b e t w e e n i n . m i d d l e

' H e s h o t a w a y q u i c k l y at h i m , right in t h e m i d d l e o f (the s p a c e ) b e t w e e n his eyes.'

H . U N D E R I V E D A D P O S I T I O N S w h i c h d o n o t t a k e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s f o r m a

h e t e r o g e n o u s g r o u p . T h e a d p o s i t i o n s p a m u n a '(in t h e ) m i d d l e ' ( 1 1 . 9 3 ) a n d l e w h e 'about,

m o r e o r less' ( 1 1 . 9 4 ) c a n t a k e l o c a t i v e a n d topical n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e m a r k e r s ; t h e y c a n n o t

h a v e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s a s their a r g u m e n t s .

1 1 . 9 3 [ d i h a h i n i p u p a m u n a ] h e m a - y a - p u n a - n u k u

A R T r o a d m i d d l e t a p i r - P O S S - C L . R O A D - T O P . N O N . A 7 S

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 2 3 0 11 C l o s e d w o r d c l a s s e s

d i h a - k h a - s e h e m a d i - n u - k a

A R T - C L : C U R V E D - L O C tapir 3 s g n f - c o m e - S U B

' W h e n t h e tapir c o m e s a c r o s s t h e c u r v e d ( v i n e ) in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e r o a d , o n t h e

tapir's road...'

T h e p o s t p o s i t i o n l e w h e is m o s t o f t e n u s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t i m e o r to d i s t a n c e ;

y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s u s e l e w h e a n d - e w h e a l m o s t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y (see 1 1 . 8 4 a b o v e , w h e r e

- e w h e w a s u s e d i n s t e a d o f l e w h e , a n d t h e n c o r r e c t e d ) .

1 . 9 4 n e s e - y a n h e p a d e k i n a - s e - p i d a n a

t h e n - E M P H 3 p l + b i t e a f t e r n o o n - L O C - R E M . P . R E P

oito o r a l e w h e - s e

e i g h t o ' c l o c k a b o u t - L O C

' T h e n (fish) bit, in t h e a f t e r n o o n , a b o u t e i g h t o'clock.'

Yaphini 'thing' c a n b e u s e d a s a p o s t p o s i t i o n , m e a n i n g 'instead of, like, s i m i l a r to'.

1 1 . 9 5 is a c o m m e n t o n t h e failing c o m p e t e n c e o f o n e o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f h i g h e r

c a s t e s o f T a r i a n a w h o d o n o t s p e a k t h e l a n g u a g e p r o p e r l y (see C h a p t e r 1, a n d

A p p e n d i x ) , b u t p r e t e n d t h e y d o .

1 1 . 9 5 w a l i k i r i pa:-r i y a p h i n i - n u k u

y o u n g . m a n I M P + s a y - R E L t h i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S

w a l i - p e r i d i - a - p i d a k a

y o u n g - P L : I N A N 3 s g n f - s a y - R E C . P . R E P

'Instead o f s a y i n g ' y o u n g m a n ' h e ( r e p o r t e d l y ) said " y o u n g i n a n i m a t e ones".'

1 1 . 9 6 w a s s a i d a b o u t t h e c u r r e n t S e c r e t a r y o f E d u c a t i o n o f t h e T e r r i t o r y o f t h e U p p e r

R i o N e g r o , a B a n i w a Indian. Yaphini h e r e m e a n s 'like'.

1 1 . 9 6 w h a y a p h i n i y e p o - s e r i - n a k a

w e t h i n g I n d i a n - S I N G L - P R E S . V I S

' H e is a n I n d i a n , like us.'

Yaphini c a n t a k e t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e - m a r k e r - n u k u , b u t n o t t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e

m a r k e r ; it c a n n o t c o - o c u r r w i t h -mafia (see b e l o w ) . ( O t h e r m e a n i n g s o f y a p h i n i are

d i s c u s s e d i n § 2 6 . 2 . 2 . )

T h e p o s t p o s i t i o n m a h a ' a m o n g , a m i d s t , in t h e m i d d l e o f o f t e n c o - o c c u r s w i t h o t h e r

p o s t p o s i t i o n s , a s in 1 1 . 9 2 a n d 1 1 . 9 7 . It d o e s n o t t a k e c a s e m a r k e r s .

1 1 . 9 7 [ d i h a h i n i p u k u i-thirikuna mafia! [ p a - m u s u - r i

A R T g a r d e n I N D F - a t . e d g e a m i d s t I M P - g o . o u t - R E L

m a n a - k a ] k a o - k u t h e d i - s w a - k a

a m i d s t - S U B ? - C L : M A N I O C . B R E A D 3 s g n f - l i e - R E C . P . V I S

' T h e r e is m a n i o c b r e a d in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e e d g e o f t h e g a r d e n , in t h e m i d d l e o f

t h e exit.'

T h i s p o s t p o s i t i o n c a n m a r k s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s w h i c h m a y c o n t a i n t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r

- k a or, m o r e rarely, a n o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t i n g enclitic (see § 2 2 . 3 ) , as in 1 1 . 9 8 .

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 1 1 . 1 1 A d p o s i t i o n s 2 3 1

1.98 [ d i - n u - p i d a n a h i n i p u p a m u n a - k a mafia] d i - n a

3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P r o a d m i d d l e - S U B a m i d s t 3 s g n f - O B J

d i - k e t a - p i d a n a d i h a ifie-nuku

3 s g n f - m e e t - R E M . P . R E P A R T d e v i l - T O P . N O N . A / S

' I m m e d i a t e l y after h e h a d c o m e t o t h e m i d d l e o f the r o a d , h e ( m a n ) m e t h i m , t h e

devil.'

T h e p o s t p o s i t i o n kayu 'like, thus' a n d t h e p r e p o s i t i o n te 'until' c a n n o t t a k e c a s e

m a r k e r s .

1 1 . 9 9 [ p e d a l i a - m a - p e k a y u ] n a - d i a - p i d a n a

o l d - C L : F E M - P L like 3 p l - b e c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y b e c a m e like o l d w o m e n . '

In 1 1 . 1 0 0 kayu t a k e s a l o c a t i v e - m a r k e d a r g u m e n t ; the p o s t p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e is in t h e

p r e d i c a t e slot. W h e n u s e d as a p o s t p o s i t i o n it c a n s u r f a c e a s ke: (in r a p i d s p e e c h ) o r as

kayu ( o t h e r w i s e ) .

1 1 . 1 0 0 k a s i n a - n u k u [ p a y a p e - s e k a y u - k a d e - n a k a ]

n o w - T O P . N O N . A / S [ a g o - L O C l i k e - N E G - P R E S . V I S ]

" N o w it is n o t like in t h e o l d days.'

T h e p r e p o s i t i o n te is o f t e n - b u t n o t a l w a y s - a c c o m p a n i e d b y -se o n t h e n o u n .

C o m p a r e 1 1 . 1 0 1 w i t h 1 1 . 1 0 2 ( w h e r e -se is a b s e n t ) .

1 1 . 1 0 1 h a - n i r i d i - m a r a d i - n u - p i d a n a

p a r e n t - M A S C 3sgnf-float 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

[te p a n i s i - s e ]

until h o u s e - N P O S S - L O C

' F a t h e r c a m e floating u p to t h e h o u s e (lit. u n t i l h e g o t to t h e h o u s e ) . '

1 1 . 1 0 2 d i - s a - d o d i - w a p a - p i d a n a [te h e k w a ]

3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M 3 s g n f - w a i t - R E M . P . R E P until m i d d a y

' H e w a i t e d for h i s w i f e until m i d d a y . '

Te a n d kayu c a n o c c u r in n o u n p h r a s e s w h i c h c o n t a i n o t h e r p r e p o s i t i o n s , e.g. 1 1 . 8 4 ,

for te, a n d 1 1 . 1 0 3 , w h e r e kayu is u s e d in a p o s t p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

1 1 . 1 0 3 [ d i h a h i n i p u k u i - t h i r i k u n a k a y u ] - p i d a n a

A R T g a r d e n I N D F - e d g e . o f l i k e - R E M . P . R E P

'It w a s like t h e e d g e o f a garden.'

U n l i k e o t h e r a d p o s i t i o n s , kayu is also u s e d a s a n a d v e r b . It c a n b e procliticised to t h e

s e n t e n c e - i n i t i a l v e r b (see §2.6), w h e r e it s u r f a c e s a s kay-. A s a n a d v e r b it is m o s t

f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in a r e s u m p t i v e p h r a s e 'so h e / s h e / t h e y did', a s s h o w n in 1 1 . 1 0 4 (see also

§ 2 5 . 4 ) .

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 2 3 2 11 C l o s e d w o r d c l a s s e s

1 1 . 1 0 4 k a y u n a - n i d i - k a w h e t a t h u y

t h u s 3 p l - d o 3 s g n f - b e . a w a k e + C A U S all

d i - r u k u - i - t a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P

'After this (lit. after t h e y did), h e w o k e all u p , h e m a d e t h e m g o d o w n . '

Kayu c a n t a k e d e r i v a t i o n a l affixes, u n l i k e a n y o t h e r p o s t p o s i t i o n , e.g. kayute

( t h u s + N C L : A M M ) 'the o n e w h o is like this'. T w o further a d v e r b s , kaya 'like, in t h e s a m e

w a y as' a n d k a : 'just like this', c o u l d b e e t y m o l o g i c a l l y related to kayu (also s e e § 3 . 2 o n

a d v e r b s , e.g. k a y u - m a k a 'so' d e r i v e d f r o m kayu).

A l l a d p o s i t i o n s - e x c e p t for u n d e r i v e d o n e s o f g r o u p A - c a n t a k e a n o m i n a l i s e d c l a u s e

a s a n a r g u m e n t . T h e p r e d i c a t e o f s u c h a c l a u s e is a - m i or a -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n (see § 2 0 . 2

a n d § 2 2 . 3 ) . Kayu w i t h a -mi n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ( w h i c h m a r k s t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e ) a s its a r g u m e n t is illustrated in 1 1 . 7 9 ; t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n c a n n o t b e c a s e - m a r k e d

(wami wasape kayu 'like w e said'). If u s e d w i t h a p r o n o m i n a l a r g u m e n t , te, kayu a n d

y a p h i n i o c c u r w i t h p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s , u n l i k e all o t h e r a d p o s i t i o n s , e.g. d i h a kayu ( h e

like) 'like h i m ' . T h e p r e p o s i t i o n te c a n b e u s e d a s a s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n , in t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f a t e m p o r a l s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e (see § 2 2 . 3 : 2 2 . 7 3 - 4 ) . T h e e t y m o l o g y o f te is

n o t clear. It c o u l d b e a l o a n f r o m P o r t u g u e s e a t e 'until'. A s i m i l a r m o r p h e m e is f o u n d in

T u c a n o tee 'until, till' - this c o u l d also b e a P o r t u g u e s e b o r r o w i n g (cf. R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7

v o l . 2 : 1 8 7 ; s e e § 2 6 . 1 . 3 ) .

A d p o s i t i o n s o f t h e g r o u p s B - F s h a r e a n u m b e r o f properties. T h e y c a n t a k e t h e

f o l l o w i n g p h r a s a l enclitics: d i m i n u t i v e -tiki, a u g m e n t a t i v e - i n t e n s i v e -pu 'really' a n d

a p p r o x i m a t i v e -iha, e.g. 1 1 . 1 0 5 .

1 1 . 1 0 5 d i - a - p i d a n a [di-dalipa-tiki-ya-tha-pidana]

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - n e a r - D I M - E M P H - F R - R E M . P . R E P

[pani-si i - t h i r i k u n a - t i k i ] - y a - p i d a n a

h o u s e - N P O S S I N D F - b y - D I M - E M P H - R E M . P . R E P

' H e w e n t really v e r y n e a r t o h i m , v e r y c l o s e to his h o u s e indeed.'

A d p o s i t i o n s w i t h l o c a t i v e a n d directional s e m a n t i c s c a n b e f o l l o w e d b y mafia, as in

1 1 . 9 7 - 8 , o r p r e c e d e d b y te, a s in 1 1 . 8 4 . T h e a d p o s i t i o n m a y t a k e -se (as in 1 1 . 1 0 6 ) , b u t

n o t n e c e s s a r i l y (as in 1 1 . 1 0 7 ) .

1 1 . 1 0 6 d i - a - p i d a n a [te [ d i h a - n a dalipa-se]]

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P until A R T - C L : V E R T n e a r - L O C

' H e w e n t until n e a r - b y t h e hill (vertical one).'

1 1 . 1 0 7 d i - n u - p i d a n a [te na-dalipa-tiki]

3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P until 3 p l - n e a r - D I M

' H e c a m e until c l o s e to t h e m . '

A l l t h e a d p o s i t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d h e r e are p o s t p o s i t i o n s ( w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f te w h i c h

c a n o n l y b e u s e d a s a p r e p o s i t i o n ) . T h i s is in contrast to B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a w h e r e

a d p o s i t i o n s c a n b e u s e d a s p r e p o s i t i o n s a n d a s p o s t p o s i t i o n s - s e e A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 5 b ) .

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 1 1 . 1 1 A d p o s i t i o n s 2 3 3

I n T a r i a n a , p o s t p o s i t i o n s c a n b e p r e p o s e d t o a n o u n , i f it is a n afterthought, a s in 1 1 . 1 0 8 .

S q u a r e b r a c k e t s i n d i c a t e p a u s e s b e f o r e a n d after t h e n o u n .

1 1 . 1 0 8 d i - d a l i p a [...] n a w i k i [...] y a w i

3 s g n f - n e a r m a n j a g u a r

d i - s w a d i - w h a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - l i e 3 s g n f - s t a y - R E M . P . R E P

' N e a r h i m , (that is) t h e m a n , a j a g u a r w a s lying.'

T h e p r o p e r t i e s o f a d p o s i t i o n s w e r e s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 11.5. A d p o s i t i o n s differ in

h o w m u c h n o u n m o r p h o l o g y t h e y c a n take, a n d w h a t syntactic p r o p e r t i e s t h e y h a v e .

A d p o s i t i o n s o f t y p e A h a v e e t y m o l o g i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t s a m o n g a r c h a i c u n d e r i v e d

a d p o s i t i o n s in o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s , a n d t h e y t a k e n o n o u n m o r p h o l o g y , e x c e p t for

t h e full set o f n o m i n a l prefixes. M o s t a d p o s i t i o n s o f o t h e r t y p e s are g r a m m a t i c a l l y v e r y

s i m i l a r t o n o u n s . A d p o s i t i o n s B - D t a k e a full set o f n o u n c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s

( i n c l u d i n g t h e indefinite p r e f i x /-). A d p o s i t i o n s E - F d o n o t t a k e t h e indefinite prefix,

a n d t h o s e d i s c u s s e d in G - H t a k e n o p r e f i x e s at all. A d p o s i t i o n s o f t y p e H are v e r y

h e t e r o g e n o u s ; o f t h e s e , te 'until' is t h e o n l y u n d e r i v e d p r e p o s i t i o n ( a n d p r o b a b l y a loan:

s e e § 2 6 . 1 . 3 ) , w h i l e kayu 'like' also f u n c t i o n s as a n a d v e r b .

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 12

V e r b classes a n d predicate structure

T h i s c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h v e r b c l a s s e s a n d p r e d i c a t e structure. V e r b c l a s s e s are o u t l i n e d in

§ 1 2 . 1 ( s e e §3.1.1 for a p r e l i m i n a r y o v e r v i e w ) . In § 1 2 . 2 I c o n s i d e r the structure o f a

p r e d i c a t e . § 1 2 . 3 d i s c u s s e s t h e v e r b r o o t structure a n d v e r b a l d e r i v a t i o n s . P r o b l e m s w i t h

d e f i n i n g a v e r b a l ' w o r d ' i n T a r i a n a are a d d r e s s e d in § 1 2 . 4 .

1 2 . 1 V e r b c l a s s e s

M o r p h o l o g i c a l l y , T a r i a n a v e r b s d i v i d e into t h o s e w h i c h t a k e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s

( p r e f i x e d ) a n d t h o s e w h i c h d o n o t (prefixless). P r e f i x l e s s v e r b s h a v e f e w e r

m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s t h a n p r e f i x e d o n e s (see § 1 2 . 1 . 1 ) . M o s t p r e f i x e d v e r b s a r e

transitive, a m b i t r a n s i t i v e a n d a c t i v e intransitive; w h i l e m o s t p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s are stative

intransitive. S e e § 1 2 . 1 . 3 .

F o l l o w i n g D i x o n ( 1 9 9 1 ) , w e will first c o n s i d e r 'primary' v e r b s in T a r i a n a , i.e. v e r b s

'directly r e f e r r i n g to s o m e activity o r state [...] w h i c h c a n m a k e u p a s e n t e n c e b y

t h e m s e l v e s w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e N P s filling t h e v a r i o u s s e m a n t i c roles' ( D i x o n 1 9 9 1 : 88).

T r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ( c o v e r i n g a m b i t r a n s i t i v e , ditransitive a n d e x t e n d e d transitive v e r b s ) a r e

d i s c u s s e d in § 1 2 . 1 . 1 ; intransitive v e r b s ( w h i c h i n c l u d e active a n d stative intransitives,

a n d a l s o ' o b l i q u e subject' intransitive v e r b s ) are c o n s i d e r e d in § 1 2 . 1 . 2 . P r e f i x l e s s v e r b s

w i t h t w o a r g u m e n t s a n d e x t e n d e d intransitives are d i s c u s s e d in § 1 2 . 1 . 3 .

Difficulties in d e t e r m i n i n g transitivity c l a s s e s in T a r i a n a arise f r o m t h e p r o b l e m o f

h o w t o d i s t i n g u i s h a n o n - A / S c o r e a r g u m e n t f r o m a n o b l i q u e . W e s a w in C h a p t e r s 6 a n d

7 t h a t A / S ( w h e r e S c o v e r s S a a n d S 0 ) are c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e ( p r e f i x e d ) v e r b . T h e

s a m e c a s e - m a r k i n g a p p l i e s to a n y n o n - A / S constituent. P a s s i v e a n d r e c i p r o c a l - t h e

t r a n s i t i v i t y - d e c r e a s i n g d e r i v a t i o n s w h i c h a p p l y o n l y to p r e f i x e d v e r b s - p r o v i d e a

reliable c l u e for d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c o r e c o n s t i t u e n t s f r o m o b l i q u e s i n c e t h e y affect o n l y

c o r e a r g u m e n t s : t h e A / S a a n d t h e O . N o s u c h tests exist for S 0 v e r b s - s u c h a s t h e v e r b s

for 'liking' a n d 'fear' - w h o s e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t is m a r k e d in e x a c t l y t h e s a m e w a y a s a n y

n o n - A / S c o n s t i t u e n t . F u r t h e r p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g t h e n o t i o n s o f 'core' a n d 'oblique'

w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o transitivity-increasing d e r i v a t i o n s a r e a n a l y s e d in C h a p t e r 13 (also s e e

A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 d ) .

In § 1 2 . 1 . 4 w e c o n s i d e r s u b c l a s s e s o f s e c o n d a r y v e r b s , i.e. 'those p r o v i d i n g s e m a n t i c

m o d i f i c a t i o n o f s o m e o t h e r v e r b s , w i t h w h i c h t h e y are in a syntactic o r a m o r p h o l o g i c a l

c o n s t r u c t i o n ' ( D i x o n 1 9 9 1 : 8 8 ) . M o s t o f D i x o n ' s ( 1 9 9 1 : 3 6 8 ) s e c o n d a r y v e r b c o n c e p t s

are r e a l i s e d t h r o u g h a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s (see § 1 8 . 3 ) .

C o p u l a v e r b s a r e d i s c u s s e d in § 1 2 . 1 . 5 . M o r p h o l o g i c a l l y s o m e o f t h e m are p r e f i x e d ,

a n d s o m e p r e f i x l e s s . It w i l l b e s h o w n that t h e y f o r m a special class, w i t h a n u m b e r o f

s u b c l a s s e s : t h e y c a n t a k e either o n e a r g u m e n t o r t w o ; w h e n t h e y t a k e t w o a r g u m e n t s t h e

s e c o n d a r g u m e n t ( c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t ) is m a r k e d differently f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t

o f either t r a n s i t i v e o r e x t e n d e d intransitive v e r b s . F u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f c o p u l a c l a u s e s is

u n d e r A in § 2 1 . 4 . 1 .

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 1 2 . 1 Verb c l a s s e s 2 3 5

T a r i a n a h a s j u s t o n e a u x i l i a r y v e r b -a u s e d to f o r m analytic p a s s i v e (see § 1 3 . 1 a n d

§ 1 9 . 4 ) , w h o s e f u n c t i o n is to i m p a r t a particular g r a m m a t i c a l m e a n i n g to a c o n s t r u c t i o n

(e.g. a p a s s i v e m e a n i n g - s e e § § 1 3 . 1 a n d 19.4). It a c c o m p a n i e s a lexical v e r b , f o r m i n g

o n e p r e d i c a t e w i t h it. Its m e a n i n g s a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t v e r b i n c l u d e 'go, say, g i v e , cause'.

C o m p o n e n t s o f a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s b e c o m e g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d a s auxiliaries; this is

d i s c u s s e d in § 1 8 . 6 .

12. J. 1 A m b i t r a n s i t i v e , transitive, ditransitive a n d extended transitive v e r b s

A . A M B I T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S . M o s t p r e f i x e d v e r b s w h i c h c a n t a k e t w o a r g u m e n t s in

T a r i a n a a r e a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s o f S = A t y p e ( s e e t h e definition u n d e r A in § 3 . 1 . 1 , a n d

e x a m p l e 3.1). 12.1 illustrates t h e transitive u s e o f -inu 'kill, fight, hunt'. I n 12.2 t h e s a m e

v e r b is u s e d intransitively ('hunt').

12.1 d i - n a n a - i n u - k a s u - p i d a n a n h a iri-ne

3 s g n f - O B J 3 p l - k i l l - I N T - R E M . P . R E P t h e y b l o o d - P L

T h e "Irine" (i.e. t h e T a r i a n a , lit. p e o p l e o f t h e b l o o d ) w e r e g o i n g to kill h i m (their

g r a n d f a t h e r ' s offender).'

1 2 . 2 n a h a y a p u r a n h e t a - r i - s e n a : - k a

t h e y yapura.fruit 3 p l + p u l l - C O N V - L O C 3 p l + g o - S U B

n a - i n u - p i d a n a n a - i n u n a : - p i d a n a

3 p l - k i l l - R E M . P . R E P 3pl-kill 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P

T h e y w e n t h u n t i n g i n t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e y h a d c o l l e c t e d (lit. p u l l e d ) y a p u r a fruit,

t h e y w e n t h u n t i n g . '

T h e r e a r e a l s o a fair n u m b e r o f S = 0 a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s . M o s t v e r b s o f b r e a k i n g c a n b e

u s e d a s S = 0 a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s , e.g. - m a k h a 'break' (split); - t h u k a 'break'; - s a w a 'tear'

(clothes). O t h e r v e r b s o f this t y p e a r e - w h a w e t a 'breathe, m a k e breathe'; - k u s e t a ' s w i n g ;

m a k e s w i n g ' ; - d u k u n i a ' s w i t c h o n ; light'; -kwa 'hang, s l e e p in h a m m o c k ; w e a r c l o t h e s

w h i c h " h a n g " (e.g. traditional a p r o n ) o r earrings'; -ya 'live, b e inside; w e a r ( E u r o p e a n

clothes)'; - u k a 'arrive; hit (target)'; -patu 'arrive (at a port); reach'; -papa 'curl ( o f a

s n a k e ) ; tie a r o u n d s o m e t h i n g ' . In 12.3 - t h u k a 'break' is u s e d transitively, a n d t h e n

intransitively; b o t h i n s t a n c e s are u n d e r l i n e d .

12.3 d u h u a - n e h e k u - k e n a d u - t h u k a , d u k a

s h e - F O C . A / S t r e e - B R A N C H 3 s g f - b r e a k - T R A N S , 3 s g f + a r r i v e

d u - p e - p i d a n a d u - k o l o t a d u - n a d i h a - n a - n u k u

3 s g f - l e t - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g f - m e e t 3sgf-hit A R T - V E R T - T O P . N O N . A / S

d h i - n i - n a - n u k u , k a y u d u h u a

3 s g n f + s w i v e - T O P . A D V - C L : V E R T - T O P . N O N . A / S , s o s h e

d u - f i a - k a - p i d a n a , d i - t h u k a - k h a

3 s g f - h i t - S U B - R E M . P . R E P , 3 s g n f - b r e a k - I N T R A N S - A W A Y

d i - r u k u d i - a d i h a - n a - n e

3sgnf-fall 3 s g n f - g o A R T - C L : V E R T - F O C . A / S

' S h e ( t h e w i d o w ) b r o k e a b r a n c h , s h e m a n a g e d to hit (the evil spirit) o n his p e n i s ,

after s h e d i d s o , it ( t h e p e n i s ) w a s b r e a k i n g a n d falling off.'

T h e e m e r g e n c e o f S = 0 a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s in y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s stories a n d c o n v e r s a t i o n s

c a n s o m e t i m e s b e e x p l a i n e d b y i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m P o r t u g u e s e . T h e v e r b -hipa 'grab, take'

is m o s t o f t e n u s e d transitively, a s in 12.4, o r as a n S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e .

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 2 3 6 12 Verb classes and predicate structure

1 2 A y a w i d i - p u - m i - s e d i - n u - p i d a n a

j a g u a r 3 s g n f - f o l l o w - N O M - L O C 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

d i - n a d h i p a - k a s u

3 s g n f - 0 B J 3 s g n f + g r a b - I N T

' A j a g u a r c a m e after h i m , it w a s i n t e n d i n g to g r a b him.'

H o w e v e r , y o u n g e r p e o p l e u s e this v e r b as a n S = 0 a m b i t r a n s i t i v e . F o r i n s t a n c e , in

12.5, f r o m a story a b o u t h o w t h e o u t b o a r d m o t o r w a s failing all t h e t i m e d u r i n g a

difficult j o u r n e y f r o m S a o G a b r i e l d a C a c h o e i r a to lauarete, G r a c i l i a n o B r i t o u s e d t h e

s a m e v e r b in t h e s e n s e o f 'start' ( a b o u t t h e m o t o r ) , o n a n a n a l o g y w i t h P o r t u g u e s e p e g a r

'grab, t a k e (transitive); start ( o f a m o t o r , c a r (intransitive))'.

12.5 n e - n u k u w h a e p i s i - d a ma:tfi

t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S w e m e t a l - C L : R O U N D b a d

d h i p a d y e k u d i - a - n a

3 s g n f + t a k e 3 s g n f + r u n 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . V I S

' T h e n o u r m o t o r w a s s u d d e n l y starting badly.'

A n o t h e r m e a n i n g o f intransitive -hipa is 'take, c o m e o u t well': a typical r e a c t i o n to a n

u n g r a m m a t i c a l o r a w k w a r d e x p r e s s i o n is mehpa-kade-ka ( N E G + g r a b - N E G - R E C . P . V I S ) 'it

hasn't t a k e n , it h a s n o t c o m e o u t well'. W h e n -hipa is u s e d intransitively, it c a n t a k e a

s e c o n d a r g u m e n t m e a n i n g '[grab] at s o m e t h i n g / s o m e o n e ' . T h i s a r g u m e n t is m a r k e d w i t h

l o c a t i v e c a s e , e.g. 1 2 . 3 4 ('take t h e s n a k e b y its m o u t h ' ) a n d 7.42 ('grab at y o u n g

w o m e n ' s hair').

B . T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S . T h e o n l y strictly transitive v e r b s in this l a n g u a g e are t h e o n e s

w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e transitiviser -i(-ta) - s e e d i s c u s s i o n a n d e x a m p l e s u n d e r A in § 1 3 . 4 .

A l s o s e e C , o n - b u e t a 'teach'.

C . D l T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S O F G I V I N G , O F F E R I N G , T E A C H I N G A N D L E A R N I N G .

D i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s d i s c u s s e d h e r e f o r m a s u b c l a s s o f S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s (e.g. -a 'give',

-phya 'sell', - w a l i t a 'offer' (ritual offering), -waya 'buy', -halite 'tell'). T h e y c a n b e

c o n s i d e r e d e x t e n d e d transitive (see D i x o n a n d A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 ) . In T a r i a n a , t h e y differ

f r o m o t h e r e x t e n d e d transitive v e r b s w h i c h c a n n o t b e u s e d intransitively; t h e s e a r e

d i s c u s s e d in D b e l o w .

B o t h gift a n d r e c i p i e n t a c q u i r e t h e s a m e c a s e m a r k i n g (see C h a p t e r 7); h o w e v e r , as

will b e s h o w n in § 1 3 . 1 , o n l y 'gift', a n d n o t 'recipient', c a n b e the target o f p a s s i v e .

E x a m p l e 1 2 . 6 illustrates - w a l i t a 'offer ( s o m e t h i n g to s o m e b o d y ) ' as a ditransitive v e r b .

E x a m p l e 1 2 . 7 illustrates its transitive u s a g e , w i t h 'gift' as o b j e c t ('offer s o m e t h i n g ' ) . In

12.8 t h e r e c i p i e n t r e c e i v e s t h e o b j e c t m a r k i n g (to m e a n ' m a k e a ritual offering to

s o m e b o d y ' ) . 1 2 . 9 illustrates a n intransitive u s e o f t h e s a m e v e r b ( ' m a k e a ritual offering'

c a l l e d d a b u k u r i in L i n g u a G e r a l ) .

1 2 . 6 n a - n a k u p h e - n u k u d i - w a l i t a

3 p l - O B J fish-TOP.NON.A/S 3sgnf-offer

' H e o f f e r e d t h e m fish.'

12.7 n u h a siruri n u - w a l i t a n u - a

I c u m a t a . l e a v e s l s g - m a k e . o f f e r i n g l s g - g o

'I a m m a k i n g a n offering o f c u m a t a - l e a v e s . '

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 1 2 . 1 Verb c l a s s e s 2 3 7

12.8 w a - n a i-walita n a : - p i d a n a

l p l - O B J 2pl-offer 3 p l + s a y - R E M . P . R E P

' Y o u m a k e a n offering to us, t h e y said.'

1 2 . 9 k a : s i n a - w y a - n u k u w a - w a l i t a

n o w + A F F - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S 1 pl-offer

' O n l y n o w w e will m a k e a n offering.'

T h e recipient, a s a n a r g u m e n t o f a ditransitive v e r b , is m a r k e d differently f r o m a

b e n e f i c i a r y . T h e n o n - A / S c a s e m a r k i n g is u s e d for a recipient. A beneficiary, o r a

m a l e f i c i a r y , t e n d s to b e m a r k e d w i t h a p o s t p o s i t i o n -siu 'for', e.g. 1 2 . 1 0 . T h e

p o s t p o s i t i o n -siu c a n n o t m a r k a recipient.

1 2 . 1 0 n u - t e d u a - r u - n u k u pi-a p h i t a n u - s i u

l s g - s i s t e r . i n . l a w - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - g o 2 s g + b r i n g l s g - f o r

' G o a n d b r i n g m y sister in l a w for m e . '

T h e v e r b - b u e t a 'teach; learn' ( a n o l d b o r r o w i n g f r o m L i n g u a G e r a l : s e e § 2 6 . 1 . 3 ) is

t h e o n l y e x a m p l e o f a ditransitive v e r b w h i c h h a s t w o f r a m e s . It c a n m e a n 'teach

s o m e t h i n g t o s o m e b o d y ' , a n d 'learn s o m e t h i n g f r o m s o m e b o d y ' . 12.11 illustrates a

ditransitive u s e o f - b u e t a 'teach s o m e t h i n g to s o m e b o d y ' .

1 2 . 1 1 k w a n a - n h i n a p i - n a n a - b u e t a i n a - n u k u

w h o - R E M . P . V I S . I N T E R 2 s g - O B J 3 p l - t e a c h w o m e n - T O P . N O N . A / S

p a - t h i - n i p e

I M P - s w i v e - N O M

' " W h o t a u g h t y o u h o w to s w i v e w o m e n ? " (the M o o n a s k s a guilty m a n ) . '

T h i s v e r b c a n b e u s e d transitively, as in 1 2 . 1 2 ( w i t h n o o v e r t recipient).

. 1 2 T a r i a y a r u p e w a - b u e t a w a k a - n a

T a r i a n a t h i n g l p l - t e a c h l p l + a r r i v e - R E M . P . V I S

w h a - m i s i n i

w e - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R

' W e arrived, t o o , to t e a c h Tariana.'

In this m e a n i n g t h e v e r b - b u e t a c a n n o t b e u s e d intransitively. A ditransitive u s e o f

t h e s a m e v e r b in t h e m e a n i n g 'learn s o m e t h i n g f r o m s o m e b o d y ' is illustrated in 1 2 . 1 3 .

1 2 . 1 3 w a - n a w a - y a r u p e - n u k u d u - n a d u - b u e t a

l p l - O B J l p l - t h i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g f - w a n t 3 s g f - l e a r n

' S h e w a n t s to l e a r n o u r l a n g u a g e f r o m us.'

I n t e x t s a n d c o n v e r s a t i o n s , w h e n - b u e t a m e a n s 'learn', it is u s u a l l y e m p l o y e d

transitively, a s in t h e t w o i n s t a n c e s in 1 2 . 1 4 : 'learn f r o m us', a n d 'learn o u r speech'.

1 2 . 1 4 w y a k a p i - n u w a - n a p i - b u e t a - k a s u w a : k u p i - b u e t a - k a s u

far 2 s g - c o m e l p l - O B J 2 s g - l e a r n - I N T l p l + s p e e c h 2 s g - l e a r n - I N T

' Y o u c a m e f r o m far a w a y , y o u i n t e n d to learn f r o m u s , y o u i n t e n d to learn o u r

s p e e c h . '

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 2 3 8 12 Verb classes and predicate structure

W h e n e m p l o y e d intransitively - b u e t a m e a n s 'learn', o r 'study', as in 1 2 . 1 5 .

1 2 . 1 5 d u - b u e t a - d a k a

3 s g f - l e a r n - Y E T

' S h e is still l e a r n i n g (studying).'

In 1 2 . 1 6 this v e r b is also e m p l o y e d intransitively, a n d t h e 'source' ('them', i.e.

C a t h o l i c priests w h o f o r c e d T a r i a n a c h i l d r e n to s p e a k T u c a n o ) is m a r k e d w i t h t h e

i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e .

1 2 . 1 6 n e s e - n a p h a p a - s a p e p a - b u e t a n a - i n e - n u k u

t h e n - R E M . P . V I S I M P I M P - t a l k I M P - l e a r n 3 p l - C O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h e r e w e l e a r n e d ( d i d t h e l e a r n i n g ) f r o m t h e m ( C a t h o l i c priests).'

T h e a g e n t i v e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ('participle') f o r m e d o n - b u e t a is a m b i g u o u s : k a - b u e t a

m e a n s b o t h 'teacher' a n d 'student' - see § 2 0 . 1 .

T h e r e is j u s t o n e v e r b w h i c h is e m p l o y e d in t h r e e different f r a m e s w i t h different

m e a n i n g s . T h e v e r b - a m e a n s 'say' w h e n u s e d transitively, a s in 1 2 . 1 7 .

1 2 . 1 7 h a w di^a

y e s 3 s g n f - s a y

' " Y e s " , h e said.'

W h e n u s e d ditransitively, -a m e a n s 'give', as in T 2 . 3 4 . W h e n u s e d intransitively in

i n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s , -a m e a n s 'go', a s in 1 2 . 1 8 .

1 2 . 1 8 t u k i d i - a d i - k e t a - p i d a n a

a.little 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - m e e t - R E M . P . R E P

w a l i - p e r i i h a - p i d a n a

n e w - C O L L f a e c e s - R E M . P . R E P

' H e (the tapir) w e n t o n a little a n d e n c o u n t e r e d a n e w m o u n d o f (turtle's) faeces.'

In d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b s , t h e s a m e v e r b refers to ' m o t i o n a w a y ' ; in m o d a l serial

v e r b s it m e a n s 'be g o i n g to d o s o m e t h i n g ' ; a n d in c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b s it is a f r e q u e n t

v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n ( ' m a k e , let') ( s e e § 1 8 . 3 ) . In c o p u l a c l a u s e s ( § 2 1 . 4 . 1 ) it m e a n s ' b e c o m e ' .

D . E X T E N D E D T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S . E x t e n d e d transitive v e r b s d i s c u s s e d h e r e c a n n o t b e

u s e d intransitively. T h e y are d e r i v e d f r o m transitive v e r b s w i t h t h e a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g

-i(ta) ( s e e further e x a m p l e s a n d d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r B in § 1 3 . 4 ) . U n l i k e ditransitive v e r b s

d i s c u s s e d in C a b o v e , their o b l i g a t o r y third a r g u m e n t is a p e r i p h e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t -

a d d r e s s e e , l o c a t i o n , p u r p o s e o r i n s t r u m e n t - m a r k e d w i t h a p e r i p h e r a l c a s e

( i n s t r u m e n t a l o r locative), o r w i t h a p o s t p o s i t i o n . In 1 2 . 1 9 -wapeta 'wait for s o m e o n e

w i t h s o m e t h i n g , o r for s o m e r e a s o n ' h a s b e e n d e r i v e d from a n S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b

-wapa 'wait'; t h e c l a u s e c o n t a i n s a n O ('you pi') a n d a n i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e

c o n s t i t u e n t m a r k e d w i t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e ('with food').

1 2 . 1 9 i - n a p a - n h a - n i p e - n e - k a n u - w a p e - t a n h u a

2 p l - O B J I M P - e a t - N O M - I N S - R E C . P . V I S 1s g - w a i t + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 I

'I h a v e w a i t e d for y o u w i t h f o o d (lit. w i t h s o m e t h i n g to eat).'

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 J 2 . 1 Verb c l a s s e s 2 3 9

1 2 . 1 . 2 I n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s

I n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s m a y b e p r e f i x e d a s is t h e c a s e w i t h S a (active) v e r b s , o r prefixless, as

is t h e c a s e w i t h stative S 0 a n d v e r b s o f p h y s i c a l states Sj 0 . W h i l e t h e first t w o are large

o p e n c l a s s e s , w i t h o v e r a h u n d r e d m e m b e r s , t h e latter is a s m a l l c l o s e d class. S y n t a c t i c

p r o p e r t i e s o f S a , S 0 a n d Sj 0 are d i s c u s s e d in § 2 1 . 5 . 2 (also s e e A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 1 a ) .

A . A C T I V E (S a ) V E R B S . T h e s e i n c l u d e v e r b s o f m o t i o n , p o s t u r e , s p e a k i n g , a n d a f e w

o t h e r s , e.g. - m u s u 'go out'; - e m h a n i 'walk'; - k a n a 'go'; - n u ' c o m e ' ; -e 'enter'; - e m a 'stand';

- w h a 'fall'; - w h a 'sit'; - s w a 'stay'; - y e n a ' e x c e e d , pass'; - i m a 'sleep, c l o s e o n e ' s eyes'; -sisa

'be finished'; - m a n i k a 'play'; - t a w i n a ' g r o w up'. M o t i o n a n d p o s t u r e v e r b s t e n d to o c c u r

in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( d i s c u s s e d in § 1 8 . 3 ) .

1 2 . 2 0 n u - r u k u n u - a

l s g - g o . d o w n l s g - g o

'I a m g o i n g d o w n s t r e a m . '

1 2 . 2 1 n a - n u n e m a n e n a - t a w i n a - p i d a n a

3 p l - c o m e 3 p l + s t a n d t h e n 3 p l - g r o w - R E M . P . R E P

T h e y (the T a r i a n a s ' a n c e s t o r s ) c a m e a n d r e m a i n e d (there), t h e n t h e y g r e w up.'

B . S T A T I V E (S 0 ) V E R B S . T h e s e v e r b s d e n o t e p h y s i c a l states a n d a c t i o n s , w h i c h i n c l u d e

m o s t l y i n v o l u n t a r y results o f p r o c e s s e s , e.g. l a m a 'burn, get burnt'; leka 'split'; k e . k a

'split o p e n ' ; h a l a 'be o p e n ' ; h a m a 'be tired, fed up'; m u n u m e n i 'mutter'.

S o m e S 0 v e r b s a r e f o r m e d f r o m i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s a n d c o n t a i n t h e n e g a t i v e

p r e f i x m a - , e.g. m a k a l e 'be o u t o f breath' {ma- 'negative' + -kale 'breath': s e e § 6 . 2 o n t h e

s e m a n t i c s o f (-)kale), m e s a l a 'be b a l d , w i t h o u t hair' {ma- 'negative' + -isare 'hair

( p o s s e s s e d ) ' ) . T h e s e v e r b s are i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e (see § 1 7 . 5 ) . Just o n e i n h e r e n t l y

n e g a t i v e S 0 v e r b c o n t a i n s t h e n e g a t i v e suffix -kade: hyu-kade 'to n o t appear'.

1 2 . 2 2 1 a m a - s i n a d i h a - d a p a n a

b u r n - R E P . N O N V I S A R T - C L : H A B

T h i s h o u s e w a s b u r n i n g . '

1 2 . 2 3 tfu! k a y i t e h v u k a d e - k a d i h a

I N T E R J s o + N C L : A N I M n o t . a p p e a r - R E C . P . V I S h e

' O h ! It d i d n o t a p p e a r in this i m a g e . '

C . ' O B L I Q U E ' S U B J E C T V E R B S (S i 0 ). T h e s e v e r b s f o r m a c l o s e d s m a l l class; t h e y refer to

p h y s i c a l states a n d i n c l u d e u n i n a 'be thirsty'; m h a i s i k i 'be h u n g r y ' ; dai 'be sleepy'; adaki

' h a v e fever'; k a i 'be in pain'; a n d mapisi ' h a v e a n o m e n ' . T h e y d o n o t t a k e c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s , a n d t h e Sj 0 is m a r k e d b y t h e -na c a s e (see §7.2.2), if e x p r e s s e d

w i t h a p r o n o u n , a s i n 1 2 . 2 4 .

1 2 . 2 4 d a i - m h a n u - n a

b e . s l e e p y - P R E S . N O N V I S 1 s g - O B J

'I a m sleepy.'

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 2 4 0 12 Verb classes and predicate structure

T h e SJOt y p e v e r b s fall into t h r e e s u b g r o u p s .

( C I ) S j 0 P R E D I C A T E S P A R E X C E L L E N C E . T h e s e are: u n i n a 'be thirsty'; i n a s u a 'be lazy,

debilitated'; a n d i n u , i n u n a 'be unwilling'. T h e y c a n n o t b e u s e d a s a r g u m e n t s ; o n l y

i n a s u a c a n b e n o m i n a l i s e d w i t h classifiers (see §5.1.3), e.g. i n a s u a - p e n i (be.lazy-

P L : A N I M ) 'lazy ones', i n a s u a - p e a ( b e . l a z y - C L : C O L L ) 'laziness'.

(CII). S i 0 P R E D I C A T E S W H I C H C A N O C C U R A S A R G U M E N T S W I T H O U T B E I N G

N O M I N A L I S E D . T h e s e i n c l u d e dai 'be sleepy, sleepiness'; mapisi 'be o m i n o u s ,

o m i n o u s n e s s ' ; m h a i s i k i 'be h u n g r y , h u n g e r ' ; k h e n o l e n a 'be n a u s e o u s , n a u s e a ' ; a m i d 'be

d r u n k , d r u n k e n n e s s ' ; y a d 'be tipsy, tipsiness'; a n d a b o u t ten n a m e s for illnesses, e.g.

a d a k i 'be feverish, fever'; dupai 'be sick, sickness'; t s u d h a v e d i a r r h o e a , diarrhoea'; a n d

w e s i ' h a v e a flu, flu'. 1 2 . 2 5 illustrates a m i d as a n Sj 0 p r e d i c a t e . T h e s a m e i t e m as a n

a r g u m e n t o f a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e is in 12.26.

1 2 . 2 5 a m i r i - k a - m h a d u - n a

b e . d r u n k - D E C L - P R E S . N O N V I S 3 s g f - O B J

' S h e is d r u n k . '

1 2 . 2 6 a m i r i d i - s i s a - k a w a - s a p e - m h a d e

d r u n k e n n e s s 3 s g n f - e n d - S U B l p l - s p e a k - F U T . U N C E R T

' W h e n d r u n k e n n e s s is o v e r (i.e. w h e n p e o p l e s o b e r u p ) w e will talk.'

(CIII) S i 0 P R E D I C A T E S W H I C H C A N B E U S E D A S S 0 P R E D I C A T E S W I T H A C H A N G E IN

M E A N I N G . T h e s e i n c l u d e h a m u 'be hot'; s a k a m u 'be w a r m ' ; hape 'be cold'; a n d we(:) 'be

1
itchy'. W h e n u s e d a s Sxo t h e y d e s c r i b e a p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n o f a participant, as

illustrated in 1 2 . 2 7 . W h e n u s e d a s S 0 t h e y d e s c r i b e t h e participant's p r o p e r t y - s e e
2
12.28.

1 2 . 2 7 w a - n a a! m a : t f i - m a - n a k a

l p l - O B J h e r e b a d - E X C - P R E S . V I S

' W e a r e h e r e in a v e r y b a d w a y (lit. ' H e r e it is b a d to us').'

1 2 . 2 8 w a h a m a : t f i - m a - n a k a w a - n u m a s e w i t e

w e b a d - E X C - P R E S . V I S l p l - m o u t h q u i c k + N C L : A N I M

' W e a r e b a d a n d g o s s i p y (lit. ' W e are b a d a n d o u r m o u t h is quick.').'

Sj 0 v e r b s differ f r o m o t h e r intransitive v e r b s w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e f o l l o w i n g

m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c p r o p e r t i e s : (I) i m p e r a t i v e s ; (II) s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e ; (III) c a u s a t i v i s a t i o n ,

( I V ) n e g a t i o n , ( V ) u s e a s a r g u m e n t s , a n d ( V I ) alternative c o n s t r u c t i o n t y p e s . U n l i k e

o t h e r v e r b t y p e s , t h e Sj 0 c o - o c c u r w i t h t h e existential v e r b S 0 v e r b a l i a as in 1 2 . 2 9 .

1
W e can recall, from Chapter 3, that m a n y adjectives can be used as S 0 verbs. T h e t w o value adjectives

can also b e used as Sio verbs.

2
A similar semantic distinction is f o u n d in closely related W a r e k e n a , w h e r e any Sio v e r b can be used as

an S 0 type verb: a predicate used as Sio d e n o t e s a temporary state, or condition, while the s a m e predicate

used as S 0 denotes a p e r m a n e n t or prolonged state (see e x a m p l e s 6 2 0 and 621 in A i k h e n v a l d 1998b).

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 12.1 Verb c l a s s e s 2 4 1

1 2 . 2 9 n u - n a m h a l s i k i a l i a - m h a

1 s g - O B J h u n g e r / b e . h u n g r y E X I S T - P R E S . N O N V I S

'I a m h u n g r y . ' (lit. ' H u n g e r is to me.')

M h a l s i k i ' h u n g e r , b e h u n g r y ' in 1 2 . 2 9 c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a n a r g u m e n t o f t h e

existential v e r b a l i a b e c a u s e it c a n t a k e m o d i f i e r s (e.g. n u - n a d i h a (this) m h e s i k i alia

'this h u n g e r is t o m e ' ) . 1 2 . 2 9 is structurally s i m i l a r to a p o s s e s s i v e c l a u s e illustrated in

1 2 . 3 0 .

1 2 . 3 0 n u - n a tfinu a l i a - n a k a

1 s g - O B J d o g E X I S T - P R E S . V I S

'I h a v e a d o g . '

H o w e v e r , p o s s e s s i v e c l a u s e s a n d c l a u s e s w i t h a n Sj 0 v e r b a n d t h e v e r b 'to be' are

different in that (a) t h e v e r b 'to be' c a n n o t b e o m i t t e d f r o m a p o s s e s s i v e c l a u s e , w h i l e it

is a l w a y s o p t i o n a l in a c l a u s e like 1 2 . 2 9 a n d (b) a p o s s e s s e e in a p o s s e s s i v e c l a u s e

c o m e s f r o m a n o p e n class o f n o u n s (e.g. 'dog' in 1 2 . 3 0 ) w h i l e a n Sj 0 v e r b - s u c h as

m h a l s i k i in 1 2 . 2 9 - is n o t a n o u n , a n d b e l o n g s to a c l o s e d class.

In a d d i t i o n , Sj 0 p r e d i c a t e s a l l o w alternative c o n s t r u c t i o n s . T o e m p h a s i s e the

t e m p o r a r y c h a r a c t e r o f a state, a n SJO v e r b c a n o c c u r w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e , a s in 1 2 . 3 1 .

T o refer t o a m o r e p r o l o n g e d state, a c o n s t r u c t i o n like t h e o n e in 1 2 . 2 4 is u s e d . N o t e that

if a n S j 0 v e r b t a k e s i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e , it b e h a v e s like a n o n - v e r b a l p r e d i c a t e , a n d this is

w h y t h e subject, n u h u a T , is u n m a r k e d . In contrast, 1 2 . 2 4 c o n t a i n s a n Sj 0 v e r b a n d its

s u b j e c t t a k e s t h e - n a c a s e . T h i s p r o p e r t y is n o t s h a r e d w i t h a n y o t h e r p r e d i c a t e s .

1 2 . 3 1 n u h u a d a i - n e - m h a

I b e . s l e e p y - I N S - P R E S . N O N V I S

'I a m s l e e p y (right n o w , for a s h o r t time).'

1 2 . 1 . 3 Prefixless v e r b s w i t h t w o a r g u m e n t s , a n d extended intransitive v e r b s

T h e f o l l o w i n g p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s ( m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y identical to S 0 v e r b s ) t a k e t w o

a r g u m e n t s : k e r u 'be angry'; karu 'be afraid'; h u i 'like (food); nhesiri 'like' ( n o t f o o d ) ;

kanaperi 'bear a child'; kenipe ' h a v e a child'; a n d ka-sa-do ( R E L - s p o u s e - F E M ) ' m a r r y ( o f

a m a n ) ' ; k a - s a - n i r i ( R E L - s p o u s e - M A S C ) ' m a r r y ( o f a w o m a n ) ' . T h e i r s e c o n d a r g u m e n t is

o p t i o n a l a n d is m a r k e d w i t h t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e (see C h a p t e r 7). T h e t h r e e latter v e r b s

are d e r i v e d f r o m i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d k i n s h i p n o u n s (see C h a p t e r 6). T h e s e prefixless

v e r b s c a n n o t b e p a s s i v i s e d (see C h a p t e r 13), a n d s o their s e c o n d a r g u m e n t c a n n o t b e t h e

target o f p a s s i v e - i n this w a y t h e y differ f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t o f p r e f i x e d

transitive v e r b s . 1 2 . 3 2 - 3 illustrate t h e intransitive u s e o f kasado 'marry' (lit. ' t a k e a wife')

a n d kanaperi 'bear a child'. T h e s a m e v e r b s in their transitive u s e w e r e illustrated in

1 1 . 1 . I n 11.1 t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t , ' w o m a n ' , is topical a n d is m a r k e d w i t h - n u k u 'topical

n o n - A / S ' , w h i l e a r g u m e n t , ' t w o children', is n o t t o p i c a l a n d r e m a i n s u n m a r k e d .

1 2 . 3 2 p a i t a tfari k a - s a - d o - p i d a n a

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M m a n R E L - s p o u s e - F E M - R E M . P . R E P

' O n e m a n g o t m a r r i e d . '

1 2 . 3 3 d u h a i n a r u k a n a - p e r i - p i d a n a

A R T . F E M w o m a n b e a r . c h i l d - C O L L - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e w o m a n b o r e a child.'

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 2 4 2 12 Verb c l a s s e s a n d p r e d i c a t e s t r u c t u r e

T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s illustrate t h e intransitive a n d transitive u s e o f t h e v e r b o f

fear, k a r u .

1 2 . 3 4 k w e k a - n h a k a r u p h i a d i - n u m a - s e p h i p a

h o w - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R afraid y o u 3 s g n f - m o u t h - L O C 2 s g + t a k e

' W h y a r e y o u a f r a i d ? T a k e (the s n a k e ) b y its m o u t h . '

1 2 . 3 5 k a m - k a d e - p i d a n a d u h u a inar u - n u k u

a f r a i d - N E G - R E M . P . R E P s h e w o m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S

' ( H e ) w a s n o t afraid o f t h e w o m a n ( w h o w a s a n evil spirit in disguise).'

T h e t w o v e r b s o f liking, h u i 'like (food)' a n d nhesiri 'like (not food)' a r e b o t h

p r e f i x l e s s , b u t s h o w s y n t a c t i c d i f f e r e n c e s : n h e s i r i is S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e , w h i l e h u i is t h e

o n l y p r e f i x l e s s S = 0 a m b i t r a n s i t i v e in t h e l a n g u a g e . 1 2 . 3 6 illustrates a n intransitive u s e

o f nhesiri; its transitive u s e is s h o w n in 1 2 . 3 7 .

1 2 . 3 6 n a h a k a y - n a - n i - k a d i h a n a - w h e - r i n h e s i r i - k a d e - p i d a n a

t h e y s o - 3 p l - d o - S U B A R T 3 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C l i k e - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

' W h e n t h e y ( T a r i a n a forefathers) a c t e d this w a y , their g r a n d f a t h e r s h o w e d his

dislike.'

1 2 . 3 7 k a y u d i - n i - k a d i h a y a k a r e - p e n i d i - n a n h e s i r i - p i d a n a

s o 3 s g n f - d o - S U B h e v i l l a g e - P L : A N I M 3 s g n f - O B J l i k e - R E M . P . R E P

'After h e (the n e w k i n g ) d i d so, villagers liked him.'

1 2 . 3 8 illustrates t h e intransitive u s e o f h u i 'like, b e likeable (food)'; its transitive u s e

is s h o w n i n 1 2 . 3 9 .

1 2 . 3 8 p i - k a : w a - d a hi m a : n a - p i

2 s g - l e g - C L : R O U N D D E M : A N I M sarapo.fish

k a y u h u i - t h a - n a

like l i k e . f o o d - F R - R E M . P . V I S

" T h e f l e s h y p a r t o f y o u r l e g w o u l d h a v e b e e n likeable (tasted g o o d ) , like s a r a p o

fish," ( s a i d t h e f a t h e r - i n - l a w t o h i s s o n - i n - l a w ) . '

. 3 9 k a y u - m a k a diha tfiari-nuku h u i - m a - p i d a n a

s o - A F F A R T m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S l i k e - E X C - R E M . P . R E P

h i hiparu

D E M : A N I M toad

' S o t h e t o a d l i k e d t h e m a n v e r y m u c h . '

A f e w m o r e S 0 v e r b s c a n b e u s e d w i t h a s e c o n d a r g u m e n t . A rare u s e o f h a m a 'be fed

u p ' w i t h a s e c o n d a r g u m e n t is illustrated in 1 2 . 4 0 ; it is often u s e d intransitively, a s in

1 2 . 4 1 .

1 2 . 4 0 n a - n a - p i d e n a h a m a d i - w a h i y a p i r i k u r i

3 p l - O B J - R E M . P . R E P f e d . u p 3 s g n f - b e c o m e D E M : A N I M C r e a t o r

T h e C r e a t o r b e c a m e tired o f t h e m (lit. 'with r e s p e c t t o t h e m ( m i s b e h a v i n g

people)').'

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 1 2 . 1 Verb c l a s s e s 2 4 3

1 2 . 4 1 d i w e s e w h y a - p i d a n a h a m a n a - w a na:

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P f e d . u p 3 p l - b e c o m e 3 p l + g o

' S o t h e y ( T a r i a n a s ) g o t f e d up.'

I n 1 2 . 4 2 , t h e S 0 v e r b k h e r u n i k a n a 'be m i s e r a b l e , b e lacking' is u s e d intransitively. In

1 2 . 4 3 this v e r b is u s e d w i t h a s e c o n d a r g u m e n t to m e a n 'lack s o m e t h i n g ' . T h i s v e r b

a l w a y s t a k e s a h u m a n subject; this is w h y 1 2 . 4 3 c a n n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s ' m a n i o c b r e a d

w a s lacking'.

1 2 . 4 2 p a y a r u n a - i r a - n i - k a d a k h e r u n i k a n a

m a n i o c . b e e r 3 p l - d r i n k - T O P . A D V - C L : D A Y b e . m i s e r a b l e

n a - r e n a - p i d a n a

3 p l - f e e l - R E M . P . R E P

' O n a b e e r d r i n k i n g d a y t h e y w e r e m i s e r a b l e . '

1 2 . 4 3 p e t h e - m i s i n i n e k h e r u n i k a n a - k a d e - n a

m a n i o c . b r e a d - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R N E G b e . l a c k i n g - N E G - R E M . P . V I S

' ( T h e y ) n e v e r l a c k e d m a n i o c bread.'

T h e v e r b w i : n u 'hit target ( s h o o t i n g ) ' is o n e o f t h e t w o e x t e n d e d intransitive v e r b s

( s e e D i x o n a n d A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 for a definition) w h o s e o b l i g a t o r y s e c o n d a r g u m e n t

t a k e s t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e , a s in 1 2 . 4 4 (the o t h e r o n e is 'marry', a s in 7.41). T h e s e c o n d

a r g u m e n t c a n b e m a r k e d w i t h a l o c a t i v e a d p o s i t i o n , as in 1 2 . 4 5 {mafia 'in t h e m i d d l e of,

f r o m g r o u p H , in § 1 1 . 1 1 ) . A n intransitive u s e o f w i : n u w a s illustrated in 7.6b.

1 2 . 4 4 d i - s a m i s e - s e w i : n u d i - w h a - t e p h i d i h a ne:ri

3 s g n f - b a c k - L O C hit.target 3 s g n f - f a l l - T O . W A T E R A R T d e e r

' ( T h e m a n ) hit h i s (the deer's) b a c k , ( a n d ) t h e d e e r fell into water.'

1 2 . 4 5 m a t f a d i - e k w a m a n a - p i d a n a w i : n u - p i d a n a

w e l l 3 s g n f - h e a d m i d d l e - R E M . P . R E P h i t . t a r g e t - R E M . P . R E P

' ( T h e m a n ) hit (the otter) w e l l in t h e m i d d l e o f his head.'

S i n c e p r o n o u n s u s u a l l y d o n o t t a k e l o c a t i v e c a s e (see §7.3.1), the o b j e c t c a s e f o r m is

u s e d if t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t is a p r o n o u n , a s in 12.46.

1 2 . 4 6 p i - s a - d o - n u k u p i - a p i - w a n e

2 s g - s p o u s e - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - g o 2 s g - c a l l + C A U S

i k a s u - p i a k a d u - n a w i . n u - k a s u - n i k i

n o w - r i g h t 3 s g n f - O B J h i t . t a r g e t - I N T - C O M P L

' G o call y o u r s p o u s e right n o w , for u s t o s h o o t her.' ( A n instruction g i v e n to a m a n

w h o s e w i f e a c c i d e n t a l l y s a w t h e f o r b i d d e n Y u r u p a r y flutes.)

P r e f i x e d e x t e n d e d intransitive v e r b s are v e r y f e w . T h e v e r b 'remarry' a p p e a r s to b e

t h e o n l y e x a m p l e - s h o w n in 1 2 . 4 7 . It r e q u i r e s a n o b l i g a t o r y s e c o n d a r g u m e n t m a r k e d

w i t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c a s e (the deer).

1 2 . 4 7 n e - p i d a n a n e : r i - n e d u - h e n i t a

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P d e e r - I N S 3 s g f - r e m a r r y

' T h e n s h e r e m a r r i e d w i t h a deer.'

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 2 4 4 1 2 Verb c l a s s e s a n d p r e d i c a t e s t r u c t u r e

1 2 . 1 . 4 S e c o n d a r y v e r b s

A s w a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , m o s t s e c o n d a r y v e r b s (see definition u n d e r § 1 2 . 1 ) are

o b l i g a t o r i l y u s e d in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s (see C h a p t e r 18); o n e enters into serial-like

c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( s e e § 1 9 . 9 ) a n d o n e t a k e s a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e ( § 1 9 . 1 1 ) . A s e p a r a t e

s u b c l a s s o f s e c o n d a r y v e r b s t a k e n o n - c a n o n i c a l l y m a r k e d a r g u m e n t s : s o m e o f t h e m c a n

b e serialised, w h i l e o t h e r s t a k e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s . S e c o n d a r y v e r b s are a c l o s e d class;

s o m e o c c u r a s p r i m a r y v e r b s .

A . S E R I A L I S E D S E C O N D A R Y V E R B S . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e m a n t i c g r o u p s o f S e c o n d a r y - A

v e r b s ( w i t h n o i n d e p e n d e n t roles: D i x o n 1 9 9 1 : 3 6 8 ) are obligatorily serialised. S e e

§ 1 8 . 3 .

(i) S e m i - m o d a l t y p e : - a 'be g o i n g to' (also u s e d in t h e 'wanting' t y p e in t h e m e a n i n g

o f 'intend'). T h i s v e r b p r e c e d e s t h e o t h e r v e r b in a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n .

1 2 . 4 8 n u - a n h u l i t u

1 s g - b e . g o i n g 1 s g + f i s h

'I a m g o i n g t o g o fishing.'

(ii) B e g i n n i n g t y p e : - k e n a 'begin' a n d -sita 'finish, c o m p l e t e ' ; v e r b s o f this t y p e

f o l l o w t h e o t h e r v e r b .

1 2 . 4 9 w a h a - d e w a - p i t a w a - k e n a

w e - F U T . C E R T l p l - b a t h e l p l - b e g i n

' W e shall start b a t h i n g . '

1 2 . 5 0 n h a d a : n e - n u k u n h e p a na-sita

t h e y s a u v a . a n t - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l + t a k e 3pl-finish

' T h e y f i n i s h e d c a t c h i n g t h e s a u v a ants.'

(iii) T r y i n g t y p e : - w a 'try', -sita 'succeed, m a n a g e ' ; v e r b s o f this t y p e f o l l o w the

o t h e r v e r b .

1 2 . 5 1 w a h a d i h a - n u k u w a - n a l i t a w a - w a

w e A R T - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - q u a r r e l l p l - t i y

' W e shall try to q u a r r e l a b o u t this one.'

1 2 . 5 2 n e - m a - s i t a - k a d e - s i n a di-sita

N E G - N E G - f i n i s h - N E G - R E M . P A S T . N O N V I S 3 s g n f - m a n a g e

' H e finally d i d n o t m a n a g e to finish (it).1

T h e v e r b - a 'go, say, give', w h e n n e g a t e d , is often u s e d a s a n e x t e n d e d intransitive in

a s i m i l a r s e n s e 'not w o r k o u t (for s o m e o n e ) ' . In 12.53 it is u s e d in a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n .

1 2 . 5 3 n e - k w a n a itjiri m a : - k a d e - p i d a n a n a - i n u

N E G - w h i c h g a m e N E G + g o - N E G - R E M . P . R E P 3pl-kill

' T h e y failed to kill a n y g a m e at all.'

O f S e c o n d a r y - B v e r b t y p e s ( s e e D i x o n 1 9 9 1 : 1 8 4 - 9 2 ) , t h e v e r b s m e a n i n g 'wanting',

' p r e t e n d i n g ' a n d 'preventing' are obligatorily serialised. T h e v e r b -na 'want' p r e c e d e s t h e

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 1 2 . 1 Verb c l a s s e s 2 4 5

o t h e r v e r b , a s s h o w n in T 2 . 9 ( ' w a n t i n g to s m o k e t o b a c c o ' ) , w h i l e -maye 'pretend, d o

w r o n g l y ' (in 1 2 . 5 4 ) a n d - a d e t a 'prevent' (in 1 8 . 4 9 ) f o l l o w it.

1 2 . 5 4 d i m a d i - m a v e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f + s l e e p 3 s g n f - d o . w r o n g + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

' H e p r e t e n d e d that h e w a s a s l e e p (sitting) ( b u t h e w a s not).'

T h e S e c o n d a r y - C v e r b t y p e s are as f o l l o w s .

(i) M a k i n g t y p e : -a 'cause, m a k e , let, give'; - m a t a r a 'let'; -ira 'order' ( a l w a y s

p r e c e d e t h e o t h e r v e r b , a s in 12.55); a n d -pala ( f o l l o w s t h e o t h e r v e r b , a s in

1 8 . 3 5 - 6 ) . S e e § 1 8 . 2 , o n t h e s a m e s u b j e c t c o n s t r a i n t in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

w i t h 'help' a n d in c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b s .

1 2 . 5 5 n u - i n i p e - n u k u k w a k a - m h a d e n u - a n u - n h a

1 s g - c h i l d r e n - T O P . N O N . A / S w h a t - F U T . U N C E R T 1s g - m a k e 1 sg-eat

' W h a t will I g i v e m y c h i l d r e n to e a t (lit. I - m a k e I-eat) (if I can't h u n t anything).'

(ii) H e l p i n g t y p e : -wake(ta) 'help, p u t together, join' (formally, a m o r p h o l o g i c a l

c a u s a t i v e o f - w a k a join'), a s in 1 2 . 5 6 .

1 2 . 5 6 n u h u a - d e i-na n u - n i n u - w a k e - t a

I - F U T . C E R T 2 p l - O B J 1 s g - d o 1s g - j o i n + C A U S 1- C A U S 2

'I w i l l h e l p y o u d o ( i t ) ( l i t . 'I d o I m a k e join').'

B . S E R I A L - L I K E C O N S T R U C T I O N S . T h e s e c o n d a r y v e r b u s e d in a serial-like c o n s t r u c t i o n

is -yeka ' k n o w h o w to' o f s e m i - m o d a l type. It f o l l o w s the o t h e r v e r b in a c o n s t r u c t i o n .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a serial-like c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ( s e e

§ 1 9 . 9 ) is t h a t w h i l e true serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s d o n o t h a v e a n y m a r k e r s o f syntactic

link (that is, s u b o r d i n a t o r s o r c o o r d i n a t o r s ) , -yeka r e q u i r e s a s u b o r d i n a t i n g particle kwe

'how'. O t h e r w i s e a serial-like c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s t h e s a m e p r o p e r t i e s a s a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n : all t h e v e r b s c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e t h e s a m e subject, h a v e t h e s a m e t e n s e , aspect,

m o o d , m o d a l i t y a n d e v i d e n t i a l i t y v a l u e , a n d t h e r e is o n e n e g a t i v e m a r k e r p e r

c o n s t r u c t i o n ; s e e 1 2 . 5 7 . N o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e v e r b s in a

serial-like c o n s t r u c t i o n .

1 2 . 5 7 k w e m a - d i e - t a - d e n a - y e k a

h o w N E G - r e t u r n + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - N E G 3 p l - c a n / b e a b l e

' T h e y ( M a k u p e o p l e ) d i d n o t k n o w h o w to g i v e b a c k (the T a r i a n a child).'

T h i s v e r b c a n a l s o o c c u r in a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , albeit w i t h a slightly different

m e a n i n g . In a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , it m e a n s 'be a b l e to' a n d refers to

intrinsic u n c o n t r o l l a b l e ability, a s in 1 2 . 5 8 .

12.5 8 itjida m a h y a - k a d e d i - v e k a

turtle N E G + s w i m - N E G 3 s g n f - c a n / b e . a b l e

' T h e turtle c o u l d n ' t s w i m ( a n d s o it d r o w n e d ) . '

T h i s v e r b , - y e k a , is o f t e n u s e d in a n i d i o m a t i c sociative serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (see

§ 1 8 . 3 ) w i t h t h e v e r b - s i w a 'do together, d o for o n e s e l f : p i - s i w a p i - y e k a ( 2 s g - b e . t o g e t h e r

2 s g - k n o w ) , literally ' y o u k n o w it f o r y o u r s e l f , m e a n i n g 'it i s u p to y o u ; it is y o u w h o are

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 2 4 6 12 Verb c l a s s e s a n d p r e d i c a t e s t r u c t u r e

t a k i n g all t h e responsibility'. O c c a s i o n a l l y , o t h e r interrogative p r o n o u n s c a n b e u s e d

i n s t e a d o f kwe in a serial-like c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s in 1 2 . 5 9 .

1 2 . 5 9 k a n i m a - d i a - k a d e w a : w a - y e k a

w h e r e N E G - r e t u r n - N E G l p l + g o l p l - k n o w

' W e d o n o t k n o w w h i c h w a y to return.'

A s a transitive v e r b , -yeka m e a n s ' k n o w s o m e t h i n g ' ; it is m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in

n e g a t i v e c l a u s e s , a s in 1 2 . 6 0 w h e r e it t a k e s a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n a s O (see C h a p t e r s 2 0 a n d

2 4 ) .

1 2 . 6 0 d u h u a u p h e - d o - n e n e - m a - y e k a d e - p i d a n a

s h e a g o + p a r e n t - F E M - F O C . A / S N E G - N E G - k n o w + N E G - R E M . P . R E P

n a h a k a y u n a - n i - n i p e - n u k u

t h e y s o 3 p l - d o - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e w i d o w d i d n o t k n o w that t h e y h a d d o n e so.'

A s e x p e c t e d , -yeka is a n S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e . Its intransitive u s e , 'be k n o w l e d g e a b l e ,

k n o w all', is illustrated in 1 2 . 6 1 .

12.61 d i h a y a l a n a i - t h a n i n a d i - y e k a - s i n a

A R T w h i t e I N D F - b e g i n n i n g 3 s g n f - k n o w - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e w h i t e m a n k n e w (all) f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . ' ( f r o m t h e origin story)

C . C O M P L E M E N T C L A U S E T A K I N G S E C O N D A R Y V E R B . O n e m o d a l prefixless v e r b , wade

'be p r o b a b l e ' , t a k e s a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e m a r k e d w i t h t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka (also s e e

§ 2 4 . 1 ) .

1 2 . 6 2 w a d e - p i d e n a di-ilha-ka

b e . p r o b a b l e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - e a t - S U B

' ( T h e s n a k e ) m a y w e l l eat ( m e up).'

D . N O N - C A N O N I C A L A R G U M E N T T A K I N G S E C O N D A R Y V E R B S .

D l . N O N - C A N O N I C A L A R G U M E N T T A K I N G S E C O N D A R Y V E R B S IN SERIAL

C O N S T R U C T I O N S . T w o s e c o n d a r y v e r b s , o f t h e m o d a l type, are obligatorily serialised,

t h e A / S a r g u m e n t o f t h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n t a k e s t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e {-na for

p r o n o u n s , - n u k u for t o p i c a l c o n s t i t u e n t s ) , a n d t h e lexical v e r b t a k e s t h e i m p e r s o n a l

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r p a - . T h e s e s e c o n d a r y v e r b s p r e c e d e t h e lexical v e r b s . T h e s e

v e r b s a r e ira 'need, m u s t ' a n d i n u , i n u n a 'be lazy, unwilling'. E x a m p l e s 1 2 . 6 3 - 4 s h o w ira

in a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h i l e 1 2 . 6 5 illustrates i n u n a in a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n .

T h e s e v e r b s c a n f o r m serial c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h transitive a n d w i t h a c t i v e intransitive

v e r b s .

1 2 . 6 3 n u - n a i r a - m h a p a - n i pa:tsi y a p h i n i

l s g - O B J n e e d - P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - d o o t h e r t h i n g

h a - e h k w a p i - n e

D E M : I N A N - W O R L D - I N S

'I n e e d t o m a k e o t h e r t h i n g s for this w o r l d . '

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 1 2 . 1 Verb c l a s s e s 2 4 7

In 1 2 . 6 4 , ira o c c u r s w i t h t h e certain future m a r k e r -de (see § 1 4 . 4 ) u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y

w i t h first p e r s o n first a r g u m e n t . T h i s e x a m p l e c o n f i r m s that t h e c o n s t i t u e n t w a - n a ,

literally, 'to us', is i n d e e d t h e s u b j e c t o f ira 'need'.

1 2 . 6 4 w a - n a i r a - d e p a - s e r i k a

l p l - O B J n e e d - F U T . C E R T I M P - s p r e a d

' W e w i l l n e e d t o s p r e a d ( a r o u n d ) . '

1 2 . 6 5 w a - n a i n u n a - m h a p a - d i a p e d a l i a - m a - p e

l p l - O B J b e . u n w i l l i n g - P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - b e c o m e o l d - C L : F E M - P L

' W e a r e u n w i l l i n g t o b e c o m e o l d w o m e n . '

D 2 . C O M P L E M E N T C L A U S E N O N - C A N O N I C A L A R G U M E N T T A K I N G S E C O N D A R Y V E R B .

T w o s y n o n y m o u s s e c o n d a r y v e r b s , m a h y u n a a n d m a n h i n a w i t h a m o d a l m e a n i n g 'be

i m p o s s i b l e , b e difficult', t a k e a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e m a r k e d w i t h a p u r p o s i v e (either

- k a r u ' p u r p o s i v e visual' o r -hyu ' p u r p o s i v e n o n - v i s u a l ' : s e e § 1 6 . 7 ) i n t r o d u c e d w i t h a n

o p t i o n a l s u b o r d i n a t o r k w e 'how'. ( A l s o s e e § 1 9 . 1 1 . ) L i k e t h e v e r b s d e s c r i b e d in D l , t h e

A / S a r g u m e n t o f m a h y u n a / m a n h i n a + t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e t a k e s t h e

n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e {-na for p r o n o u n s , - n u k u for topical c o n s t i t u e n t s ) , a n d t h e lexical v e r b

t a k e s t h e i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r p a - . T h e s e v e r b s c a n f o r m serial

c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h transitive a n d w i t h a c t i v e intransitive v e r b s - s e e 1 2 . 6 6 a n d 1 9 . 3 2 .

1 2 . 6 6 k w e p a - d i a - k a r u pa:

w h a t I M P - r e t u r n - P U R P . V I S I M P + g o

m a h y u n a - m a - p i d e n a n h a - m a - p e - n u k u

b e . d i f f i c u l t - E X C - R E M . P . R E P t h e y - C L : F E M - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

'It w a s v e r y difficult for t h e m ( w o m e n ) to r e t u r n (after t h e y h a v e b e e n s e d u c e d b y

a m u c u r a - r a t ) . '

M a h y u n a a n d m a n h i n a are o f t e n u s e d w i t h t h e o v e r t A / S o m i t t e d , w i t h a g e n e r i c

r e f e r e n c e , a s i n 1 2 . 6 7 , f r o m a story a b o u t t h e traditional flood.

1 2 . 6 7 d i h a l a m a - k a - s e - p i d a n a d i - u k a d i - a n i h t a - n h a

h e flame-SUB-LOC-REM.P.REP 3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3 s g n f - p e r c e i v e - P A U S

p a - k a - k a r u m a h y u n a - m a - p i d a n a d i h a - p a d a

I M P - s e e - P U R P . V I S d i f f i c u l t - E X C - R E M . P . R E P A R T - C L : P I E C E

' W h i l e h e w a s in f l a m e s , (the C r e a t o r ) m a n a g e d to p e r c e i v e , it w a s h a r d to s e e t h e

p i e c e ( o f firewood w h i c h w a s t h e s o u r c e o f t h e flames).'

E t y m o l o g i c a l l y m a h y u n a p r o b a b l y c o m e s f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m a - 'negative', -a

'go, say, g i v e ' a n d - h y u n a ' c u s t o m a r y activity' (see § 1 5 . 1 . 2 ) . It is a n i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e

p r e d i c a t e ( s e e § 1 7 . 5 ) . A p o s i t i v e v e r s i o n of m a h y u n a 'difficult' c a n b e f o r m e d w i t h t h e

v e r b -yeka 'be a b l e to, b e possible'. A n i d i o m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n , p a - k a - k a r u k a n h i n a (IMP-

s e e - P U R P . V I S R E L + r e c o g n i s a b l e ) 'easy to r e c o g n i s e , b e r e c o g n i s a b l e ' , c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d

a p o s i t i v e v e r s i o n for p a k a k a r u m a h y u n a ' i m p o s s i b l e t o see, recognise'. T h i s e x p r e s s i o n

is d e r i v e d f r o m a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e ( w i t h -karu a s a c o m p l e m e n t i s e r : s e e C h a p t e r 2 4 ) ;

it c a n b e u s e d a s t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a c l a u s e , a s in 1 2 . 6 8 .

1 2 . 6 8 d i h a y a : w a p a - k a - k a r u k a n h i n a - p i d a n a

A R T j a c k e t I M P - s e e - P U R P R E L + r e c o g n i s e - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e " j a c k e t " w a s e a s y to r e c o g n i s e . '

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 2 4 8 12 Verb c l a s s e s a n d p r e d i c a t e s t r u c t u r e

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p a - k a - k a r u kanhina c a n t a k e a n N P as a n object; b u t there are n o

e x a m p l e s w h e r e it w o u l d t a k e a n N P subject.

1 2 . 6 9 d i h a - p u n a - n u k u p a - k a - k a r u k a n h i n a

A R T - C L : P A T H - T O P . N O N . A / S I M P - s e e - P U R P . V I S R E L + r e c o g n i s e

'It w a s e a s y to r e c o g n i s e [this path].'

E. V E R B S U S E D A S P R I M A R Y A N D AS S E C O N D A R Y V E R B S . A n u m b e r o f v e r b s - listed in

T a b l e 12.1 - c a n b e u s e d b o t h as p r i m a r y a n d as s e c o n d a r y v e r b s (in serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) w i t h a m e a n i n g difference (cf. also T a b l e 18.1).

T A B L E 12.1. V E R B S U S E D A S P R I M A R Y A N D A S S E C O N D A R Y V E R B S

V E R B M E A N I N G A S A P R I M A R Y V E R B M E A N I N G A S A S E C O N D A R Y V E R B

-ni 'do' 'go on, d o habitually'

- e m a 'stand' 'carry o n d o i n g '

-swa 'stay' 'do for a l o n g t i m e '

-eku 'run' 'do s u d d e n l y , b r e a k out'

- w h a 'sit' 'do for a l o n g t i m e sitting'

- w a 'play' 'try' ( w i t h S a v e r b ) ' b e c o m e ' ( w i t h S 0 v e r b )

-uka 'arrive, hit (target)' 'get to, m a n a g e '

A s u b c l a s s o f v e r b s w h i c h c a n b e u s e d as p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y v e r b s are v e r b s o f

feeling. W h e n u s e d as s e c o n d a r y v e r b s , t h e y c a n b e interpreted as f o r m i n g serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s ; h o w e v e r , s o m e a r g u m e n t s against s u c h a n interpretation will b e g i v e n

b e l o w .

O n e o f t h e m , - h i m e t a , c a n b e u s e d as a n S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e p r i m a r y v e r b m e a n i n g

'think', e.g. di-kale-se dhimeta ( 3 s g n f - h e a r t - L O C 3 s g n f + t h i n k ) 'in h i s heart h e t h o u g h t ' (it

c a n t a k e a direct s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t - see §24.3). In the i m p e r a t i v e f o r m it m e a n s 'take

care'. A s a s e c o n d a r y v e r b , it is u s e d for e x p e r i e n c i n g m e n t a l states, e.g. b e i n g a n n o y e d

(kasitana dhimeta) o r b e i n g a n g r y , as in 12.70. T h e v e r b w h i c h c o m b i n e s w i t h -himeta

c a n b e prefixless (stative), as in 1 2 . 7 1 , or prefixed, as in 12.72. Different c o n s t r u c t i o n s

are u s e d in e a c h case.

1 2 . 7 0 k a y u p a : - k a ine k e : r u - p i d a n a d h i m e t a

t h u s I M P + s a y - S U B devil a n g r y - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + f e e l

' W h e n o n e talks like that, t h e devil feels angry.'

I n 1 2 . 7 1 , it r e f e r s t o a p h y s i c a l 'feeling' o f a w e i g h t .

1 2 . 7 1 h a m i a - m a - p i d e n a d i h m e t a - k a

h e a v y - E X C - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + f e e l - S U B

' H e (the a n c e s t o r ) felt the w e i g h t ( o f his s o n t r a n s f o r m e d into a b o d o - f i s h w h o w a s

t r y i n g t o f o l l o w h i s father).'

T h i s v e r b c a n also b e u s e d w i t h a n o t h e r s e c o n d a r y v e r b , e.g. mahyuna-pu n h u m e t a

(difficult-AUG l s g + f e e l ) 'I f e l t (it w a s ) really difficult'. In 1 2 . 7 1 , t h e s e q u e n c e o f -himeta

+ stative v e r b is r e m i n i s c e n t o f a serial v e r b construction: n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n

i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e t w o v e r b s , t h e y c a n n o t h a v e a s e p a r a t e tense-aspect-evidentiality,

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 1 2 . 1 Verb c l a s s e s 2 4 9

m o d a l i t y o r p o l a r i t y specification, a n d are p r o n o u n c e d as a single p r o s o d i c p h r a s e . T h e

o r d e r o f c o m p o n e n t s is free ( u n l i k e in m a n y o t h e r serial c o n s t r u c t i o n t y p e s - § 1 8 . 3 ) .

W h e n - h i m e t a c o m b i n e s w i t h a p r e f i x e d v e r b (either active intransitive o r transitive),

it t a k e s a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e . In 1 2 . 7 2 , t h e s e c o n d p r e d i c a t e , 'they defeathered', is

m a r k e d w i t h t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka (see § 2 4 . 1 ) .

1 2 . 7 2 n a - b o l e t a - p i d a n a n h a n a - b o l e t a - k a d h i m e t a

3 p l - d e f e a t h e r - R E M . P . R E P t h e y 3 p l - d e f e a t h e r - S U B 3 s g n f + f e e l

T h e y d e f e a t h e r e d ( h i m , i.e. t h e e a g l e t a k e n p r i s o n e r ) , h e felt t h e y w e r e

d e f e a t h e r i n g h i m . '

T h e o t h e r v e r b o f feeling, - r e n a 'feel ( p h y s i c a l l y o r m e n t a l l y ) , g o through', w h e n u s e d

a s a s e c o n d a r y v e r b , u s u a l l y c o - o c c u r s w i t h a p r e p o s e d stative v e r b , a d j e c t i v e o r a n

a d v e r b . It c a n o c c u r a s a p r i m a r y v e r b , in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' u n d e r g o , feel', a s in 1 2 . 7 3 ; a s

a s e c o n d a r y v e r b it n e v e r a p p e a r s w i t h a p r e f i x e d v e r b . T h i s v e r b is f r e q u e n t l y

a c c o m p a n i e d b y ma:tfi 'bad'; matfa 'proper, g o o d ' ; kapemani 'shameful'; k h e r u n i k a n a

' m i s e r a b l e ' - s e e 1 2 . 7 4 .

1 2 . 7 3 n u - a n u - k a n u - a n h u a

l s g - g o l s g - s e e l s g - g o I

n u - r e n a n u - r e n a - d e

1 s g - u n d e r g o 1 s g - u n d e r g o - F U T . C E R T

'I w i l l b e s e e i n g ( w h a t h a p p e n s ) , w h a t e v e r h a p p e n s to m e (lit. I w i l l feel t h e w a y I

w i l l feel).'

1 2 . 7 4 m a : t f i - p u - n a k a p i - r e n a p h i a

b a d - A U G - P R E S . V I S 2 s g - f e e l y o u

' Y o u a r e f e e l i n g b a d (suffering).'

N o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e v e r b o f feeling a n d t h e stative v e r b ,

a n d t h e t w o f o r m o n e p r o s o d i c unit. H o w e v e r , t h e y d o n o t f o r m a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e first c o m p o n e n t c a n b e q u e s t i o n e d separately, a s s h o w n in

1 2 . 7 5 . T h i s is i m p o s s i b l e for a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n is better

i n t e r p r e t e d a s a S e c o n d a r y v e r b + a n adjunct; -rena c a n n o t t a k e a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e

m a r k e d w i t h a s u b o r d i n a t o r kwe o r a n y o t h e r t y p e o f a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e .

1 2 . 7 5 k w e - m h a d e n u - a n u - r e n a n h u a niri

h o w - F U T , U N C E R T l s g - g o lsg-feel I father

d i - y a m i - k a y a m i

3 s g n f - d i e - A F T E R : D S

' H o w a m I g o i n g to feel after m y father h a s died.' ( F r o m a traditional l a m e n t a t i o n

- i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e s p e a k e r will b e feeling b a d . )

T h e o r i g i n s o f t h e T a r i a n a s y s t e m o f v e r b s o f feeling r e m a i n to b e i n v e s t i g a t e d (cf.

§ 2 6 . 3 ) . Y o u n g e r p e o p l e o f t e n u s e - h i m e t a a n d -rena i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y , w i t h a p r e f e r e n c e

for - h i m e t a a s a d e f a u l t c h o i c e (see § 2 6 . 3 ) . E t y m o l o g i c a l l y , - h i m e t a is a 'double'

c a u s a t i v e o f t h e transitive v e r b - h i m a 'hear, u n d e r s t a n d ' (see § 1 3 . 3 ; - h i m e ( w i t h o u t t h e

s e c o n d c a u s a t i v e -ta) is u s e d in t h e s e n s e o f 'understand', b u t n o t 'feel'). It h a s a w i d e

r a n g e o f u s e s b e s i d e s t h e o n e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . F o r e x a m p l e , it c a n b e u s e d for

' p r e s e n t i m e n t s ' , a s in 12.76.

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 2 5 0 12 Verb c l a s s e s a n d p r e d i c a t e s t r u c t u r e

1 2 . 7 6 d i - m a r a d i - n u - k h e - p i d e n a d i h m e t a

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - c o m e - W H I L E - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + f e e l

d i - n a d i h m e t a - p i d e n a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f + f e e l - R E M . P . R E P

' W h i l e ( K a l i , t h e c r e a t o r o f m a n i o c ) w a s c o m i n g d o w n s t r e a m , h e felt, h e "pre-felt"

h i m . ' (I.e., h e s e n s e d that h i s s o n w a s t r y i n g to f o l l o w h i m . )

T h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , p h a m e t a - r i ( I M P - f e e l - C O N V ) is a g e n e r a l t e r m for a n y m e n t a l

p r o c e s s , s u c h a s 'feeling', 'thinking' o r 'imagination'.

T h e t w o v e r b s o f feeling f o r m a s e p a r a t e s u b c l a s s o f v e r b s w h i c h c a n b e u s e d b o t h a s

p r i m a r y a n d a s s e c o n d a r y v e r b s . T h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s are s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 12.2.

T A B L E 1 2 . 2 V E R B S O F F E E L I N G : A C O M P A R I S O N

M E A N I N G A S M E A N I N G
V E R B S IT C O N S T R U C T I O N T Y P E W H E N
V E R B P R I M A R Y A S S E C O N D A R Y
O C C U R S W I T H U S E D A S A S E C O N D A R Y V E R B
V E R B V E R B

s i m i l a r to a n S V C w h e n

'feel' ( m e n t a l l y , a c t i v e a n d u s e d w i t h stative v e r b s ;
- h i m e t a 'think', 'feel'
p h y s i c a l l y ) stative v e r b s f o r m s c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s

w i t h a c t i v e v e r b s

stative v e r b s ,
'feel', 'feel'
- r e n a a d v e r b s , a d j u n c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s
' u n d e r g o ' (physically)
a d j e c t i v e s

1 2 . 1 . 5 C o p u l a v e r b s

T a r i a n a h a s s e v e n c o p u l a v e r b s (see § 2 1 . 4 . 1 , for a fuller a n a l y s i s o f c o p u l a

c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) , f o u r p r e f i x l e s s a n d t h r e e prefixed. A l l prefixless c o p u l a v e r b s c a n t a k e

e i t h e r o n e a r g u m e n t o r t w o . T h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t o f t h e existential a n d p o s s e s s i v e

c o p u l a , w h i c h h a s t o b e a n o u n , c a n b e m a r k e d w i t h a n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e (-na for

p r o n o u n s , - n u k u for a n y topical c o n s t i t u e n t ) . T h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t o f t h e c o p u l a v e r b s

o f similarity, a p p e a r a n c e a n d o f n a m i n g c a n n o t t a k e t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e .

P r e f i x e d c o p u l a v e r b s t a k e t w o a r g u m e n t s . T h e y are n e i t h e r transitive n o r

intransitive; their s e c o n d a r g u m e n t is a c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t m a r k e d differently f r o m

b o t h A / S a n d O . U n l i k e A / S , it c a n n o t t a k e a g e n t i v e c a s e ( e v e n if f o c u s s e d ) , a n d c a n n o t

b e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e v e r b . U n l i k e O , it c a n n o t b e m a r k e d w i t h t h e n o n - s u b j e c t

c a s e (-na for p r o n o u n s , - n u k u for t o p i c a l constituents). T h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t h a s to

b e c o n t i g u o u s t o t h e c o p u l a v e r b ( u n l i k e t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t o f p r e f i x l e s s c o p u l a s ) .

C o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t o f v e r b s o f t h e p r e f i x e d c o p u l a s m u s t either b e n o u n p h r a s e s o r

a d j e c t i v e s . T h e p r o p e r t i e s o f p r e f i x e d a n d prefixless c o p u l a s are s h o w n in T a b l e 12.3.

A. P R E F I X L E S S C O P U L A V E R B S O F E X I S T E N C E A N D P O S S E S S I O N . T h e t w o verbs of

e x i s t e n c e a n d p o s s e s s i o n a r e a l i a 'existential/possessive' a n d sede ' n e g a t i v e

e x i s t e n t i a l / p o s s e s s i v e ' . W h e n t h e y a p p e a r w i t h j u s t o n e a r g u m e n t , t h e y a c q u i r e a n

existential r e a d i n g , a s in 1 2 . 7 7 - 8 .

1 2 . 7 7 p a t f i n a w i k i d e s a n a a l i a - p i d a n a

a n o t h e r p e r s o n D e s a n o E X I S T - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e r e w a s a n o t h e r p e r s o n , a D e s a n o ( w h o s u r v i v e d t h e battle).'

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 1 2 . 1 Verb c l a s s e s 2 5 1

1 2 . 7 8 w a l i k a s u h a e h k w a p i n e s e d e - p i d a n a

b e g i n n i n g D E M : I N A N w o r l d N E G N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

'In t h e b e g i n n i n g this w o r l d d i d n o t exist.'

T A B L E 12.3 P R E F I X L E S S A N D P R E F I X E D C O P U L A V E R B S

V E R B S O F S I M I L A R I T Y ,
V E R B S O F E X I S T E N C E A N D V E R B S O F B E C O M I N G
A P P E A R A N C E A N D
P O S S E S S I O N ( § 1 2 . 1 . 5 A ) ( § 1 2 . 1 . 5 C )
N A M I N G (§ 1 2 . 1 . 5 B )

prefixless prefixed

take one or t w o arguments take t w o arguments

2 n d a r g u m e n t can take non-

2 n d argument cannot take non-subject case
subject case

2 n d a r g u m e n t m u s t b e a n o u n 2 n d argument m a y be a n o u n or an adjective

A l o c a t i v e c a n b e a d d e d , for a l o c a t i v e r e a d i n g , a s in 1 2 . 7 9 .

1 2 . 7 9 n e - s e - n u k u k a - w a n a ka-fiha n a m u y a w i alia

t h e n - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S R E L - c a l l R E L - e a t evil.spirit j a g u a r E X I S T

' T h e r e (in t h e j u n g l e ) t h e r e w e r e a s h o u t i n g spirit (lit. t h e o n e w h o s h o u t s a n d eats

p e o p l e ) , a n evil spirit, ( a n d ) a jaguar.'

U n l i k e o t h e r c o p u l a v e r b s , p r e f i x l e s s c o p u l a s o f e x i s t e n c e c a n b e o m i t t e d if their

e x i s t e n t i a l m e a n i n g is clear f r o m t h e c o n t e x t - s e e 12.80.

1 2 . 8 0 n u - y a - n i - d a p a n a h a n u - k y e r e - s e - n a k a

l s g - l i v e - T O P . A D V - C L : H A B b i g - i s l a n d - L O C - P R E S . V I S

' T h e p l a c e w h e r e I live is o n a b i g island.'

F o r a p o s s e s s i v e r e a d i n g , a s e c o n d a r g u m e n t in t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e c a n b e a d d e d -

s e e 1 2 . 8 1 . T h e c o p u l a c a n n o t b e o m i t t e d .

1 2 . 8 1 p a - d u k u n i a - n i - p a s o l e a l i a - n h a p i - n a

I M P - l i g h t - T O P . A D V - C L : B O X E X I S T - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R 2 s g - O B J

' D o y o u h a v e a b o x o f m a t c h e s ? ' (lit. 'Is t h e r e a m a t c h - b o x to y o u ? ' )

E x a m p l e 1 2 . 8 2 illustrates a p r e f i x l e s s c o p u l a f o r m i n g o n e p r e d i c a t e w i t h a n Sj 0 v e r b .

T h i s is a v a r i a n t o f 1 2 . 2 4 ; t h e d i f f e r e n c e is in t h e f o c u s o n t h e t e m p o r a r y state in 1 2 . 8 2

(in 1 2 . 2 4 it is p e r m a n e n t ) . A n alternative a n a l y s i s w o u l d b e to c o n s i d e r dai a n a r g u m e n t

o f t h e c o p u l a alia.

1 2 . 8 2 d a i n u - n a a l i a - m h a

s l e e p 1s g - O B J E X I S T - P R E S . N O N V I S

'I a m s l e e p y (just n o w ) . '

A s s t a t e d a b o v e , p r e f i x l e s s c o p u l a s are s i m i l a r to e x t e n d e d intransitive v e r b s in that

t h e y c a n t a k e a s e c o n d a r g u m e n t m a r k e d w i t h a n o n - s u b j e c t case. H o w e v e r , t h e y a r e a

s e p a r a t e c l a s s o f v e r b s . T h e y differ f r o m e x t e n d e d intransitive v e r b s d i s c u s s e d in

§ 1 2 . 1 . 3 in t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s p e c t s : (a) t h e y c a n n o t f o r m a n i m p e r a t i v e ; (b) t h e y c a n n o t b e

c a u s a t i v i s e d o r n e g a t e d ( n o t e that sede is i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e ) ; (c) w h e n a s e c o n d

a r g u m e n t is a d d e d , their m e a n i n g c h a n g e s : a s o n e - a r g u m e n t v e r b s t h e y d e s c r i b e

e x i s t e n c e o r l o c a t i o n , a n d a s t w o - a r g u m e n t o n e s t h e y d e s c r i b e p o s s e s s i o n ; (d) t h e y c a n

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 2 5 2 12 Verb c l a s s e s a n d p r e d i c a t e s t r u c t u r e

f o r m o n e p r e d i c a t e w i t h Sj 0 v e r b s (as in 12.82). T h e f o c u s s e d A / S enclitic -ne (see

C h a p t e r 7) is r a r e l y u s e d w i t h either c o p u l a . 1 2 . 8 3 is a rather rare e x a m p l e o f -ne o n t h e

S o f alia, n h a 'they'. T h i s S c o n s t i t u e n t is in a v e r y s t r o n g c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s : a m o t h e r ,

w h o k n o w s she's g o t to eat p o i s o n e d fish b e c a u s e o f t h e c r i m e s h e c o m m i t t e d ( b y

h a v i n g a c c i d e n t a l l y s e e n t h e Y u r u p a r y flutes p r o h i b i t e d to w o m e n ) is u r g i n g h e r

d a u g h t e r s ( w h o w a n t t o d i e t o g e t h e r w i t h their m o t h e r ) to eat t h e o t h e r b a t c h o f fish

w h i c h a r e n o t p o i s o n e d .

1 2 . 8 3 a l i a - n a k a n h a - n e h y a i-thuka i - n h a

E X I S T - P R E S . V I S t h e y - F O C . A / S 2 p l 2 p l - b r e a k 2 p l - e a t

T h e y ( t h e n o n - p o i s o n e d fish) are h e r e , b r e a k ( t h e m ) a n d eat.'

B . P R E F I X L E S S C O P U L A V E R B S O F S I M I L A R I T Y , A P P E A R A N C E , A N D O F N A M I N G .

P r e f i x l e s s v e r b o f similarity a n d a p p e a r a n c e h i k u a n d its n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t hyukade

t a k e t w o a r g u m e n t s ; t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t c a n n o t t a k e a n y c a s e - m a r k i n g a n d c a n b e

either a n o u n o r a n adjective. S e e e x a m p l e s 2 1 . 7 0 - 4 . T h e v e r b hiku c a n b e u s e d as a n

intransitive stative v e r b , w i t h j u s t o n e a r g u m e n t . T h e prefixless v e r b o f n a m i n g ,

k e p i t a n a , illustrated in 2 1 . 7 6 - 7 9 , g e n e r a l l y b e h a v e s like hiku; h o w e v e r , u n l i k e hiku it

t a k e s r e g u l a r n e g a t i v e m a r k i n g : t h e prefix m a - a n d t h e suffix - k a d e . S e e further

d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r A in 2 1 . 4 . 1 .

C . P R E F I X E D C O P U L A V E R B S O F B E C O M I N G . T h r e e v e r b s o f b e c o m i n g -a ' b e c o m e

(transitory state)', a s in 1 2 . 8 4 , - d i a ' b e c o m e again, b e c o m e ( p e r m a n e n t state)', a s in

1 2 . 8 5 a n d 2 1 . 6 8 , a n d -matfika ' t r a n s f o r m into', a s in 1 2 . 8 6 a n d 2 1 . 6 9 , r e q u i r e a s e c o n d

a r g u m e n t w h i c h c a n n o t t a k e t h e n o n - s u b j e c t case. T h i s a r g u m e n t , a c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t ,

h a s t o b e a n o u n o r a n adjective; n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n b e inserted b e t w e e n t h e v e r b

a n d its c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n -a a n d -dia is that - a refers to a transitory state, o r p r o p e r t y ;

w h i l e - d i a refers t o b e c o m i n g s o m e t h i n g p e r m a n e n t (or to ' b e c o m i n g again'). In 1 2 . 8 4 ,

b e c o m i n g a n g r y is transitory, a n d so -a is u s e d ; w h i l e 1 2 . 8 5 refers to w o m e n ' s hair

b e c o m i n g w h i t e - w h i c h is p e r m a n e n t . T h e t w o e x a m p l e s c o m e f r o m t h e s a m e text.

1 2 . 8 4 k e r u - m a - p e n a - p i d a n a

a n g r y - C L : F E M - P L 3 p l + b e c o m e . f o r . a . w h i l e - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y ( w o m e n ) b e c a m e a n g r y (for a while).'

1 2 . 8 5 w a l i k i - r u - m a - p e itfa h a l e - p e r i - p i d a n a

y o u n g . p e r s o n - F E M - C L : F E M - P L hair w h i t e - C L : C O L L - R E M . P . R E P

d i - d i a - n i k i

3 s g n f - b e c o m e . p e r m a n e n t l y - C O M P L

' Y o u n g w o m e n ' s hair b e c a m e all w h i t e ( p e r m a n e n t l y ) . '

1 2 . 8 6 p e d a l i e - m a - p e inari n a - m a t f i - k a n a - p i d a n a

o l d - C L : F E M - P L m u c u r a . r a t 3 p l - t r a n s f o r m - T H 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e o l d w o m e n t r a n s f o r m e d into m u c u r a rats.'

E t y m o l o g i c a l l y , -matfika c o n s i s t s o f ma.tfi bad' a n d t h e m a t i c -ka (see § 1 2 . 2 ) . T h i s

v e r b c a n f o r m a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e w i t h -ita - s e e 12.87. O t h e r c o p u l a v e r b s , e.g.

-a, c a n n o t f o r m a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e . ( T h e c a u s a t i v e o f -dia ' b e c o m e ' h a s a

different m e a n i n g 'return, m a k e c o m e back': it is d e r i v e d f r o m -dia in its o t h e r m e a n i n g

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 1 2 . 2 The s t r u c t u r e of a p r e d i c a t e 2 5 3

' c o m e b a c k ' - s e e § 1 3 . 3 . ) E v e n w h e n -matfika is c a u s a t i v i s e d , its u n d e r l y i n g c o p u l a

c o m p l e m e n t {itfiri 'animal' in 1 2 . 8 7 ) c a n n o t t a k e t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e .

1 2 . 8 7 m a r i e r i d i - m a t j i k e t a tjari-nuku itfiri

s h a m a n 3 s g n f - t r a n s f o r m + C A U S m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S a n i m a l

' S h a m a n t r a n s f o r m e d a m a n into a n a n i m a l . '

T h e m o t i o n v e r b -he 'enter' c a n a l s o b e u s e d as a c o p u l a , in the m e a n i n g o f ' b e c o m e ' .

E x a m p l e s o f this sort o c c u r r e d o n l y in y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h . 1 2 . 8 8 c o m e s f r o m a

s t o r y t o l d b y J o s e B r i t o .

1 2 . 8 8 d i - n a m i - k a y a m i d i h a - p i d a n a e:ni d h e

3 s g n f - d i e - A F T E R : D S h e - R E M . P . R E P c h i e f 3 s g n f + e n t e r

'After h e (the f a t h e r - i n - l a w ) died, h e (the e x - s o l d i e r ) b e c a m e t h e c h i e f

1 2 . 2 T h e s t r u c t u r e o f a p r e d i c a t e

T h e r e a r e t h r e e m a i n t y p e s o f p r e d i c a t e s - s i m p l e p r e d i c a t e s , serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

(see C h a p t e r 18) a n d c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s (see C h a p t e r 19). E v e r y v e r b a l r o o t b e l o n g s to

either A / S a ( p r e f i x e d ) o r S 0 o r Sj 0 (prefixless) type. S i m p l e p r e d i c a t e s h a v e o n e prefix

p o s i t i o n a n d u p to e i g h t suffix p o s i t i o n s . T h e o r d e r o f suffixes is s h o w n in S c h e m e 1 2 . 1 .

S C H E M E 12.1 P R E D I C A T E S T R U C T U R E I N T A R I A N A : A F F I X E S A N D R O O T

1. C r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s ( A / S a ) o r N e g a t i v e m a - or R e l a t i v e ka-

2 . R O O T

3. T h e m a t i c syllable

4. C a u s a t i v e -/

{4a. C o m p l e t e i n v o l v e m e n t o f O -ta ( o n l y after -/)}

5. N e g a t i v e -(ka)de

6. R e c i p r o c a l (rarely: reflexive) -kaka

7. - i n a ' a l m o s t , a little bit'

8. T o p i c - a d v a n c i n g -«/, o r P a s s i v e - k a n a , o r P u r p o s i v e n o n - v i s u a l -hyu o r

P u r p o s i v e v i s u a l -karu

9. V e r b a l classifiers

10. B e n e f a c t i v e -pena

11. R e l a t i v i s e r s o r n o m i n a l i s e r s .

S u f f i x e s m a y b e f o l l o w e d b y enclitics. T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t o r d e r o f enclitics is s h o w n

in S c h e m e 1 2 . 2 . E n c l i t i c s c a n b e fixed p o s i t i o n enclitics, o r floating enclitics ( t h e s e are

m a r k e d w i t h ! in S c h e m e 12.2). F l o a t i n g enclitics p r e f e r a b l y g o o n t o t h e v e r b , b u t m a y

a p p e a r o n a n y c o n s t i t u e n t p r o v i d e d it is i n f o c u s - s e e § 2 . 6 a n d A i k h e n v a l d ( 2 0 0 2 a ) . A l l

enclitics a c q u i r e a s e c o n d a r y stress. A l l t h e enclitics ( e x c e p t for t h e i m p e r a t i v e ) o c c u r

o n all v e r b t y p e s .

1 2 . 8 9 illustrates a s i m p l e p r e d i c a t e w i t h 11 p o s i t i o n s filled.

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 2 5 4 1 2 Verb c l a s s e s a n d p r e d i c a t e s t r u c t u r e

1 2 . 8 9 1 2 4 4 a 5 6 13 15 17 1 9 d 2 0

m a - t h u k a - i - t a - k a d e - k a k a = t h a = p i d a n a = b o s a = n i k i = k a

N E G - b r e a k - C A U S 1- C A U S 2 - N E G - R E C = F R U S T = R E M . P . I N F R =

S P L I T . O P E N = C O M P L = S U B

' W h i l e ( t h e y ) a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t b r e a k e a c h o t h e r b y splitting o p e n totally in

vain...'

U n l i k e v e r b a l suffixes, s o m e v e r b a l enclitics a l l o w v a r i a b l e o r d e r i n g . In particular,

d e g r e e clitics c a n a p p e a r at t h e e n d o f t h e p r e d i c a t e o r in p o s i t i o n 18, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e

f o c u s (for i n s t a n c e , in 2 2 . 1 1 t h e d i m i n u t i v e p r e c e d e s a s u b o r d i n a t i n g enclitic, a n d in

2 2 . 1 2 it f o l l o w s ) . V a r i a b l e o r d e r i n g o f enclitics in p o s i t i o n 19 c a n b e a c c o u n t e d for b y

t h e a s p e c t o f t h e activity to b e f o c u s s e d . T h i s is illustrated in 1 2 . 9 0 a n d 1 2 . 9 1 .

1 2 . 9 0 d i - s a p e - s i n a - s i t a - p i t a - [ . . . ] - n i k i

3 s g n f - s p e a k - R E M . P . I N F R - P E R F - R E P E T - C O M P L

' H e h a d c o m p l e t e l y (finished) s p e a k i n g again.' ( O n e stresses t h e c o m p l e t e e x t e n t

o f t h e a c t i o n a s o p p o s e d t o s o m e t h i n g else.)

1 2 . 9 1 di-sape-sina-sita-niki-[...]-pita

3 s g n f - s p e a k - R E M . P . I N F R - P E R F - C O M P L - R E P E T

' A g a i n , h e h a d c o m p l e t e l y (finished) s p e a k i n g . ' ( O n e stresses t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e

a c t i o n a s o p p o s e d t o s o m e t h i n g else.)

S C H E M E 1 2 . 2 P R E D I C A T E S T R U C T U R E I N T A R I A N A : E N C L I T I C S

12. I n t e n t i o n a l , 'be a b o u t to' =kasu

13. M o o d ( i m p e r a t i v e , d e c l a r a t i v e , frustrative, c o n d i t i o n a l , a p p r e h e n s i v e ,

i n t e r r o g a t i v e f u s e d w i t h evidentiality a n d t e n s e )

14. A s p e c t 'zone' I

a. h a b i t u a l p r e s c r i b e d =hyuna ' w h a t y o u d o a n d w h a t y o u o u g h t to d o '

b. C u s t o m a r y =kape

c. H a b i t u a l repetitive -nipe

d. A n t e r i o r =nhi

15. a/b ! E v i d e n t i a l i t y a n d t e n s e , e.g. =mha-na ' n o n - v i s u a l - r e m o t e . p a s t '

16. E p i s t e m i c =da 'doubt', =pada 'isn't it t r u e that'

17. A k t i o n s a r t ( m a n n e r o r e x t e n t o f a s s o c i a t e d action, e.g. 'split open', 'step o n a n d

feel pain', ' w a g o n e ' s tail', 'away');

18. ! D e g r e e : a u g m e n t a t i v e (also m e a n i n g 'indeed'), d i m i n u t i v e , a p p r o x i m a t i v e

( ' m o r e o r less'), e x c e s s i v e

19. A s p e c t ' z o n e ' II

a. P r o l o n g e d , o n g o i n g = d a k a 'yet, still1

b. P e r f e c t i v e =sita 'already a c c o m p l i s h e d '

c. ! R e p e t i t i v e =pita9=ta ' o n c e again'

d. ! C o m p l e t i v e - n i k i 'totally, c o m p l e t e l y '

2 0 . S w i t c h r e f e r e n c e a n d c l a u s e - c h a i n i n g

2 1 . ! E m p h a t i c e n c l i t i c s a/ya, w a n i ; e v i d e n c e s o

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are k n o w n to i n c l u d e u p to s e v e n s i m p l e v e r b s . T h e y a r e

strictly c o n t i g u o u s (i.e. n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n their c o m p o n e n t s ) .

E a c h c o m p o n e n t o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is a n i n d e p e n d e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d , a n d

t h e y all r e c e i v e t h e s a m e inflection for p e r s o n , n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r o f s u b j e c t ( A / S a ) . A l l

t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n h a v e t h e s a m e t e n s e , a s p e c t , m o o d ,

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 12.3 Verb root structure and verbal derivations 2 5 5

e v i d e n t i a l i t y a n d p o l a r i t y v a l u e . T h e o r d e r o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s m a y b e f i x e d o r n o t

d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t y p e . A serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n n o t c o n s i s t o f stative

(S 0 ) v e r b s o n l y . Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are w i d e l y u s e d to e x p r e s s a s p e c t u a l ,

d i r e c t i o n a l , a n d m o d a l m e a n i n g s ( s e e C h a p t e r 18). C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s c o n s i s t o f j u s t

t w o v e r b s ; t h e y differ f r o m serial v e r b s in a n u m b e r o f p r o p e r t i e s (see § 1 9 . 1 2 ) .

1 2 . 3 V e r b r o o t s t r u c t u r e a n d v e r b a l d e r i v a t i o n s

A s w a s s h o w n a b o v e , T a r i a n a h a s j u s t o n e p r e f i x p o s i t i o n o n p r e f i x e d (transitive o r

a c t i v e intransitive v e r b s ) w h i c h c a n b e o c c u p i e d b y c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s , t h e

n e g a t i v e p r e f i x m a - ( s e e C h a p t e r 17), o r t h e relativiser ka- ( S e e C h a p t e r 2 3 ) . T h e set o f

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s o n t h e v e r b c o i n c i d e s w i t h that u s e d to i n d i c a t e t h e p o s s e s s o r

o n i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s ( s e e T a b l e 6.1), w i t h o n e i m p o r t a n t difference: t h e

i n d e f i n i t e p e r s o n p r e f i x /- is h a r d l y e v e r u s e d o n v e r b s in T a r i a n a . S e e § 6 . 1 . 2 for t h e

d i s c u s s i o n o f this p r e f i x in B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a a n d o f its t r a c e s in T a r i a n a v e r b s .

T h e s t r u c t u r e o f a v e r b a l r o o t is fairly s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . M o s t p r e f i x e d v e r b r o o t s a r e

m o n o s y l l a b i c o r b i s y l l a b i c e.g. -ka 'see'; - n h a 'eat'; -yd 'hit'; -uka 'arrive; -ira 'drink,

c o n s u m e w i t h o u t c h e w i n g ' ; a n d - h i m a 'hear'; w h i l e p r e f i x l e s s r o o t s are typically bi- a n d

e v e n trisyllabic, e.g. h i k u 'appear'; p a w a r i 'be true'; sede ' n e g a t i v e existential'; a n d kai

'ache'. S o m e p o l y s y l l a b i c p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s m a y originally h a v e h a d a c o m p l i c a t e d

internal m o r p h o l o g i c a l structure. F o r i n s t a n c e , k h e r u n i k a n a 'be m i s e r a b l e , b e lacking'

p r o b a b l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e k a - 'relative', t h e e x t a n t v e r b a l r o o t *hiru, a -ni- affix, a n d

- k a n a ' p a s s i v e m a r k e r ' . P r e f i x e d r o o t s m a y c o n t a i n a t h e m a t i c suffix, that is, a fossilised

d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix. Its m e a n i n g is o f t e n difficult to establish. T h e m a t i c suffixes m a y b e

o m i t t e d w i t h o u t a n y c h a n g e in m e a n i n g , a s in -kerya(-ka) 'be j e a l o u s ' , -yana(ta) 'cook'.

A v e r b w i t h a t h e m a t i c suffix often c o r r e s p o n d s to a v e r b w i t h o u t o n e in r e l a t e d

l a n g u a g e s , e.g. T a r i a n a - m a n i - k a 'play' ( w i t h a t h e m a t i c -ka), B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a - m a n i

'play'; T a r i a n a -pipi-na ' b e c o m e lost, g o a s t r a y (in t h e j u n g l e ) ' , W a r e k e n a o f X i e p i p i

' b e c o m e l o s t ' (pipi-nia ' b e c o m e . l o s t - I N C H O A T I V E ) .

T h e r e a r e j u s t t w o p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s t e m s w i t h t h e m a t i c suffixes: h i t u - k a ' h a v e first

m e n s t r u a t i o n ' a n d k a - n a w i k y a ( R E L - p e o p l e + T H ) ' b e c o m e a person'. T h e t h e m a t i c

suffixes a p p e a r t o h a v e n o c o n s i s t e n t s e m a n t i c s in t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e . T h e t h e m a t i c

suffix - k a is u s e d w i t h a c t i v e intransitive v e r b s . E x a m p l e s are -matfi-ka 'turn into

s o m e t h i n g ' ( a c o p u l a v e r b , f r o m ma:tfi 'bad'); - m a n i - k a 'play', - s a k a - k a 'drip'. T h i s

t h e m a t i c suffix is a l s o f o u n d in n o n - p r o d u c t i v e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s n h a - k a - s i (eat-TH-

N P O S S ) 'food' a n d ira-ka-si ( d r i n k - T H - N P O S S ) 'drink' (see § 1 0 . 3 ) . It a p p e a r s in

o c c a s i o n a l l o a n s f r o m P o r t u g u e s e , e.g. l e - k a 'read', f r o m ler; g r a v a - k a 'record', f r o m

g r a v a r ; a n d g a h a - k a 'win', f r o m g a n h a r (see 2 5 . 6 3 ) . T h e suffix -ta is m o s t l y u s e d w i t h

transitive v e r b s , e.g. - h m a i t a , - h m i t a 'burn'; - k o l e t a 'swing'; - m e r i t a 'fry'; -nalita

'quarrel'; - m e y u t a ' w e e d , c l e a n (garden)'; - k u n u t a 'take into o n e ' s m o u t h ' ; a n d -hipaneta

' c h a n g e , g e t c h a n g e d ' ; a n d w i t h a f e w a c t i v e intransitives, e.g. -perita 'pass a t o n g u e

o v e r o n e ' s m o u t h ( a b o u t a snake)'; -hipoleta 'stumble'; a n d - s a p a t a , -sapeta 'suffer'. It

a l s o a p p e a r s in a f e w o l d l o a n v e r b s - s e e e x a m p l e s in § 2 6 . 1 . 3 .

In t w o p o s s i b l e l o a n s f r o m P o r t u g u e s e - k a w i t a 'pay' a n d - m a w i t a 'not p a y , o w e ' , -(i)ta

m a y b e a d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix: - k a m i t a , - k a w i t a p o s s i b l y c o m e s f r o m relativiser ka- + t h e

l o a n r o o t w e 'sell, b u y ' ( P o r t u g u e s e vender) a n d -(i)ta (cf. k a - w e n i 'dear, e x p e n s i v e ' ) ;

w h i l e - m a w i t a f r o m its n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t c o n t a i n i n g m a - 'negative' a n d -(i)ta. (In

W a r e k e n a o f X i e t h e f o r m a t i v e -ta a p p e a r s in a n u m b e r o f l o a n transitive v e r b s , e.g.

w e n i t a 'sell', f r o m P o r t u g u e s e / S p a n i s h v e n d e r , t o k e t a 'touch', f r o m P o r t u g u e s e / S p a n i s h

tocar. T h i s suffix -ta m a y b e e t y m o l o g i c a l l y the s a m e as -ta, o r -ita 'verbaliser,

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 2 5 6 12 Verb classes and predicate structure

c a u s a t i v e ' ( s e e C h a p t e r 13); h o w e v e r , in t h e a b o v e c a s e s it h a s to b e interpreted as a part

o f t h e v e r b a l t h e m e s i n c e it c a n h a r d l y b e a s c r i b e d a n y s y n c h r o n i c s e m a n t i c s o r

f u n c t i o n . S o m e t i m e s a d e r i v a t i o n a l m e a n i n g c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d ; for i n s t a n c e , - s u m u - t a

'fill w i t h w a t e r ' m a y h a v e c o m e f r o m s u m u , s o m e , (some 'a lot, m u c h ' . ) T w o further,

rarer, t h e m a t i c suffixes are -sa, as in -pani-sa 'tear a w a y ' a n d - k e r e - s a 'fill u p ' ( w h i c h

m a y b e c o g n a t e to -sa 'causative' in B a r e ) a n d - n a , a s in - t a w i - n a 'grow' a n d -pipi-na

' b e c o m e lost'.

T h e m a t i c suffixes are f o u n d in m a n y A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e family, t h e

c h o i c e o f t h e m a t i c (or 'epenthetic') syllable d e p e n d s o n t h e transitivity class o f t h e v e r b :

f e w e r c h o i c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e for S a v e r b s t h a n for transitive v e r b s , a n d stative v e r b s are

g e n e r a l l y u n l i k e l y t o t a k e o n e . S o m e o f t h e s e t h e m a t i c syllables m a y g o b a c k to v a l e n c y

c h a n g i n g d e r i v a t i o n s (cf. W i s e 1 9 8 6 a n d A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b ) . T h e m a t i c suffixes o f t e n

a c c o u n t for trisyllabic r o o t s o f transitive a n d active intransitive v e r b s in T a r i a n a .

T a r i a n a h a s n o v e r b r o o t c o m p o u n d i n g (see C h a p t e r 18, for s o m e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n s to

that, i n c l u d i n g m a # & - c o m p o u n d s a n d v e r b a l A k t i o n s a r t enclitics w h i c h h a v e e m e r g e d

f r o m g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g u n d e r T u c a n o a n influence). T h e o n l y i n s t a n c e

o f a v e r b r o o t c o n s i s t i n g o f s e v e r a l r o o t s is -hupiru ' m o v e fiercely' c o m p o s e d o f - n u 'go

u p ' a n d - p i n t ' m a k e n o i s e , m o v e w i t h noise'.

T h e relativiser k a - ( a n d its n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t ma-) d e r i v e S 0 v e r b s f r o m n o u n s , e.g.

k a - y a k a r z ( R E L - v i l l a g e ) 'live in a place'; ka-kare (REL-heart) 'feel in t h e heart'; ke.nipe

( R E L + c h i l d r e n ) ' h a v e children'; k a - s a - d o ( R E L - s p o u s e - F E M ) 'get a wife, m a r r y ' ; k a - s a -

niri ( R E L - s p o u s e - M A S C ) 'get a h u s b a n d , marry'; a n d t h e c o p u l a v e r b o f n a m i n g kepitana

( R E L + n a m e ) ' h a v e a n a m e ' (also s e e § 1 7 . 4 a n d § 1 7 . 5 ) . Just s o m e o f t h e s e h a v e a

n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t w i t h m a - , e.g. m a - s a - d o ( N E G - s p o u s e - F E M ) 'not get a w i f e ; b e

u n m a r r i e d ( o f a m a n ) ' ; m a - s a - n i r i ( N E G - s p o u s e - M A S C ) 'not get a h u s b a n d ; b e u n m a r r i e d

( o f a w o m a n ) ' ; m e p i t a n a ( N E G + n a m e ) 'have n o n a m e ' (e.g. a n u n k n o w n plant). T h e r e is

n o n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t for ka-yakare a n d for k e . n i p e . T h e f o r m m a . k a r e (REL-heart,

b r e a t h ) is n o t a n e g a t i o n o f ka-kare: it m e a n s 'be o u t o f breath, b e tired' (see § 1 7 . 5 ) . A

c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e relative-attributive ka- a n d a suffix -ni ( n o t u s e d a n y w h e r e else)

d e r i v e s t h e S 0 v e r b k e s a n i ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : ka-isa-ni) ' h a v e a n i c e smell' f r o m t h e n o u n

isa ' s m o k e , smell'.

A n o n - p r o d u c t i v e d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix -te d e r i v e s t h e v e r b -kalite 'tell' f r o m t h e r o o t

kali- w h i c h o c c u r s in kali-si 'story' (see § 1 0 . 3 ) . A n o n - p r o d u c t i v e suffix -na d e r i v e s a n

S 0 v e r b k a r u - n a 'be d a n g e r o u s ' f r o m karu Tear, b e afraid', also a n S 0 v e r b .

1 2 . 4 D e f i n i n g a v e r b a l w o r d

A s w e h a v e s e e n , s i m p l e p r e d i c a t e s c o n s i s t o f j u s t o n e v e r b , w h i l e serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s i n v o l v e m o r e t h a n o n e v e r b . Serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f several v e r b s e a c h o f w h i c h c a n b e u s e d as a n i n d e p e n d e n t

p r e d i c a t e , w h i l e p a r t s o f a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e either c a n n o t b e u s e d this w a y (as, for

i n s t a n c e , t h e p a r t s o f t h e a d m i r a t i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e ) or, w h e n t h e y are u s e d b y

t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y h a v e a different m e a n i n g (e.g. parts o f t h e a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e s ) . C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s c a n n o t b e n o m i n a l i s e d a s o n e w h o l e , o r b e t h e target o f

a n y d e r i v a t i o n , w h i l e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a n b e (see § 1 9 . 1 2 ) . Serial v e r b s are

s o m e w h a t p r o b l e m a t i c a s far a s their ' w o r d h o o d ' is c o n c e r n e d s i n c e t h e y h a v e a p r o p e r t y

d e s c r i b e d a s 'affix sharing' in § 1 8 . 2 . T h i s p r o p e r t y p r o v i d e s interesting e v i d e n c e in

f a v o u r o f their m o n o - p r e d i c a t i v e character. A n u m b e r o f affixes, f r o m p o s i t i o n 5

o n w a r d s (as p e r S c h e m e 12.1), o c c u r o n l y o n c e p e r serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n

c h a r a c t e r i s i n g it a s a w h o l e . F o r i n s t a n c e , [phepa p a d e j - n i p e ( [ i M P + t a k e I M P - h a v e ] -

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 12.4 Defining a v e r b a l w o r d 2 5 7

N O M ) 'trust, b e l i e f is a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d n o m i n a l i s a t i o n o f a lexicalised s y m m e t r i c a l

serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n p h e p a p a - d e ( i M P + t a k e I M P - h a v e ) 'believe, trust' (lit. t a k e - h a v e ) .

( S e e e x a m p l e s 18.2 a n d 18.11.)

W h e n a c l a u s e h a s t o b e n o m i n a l i s e d , a n o m i n a l i s i n g classifier is a t t a c h e d to t h e last

c o n s t i t u e n t o f t h e c l a u s e . T h u s , a n o u n p h r a s e k a - k a m a hanupe ( R E L - d r i n k . a l c o h o l

m u c h ) 'the o n e w h o d r i n k s a lot' c a n b e further n o m i n a l i s e d w i t h t h e a n i m a t e classifier

-tie, y i e l d i n g k a k a m a hanupite 'the o n e w h o p o s s e s s e s a p r o p e r t y o f d r i n k i n g a lot'. T h e

s a m e classifier a p p l i e s in t h e s a m e w a y to a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , e.g.

k a - y e n a k e m a h a n u p i t e ( R E L - e x c e e d R E L + s t a n d / s t a y m u c h + N C L i A N l M ) 'the o n e w h o

insists a lot' (lit. 'the o n e w h o e x c e e d s in staying'). Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s o r c l a u s e s

n o m i n a l i s e d this w a y a r e still t r e a t e d a s c o n s i s t i n g o f s e p a r a t e p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s .

T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n in T a r i a n a are i n d e p e n d e n t g r a m m a t i c a l

w o r d s e a c h o f w h i c h c a n b e u s e d a s a n i n d e p e d e n t p r e d i c a t e . H o w e v e r , the 'affix-

s h a r i n g ' illustrated a b o v e s h o w s that in a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e w h o l e also ' w o r k s ' as a

s i n g l e m o r p h o l o g i c a l unit, o n a p a r w i t h a m o r p h o l o g i c a l w o r d , s i n c e a n u m b e r o f

affixes, e s p e c i a l l y n o m i n a l i s e r s , c h a r a c t e r i s e it as a w h o l e . ( S i m i l a r b e h a v i o u r for

d e r i v a t i o n a l s u f f i x e s in serial v e r b s h a s b e e n attested in o t h e r serialising l a n g u a g e s : s e e

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 e . ) T h i s s u g g e s t s a possibility o f p o s t u l a t i n g m o r p h o l o g i c a l units

('words') o f different levels for T a r i a n a v e r b s , s i m i l a r to distinctions b e t w e e n v e r b a l

t h e m e s a n d v e r b a l b a s e s in t h e A t h a p a s k a n linguistic tradition (see R i c e 1 9 8 9 ) .

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 13

V a l e n c y c h a n g i n g a n d a r g u m e n t rearranging m e c h a n i s m s

T a r i a n a h a s t w o v a l e n c y r e d u c i n g o p e r a t i o n s - p a s s i v e ( § 1 3 . 1 ) a n d r e f l e x i v e - r e c i p r o c a l

( § 1 3 . 2 ) , a n d t h r e e v a l e n c y i n c r e a s i n g c a u s a t i v i s i n g m e c h a n i s m s ( c o n s i d e r e d in § 1 3 . 3 ) .

T h e r e is a l s o a n a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g m e c h a n i s m distinct f r o m b o t h c a u s a t i v e s a n d

a p p l i c a t i v e s ( s e e § 1 3 . 4 ) . A n o t h e r m e c h a n i s m d o e s n o t affect t h e transitivity v a l u e o f a

v e r b , b u t i n s t e a d r e a r r a n g e s t h e a r g u m e n t s ( § 1 3 . 5 ) . § 1 3 . 6 c o n t a i n s a s u m m a r y o f v a l e n c y

c h a n g i n g a n d a r g u m e n t r e a r r a n g i n g m e c h a n i s m s , s h o w i n g that their a p p l i c a t i o n p r o v i d e s

a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e a s t o w h a t g r a m m a t i c a l relations m u s t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d in this

l a n g u a g e .

1 3 . 1 P a s s i v e

P a s s i v e is m a r k e d w i t h prefix ka- (also u s e d in participles - s e e C h a p t e r 2 0 ) a n d suffix

- k a n a . It c a n b e f o l l o w e d b y a n a u x i l i a r y v e r b -a 'go, d o , give' w h i c h t a k e s t h e s u b j e c t

prefix. W h e n a p a s s i v e f o r m is n e g a t e d , ka- is r e p l a c e d b y m a - 'negative' a n d t h e

n e g a t i v e suffix -kade is a d d e d after - k a n a (also s e e § 1 7 . 2 ) .

P a s s i v e c a n b e d e r i v e d f r o m a n y v e r b e x c e p t for t h o s e o f t h e Sj 0 type. P a s s i v e s

d e r i v e d f r o m ( A ) transitive a n d ditransitive, ( B ) p r e f i x e d a c t i v e intransitive (S a ) a n d ( C )

p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s (S 0 ) h a v e different s e m a n t i c effect. P a s s i v e s c a n b e n o m i n a l i s e d ; t h e y

t h e n s h o w s o m e f u n c t i o n a l a n d s e m a n t i c o v e r l a p w i t h p a s s i v e participles; s e e ( D ) . T h e

s y n t a c t i c f u n c t i o n s a n d t h e p r a g m a t i c effect o f t h e p a s s i v e is d i s c u s s e d in (E).

A . P A S S I V E O F T R A N S I T I V E A N D D I T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S . T h e p a s s i v e d e r i v a t i o n o f transitive

a n d d i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s :

(a) a p a s s i v e c l a u s e is a c t i v e intransitive;

(b) if t h e v e r b is transitive, t h e u n d e r l y i n g O a r g u m e n t a c q u i r e s S a f u n c t i o n a n d is

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e a u x i l i a r y v e r b ;

(c) t h e u n d e r l y i n g A o f a transitive v e r b is d e m o t e d to t h e p e r i p h e r y a n d m a y

o p t i o n a l l y b e o m i t t e d , a s in 13.2;

(d) if t h e u n d e r l y i n g A is n o t o m i t t e d , it t a k e s n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e - m a r k i n g , that is, if it

is a p r o n o u n it is m a r k e d b y - n a \ a s in 13.4, a n d i f it is t o p i c a l , it t a k e s - n u k u , a s

i n 1 3 . 2 4 ;

(e) t h e a u x i l i a r y -a c a n b e o m i t t e d , a s in 1 3 . 3 .

13.1 illustrates t h e transitive c l a u s e f r o m w h i c h p a s s i v e s in 13.2 a n d 13.3 are d e r i v e d .

13.1 h a - n e - n u k u y a w i d i - f i h a - m h a d e

D E M . T N A N - D I S T - T O P . N O N . A / S j a g u a r 3 s g n f - e a t - F U T

' A j a g u a r will eat that o n e up.'

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 1 3 . 1 P a s s i v e 2 5 9

1 3 . 2 h a - n e k a - n h a - k a n a - m h a d e di-a

D E M : I N A N - D I S T R E L - e a t - P A S S - F U T 3 s g n f - A U X

" T h i s o n e will b e in t h e p r o c e s s o f b e i n g e a t e n u p b y t h e j a g u a r , " (said t h e m a i n

c h a r a c t e r after h e h e a r d c h o m p i n g s o u n d s ) . '

13.3 tjb! n h u a - s i n i k a - n h a - k a n a - k a s u

o h ! I - T O O . A C T . C O N T R R E L - e a t - P A S S - I N T

"'I, t o o , a m a b o u t t o b e e a t e n ! " (said t h e f r i g h t e n e d m a n a n d c l i m b e d a tree,

l e a v i n g h i s s l e e p i n g w i f e to t h e j a g u a r ) . '

T h e u n d e r l y i n g A 'by m e ' is o v e r t l y m a r k e d in 13.4. T h e M o o n is t a l k i n g to a m a n

w h o d i d w h a t t h e M o o n t o l d h i m n o t to.

1 3 . 4 p h i a p i - n i - k a n u - n a k a - n h a - k a n a - m h a d e p h i a

y o u 2 s g - d o - S U B l s g - O B J R E L - e a t - P A S S - F U T y o u

' Y o u h a v i n g d o n e ( w h a t I t o l d y o u n o t to), y o u will b e e a t e n b y m e . '

I n 1 3 . 5 , t h e y o u n g m a n is c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t h o w h e is h a t e d b y t h e w o m a n o f his

c h o i c e . ( H e r e t h e p a s s i v e p r e d i c a t e is a p a r t o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n - s e e C h a p t e r

18.)

13.5 n u h u a k a - d u i h a - k a n a - p u - m h a n u k a

I R E L - d i s l i k e - P A S S - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S 1 s g + a r r i v e

n u - d i a p i - n a h a - e h k w a p i - n u k u

1 s g - b e c o m e 2 s g - O B J D E M . I N A N - C L : W O R L D - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I h a v e b e c o m e h a t e d b y y o u in this w o r l d . '

If t h e u n d e r l y i n g A is e x p r e s s e d w i t h a full n o u n it c a n b e u n m a r k e d if n o n - t o p i c a l , a s

in 13.6, o r it c a n a c q u i r e t h e - n u k u c a s e m a r k i n g a s in 1 3 . 2 4 . T h e S a in 13.6 is m a r k e d

w i t h - n e ' f o c u s s e d subject' s i n c e this c o n s t i t u e n t is contrastive.

1 3 . 6 k a w h i k a - p a s y a - k a n a - m h a n a w h a - n e - n h a

m a n i o c . f l o u r R E L - c r u s h - P A S S - R E M . P . N O N V I S w e - F O C . A / S - P A U S

' W e ( n o t t h e l a z y b o s s ) w e r e c r u s h e d b y (the w e i g h t of) t h e m a n i o c flour.'

If a d i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b is p a s s i v i s e d , o n l y 'gift' ( n o t 'recipient') c a n g o into t h e S a

f u n c t i o n . 13.8 is t h e p a s s i v e o f 13.7.

1 3 . 7 k u p h e n u - p h i - k a p i - n a

fish 1s g - s e l l - R E C . P . V I S 2 s g - O B J

'I h a v e s o l d fish to you.'

1 3 . 8 k u p h e k a - p h i - k a n a - n i h k a di-a p i - n a

fish R E L - s e l l - P A S S - A N T + R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - g o 2 s g - O B J

'Fish h a s b e e n s o l d to y o u (or b y you).'

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 2 6 0 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

If p a s s i v e is f o r m e d o n a transitive p r e f i x l e s s v e r b ( § 1 2 . 1 . 1 ) , t h e result is a d e r i v e d

intransitive c l a u s e , a s in 13.9.

1 3 . 9 n h e s i r i - k a n a - d e - m h a

l i k e - P A S S - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

' ( W h e n p e o p l e u s e a f u n n y n i c k n a m e ) , (it) is n o t liked.'

B . P A S S I V E O F A C T I V E I N T R A N S I T I V E S A V E R B S . P a s s i v e d e r i v a t i o n o f a n active

intransitive S a v e r b h a s i m p e r s o n a l h u m a n reference. It is w i d e l y u s e d in g e n e r a l

s t a t e m e n t s , a s in 1 3 . 1 0 . T h e a u x i l i a r y t a k e s third p e r s o n plural c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r

n a - .

1 3 . 1 0 m a - w h a w h e t a - k a n a - d e - n a

N E G - r e s t - P A S S - N E G - R E M . P . V I S

w h a i t a - w h y a - m i s i n i - n u k u

o u r c a n o e - C L : C A N O E - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R - T O P . N O N . A / S

m e m a - k a n a - d e na:

N E G + s l e e p - P A S S - N E G 3 p l + A U X

' O n e d o e s n o t rest o n o u r c a n o e , t o o , o n e d o e s n o t sleep.'

T h e a u x i l i a r y o c c a s i o n a l l y t a k e s i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g if t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s are

n o t h u m a n . 13.11 c o m e s f r o m a story ( w i d e s p r e a d in the r e g i o n ) a b o u t a flying

c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n a colibri a n d a w h i t e h e r o n .

1 3 . 1 1 m a k a - k a n a - d e - p i d a n a p a - k e t a

N E G + a r r i v e - P A S S - N E G - R E M . P . R E P I M P - m e e t / c a t c h . sight

'It w a s i m p o s s i b l e to c a t c h sight o f ( w h o e v e r w a s flying).'

A m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s u s e d a s intransitives c a n a c q u i r e a n i m p e r s o n a l r e a d i n g if

p a s s i v i s e d . 1 3 . 1 2 c o m e s f r o m a narrative b y L e o n a r d o B r i t o a b o u t a m a n w h o v i o l a t e d a

t a b o o a n d w e n t h u n t i n g o n G o o d F r i d a y , in spite o f b e i n g told 1 3 . 1 2 . T h i s e x a m p l e is

u n u s u a l in t w o w a y s : firstly, i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g is u s e d i n s t e a d o f t h e relative

ka-, a n d s e c o n d l y , t h e r e is a n o v e r t s u b j e c t (S a ) e x p r e s s e d w i t h t h e i m p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n

p h a 'one'.

1 3 . 1 2 i k a s u d i h a - k a d a - n a k a n h a itfiri t a r a - m a - p i d a n a

t o d a y A R T - C L : D A Y - P R E S . V I S t h e y g a m e h a r d - E X C - R E M . P . R E P

n a - k a r e p h a p a - i n u - k a n a - t h a - p i d a n a

3 p l - h e a r t I M P I M P - k i l l / h u n t - P A S S - F R - R E M . P . R E P

' T o d a y , o n this d a y , t h e g a m e d o e s n o t die (lit. g a m e , their h e a r t is h a r d ) , o n e d o e s

n o t hunt.'

T h e i m p e r s o n a l p a s s i v e is o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e d w i t h a g e n e r i c n a w i k i 'people' as t h e

u n d e r l y i n g S a if 'people' w e r e c o n t r a s t e d to o t h e r participants; t h e o n l y e x a m p l e in t h e

c o r p u s is 1 3 . 1 3 . T h e n o u n n a w i k i - c o n t r a s t e d w i t h evil spirits - is u n m a r k e d for c a s e

s i n c e it is n o t t o p i c a l a n d n o t referential.

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 1 3 . 1 P a s s i v e 2 6 1

1 3 . 1 3 n h a n a w i k i m a : - k a n a - w a n i - s e - p i d a n a

t h e y p e o p l e N E G + g o - P A S S - C L : A B S T R - L O C - R E M . P . R E P

'It w a s in a p l a c e w h e r e p e o p l e d o n o t go.'

C . P A S S I V E O F I N T R A N S I T I V E S T A T I V E S 0 V E R B S . T h e p a s s i v e o f intransitive stative S 0

v e r b s h a s h a b i t u a l c o n n o t a t i o n s . 1 3 . 1 4 is w h a t o n e s h o u l d n o t d o b e f o r e g o i n g into the

j u n g l e .

1 3 . 1 4 i n a t a p u r i s a - k a r i h e k u - n a

w o m a n r P L d r e a m - R E L . P A S T . M A S C w o o d - C L : V E R T

k a - p a s y a - k a n a m a w a r i k e : f u - k a n a - n i h k a

R E L - c r u s h - P A S S s n a k e a n g r y - P A S S - A N T + R E C . P . V I S

' T h e o n e w h o h a d d r e a m t a b o u t w o m e n (will b e ) c r u s h e d b y a tree (since) the

s n a k e u s u a l l y b e c o m e s a n g r y w i t h h i m . '

I n 1 3 . 1 5 , t h e s p e a k e r ( E m i l i o B r i t o ) is t a l k i n g a b o u t w h a t u s u a l l y h a p p e n s to t h e

w a c u fruit in s u m m e r t i m e .

1 3 . 1 5 n e a w i n a d i w e s e - n u k u k a m u y a p i

t h e n w a c u t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S s u m m e r . t i m e

a w i n a l e k a - k a n a

w a c u . f r u i t b r e a k - P A S S

' T h e n w a c u - it w a s s u m m e r t h e n , w a c u fruit u s e d to break.'

D . N O M I N A L I S E D P A S S I V E S . P a s s i v e c a n b e n o m i n a l i s e d w i t h classifiers ( s e e C h a p t e r 5),

e.g. k a - n h a - k a n a (REL-eat-PASS), k a - n h a - k a n i t e (REL-eat-PASS+NCL:ANiM) 'the e a t e n

one'. T h e a r g u m e n t structure r e m a i n s t h e s a m e a s that o f a n o n - n o m i n a l i s e d p a s s i v e , as

s h o w n in 1 3 . 1 6 . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f a n o m i n a l i s e d p a s s i v e o f a n a c t i v e intransitive v e r b

is m a : - k a n a - w a n i (NEG+go-PASS-CL:ABSTR) 'a p l a c e n o t g o n e to ( b y p e o p l e ) ' in 1 3 . 1 3 .

1 3 . 1 6 n a w i k i pa:tjl n h a

p e o p l e other.different.kind t h e y

m a - n i - k a n a - p e r i - n u k u pi-ni p i - w h e - t a

N E G - d o - P A S S - C O L L . P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - d o 2 s g - s i t + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

'Put d o w n (a p o t ) that is n o t m a d e b y o t h e r p e o p l e . '

N o m i n a l i s e d p a s s i v e s a n d n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s o f t h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g v o i c e (see § 1 3 . 5

a n d § 2 0 . 3 ) o v e r l a p in their s e m a n t i c s . T h e r e is a n a s p e c t u a l difference: a n o m i n a l i s e d

p a s s i v e a l w a y s refers t o t h e result o f a c o m p l e t e d action, w h i l e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a s s i v e

p a r t i c i p l e refers to t h e p r o c e s s - c o m p a r e t h e n o m i n a l i s e d p a s s i v e k a - n h a - k a n i t e ( R E L -

e a t - P A S S + N C L : A N i M ) 'the e a t e n o n e , t h e o n e that h a s b e e n eaten' w i t h a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n o f

a t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g f o r m p a - n h a - n i t e (iMP-eat-TOP.ADV+NCL:ANlM) 'the o n e that c a n b e

eaten' o r d i - n h a - n i t e ( 3 s g n f - e a t - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N l M ) 'the o n e that is o r w a s b e i n g eaten'.

W h e n u s e d a s m o d i f i e r s , n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s m a r k e d w i t h -nipe c a n also b e t r a n s l a t e d w i t h

p a s s i v e , e.g. d u h u a di-ni-nipe ( s h e 3 s g n f - d o - N O M ) 'she w h o w a s m a d e b y h i m ' , lit. 'she,

h i s m a k i n g ' ( s e e § 2 0 . 2 . 1 ) .

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 2 6 2 1 3 V a l e n c y c h a n g i n g a n d a r g u m e n t r e a r r a n g i n g m e c h a n i s m s

E . P R A G M A T I C A N D S Y N T A C T I C F U N C T I O N S O F P A S S I V E . P a s s i v e is u s e d w h e n t h e

u n d e r l y i n g O a r g u m e n t is t h e t o p i c o f a stretch o f d i s c o u r s e . 1 3 . 1 7 c o m e s f r o m a

n a r r a t i v e a b o u t w h a t o b j e c t s c a n n o t b e t o u c h e d a n d w h a t o n e s h o u l d n o t d o b e f o r e g o i n g

h u n t i n g . S i m i l a r l y , in 13.5 t h e m a n n o t l o v e d b y w o m e n is t a l k i n g a b o u t h i m s e l f , a n d

this is w h y t h e u n d e r l y i n g O ( T ) b e c o m e s t h e target o f t h e p a s s i v e .

1 3 . 1 7 n e i n a r u - n e m h a l d a - m h a p a - k w a

N E G w o m a n - I N S P R O H - P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - h a n g

n e s y a w a m a - k u k a - k a n a - d e - m h a

N E G fire N E G - l i g h t - P A S S - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

' O n e s h o u l d n o t s l e e p ('hang in h a m m o c k ' ) w i t h a w o m a n . T h e fire is n o t lit.'

P a s s i v e c a n b e u s e d to b a c k g r o u n d t h e u n d e r l y i n g A a r g u m e n t . 1 3 . 1 8 c o m e s f r o m a

story a b o u t a tapir w h o u s e d to eat t h e m a n i o c in t h e s p e a k e r ' s g a r d e n . T h e m a n c a n h e a r

t h a t t h e m a n i o c p l a n t is b e i n g e a t e n u p b u t h e c a n n o t see w h o is d o i n g it.

1 3 . 1 8 al-tiki y a p h i n i d i h a p i m a h i k u - n a

h e r e - D I M t h i n g A R T s o u n d a p p e a r - R E M . P . V I S

n i n h a - k a n a kiniki

3 s g n f + e a t - P A S S m a n i o c . p l a n t

' T h e r e a p p e a r e d a s o u n d , like f r o m h e r e to there, t h e m a n i o c p l a n t w a s b e i n g

eaten.'

T h e i m p e r s o n a l p a s s i v e o f intransitive a c t i v e S a v e r b s is u s e d in g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s

w h e n t h e s u b j e c t h a s a g e n e r i c r e f e r e n c e a s in 1 3 . 9 - 1 2 . P a s s i v e is a l s o u s e d , if t h e

s u b j e c t is c l e a r f r o m t h e c o n t e x t , to f o r e g r o u n d t h e p r e d i c a t e b y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e o v e r t

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e subject, a s in 1 3 . 1 9 . T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a n a r r a t i v e b y L e o n a r d o

B r i t o a b o u t h o w t h e l a z y b o s s g o t t h e m to c a r r y s o m u c h stuff that it w a s a b s o l u t e l y

i m p o s s i b l e for t h e m to c o p e .

1 3 . 1 9 n a m a - d a - p e k a w h i w a n a p i ,

t w o - C L : R O U N D - P L m a n i o c . f l o u r l p l + c a r r y . o n . b a c k

n a m a - d a - p e - m i a - n a k a w h i w h e t a

t w o - C L : R O U N D - P L - O N L Y - R E M . P . V I S m a n i o c . f l o u r 1 p l + g e t

w a : - n h a p a : t h i n a m a - f u k u - k a n a - d e - n a

l p l + g o - P A U S a l l . o f . a . s u d d e n N E G - g o . d o w n - P A S S - N E G - R E M . P . V I S

' W e c a r r i e d t w o b a g s o f m a n i o c flour e a c h , w e t o o k t w o b a g s o f flour e a c h . A l l o f

a s u d d e n it w a s i m p o s s i b l e (for u s ) to g o d o w n . '

A n o t h e r f u n c t i o n o f p a s s i v e c a n b e c a l l e d ' s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e feeding'. In c o m p l e x

s e n t e n c e s , t h e p a s s i v e h a s to b e u s e d in t h e m a i n c l a u s e if t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e

c o n t a i n s a s u b o r d i n a t i n g s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e sensitive enclitic w h i c h r e q u i r e s t h e s a m e

s u b j e c t in t h e t w o c l a u s e s ( s e e § 2 2 . 1 . 1 ) . P a s s i v e is t h e n u s e d to b r i n g a n o n - s u b j e c t

a r g u m e n t i n t o s u b j e c t f u n c t i o n s o t h a t a s e q u e n c i n g enclitic w h i c h r e q u i r e s s a m e s u b j e c t

m a y b e u s e d . 1 3 . 2 0 illustrates t h e u s e o f p a s s i v e in t h e m a i n c l a u s e , w h e n t h e

s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e c o n t a i n s t h e s e q u e n c i n g enclitic -hyume ' b e c a u s e , since' w h i c h

r e q u i r e s t h e s a m e subject. I n this c a s e , p a s s i v e c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a ' s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e

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 13.2 Reflexive-reciprocal 2 6 3

f e e d i n g ' o p e r a t i o n . In 1 3 . 2 0 t h e u n d e r l y i n g A is m a r k e d w i t h - n u k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' ,

s i n c e it b e l o n g s t o t h e t o p i c o f t h e narrative.

1 3 . 2 0 d i - p u m i d i h y a s a l u p e m e d i - k a - h y u m e

3 s g n f - a f t e r h e a r m a d i l l o o n e + S I D E 3 s g n f - s e e - A F T E R : S S

d i - n a y a w i - n u k u k a - n a - k a n a - p u - p i d a n a di-a

3 s g n f - O B J j a g u a r - T O P . N O N . A / S R E L - h i t - P A S S - A U G - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - A U X

' B e c a u s e after t h a t (after j a g u a r t o r e a w a y his e y e ) t h e a r m a d i l l o c o u l d o n l y s e e o n

o n e side, h e w a s b a d l y b e a t e n b y t h e jaguar.'

1 3 . 2 R e f l e x i v e - r e c i p r o c a l

S i m i l a r l y t o m a n y N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s ( A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a , -b a n d -c),

T a r i a n a e m p l o y s a s i m i l a r set o f t e c h n i q u e s for e x p r e s s i n g r e f l e x i v e a n d r e c i p r o c a l

m e a n i n g s . B o t h r e f l e x i v e s a n d r e c i p r o c a l s a r e m a r k e d w i t h t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l d e r i v a t i o n

o n t h e v e r b w i t h t h e suffix - k a k a , a n d a s o c i a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e v e r b

- s i w a 'do together'. H o w e v e r , T a r i a n a is g r a d u a l l y b e c o m i n g m o r e s i m i l a r to E a s t

T u c a n o a n b y differentiating r e c i p r o c a l s f r o m reflexives.

1 3 . 2 . 1 R e c i p r o c a l m e a n i n g s

T a r i a n a h a s t h r e e m e c h a n i s m s for e x p r e s s i n g r e c i p r o c a l m e a n i n g s : (i) a m o r p h o l o g i c a l

r e c i p r o c a l m a r k e d o n t h e v e r b w i t h t h e suffix -kaka; (ii) a s o c i a t i v e serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n , w i t h t h e v e r b - s i w a 'be together'; a n d (iii) a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a

m o r p h o l o g i c a l r e c i p r o c a l a n d a s o c i a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . W e d i s c u s s t h e s e o n e

b y o n e , a n d t h e n l o o k at i n h e r e n t l y r e c i p r o c a l v e r b s .

A r e c i p r o c a l m a r k e d w i t h a suffix -kaka is m o r e f r e q u e n t in o l d p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h a n d

a p p e a r s u n d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g syntactic c o n d i t i o n s .

(a) W h e n a d d e d t o a transitive v e r b w i t h plural A , -kaka m a k e s t h e v e r b intransitive, a n d

i n d i c a t e s that A is identical to O a n d that t h e a c t i o n is s y m m e t r i c a l . T h i s is a

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e c i p r o c a l ; it h a s o n e c o r e a r g u m e n t , in S function. If o n e o f the

p a r t i c i p a n t s (in t h e S f u n c t i o n ) is in f o c u s , it c a n b e o v e r t l y e x p r e s s e d a n d is t h e n

m a r k e d w i t h suffix - n e ' i n s t r u m e n t a l ; c o m i t a t i v e ' a s a n o b l i q u e (see §7.3.2). C o m p a r e

t h e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b in 1 3 . 2 1 a n d its r e c i p r o c a l v e r s i o n in 1 3 . 2 2 . A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is in

T 1 . 3 0 .

1 3 . 2 1 n e - p i d a n a y a w a r u d i - k o r o t a d h i p a

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P Y a w a r u 3 s g n f - m e e t 3 s g n f + t a k e

d i - n a e : t a - n u k u

3 s g n f - O B J e a g l e - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n Y a w a r u g r a b b e d (lit. ' m e t - t o o k ' ) h i m , t h e eagle.'

1 3 . 2 2 i m p l i e s that t h e e l d e r b r o t h e r a n d t h e y o u n g e r b r o t h e r e n c o u n t e r e d e a c h other;

t h e y o u n g e r b r o t h e r is in c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s a s a r e c e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d participant.

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 2 6 4 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

1 3 . 2 2 d i - w e - r i-ne n a - k o r o t a - k a k a - s i n a

3 s g n f - y o u n g e r s i b l i n g - M A S C - I N S 3 p l - m e e t - R E C - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e y m e t e a c h other, w i t h h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r (i.e. t h e o l d e r b r o t h e r a n d y o u n g e r

b r o t h e r m e t e a c h other; t h e o l d e r b r o t h e r m e t t h e y o u n g e r b r o t h e r , a n d n o t

s o m e b o d y else).'

(b) W h e n a d d e d to a transitive o r S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b w i t h a s i n g u l a r S / A , t h e

-kaka d e r i v a t i o n i m p l i e s m u l t i p l e p a r t i c i p a n t s w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y m a k i n g t h e v e r b

intransitive. E x a m p l e s o f this sort a r e v e r y rare. T h e v e r b - i n u m e a n s 'kill, fight'; in

1 3 . 2 3 it is u s e d w i t h -kaka in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' f i g h t i n g in a w a r ' (lit. k i l l / f i g h t w i t h lots o f

p e o p l e ) . H e r e t h e v e r b - i n u is u s e d intransitively.

1 3 . 2 3 n u h u a p i - s a - n i r i n u - a - k a

I 2 s g - s p o u s e - M A S C l s g - g o - R E C . P . V I S

n u - i n u - k a k a k a s i n a - w y a - n u k u

1 s g - k i l l - R E C n o w - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S

I, y o u r h u s b a n d , h a v e g o n e t o fight w a r j u s t n o w . '

In 1 3 . 2 4 t h e v e r b -ni m a r k e d w i t h -kaka is u s e d transitively. T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s

f r o m a h i g h l y a r c h a i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e O f f e r i n g ritual b y A m e r i c o B r i t o , t h e o l d e s t

l i v i n g s p e a k e r o f t h e S a n t a R o s a v a r i e t y o f T a r i a n a . It is f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e

n a r r a t i v e w h e r e t h e M a s t e r o f t h e H o u s e a n n o u n c e s that h e is g o i n g to e n g a g e in t h e

O f f e r i n g feast w i t h t h e n u m e r o u s g u e s t s ( a m o n g w h o m a r e A m e r i c o a n d his late father).

A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e , 1 3 . 5 2 , also c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g feast told b y

C a n d i d o B r i t o .

1 3 . 2 4 h i k u - t i k i n u - n i - k a - t h a - k a n h u a

a p p e a r - D I M 1s g - d o - D E C L - F R - R E C . P . V I S I

d i h a n u - n i - k a k a

A R T l s g - d o - R E C

T h i s is w h a t I h a v e d o n e , I a m d o i n g this ( t o g e t h e r w i t h m a n y p e o p l e ) . '

T h e r e c i p r o c a l m a r k i n g o n a n S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b u s e d intransitively m a y a l s o

i m p l y m u l t i p l e p a r t i c i p a n t s ( a n d n o t r e c i p r o c a l action), a s illustrated in 1 3 . 2 5 , f r o m a

story t o l d b y C a n d i d o B r i t o , t h e s e c o n d o l d e s t s p e a k e r . E x a m p l e s o f this sort are f o u n d

o n l y in o l d e r p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h .

1 3 . 2 5 n a - p i n i t a - k a k a n a - m a r a n a - n u - p i d a n a

3 p l - f o l l o w - R E C 3 p l - g o . d o w n s t r e a m 3 p l - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

k u p h e n i - s a - d o - n i p e

fish+INDF-spouse-FEM-PL

' F i s h - w o m e n (evil spirits) w e r e all c o m i n g d o w n s t r e a m . '

(c) W h e n - k a k a is a d d e d to a n intransitive v e r b , t h e v e r b r e m a i n s intransitive; it t h e n

i m p l i e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f m u l t i p l e p a r t i c i p a n t s a n d also o f o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t ( s ) . 1 3 . 2 6

illustrates a n intransitive u s e o f -nalita 'be q u a r r e l s o m e , quarrel'. In 1 3 . 2 7 t h e s a m e v e r b

a p p e a r s w i t h t h e r e c i p r o c a l m a r k e r -kaka a n d m e a n s 'quarrel w i t h e a c h other'. T h e

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 1 3 . 2 R e f l e x i v e - r e c i p r o c a l 2 6 5

o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t is in f o c u s a n d is m a r k e d w i t h -ne ' i n s t r u m e n t a l , c o m i t a t i v e ' , as in

1 3 . 2 7 .

1 3 . 2 6 di-nalita k i a k u

3 s g n f - q u a r r e l s t r o n g

' H e w a s v e r y q u a r r e l s o m e . ' (lit. ' H e q u a r r e l l e d strongly.')

1 3 . 2 7 d i - n e - p i d a n a n a n a - n a l i t a - k a k a

3 s g n f - I N S - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + g o 3 p l - q u a r r e l - R E C

' T h e y ( T a r i a n a tribes) q u a r r e l l e d w i t h h i m (the first-born son).'

U n l i k e t h e p a s s i v e , t h e r e c i p r o c a l d o e s n o t m a k e a n intransitive v e r b i m p e r s o n a l ; that

is, it d o e s n o t r e d u c e t h e v a l e n c y o f t h e intransitive v e r b .

S o c i a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f t h e p r e f i x e d v e r b - s i w a 'be together' a n d

a n o t h e r p r e f i x e d v e r b ( s e e F u n d e r § 1 8 . 3 ) . A s is t h e c a s e for a n y serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n

in T a r i a n a , t h e t w o v e r b s h a v e t h e s a m e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r , the o r d e r o f

c o m p o n e n t s is rigid, a n d n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n b e inserted b e t w e e n t h e m . S o c i a t i v e

serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h o u t t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l r e c i p r o c a l t e n d to b e u s e d o n l y w i t h

i n h e r e n t l y r e c i p r o c a l v e r b s , e.g. n a - s i w a ka-sa-niri ( 3 p l - b e . t o g e t h e r R E L - s p o u s e - M A S C )

' m a r r y e a c h other', n a - k o r o t a 'they m e t ( s o m e t h i n g ) ' , n a - k e t a 'they m e t , f o u n d ( e a c h

other)', a n d 1 3 . 2 8 .

1 3 . 2 8 w a - s i w a w a - w a k u

l p l - b e . t o g e t h e r l p l - d i s t r i b u t e

'Let's distribute ( c l o t h i n g ) a m o n g e a c h o t h e r (or, a m o n g o u r s e l v e s to e a c h other)!'

W i t h v e r b s w h i c h are n o t i n h e r e n t l y r e c i p r o c a l sociative serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

a c q u i r e a n e m p h a t i c m e a n i n g ' o n e s e l f ( a n d s e e further d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r F in § 1 8 . 3 ) .

1 3 . 2 9 p a : - d a d i h m e t a - p i d a n a d i - s i w a

o n e - C L : R O U N D 3 s g n f + t h i n k - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - d o . t o g e t h e r

' T h e n e x t d a y h e w a s t h i n k i n g b y himself.'

A c o m b i n a t i o n o f a m o r p h o l o g i c a l r e c i p r o c a l a n d a sociative serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n

is v e r y w i d e l y u s e d to e x p r e s s r e c i p r o c a l m e a n i n g s a l o n g w i t h the i n v o l v e m e n t o f

m u l t i p l e p a r t i c i p a n t s . In 1 3 . 3 0 , m a n y b i r d s a s k e d e a c h o t h e r a b o u t w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g

(also s e e T 2 . 5 7 ) . If j u s t t w o p a r t i c i p a n t s h a d b e e n a s k i n g e a c h other, a s i m p l e

m o r p h o l o g i c a l r e c i p r o c a l w o u l d h a v e b e e n u s e d , as in 13.31 w h i c h d e s c r i b e s w h a t t w o

p e o p l e d i d t o e a c h other.

1 3 . 3 0 n a - s i w a - k a k a n a - s a t a n h e m a - p i d a n a

3 p l - b e . t o g e t h e r - R E C 3 p l - g r e e t 3 p l + h e a r - R E M . P . R E P

k w a n a k w a n a k w a n a

w h o w h o w h o

T h e y ( t h e b i r d s ) a s k e d e a c h other: " W h o ( w a s it w h o b r o u g h t t h e t o a d in the sky),

w h o , w h o ? ' "

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 2 6 6 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

1 3 . 3 1 p a : tfi-wya n u - i n i s a k a - w y a n a - i n u - k a k a n a : - n a

o t h e r - E X T R A L l s g - c o m r a d e - E X T R A L 3 p l - k i l l - R E C 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . V I S

' O t h e r s , m y c o m r a d e s , killed e a c h other.'

T h e r e c i p r o c a l m a r k e r -kaka c a n b e r e p e a t e d o n b o t h c o m p o n e n t s o f a s o c i a t i v e serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n if t h e s p e a k e r w a n t s to particularly e m p h a s i s e t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f

p a r t i c i p a n t s e n g a g e d in t h e r e c i p r o c a l action. 1 3 . 3 2 is t h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e o f a story

a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g feast t o l d b y A m e r i c o Brito.

1 3 . 3 2 hi p u d a r i - n u k u k w e n a - n i - k a

D E M : A N I M O f f e r i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S h o w 3 p l - d o - S U B

n a - s i w a - k a k a n a - w a r i t a - k a k a s u

3 p l - d o . t o g e t h e r - R E C 3 p l - o f f e r - R E C + I N T

' T h i s is w h a t t h e y w e r e g o i n g to d o to m a k e a n O f f e r i n g feast to e a c h other.'

R e c i p r o c a l d e r i v a t i o n d o e s n o t a p p l y to prefixless v e r b s . O n l y t h o s e p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s

w h i c h c a n b e u s e d transitively c a n o c c u r in s o c i a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e.g. n a -

s i w a k a - s a - d o ' m a r r y e a c h other'.

U n l i k e v e r b s o f o t h e r s e m a n t i c g r o u p s , i n h e r e n t l y r e c i p r o c a l v e r b s , w h i c h a l l o w the

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a s h a v i n g identical, o r s y m m e t r i c , relations to e a c h

other, c a n b e u n m a r k e d . F o r S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s , s u c h a r e c i p r o c a l r e a d i n g is o n l y

p o s s i b l e if t h e A o f t h e s e v e r b s is plural a n d t h e O is o m i t t e d , e.g. - w a k u 'distribute',

- k e t a 'find, m e e t ' , - k o r o t a 'meet, e n c o u n t e r ' , - n a k u 'swive'. O n e intransitive S a v e r b ,

- n a l i t a 'quarrel', a l l o w s for a r e c i p r o c a l r e a d i n g w h e n its S a is plural - s e e 1 3 . 3 3 (cf.

1 3 . 2 7 a b o v e w h e r e t h e s a m e v e r b o c c u r s w i t h t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l reciprocal).

1 3 . 3 3 n e - p i d a n a - n a l i t a - k h a na: n h a

t h e n - R E P 3 p l - q u a r r e l - A W A Y 3 p l + g o t h e y

' T h e n t h e y w e r e q u a r r e l l i n g a w a y ( w i t h e a c h other).'

1 3 . 2 . 2 Reflexive m e a n i n g s

T h e r e f l e x i v e - r e c i p r o c a l d e r i v a t i o n m a r k e d w i t h t h e suffix -kaka is u s e d o n l y w i t h

p r e f i x e d transitive a n d intransitive v e r b s . In m o s t o t h e r N o r t h A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s o f t h e

r e g i o n t h e s a m e v e r b a l suffix is e m p l o y e d to m a r k r e f l e x i v e s a n d r e c i p r o c a l s . T h i s is

a l s o t h e c a s e in T a r i a n a ; h o w e v e r , t h e suffix -kaka is p r o d u c t i v e l y u s e d for r e c i p r o c a l s

o n l y , a n d m a r k s t h e r e f l e x i v e w i t h j u s t t h r e e v e r b s o f affect -pisa 'cut'; - i n u 'kill', a n d -ha

'hit'. T h e r e f l e x i v e u s e o f -kaka w i t h t w o o f t h e s e v e r b s is illustrated w i t h 1 3 . 3 4 .

1 3 . 3 4 n u h a n u - p i s a - k a k a - m a h k a n u - h p a n i - k a

I l s g - c u t - R E F L - P R E S . N O N V I S l s g - w o r k - S U B

'I h a v e c u t m y s e l f w h i l e w o r k i n g . '

I n 1 3 . 3 5 t h e v e r b - i n u is r e f l e x i v i s e d a n d f o r m s a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e

v e r b - s i w a 'be together', a l s o e m p l o y e d in s o c i a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , in

r e c i p r o c a l s a n d in e m p h a t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s (see 13.37).

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 13.3 Increasing transitivity 2 6 7

1 3 . 3 5 n u - s i w a - d e n u - i n u - k a k a n u - n a r e-niki

1 s g - b e . t o g e t h e r - F U T . C E R T 1s g - k i l l - R E F L 1 s g - d i s a p p e a r - C O M P L

'I w i l l kill m y s e l f all b y m y s e l f a n d d i s a p p e a r '

In c o n v e r s a t i o n s , S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s a c q u i r e a reflexive m e a n i n g w h e n t h e y are

u s e d intransitively. 1 3 . 3 6 is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h 1 3 . 3 4 ; this is a u s u a l w a y o f e x p r e s s i n g a

r e f l e x i v e m e a n i n g .

1 3 . 3 6 n u h a n u - p i s a - m a h k a n u - h p a n i - k a

I l s g - c u t - P R E S . N O N V I S l s g - w o r k - S U B

'I h a v e c u t m y s e l f w h i l e w o r k i n g . '

In c o n v e r s a t i o n s , t h e s o c i a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (see § 1 8 . 3 ) c a n b e u s e d w i t h a

r e f l e x i v e m e a n i n g , e.g. 'look at m y s e l f in 1 3 . 3 7 . T h e s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a n also h a v e a n

e m p h a t i c r e a d i n g , e.g. ' l o o k m y s e l f . T h e t w o r e a d i n g s c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d o n l y b y

c o n t e x t .

1 3 . 3 7 n u - s i w a n u - k a - k a k a n a r i - s e

l s g - b e . t o g e t h e r l s g - s e e - R E C . P . V I S m i r r o r - L O C

'I l o o k e d at m y s e l f in t h e mirror', o r 'I m y s e l f l o o k e d in t h e mirror.'

I n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s u s e s o c i a t i v e v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s for reflexives, e.g. d u - s i w a du-

h a m i (3 s g f - b e . t o g e t h e r 3 s g f - d i e ) 'she c o m m i t t e d suicide'.

1 3 . 3 I n c r e a s i n g t r a n s i t i v i t y

A s is t y p i c a l for a n A m a z o n i a n l a n g u a g e , T a r i a n a h a s m o r e v a l e n c y i n c r e a s i n g

m e c h a n i s m s t h a n v a l e n c y d e c r e a s i n g o n e s . T h e r e is a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e ( § 1 3 . 3 . 1 )

m o s t l y u s e d w i t h intransitive v e r b s , a serial c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n ( § 1 3 . 3 . 2 ) , a n d t w o

k i n d s o f p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e ( § 1 3 . 3 . 3 ) . A l l t h e s e c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s are

f u n c t i o n a l l y a n d f o r m a l l y distinct, a n d differ a s to t h e role o f t h e c a u s e r , that o f t h e

c a u s e e , a n d t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f p r e d i c a t e classes.

T h e u s e o f t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e w i t h m o s t transitive v e r b s c o r r e l a t e s w i t h t h e

a d v a n c e m e n t o f a n o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t into t h e c o r e ; it also m a k e s a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s

strictly transitive. T h u s , t h e c a u s a t i v e m o r p h e m e , w h e n a d d e d to a transitive v e r b , m a r k s

a k i n d o f a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g d e r i v a t i o n . T h i s is d i s c u s s e d in § 1 3 . 4 .

1 3 . 3 . 1 M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s

M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s a r e f o r m e d ( A ) o n m o s t a c t i v e intransitive v e r b s (S a ), ( B ) o n

stative intransitive v e r b s (S 0 ) o f certain s u b g r o u p s a n d ( C ) o n v e r y f e w a m b i t r a n s i t i v e

v e r b s . M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s c a n n o t b e f o r m e d o n Sj 0 v e r b s ( w i t h j u s t o n e

e x c e p t i o n ) . T h e m a r k e r o f t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e is -i a n d / o r -ita. T h e c h o i c e o f

t h e m a r k e r d e p e n d s o n t h e v e r b type. T h e difference b e t w e e n -/ a n d -ita for t h o s e v e r b s

w h i c h c a n t a k e e i t h e r is d i s c u s s e d u n d e r ( D ) .

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 2 6 8 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

A . M O R P H O L O G I C A L C A U S A T I V E S A N D A C T I V E I N T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S . M o r p h o l o g i c a l

c a u s a t i v e s a r e f o r m e d o n m o s t active intransitive v e r b s ( S a type) a n d a r e m a r k e d w i t h a

suffix -/ o r - i t a w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e t h e m a t i c suffix. T h e i r s e m a n t i c s is u s u a l l y q u i t e

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , e . g . - e k u'run', -eku-ita ' m a k e run'; -yena ' p a s s ' , -yeneta ( f r o m -yena-i-td)

' m a k e pass'; - m u s u ' g o o u t ' , - m u s u - i - t a ' m a k e g o o u t , d r i v e o u t ' ; -kukume 'tremble',

- k u k u m e t a ' m a k e t r e m b l e ' ; -pipina ' b e c o m e lost', -pipineta ' m a k e b e c o m e lost'.

O c c a s i o n a l l y , a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e c a n a c q u i r e a n i d i o s y n c r a t i c m e a n i n g , e . g .

-pusuka ' b e m u d d l e d , c o n f u s e d ' , - p u s u k e t a 'gossip, confuse'; - h a m i 'die', - h a m e t a 'abort a

b a b y ' ; -pa 'rot', -peta 'kill' (lit. m a k e r o t ) . S o m e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s h a v e t w o

m e a n i n g s , o n e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d o n e idiosyncratic, e . g . -thaka 'cross', - t h a k e t a ' m a k e

c r o s s ; m a k e a p a u s e ' . A m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e o f t h e v e r b -pita ' h a v e a bath' is

illustrated i n 1 3 . 3 8 .

1 3 . 3 8 d i - p u m i n h a - m a - p e - n u k u m a i n i - n e n a - n a p a

3 s g n f - a f t e r t h e y - C L : F E M - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S t a r - I N S 3 p l - b l e s s

n a - p i t e - t a - m h a n a - y u n a k a

3 p l - h a v e . b a t h + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - P R E S . N O N V I S 3 p l - g o . u p 3 p l + a r r i v e

'After t h e y ( o l d p e o p l e ) b l e s s t h e m ( m e n s t r u a t i n g girls) w i t h tar, ( a n d ) m a k e t h e m

b a t h e u p s t r e a m . '

A s m e n t i o n e d i n § 2 . 5 . 2 , t h e v o w e l f u s i o n o n t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e r o o t a n d t h e

c a u s a t i v e suffix is p r o b a b l y o f r e c e n t origin. I n t h e s h a m a n i c s o n g s r e c o r d e d b y P a d r e

A l c o n c i l i o B r u z z i ( B r u z z i 1 9 6 1 )w a - p e t a a n d w a - p a - i t a ' m a k e r o t , kill' a p p e a r i n free

v a r i a t i o n , p o s s i b l y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e r h y t h m .

T h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e o f a c t i v e intransitive v e r b s is n o t fully p r o d u c t i v e ; m a n y

v e r b s s i m p l y d o n o t h a v e this f o r m . Instead, t h e y c a n b e c a u s a t i v i s e d w i t h a c a u s a t i v e

serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n o r a p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e - s e e § § 1 3 . 3 . 2 - 3 .

M a n y v e r b s o f m o t i o n d o h a v e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s , e . g . - m u s u ' g o o u t ' , - m u s u -

i-ta ' m a k e X g o o u t ' ; -mafa ' g o d o w n s t r e a m ' , - m a r e - t a ' m a k e X g o d o w n s t r e a m ' ; -yu ' g o

u p s t r e a m ' , - y u - t a ' m a k e X g o u p s t r e a m ' ; -ruku ' g o d o w n ' , -ruku-i-ta ' m a k e X g o d o w n ' .

H o w e v e r , m a n y d o n o t , e . g . -a ' g o ' ; -he 'enter'; -uka 'arrive'; - n u ' c o m e ' ; - w a s a 'jump'.

M o s t intransitive v e r b s o f b r e a k i n g h a v e a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e , e . g . -pisya 'tear

(intransitive)', -pisye-ta ' m a k e X tear Y ' ; -wesya 'grind (intransitive)', - w e s y e - t a ' m a k e X

g r i n d Y ' ; -pasya ' g e t crushed', -pasye-ta 'crush'; -thuka 'break ( o f a twig)', - t h u k e - t a

' m a k e X b r e a k ( a twig)'. I n contrast, intransitive v e r b s o f s p e e c h , e . g . -sape 'talk',

w e a t h e r v e r b s , e . g . - n a w a ' b e s t o p p i n g (rain)', a n d v e r b s o f o t h e r s e m a n t i c g r o u p s , e.g. -

a s a 'spread', h a v e n o m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s .

M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s o f s o m e v e r b s o f m o t i o n a p p e a r o n l y i n transitive serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s t o m a r k a sort o f ' t r a n s i t i v i t y a g r e e m e n t ' ( s e e § 1 8 . 3 ) ; s u c h e x a m p l e s

i n c l u d e - s e - t a ' m a k e g o u p ' , t h e c a u s a t i v e o f -sa ' g o u p ' , i n a directional serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s u c h a s d i - k a di-se-ta ' h e l o o k s u p ' (lit.' h e l o o k s h e m a k e s g o up'). I n o t h e r

c a s e s a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e m a y a c q u i r e a different m e a n i n g w h e n serialised, e . g .

t h e c a u s a t i v e o f - w a k a 'join' is - w a k e - t a ' p u t together', w h i c h c a n b e serialised w i t h -ni

'do' a n d t h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n -ni - w a k e - t a t h e n m e a n s 'help'.

B . M O R P H O L O G I C A L C A U S A T I V E S , S T A T I V E V E R B S A N D V E R B S O F P H Y S I C A L S T A T E .

M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s c a n b e f o r m e d o n stative ( S 0 )v e r b s i f t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e v e r b

p r e s u p p o s e s a state c h a n g e a b l e t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f a c a u s e r ; t h e c a u s a t i v e

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 13.3 Increasing transitivity 2 6 9

m a r k e r is -ita. V e r b s d e n o t i n g p h y s i c a l state a n d e m o t i o n s b e l o n g to this class, e.g.

s a k a m u ' l u k e - w a r m ' , c a u s a t i v e - s a k a m u - i t a 'to w a r m up'; hiwiri 'cool', c a u s a t i v e

- h i w i r i k e t a 'cool d o w n (e.g. b y stirring)'; m a k a r a 'dry', c a u s a t i v e - m a k a r e t a 'to <ky'\pusa

'wet', c a u s a t i v e -pusita ' m a k e w e t , m o i s t e n ' . S o d o S 0 v e r b s w h i c h i m p l y c h a n g e o f state,

e.g. k a w h i ' a w a k e , w a k e up', c a u s a t i v e - k a w h e t a 'to w a k e s o m e b o d y up'.

V e r b s w h i c h refer to a n i n h e r e n t l y u n c h a n g e a b l e state c a n n o t f o r m a m o r p h o l o g i c a l

c a u s a t i v e . T h u s , n o m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e c a n b e f o r m e d o n v e r b s d e s c r i b i n g p h y s i c a l

states s u c h a s c o l o u r : hare ' w h i t e ' , kada 'black', i n 'red'; n o r o n p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s : h a m u

'hot', hape 'cold'; n o r o n size: h a n u 'big', tsu 'small'; n o r o n taste: hipisi 'bitter'; v a l u e :

matfa 'good'; o r o t h e r p h y s i c a l states, s u c h as k a s i t a n a 'annoyed'. N o t e that in T a r i a n a

stative v e r b s w h i c h d e n o t e s u c h c o n c e p t s a s 'cool' a n d ' l u k e - w a r m ' b e l o n g to a different

s y s t e m f r o m 'cold' a n d 'hot'. Sj 0 v e r b s , s u c h as unyana 'thirsty', m h a i s i k i 'hungry', inuna

'lazy', a l s o c a n n o t f o r m a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e . Serial c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s are

u s e d i n s t e a d ( s e e § 1 8 . 3 ) . A m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e c a n b e d e r i v e d w i t h -ita f r o m j u s t

o n e Sj 0 v e r b ( § 1 2 . 1 . 2 ) , inasua: i n a s u e t a ' m a k e lazy, w e a k e n ' - s e e 1 3 . 4 9 .

M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s o f S 0 v e r b s c a n b e prefixless o r p r e f i x e d , d e p e n d i n g o n

w h e t h e r t h e result is a c h i e v e d intentionally, o r not. F o r i n s t a n c e , the a c t i o n o f w a r m i n g

s o m e t h i n g u p o r t o a s t i n g f o o d is p e r c e i v e d a s intentional; a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g c a u s a t i v e

v e r b s a r e p r e f i x e d . 1 3 . 3 9 s h o w s a n S 0 v e r b meri 'toasted, dry'; its c a u s a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t

is p r e f i x e d - s e e 1 3 . 3 9 .

1 3 . 3 9 k e : r i - n e - m h a p a n a - p h e m e r i

s u n - I N S - P R E S . N O N V I S l e a f - C L : L E A F . L I K E b e . t o a s t e d

' T h e l e a f is d r y (lit. t o a s t e d ) b e c a u s e o f t h e sun.'

1 3 . 4 0 p a i t a k u p h e d i - m e r i t a - k a

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M fish 3 s g n f - b e . t o a s t e d + C A U S - R E C . P . V I S

' H e t o a s t e d o n e fish.'

In c o n t r a s t to this, 'debilitating' is a c h i e v e d u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , a n d t h e resulting

c a u s a t i v e v e r b is p r e f i x l e s s , e.g. 1 3 . 4 1 .

1 3 . 4 1 isa n u - n a i n a s u e t a - m a h k a

w o u n d 1s g - O B J b e . l a z y / d e b i l i t a t e d + C A U S - R E C . P . N O N V I S

' T h e w o u n d m a d e m e debilitated (or lazy).'

S o m e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s c a n b e a s s i g n e d to b o t h S a a n d S 0 classes. If t h e y are

p r e f i x l e s s , t h e result is a c h i e v e d u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y . In 1 3 . 5 0 a d o g b a r k s , a n d this frightens

t h e s p e a k e r ; t h e d o g d i d n o t m e a n to frighten h i m .

1 3 . 4 2 t j l n u n u - n a h a r a m e t a d i - k w i s a - k a

d o g 1s g - O B J f e a r + C A U S 3 s g n f - b a r k - R E C . P . V I S

' T h e d o g s c a r e d m e , it b a r k e d . '

In c o n t r a s t , in 1 3 . 4 3 a m y t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r u s e d to g o o u t e v e r y a f t e r n o o n to frighten

p e o p l e i n t e n t i o n a l l y . T h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e is prefixed.

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 2 7 0 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

1 3 . 4 3 d a i k i n a - p e n a p a d a - p i d a n a n a - n a

a f t e r n o o n - P L e v e r y - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - O B J

d i - r a h m e t a d i - n a - n h i

3 s g n f - f e a r + C A U S 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T

' H e u s e d to frighten t h e m (villagers) e v e r y afternoon.'

O t h e r activities o f m y t h i c a l c r e a t u r e s are u n i n t e n t i o n a l . It is b e l i e v e d that a n e w

m o o n i n t e n t i o n a l l y m a k e s w o m e n m e n s t r u a t e ( m e n s t r u a t i o n is a result o f s e x u a l

i n t e r c o u r s e w o m e n h a v e w i t h t h e m o o n ; t h e n t h e y b e c o m e d a n g e r o u s ) ; this is d e s c r i b e d

in 1 3 . 4 4 .

1 3 . 4 4 M d e p i t e ke:ri h i k u - k a

D E M : A N I M n i g h t + N C L : A N I M s u n a p p e a r - S U B

w a r i - p i k e : r i - n u k u i n a - n u k u

y o u n g - C L : L O N G m o o n - T O P . N O N . A / S w o m a n : P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

p u i m e t a - m h a

m e n s t r u a t e + C A U S - P R E S . N O N V I S

' W h e n this m o o n a p p e a r s , d u r i n g w a x i n g m o o n , it m a k e s w o m e n m e n s t r u a t e . '

W h e n u s e d a s a n intransitive v e r b (cf. § 1 2 . 1 . 5 ) h i k u 'appear', h a s t w o c a u s a t i v e s w i t h

different m e a n i n g s - p r e f i x l e s s h i k w e t a m e a n s 'create, m a k e c o m e into b e i n g ' a n d

p r e f i x e d - h i k u n e t a m e a n s ' m a k e a p p e a r ; display' (see 1 3 . 4 5 - 6 ) . T h e v e r b - h i k u n e t a

c o n t a i n s a suffix - h a (or -iha), p o s s i b l y related to t h e i n c h o a t i v e -iha in B a r e

( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 a ) ; this d e r i v a t i o n is h i g h l y idiosyncratic.

1 3 . 4 5 d i h y a y a p i r i k u r i k y a k u - i t e d i - s a p e - n i p e - n e

h e t r a d i t i o n a l . g o d s t r o n g - N C L : A N I M 3 s g n f - s p e a k - N O M - I N S

h i k w e t a - k a s u - p i d a n a w a l i k a s u - n u k u

a p p e a r + C A U S - I N T - R E M . P . R E P b e g i n n i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - p u m i h i k w e t a - p i d a n a d e : p i

3 s g n f - a f t e r a p p e a r + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P n i g h t

' T h i s s t r o n g g o d w a s a b o u t to m a k e (the w o r l d ) a p p e a r at t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e n h e

m a d e t h e n i g h t appear.'

1 3 . 4 6 a d a k i - m h a n u - h i k u n e t a

f e v e r - P R E S . N O N V I S 1s g - a p p e a r + C A U S

'I m a d e f e v e r a p p e a r (as a s h a m a n ) ' , o r 'I s h o w e d s i g n s o f fever.'

T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n p r e f i x e d a n d prefixless m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s a n d the

i n t e n t i o n a l i t y o f t h e c a u s e r is r e m i n i s c e n t o f fluid-S l a n g u a g e s . B a n i w a , a N o r t h A r a w a k

l a n g u a g e v e r y c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o T a r i a n a , a n d s p o k e n in t h e a d j a c e n t linguistic area, a l s o

d i s p l a y s s o m e e l e m e n t s o f fluid S m a r k i n g ; s e e A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 5 b ) a n d ( 1 9 9 9 b ) .

C . M O R P H O L O G I C A L C A U S A T I V E S A N D T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S . M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s c a n

b e f o r m e d o n v e r y f e w transitive v e r b s . T h e c a u s e r b e c o m e s A , w h i l e b o t h t h e

u n d e r l y i n g A a n d O o f t h e c a u s a t i v i s e d v e r b get m a r k e d w i t h the n o n - s u b j e c t case. S i n c e

a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e o f a transitive v e r b c a n n o t b e p a s s i v i s e d , t h e r e is n o w a y o f

d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r t h e s e t w o a r g u m e n t s are direct o r indirect object(s). T h e m a r k e r

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 13.3 Increasing transitivity 2 7 1

e m p l o y e d is -ita. A l m o s t all o f t h e s e refer t o traditional a c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g rituals.

E x c e p t i o n s a r e -ira 'drink' w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c a u s a t i v e -ireta ' m a k e drink, m a k e

d r u n k " ( s h o w n i n 1 3 . 4 7 - 8 ) a n d -sita ' s m o k e ' w i t h t h e c a u s a t i v e -siteta ' m a k e s m o k e , let

s m o k e ' ( i n 1 3 . 4 9 - 5 0 ) .

1 3 . 4 7 k a s i n a - n u k u n a : - s i n a n a h a

n o w - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . I N F R t h e y

n a - i r a - k a r u k a h p i n a - k u l i r a - k a r u

3 p l - d r i n k - P U R P . V I S r i t u a l . w h i s k y 3 p l - b e . p a i n t e d - P U R P . V I S

' N o w t h e y all w e n t to d r i n k ritual w h i s k y a n d to p a i n t t h e m s e l v e s . '

1 3 . 4 8 n e - p i d a n a d i - n a i r a - k a s i d i r e t a - d a k a

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J d r i n k - N O M 3 s g n f + d r i n k + C A U S - Y E T

' A n d y e t h e g a v e h i m a drink.'

1 3 . 4 9 y e m a d i - s i t a - n a k a

t o b a c c o 3 s g n f - s m o k e - P R E S . V I S

' H e is s m o k i n g t o b a c c o . '

1 3 . 5 0 n u r i n h u a y e m a n u - d e - k a

l s g + s o n I t o b a c c o l s g - h a v e - S U B

n h u a p i - n a y e m a n u - s i t e t a - d e

I 2 s g - O B J t o b a c c o 1 s g - s m o k e + C A U S - F U T . C E R T

' M y s o n , w h e n I h a v e t o b a c c o , I will g e t y o u t o s m o k e (this) t o b a c c o . '

O t h e r transitive v e r b s w h i c h h a v e a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e are: -erne 'sniff s n u f f ,

c a u s a t i v e - e m e t a 'get s o m e o n e t o sniff s n u f f ; -hapa 'bless', c a u s a t i v e -napeta 'get a

s h a m a n , o r a n o l d e r m a n , t o b l e s s s o m e o n e ' ; -pent 'lick t o b a c c o f r o m partner's t o n g u e in

t h e c i g a r - s m o k i n g ritual', c a u s a t i v e - p e d t a 'get s o m e o n e t o lick t o b a c c o f r o m partner's

t o n g u e ' ( a s in 1 3 . 5 1 - 2 ) . M o s t o f t h e s e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s c a n a c q u i r e a different

r e a d i n g - that o f a n a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g d e r i v a t i o n ( s e e § 1 3 . 4 ) .

1 3 . 5 1 m a w a r i d i - p e r u - k a - n a k a

s n a k e 3 s g n f - l i c k - D E C L - P R E S . V I S

A s n a k e is l i c k i n g itself ( w a n t i n g t o bite).'

1 3 . 5 2 d i - s i w a d i - p e r i t a - k a k a

3 s g n f - b e . t o g e t h e r 3 s g n f - l i c k + C A U S - R E C

d i - d a l i p a k i - n u k u

3 s g n f - m a r r i g e a b l e . r e l a t i v e - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e ( t h e H o s t o f t h e O f f e r i n g ritual) h i m s e l f m a d e h i s m a r r i a g e a b l e relatives lick

( t o b a c c o ) . '

'In closely related languages the morphological causative is u s u a l l y f o r m e d o n intransitive verbs only. T h e

only exception is 'drink* ( B a n i w a -ija, B a r e -dia, W a r e k e n a -kulua). Cross-linguistically, verbs describing

digestive processes often display a b n o r m a l behaviour with regard to their transitivity.

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 2 7 2 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

T h e fact t h a t m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s are m o s t l y u s e d w i t h v e r b s w h i c h d e s c r i b e

h i g h l y ritualised traditional activities s u g g e s t s that t h e y are archaic. A l l o t h e r transitive

v e r b s c a n b e c a u s a t i v i s e d w i t h c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s (see b e l o w a n d § 1 8 . 2 -

3).

S o m e transitive v e r b s t a k e the m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e m a r k e r o n l y w i t h i n a

transitive serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (see A a b o v e a n d § 1 8 . 3 ) , e.g. -korota 'meet, e n c o u n t e r ,

r e c e i v e ' a n d its c a u s a t i v e - k o r o t e t a a s in di-ka d i - k o r o t e t a 'he l o o k s a c r o s s at s o m e o n e ' ,

o r 'he c o m p a r e s ' (lit. h e l o o k s h e m e e t s ) (see T a b l e 18.2).

D . ' D O U B L E C A U S A T I V E ' M A R K I N G A N D F U R T H E R F U N C T I O N S O F -ta. C a u s a t i v i s i n g -i-ta in

T a r i a n a c a n b e further a n a l y s e d into -/ a n d -ta. W h i l e -/ is a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d m a r k e r o f

c a u s a t i v e , t h e a d d i t i o n o f -ta h a s a n u m b e r o f f u n c t i o n s w i t h p r e f i x e d intransitive v e r b s .

T h e s e a r e o u t l i n e d b e l o w .

D l . M A R K I N G C O M P L E T E A F F E C T E D N E S S O F O . In 13.53 d e v i l s m a d e s o m e w o o d c h i p s

fall; -ta is n o t u s e d .

1 3 . 5 3 n a - m k u - i - p i d a n a n a h a itfida-pe-ne

3 p l - f a l l - C A U S - R E M . P . R E P t h e y t u r t l e - P L - I N S

T h e y (devils) m a d e ( s o m e w o o d c h i p s ) fall d o w n w i t h the h e l p o f turtles/axes.'

In contrast, in 1 3 . 5 4 t h e h o u s e w a s c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y e d ; -ta is u s e d o n t h e

c a u s a t i v i s e d v e r b - r u k u 'go d o w n ' .

1 3 . 5 4 p h i a n u h a p a n i s i - n u k u p i - n a - b a l a

y o u I h o u s e - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - h i t - E V E R Y W H E R E

p i - r u k u - i - t a - k a

2 s g - g o . d o w n - C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E C P . V I S

' " Y o u d e s t r o y e d m y h o u s e c o m p l e t e l y (lit. hit e v e r y w h e r e - m a k e c o m e d o w n ) , "

(said t h e evil spirit to a m a n in his d r e a m ) . '

D 2 . M A R K I N G C O M P L E T E D A N D / O R I N T E N S I V E A C T I O N . In 13.55 t h e m a g i c spell is cast a

little bit, a n d s o -ta is n o t u s e d ; in 1 3 . 5 6 a really s t r o n g spell is d e c r i b e d .

1 3 . 5 5 n e - p i d a n a n a - w h y a n a - s w e n h a t u : m e - n e

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - b r e a t h e 3 p l - s t a y + C A U S t h e y b r e a t h - I N S

' T h e n t h e y b r e a t h e d ( o v e r t h e village) w i t h their ( m a g i c ) b r e a t h (i.e. cast a spell).'

1 3 . 5 6 n a : t s o m e n a - w h y a - k a n a - s w e - t a - p i d a n a

3 p l + g o m u c h 3 p l - b r e a t h e - S U B 3 p l - s t a y + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P

n a - n a a d a k i - k u m a - p i d a n a n a - s w e - t a

3 p l - O B J f e v e r - C L : L E V E L - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - s t a y + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

T h e y cast a b i g spell, t h e y cast a fever spell all o v e r t h e m . '

In 1 3 . 5 7 t h e a c t i o n h a s n o t yet b e e n c o m p l e t e d ; in 1 3 . 5 8 it h a s . T h e s e t w o e x a m p l e s

c o m e f r o m t h e s a m e text.

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 13.3 Increasing transitivity 2 7 3

1 3 . 5 7 k w a n a h a - n a h y a p a - n a k h e t a

w h o t h i s - C L : V E R T h i l l - C L : V E R T R E L + t a k e

k a - t h a k e p e m e - k e m a - s e

R E L - c r o s s + C A U S o n e s i d e - C L : S I D E - L O C

n u - i t u - n u k u k a - s a - d o - m h a d e

1 s g - d a u g h t e r - T O P . N O N . A / S R E L - s p o u s e - F E M - F U T

' W h o t a k e s t h e hill a c r o s s to t h e o t h e r side will m a r r y m y daughter.'

1 3 . 5 8 n u h u a - k a n h u t a n u - t h a k e - t a

I - R E C . P . V I S 1s g + t a k e 1s g - c r o s s + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

'"I a m t h e o n e w h o t o o k (the hill) a c r o s s , " (said the soldier).'

D 3 . M A R K I N G A D E F I N I T E O R A T O P I C A L O . T h e suffix -ta d o e s n o t o c c u r u n l e s s t h e O is

definite o r t o p i c a l . In 1 3 . 5 9 , f r o m t h e story a b o u t a l o v e affair b e t w e e n a p r i n c e a n d the

d a u g h t e r o f a n evil spirit, t h e o b j e c t (yarumakasi 'clothing') is n o t t h e topic;

c o n s e q u e n t l y , -ta is n o t u s e d .

1 3 . 5 9 n e d i - d a w a d i - k a w y u m e - m a k a - s e - p i d a n a

t h e n 3 s g n f - h i d e 3 s g n f - s e e l a s t - C L : C L O T H - L O C - R E M . P . R E P

d i - u k a d h i t a d h i t a d i - d a w e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3 s g n f + p u l l 3 s g n f + p u l l 3 s g n f - h i d e + C A U S l - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e n h e (the p r i n c e ) h i d a n d l o o k e d , h e p u l l e d at t h e last o n e ( p i e c e o f c l o t h i n g )

a n d h i d (it) (in o r d e r to get h o l d o f the girl to w h o m it b e l o n g e d ) . '

1 3 . 6 0 c o m e s f r o m t h e story a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f p e a c h p a l m ; t h e p e a c h p a l m s e e d , t h e

o b j e c t o f h i d i n g in 1 3 . 6 0 , is h i g h l y topical.

1 3 . 6 0 d i - d a w e - t a - p i d a n a hT-se

3 s g n f - h i d e + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P D E M : A N I M - L O C

' H e h i d (the p e a c h p a l m s e e d ) in this o n e (his m o u t h ) . '

T h e suffix -ita c a n b e r e p e a t e d a s a m a r k e r o f intensity o f c a u s a t i o n . T h e o n l y

e x a m p l e s o f this u s a g e h a v e b e e n f o u n d w i t h c a u s a t i v i s e d prefixless v e r b s - s e e di-

r a h m e t e t a ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m b e f o r e v o w e l f u s i o n s a p p l y : di-cahme-lta-itd) 'scared a lot'

in 13.61 a n d p a - p u s i t e t a ( u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : p a - p u s a - i t a - i t a ) 'wet a lot' i n 1 3 . 6 2 .

1 3 . 6 1 m a : m i - y a n a - m h a n u - n a d i - r a h m e t e t a

i n a m b u . b i r d - P E J - P R E S . N O N V I S l s g - O B J l s g - b e . a f r a i d + C A U S + C A U S

T h e n a u g h t y i n a m b u b i r d s c a r e d m e a lot.'

1 3 . 6 2 i n u n a - m h a p i a c a - p u - n u k u

b e . u n w i l l i n g - P R E S . N O N V I S p i a c a b a - C L : B U N D L E - T O P . N O N . A / S

p a - p u s i t e - t a

I M P - b e . w e t + C A U S l - C A U S 2

'(I) d o n ' t w a n t t o let m y b u n d l e o f p i a c a b a get v e r y w e t (so I h a d better find a

shelter).'

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 2 7 4 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

In t h e dialect o f P e r i q u i t o s , if t h e suffix -ta is a d d e d to t h e c a u s a t i v e -/, it m a r k s

p l u r a l O , e.g. n h a m e p a - n u k u w a - k e - t a ( t w o + N U M . C L : H U M A N - T O P . N O N . A / s

l p l + s e e + C A U S l - C A U S 2 ) ' w e e n c o u n t e r e d t w o p e o p l e ' , p a i t a - n u k u w a - k e

(one-+-NUM.CL:ANiM-TOP.NON.A/s l p l - s e e + C A U S ) ' w e e n c o u n t e r e d o n e m a n ' .

T h i s p r o c e s s is r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c a u s a t i v e m a r k e r -ta in

W a r e k e n a o f X i e ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 8 b : 3 4 8 - 5 2 , e.g. k u n e - t a - t a ( f e a r - C A U S l - C A U S 2 )

'he f r i g h t e n s v e r y m u c h ' ) . T h e r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f c a u s a t i v e in T a r i a n a c o u l d b e a n a r c h a i c

p h e n o m e n o n . B o t h e x a m p l e s c o m e f r o m stories t o l d b y I s m a e l B r i t o , a careful a n d

c o n s e r v a t i v e s p e a k e r ; y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s tried to c o r r e c t h i m , b u t C a n d i d o B r i t o , a n o l d e r

a u t h o r i t y o n T a r i a n a , insisted that t h e f o r m s w e r e right.

A n u m b e r o f S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s c o n t a i n a fossilised -ita a s a part o f their root,

e.g. - n a w e t a 'separate, pull apart'; -daneta 'cast a s h a d o w , s t o p ' ; -adeta 'prevent'; -meyuta

' w e e d , clean'; a n d a f e w S = 0 a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s , e.g. - w h a w e t a 'bring u p ( s o m e o n e ) ; stay at

rest, breathe'. ( S o m e intransitive v e r b s , e.g. -thepeta ' j u m p u p w i t h force' o r - s a p a t a ,

-sapeta 'suffer' m a y a l s o c o n t a i n -ta ( o r -ita); it s e e m s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r i g i n

o f this m o r p h e m e . ) T h e transitive v e r b s w h i c h are p r o b a b l y l o a n s f r o m T u c a n o (see

§ 2 6 . 1 . 3 ) , s u c h a s -besitd ' c h o o s e , revise', -boletd 'defeather', - b u e t a 'teach, learn', -buetd

' b l o w fire', - b a t u t d ' s w i n g w i t h force', also c o n t a i n -ta o r -ita. (It is h a r d to d e t e r m i n e

w h e t h e r it is -ta o r -ita s i n c e t h e -i w o u l d h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d o n t h e b o u n d a r y f o l l o w i n g

t h e r u l e s o f v o w e l f u s i o n s : §2.5.2.)

S u f f i x -ita h a s o n e m o r e function: it d e r i v e s transitive v e r b s f r o m n o u n s a n d

a d j e c t i v e s , e.g. sie 'firewood', -sieta 'put o n fire', -ipitana ' n a m e ' , -ipitaneta 'give a n a m e ,

n a m e ' , kape 'ritual stick', -kapeta 'hit w i t h a ritual stick at t h e initiation c e r e m o n y ' . S o m e

transitive v e r b s d e r i v e d f r o m n o u n s c o n t a i n -ta a n d n o t -ita, e.g. p a y u m a 'traditional

1
soap , - p a y u m a - t a ' s o a p ( w i t h p a y u m d ) \ m a w i 'hook', - m a w a - t a 'put o n a h o o k , h o o k u p '

(also s e e § 1 2 . 3 ) . J u s t o n e v e r b , -karite 'tell', c o g n a t e t o kari-si (tell-NPOSS) 'story',

c o n t a i n s a suffix -ite. V a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n -ta a n d -ita w a s attested in j u s t o n e f o r m u s e d

b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s a n d o n e o l d e r s p e a k e r , R i c a r d o B r i t o ( k n o w n to b e a bit 'careless' in

h o w h e talks) - t h e v e r b - r a w a - t a ' p r o v i d e w i t h fare' d e r i v e d f r o m t h e n o u n - r a w a 'fare'.

T h e m o r e traditional s p e a k e r s p r e f e r r e d -raweta.2

1 3 . 3 . 2 C a u s a t i v e s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

C a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a a r e u n u s u a l in that t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a

serial s y n t a c t i c c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a v e different u n d e r l y i n g subjects, realised a s t h e

s a m e s u b j e c t in t h e s u r f a c e f o r m . T h e s u b j e c t o f t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n is c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e t w o v e r b s w h i c h f o r m a c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . C a u s a t i v e

serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y i n v o l v e s u c h transitive v e r b s a s -a 'do, say,

give', -ira 'order', a n d -pala 'put' - s e e u n d e r D in § 1 8 . 3 o n d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n these.

B e n e f a c t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d u n d e r E in § 1 8 . 3 .

T h e u n d e r l y i n g s u b j e c t o f t h e c a u s a t i v i s e d v e r b , if e x p r e s s e d w i t h a p e r s o n a l

p r o n o u n , is m a r k e d w i t h t h e o b j e c t c a s e , e.g. n a - n a ( 3 s g n f - O B J E C T C A S E ) 'them' in 1 3 . 6 3 ;

if it is t o p i c a l , it is m a r k e d w i t h - n u k u 'topical n o n - A / S ' , as in 1 3 . 6 4 a n d 1 2 . 5 5 . Serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

2
In other A r a w a k languages o f the region, e.g. W a r e k e n a a n d Bare, -ta is t h e only causative m a r k e r also

u s e d for deriving d e n o m i n a l verbs.

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 13.3 Increasing transitivity 2 7 5

1 3 . 6 3 n a - n a w a - y a r u p e - n u k u

3 p l - O B J l p l - t h i n g / l a n g u a g e - T O P . N O N . A / S

[ m a - s a p e - k a d e - k a n a - p a l a ]

N E G - s p e a k - N E G - R E C . P . V I S 3 p l - p u t

T h e y ( m o t h e r s ) d i d n o t t e a c h t h e m (their c h i l d r e n ) o u r l a n g u a g e . '

1 3 . 6 4 p a : t f i - n u k u [pi-ra p i - a p h u a ]

o t h e r - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - o r d e r 2 s g - d i v e

' G e t s o m e o n e e l s e t o dive.'

A serial c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n b e u s e d w i t h transitive a n d a c t i v e intransitive

v e r b s ; it is n e v e r u s e d w i t h a stative v e r b o f t h e S 0 t y p e o r a v e r b o f t h e Sl0 type. Serial

c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e all t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f a single p r e d i c a t e , like all o t h e r serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a (see § 1 8 . 2 ) . Serial c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s are t h e o n l y

p r o d u c t i v e m e c h a n i s m u s e d to c a u s a t i v i s e transitive v e r b s , b e s i d e s p e r i p h r a s t i c

c a u s a t i v e s .

T h e y a r e a l s o u s e d to c a u s a t i v i s e a c t i v e intransitive v e r b s w h i c h h a v e a

m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e . F o r t h e s e v e r b s a serial c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n i m p l i e s indirect

i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e c a u s e r , a n d a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e i m p l i e s that t h e c a u s e r acts

directly o n t h e c a u s e e . 1 3 . 3 8 c o n t a i n s a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e o f t h e v e r b -pita 'bathe';

t h e r e t h e o l d p e o p l e p h y s i c a l l y m a k e p u b e s c e n t girls b a t h e a s a part o f t h e ritual o f

f e m a l e initiation. In contrast, in 1 3 . 6 5 t h e evil m o t h e r o r d e r e d h e r c h i l d r e n to b a t h e

w i t h o u t p h y s i c a l interference.

1 3 . 6 5 n a : - n a [ d u - r a du-pita] d u - y a - n h i

3 p l - O B J 3 s g f - o r d e r 3 s g f - b a t h e 3 s g f - s t a y - A N T

' S h e o r d e r e d t h e m to bathe.'

Serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f a different k i n d a r e u s e d t o c a u s a t i v i s e Sj 0 v e r b s . In t h e s e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e v e r b - e m e - t a 'put' (a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e o f - e m a 'stand') is u s e d

a s t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n . In 1 3 . 6 6 a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a n Sj 0 v e r b m h d i s i k i
1
'be h u n g r y a n d a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e - e m e - t a 'put', f r o m - e m a 'stand'. U n l i k e serial

c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h transitive a n d active intransitive v e r b s , t h e v e r b o f

c a u s a t i o n f o l l o w s t h e S j 0 v e r b . ( N o t e that p l u r a l m a r k i n g o n n o u n s is o p t i o n a l if t h e

referent is n o t h u m a n . )

1 3 . 6 6 d i h a k e w i r i - m h a n u - n a m h a i s i k i n e m e - t a

A R T a n t - P R E S . N O N V I S l s g - O B J h u n g e r 3 p l + s t a n d + C A U S l - C A U S 2

T h e e d i b l e a n t s m a k e m e (feel) h u n g r y . '

1 3 . 3 . 3 P e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s

T h e r e a r e t w o k i n d s o f p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s - ( A ) t h o s e w i t h a n o p t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c y

m a r k e r , a n d ( B ) t h o s e w i t h a n o b l i g a t o r y d e p e n d e n c y m a r k e r . T h e r e a s o n s w h y

p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s a r e n o t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are g i v e n b e l o w . P e r i p h r a s t i c

c a u s a t i v e s a r e u s e d w i t h intransitive v e r b s o f S a a n d S 0 t y p e s , a n d w i t h S i o v e r b s ( o f t h e

s u b g r o u p A : s e e § 1 2 . 1 . 1 ) .

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 2 7 6 13 Valency c h a n g i n g a n d a r g u m e n t r e a r r a n g i n g m e c h a n i s m s

A . P E R I P H R A S T I C C A U S A T I V E S W I T H A N O P T I O N A L D E P E N D E N C Y M A R K E R . I m e n t i o n e d

a b o v e that S 0 v e r b s w h i c h refer to a n i n h e r e n t l y u n c h a n g e a b l e state (colour, p h y s i c a l

p r o p e r t i e s s u c h a s size o r taste, etc; s e e B u n d e r § 1 3 . 3 . 1 ) c a n n o t f o r m a m o r p h o l o g i c a l

c a u s a t i v e . P e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n -ni ' m a k e ' a r e

u s e d t o c a u s a t i v i s e t h e s e stative v e r b s . P e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s are q u i t e regular; for

i n s t a n c e t h e n a m e for a freezer in T a r i a n a is a n o m i n a l i s e d p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e w i t h a

d e p e n d e n c y m a r k e r : uni hape-ka k a - n i - n i - p a s o l e ( w a t e r c o l d - S U B R E L - m a k e - T O P . A D V -

B A G ) .

T h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka 'sequential' c a n b e o p t i o n a l l y u s e d o n t h e c a u s a t i v i s e d stative

v e r b , w i t h n o s e m a n t i c difference. 1 3 . 6 7 is a n e x a m p l e o f a p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e

w i t h o u t a d e p e n d e n c y m a r k e r ; 1 3 . 6 8 is a n e x a m p l e w i t h o n e . In e a c h c a s e p e r i p h r a s t i c

c a u s a t i v e s are u n d e r l i n e d .

1 3 . 6 7 p h i a p i - k a k a y a w a - n a p e d a r i a - m a - p e di-ni

y o u 2 s g - s e e s o l p l - O B J o l d - C L : F E M - P L 3 s g n f - m a k e

'In front o f y o u (lit. s o that y o u s a w ) h e m a d e u s into o l d w o m e n . '

1 3 . 6 8 n a w i k i k a : d a - k a - n a k a pi-ni p h i a

p e r s o n b l a c k - S U B - V I S . P R E S 2 s g - m a k e y o u

' " Y o u m a k e p e o p l e b l a c k , " (said t h e M o o n to t h e Sun).'

P e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s w i t h t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n -ni ' m a k e ' also c a u s a t i v i s e t h e Sj 0

v e r b s o f s u b g r o u p A , a s s h o w n in 13.69.

1 3 . 6 9 k a r e h a p e d i - n i - m a h k a n u - n a

w i n d c o l d 3 s g n f - d o - R E C . P . V I S l s g - O B J

' W i n d m a d e m e cold.'

B . P E R I P H R A S T I C C A U S A T I V E S W I T H A N O B L I G A T O R Y D E P E N D E N C Y M A R K E R . P e r i p h r a s t i c

c a u s a t i v e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n -ni ' m a k e ' a n d f o r m e d o n either intransitive

a c t i v e v e r b s , o r stative v e r b s w h i c h refer to c h a n g e a b l e p r o p e r t i e s , r e q u i r e a d e p e n d e n c y

m a r k e r . T h e y i m p l y a s p e c i a l effort a n d / o r u n w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e c a u s e e to b r i n g a b o u t t h e

activity. T h i s is illustrated w i t h 13.79. T h e s u b j e c t (a f e m a l e evil spirit) h a d to m a k e a

s p e c i a l effort t o a c h i e v e t h e result. T h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka o n the c a u s a t i v i s e d v e r b is

o b l i g a t o r y . Its o m i s s i o n results in a n u n g r a m m a t i c a l s e n t e n c e .

1 3 . 7 0 hi ma:tfite-tha-sika n u - n a i k a s u

D E M : A N I M b a d + N C L : A N I M - F R - P R E S . I N F R 1s g - O B J n o w

d e p i t a m e m a - k a d e - k a d u - n i - p a r a

n i g h t + A D V N E G + s l e e p - N E G - S U B 3 s g f - m a k e - C O U N T E R E X

' T h i s b a d o n e ( f e m a l e evil spirit d i s g u i s e d as a bird) m a d e m e n o t s l e e p ( k e p t m e

a w a k e ) this night.'

I n 1 3 . 8 0 t h e result is a c h i e v e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e m a g i c p o w e r o f t h e cigar, w i t h o u t

a n y s p e c i a l effort. T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e o f t h e v e r b - i m a 'close

e y e s / s l e e p ' is u s e d h e r e .

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 13.3 Increasing transitivity 2 7 7

1 3 . 7 1 d i - n a m a t f a y e m a - n e n e m e - t a

3 s g n f - 0 B J w e l l c i g a r - I N S 3 p l + c l o s e e y e s / s l e e p + C A U S l - C A U S 2

T h e y m a d e h i m really a s l e e p w i t h a c i g a r (i.e. t h r o u g h a c i g a r - s m o k i n g ritual).'

P e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s d o n o t q u a l i f y a s serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s (also s e e § 1 8 . 1 ) :

(i) E v e r y v e r b in a p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n is m a r k e d for its s u r f a c e a n d

u n d e r l y i n g s u b j e c t i n d e p e n d e n t l y , as in 1 3 . 7 2 . In a c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n is c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n b o t h

v e r b s .

(ii) T h e t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f a p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e m a y h a v e i n d e p e n d e n t

t e n s e / a s p e c t / a k t i o n s a r t v a l u e s , a n d g e t i n d e p e n d e n t m a r k i n g for t h e s e

c a t e g o r i e s . T h e c o m p o n e n t s c a n b e n e g a t e d separately, a s in 1 3 . 7 0 . In 1 3 . 7 2 ,

- m h a ' n o n - v i s u a l present' g o e s o n -rena 'feel'; a n d Aha ' a p p r o x i m a t i v e '

c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n -ni 'do, m a k e ' .

1 3 . 7 2 n u - n a m a : t | i n u - r e n a - k a - m h a i-niyha

1 s g - O B J b a d 1s g - f e e l - S U B - P R E S . N O N V I S 2 p l - d o + A P P R O X

' " Y o u m a d e m e feel m i s e r a b l e a little bit (i.e. ' y o u d i d a little bit for m e to feel

m i s e r a b l e ' ) , " (said t h e m o t h e r to t h e y o u n g m a n w h o h a d g o n e to live w i t h

s n a k e s ) . '

(iii) P e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s d o n o t h a v e t h e i n t o n a t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f a m o n o v e r b a l

c l a u s e ; a p a u s a l m a r k e r c a n b e inserted after e v e r y v e r b .

(iv) U n l i k e serial c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s , p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s w i t h a d e p e n d e n c y

m a r k e r c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d o n e p r e d i c a t e , b e c a u s e t h e r e is a s u b o r d i n a t i n g

m a r k e r o n o n e o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s . ( P e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s are f o u n d m o r e

f r e q u e n t l y i n t e x t s a n d o t h e r d a t a f r o m y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s , s o s o m e sort o f

i n f l u e n c e f r o m P o r t u g u e s e c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d . )

U n l i k e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s are biclausal ( § 1 9 . 1 2 ) .

1 3 . 3 A C a u s a t i v e m e c h a n i s m s in Tariana: a c o m p a r i s o n

T a r i a n a h a s f o u r c a u s a t i v i s i n g m e c h a n i s m s : m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s , serial c a u s a t i v e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d t w o t y p e s o f p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s . T h e y h a v e different s e m a n t i c s

a n d a r e in a partial c o m p l e m e n t a r y distribution as to the v e r b types. S c h e m e 13.1

s u m m a r i s e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c a u s a t i v e s a m o n g c l a s s e s o f v e r b s , a n d their s e m a n t i c s .

O f all v e r b t y p e s , S 0 a n d Sj 0 v e r b s h a v e the m o s t n u m b e r o f restrictions o n

c a u s a t i v i s a t i o n .

• S E R I A L C A U S A T I V E C O N S T R U C T I O N S f o r m c a u s a t i v e s o f transitive a n d intransitive

a c t i v e v e r b s u s i n g a n u m b e r o f v e r b s o f c a u s a t i o n ; t h e y are also u s e d to

c a u s a t i v i s e S j 0 v e r b s . O n l y w i t h intransitive active v e r b s d o serial c a u s a t i v e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s i m p l y indirect c a u s a t i o n (in c o n t r a s t to m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n d

p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s ) . Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are t h e o n l y p r o d u c t i v e

m e c h a n i s m u s e d for c a u s a t i v i s i n g transitive v e r b s a n d the v e r b s o f S i o type.

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 2 7 8 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

S C H E M E 1 3 . 1 . C A U S A T I V I S I N G M E C H A N I S M S , V E R B T Y P E S A N D T H E I R S E M A N T I C S

I. M O R P H O L O G I C A L O R P E R I P H R A S T I C ( V E R B -ni ' M A K E ' A N D O B L I G A T O R Y -ka)

Morphological (-i-ta) P e r i p h r a s t i c

S 0 r e m a i n s : c a u s e r n o n - i n t e n t i o n a l "^

S t a t i v e v e r b s (S 0 ) / forceful c a u s e r

r e f e r r i n g to c h a n g e a b l e Y u n w i l l i n g c a u s e e

p r o p e r t i e s \ ^ direct c a u s a t i o n

S 0 b e c o m e s S a : c a u s e r intentional

II. M O R P H O L O G I C A L C A U S A T I V E O R P E R I P H R A S T I C ( V E R B O F C A U S A T I O N -ni ' M A K E ' A N D

O B L I G A T O R Y - k a ) O R S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S

Morphological P e r i p h r a s t i c S V C

suffix -/: n o n - c o m p l e t e

a c t i o n o r i n v o l v e m e n t o f O "^

A c t i v e intransitive / \ forceful c a u s e r indirect

(S a ) (-it-a) a n d s o m e u n w i l l i n g c a u s e e c a u s a t i o n

transitive v e r b s ( / t a ) x ^ direct c a u s a t i o n

suffixes -i-ta: c o m p l e t e

a c t i o n o r i n v o l v e m e n t o f O

III. N o M O R P H O L O G I C A L C A U S A T I V E , O N L Y P E R I P H R A S T I C ( V E R B O F C A U S A T I O N -ni

' M A K E ' A N D O P T I O N A L -ka)

S t a t i v e v e r b s (S 0 ) r e f e r r i n g t o u n c h a n g e a b l e p r o p e r t i e s

V e r b s o f p h y s i c a l state (Sj0), s u b g r o u p A

I V . N o M O R P H O L O G I C A L C A U S A T I V E , O N L Y C A U S A T I V E S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S

M o s t t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s

V . N O M O R P H O L O G I C A L C A U S A T I V E , S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S W I T H - e m e t a 'PUT'

V e r b s o f p h y s i c a l state (Sj0)

A l l p r e f i x e d v e r b s h a v e d o u b l e c a u s a t i v e m a r k i n g w h i c h i m p l i e s c o m p l e t e i n v o l v e m e n t

o f O , a n d c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h e action.

PERIPHRASTIC C A U S A T I V E S f o r m e d w i t h t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n -ni ' m a k e ' WITH AN

O P T I O N A L D E P E N D E N C Y M A R K E R o n t h e c a u s a t i v i s e d v e r b a r e u s e d to c a u s a t i v i s e

stative v e r b s w h i c h refer to u n c h a n g e a b l e properties.

M O R P H O L O G I C A L CAUSATIVES a r e p r o d u c t i v e l y f o r m e d o n intransitive a c t i v e (S a )

a n d stative (S 0 ) v e r b s w h i c h refer to c h a n g e a b l e qualities. T h e r e are j u s t a f e w

i n s t a n c e s o f m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s o n transitive v e r b s w h i c h d e s c r i b e

t r a d i t i o n a l activities. M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s o f stative v e r b s c a n c h a n g e a

v e r b f r o m p r e f i x l e s s to p r e f i x e d , if t h e c a u s e r is a c t i n g i n t e n t i o n a l l y (cf.

'intentionality' in D i x o n 2 0 0 0 ) .

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 1 3 . 4 A r g u m e n t - a d d i n g d e r i v a t i o n 2 7 9

• P E R I P H R A S T I C C A U S A T I V E S W I T H A N O B L I G A T O R Y D E P E N D E N C Y M A R K E R form

c a u s a t i v e s o f intransitive a c t i v e v e r b s a n d stative v e r b s referring t o c h a n g e a b l e

p r o p e r t i e s , a n d i m p l y a forceful c a u s e r , u n w i l l i n g n e s s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e c a u s e e ,

a n d d i r e c t c a u s a t i o n (cf. D i x o n 2 0 0 0 ) .

T h e r e is a c r o s s - l i n g u i s t i c t e n d e n c y a m o n g l a n g u a g e s o f t h e w o r l d for p e r i p h r a s t i c

c a u s a t i v e s t o e x p r e s s c a u s a t i o n w h i c h i n v o l v e s a special effort o n t h e part o f a c a u s e r

a n d , p o s s i b l y , u n w i l l i n g n e s s o n t h e part o f t h e c a u s e e (cf. D i x o n 2 0 0 0 ; a n d a l s o H a i m a n

1 9 8 3 ) . M o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s t e n d to e x p r e s s direct c a u s a t i o n . T a r i a n a c o n f o r m s to

this t e n d e n c y . In l a n g u a g e s w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n d p e r i p h r a s t i c

c a u s a t i v e s , t h e latter a l s o t e n d to e x p r e s s indirect c a u s a t i o n ( D i x o n 2 0 0 0 ) . T a r i a n a u s e s

serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d p e r i p h r a s t i c c a u s a t i v e s for e x p r e s s i n g indirect c a u s a t i o n .

1 3 . 4 A r g u m e n t - a d d i n g d e r i v a t i o n

W h e n t h e c a u s a t i v e m a r k e r -/ o r -ita is a d d e d to intransitive v e r b s o r to a l i m i t e d n u m b e r

o f transitive v e r b s , it h a s a c a u s a t i v i s i n g effect. W h e n a d d e d to t h e m a j o r i t y o f transitive

v e r b s , it h a s t w o q u i t e different effects - A a n d B b e l o w .

A . A M B I T R A N S I T I V E V E R B S B E C O M E O B L I G A T O R I L Y T R A N S I T I V E W H E N T H E Y R E C E I V E T H E

TRANSITIVISER -i(-ta). A s s h o w n in C h a p t e r 12, t h e m a j o r i t y o f v e r b s in T a r i a n a are

either S = A o r S = 0 a m b i t r a n s i t i v e s o r are strictly intransitive v e r b s . T h e o n l y strictly

t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s in this l a n g u a g e a r e t h e o n e s w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e transitiviser -i(-ta).

B . W H E N -i(-ta) is A D D E D O N T O A T R A N S I T I V E V E R B , I T A L S O I N D I C A T E S T H A T A

P E R I P H E R A L C O N S T I T U E N T H A S T O B E O B L I G A T O R I L Y S T A T E D I N T H E C L A U S E . T h i s

c o n s t i t u e n t m a y b e (a) a d d r e s s e e , (b) p u r p o s e a n d / o r i n s t r u m e n t o r (c) location. Its

c h o i c e d e p e n d s o n t h e s e m a n t i c s o f a v e r b . T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s illustrate this.

B l . A D D R E S S E E . T h e S = A a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b - n h a m e a n s 'point at', a s in 1 3 . 7 3 , or 'turn

t o a c e r t a i n direction', a s in 13.74.

1 3 . 7 3 n e d i h a d i - n u - m i - n u k u

t h e n h e 3 s g n f - c o m e - N O M . L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - n h a d i - p e - p i d a n a d i - k a p i - n e

3 s g n f - p o i n t . a t 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - h a n d - I N S

' H e (the evil spirit) p o i n t e d at t h e p l a c e h e ( m a n ) h a d c o m e f r o m w i t h his hand.'

1 3 . 7 4 p i - n h a - t h a r a p i - p e al-ne

2 s g - p o i n t . a t - P R E C 2 s g - t h r o w h e r e - I N S

" T u r n y o u r p e n i s in this direction," (said t h e elder s o n o f t h e m y t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r

K u i t o h i s y o u n g e r brother).'

Its c o u n t e r p a r t w i t h -i(-ta) m e a n s ' s h o w s o m e t h i n g to s o m e b o d y ' , as illustrated in

1 3 . 7 5 .

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 2 8 0 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

1 3 . 7 5 n h a n e s e n e m h a n i - r i - n u k u di-a

t h e y t h e n 3 p l + w a l k - R E L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - g o

d h i t a - n i p e - n u k u d i - h e - t a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f + t a k e - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - p o i n t . a t + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P

d i - n a

3 s g n f - O B J

' H e (the p o o r soldier) s h o w e d h i m (the k i n g ) w h a t h e h a d t a k e n at the p l a c e w h e r e

t h e y ( t h e king's d a u g h t e r s ) h a d w a l k e d . '

B 2 . P U R P O S E A N D / O R I N S T R U M E N T . W h e n -\(-ta) is a d d e d to s o m e v e r b s , t h e p u r p o s e

a n d / o r i n s t r u m e n t h a s to b e obligatorily stated (or easily r e c o v e r a b l e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t ) .

T h e transitive v e r b - w a n a , u s e d w i t h o u t -i(-ta), m e a n s 'call', ' e m i t s o u n d ' , as in 1 3 . 7 6 , o r

call for n o p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e , a s in 1 3 . 7 7 , o r 'call a n a m e ' , a s in 1 3 . 7 8 .

1 3 . 7 6 d i - w a n a d i - n u - p i d a n a iii! d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - c a l l 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P iii! 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e spirit c a l l e d c o m i n g , "iii", h e said.'

1 3 . 7 7 n e d i - s a - d o - n u k u d i - w a n a - t h a - p i d a n a h a w a

t h e n 3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - c a l l - F R - R E M . P . R E P e a g l e

' T h e n t h e e a g l e c a l l e d h i s wife('s n a m e ) (in vain).'

1 3 . 7 8 n a h a h i w a - k e s i - p e tafia w a - n a

t h e y D E M : A N I M 1p l - f r i e n d - P L T a r i a n a l p l - O B J

ifie-ne na: h a - w a n a - n a k a

' d e v i l ' - P L 3 p l - s a y 3 p l - c a l l - P R E S . V I S
1
' O u r relatives, t h e T a r i a n a , call u s "devils".

W h e n - w a n a is u s e d w i t h -i(-ta), g i v i n g -wane(-ta), it m e a n s 'call for s o m e t h i n g ' , a s

s h o w n in 1 3 . 7 9 . H e r e t h e evil spirit is i n v i t i n g t h e m a n to participate in h u n t i n g .

1 3 . 7 9 p a n a - p h e d i : m i a - p i d a n a n a - n a

l e a f - C L : L E A F . L I K E 3 s g n f + f l o a t - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - O B J

d i - w a n e - t a - k a d i - p e - p i d a n a

3 p l - c a l l + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - D E C L 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P

' H e (the spirit) m a d e t h e l e a f floating, h e c a l l e d t h e m (to g o hunting).'

O r it m a y m e a n 'call w i t h t h e h e l p o f s o m e t h i n g ' . E x a m p l e 1 3 . 8 0 is a d e s c r i p t i o n o f

evil h a b i t s o f a f e a r e d Y a n o m a m i g r o u p w h o are r e p o r t e d to h a v e all k i n d s o f m a g i c a l

p r a c t i c e s .

1 3 . 8 0 w h e r u n e m e i y a - n u k u n a - w a n e

s n u f f 3 p l + s n i f f r a i n - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - c a l l + C A U S

' T h e y sniff snuff, (this is h o w ) t h e y call rain.'

T h e v e r b -wapa m e a n s 'wait', a s in 1 3 . 8 1 , or 'attend to', as in 13.82.

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 IS.4 Argument-adding derivation 281

1 3 . 8 1 p a : - p i o - n a n h u a h i n i p u k u - s e

o n - C L : T I M E - R E M . P . V I S I g a r d e n - L O C

h e m a - n u k u n u k a n u - w a p a - n a

t a p i r - T O P . N O N . A / S 1s g + a r r i v e 1s g - w a i t - R E M . P . V I S

' O n c e I c a m e t o w a i t for a tapir in m y g a r d e n (i.e. a tapir w h o w a s d e s t r o y i n g m y

g a r d e n ) . '

1 3 . 8 2 s a p a t o k a - n i k a - w a p a - k a d e - n a k a n h u a

s h o e R E L - d o R E L - a t t e n d - N E G - P R E S . V I S I

'I a m n o t a s h o e m a k e r . ' ( l i t . 'I a m n o t t h e o n e w h o l o o k s after m a k i n g shoes.')

T h e v e r b -wape(ta) m e a n s 'wait w i t h s o m e t h i n g , or for a particular p u r p o s e (usually,

for t h e ritual offering)'. T h i s is s h o w n in 1 3 . 8 3 .

1 3 . 8 3 m a w a r i - n u k u n a : - k a n a - w a p e - t a

s n a k e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l + g o - D E C L 3 p l - w a i t + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

n a - w a r i t a - k a r u - p e n a - n u k u

3 p l - o f f e r - P U R P . V I S - N O M . F U T - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e y w e r e g o i n g to w a i t for a n o t h e r s n a k e for a ritual offering.'

B 3 . L O C A T I O N . T h e transitive v e r b -pala m e a n s 'get, put', a s in 13.84. W h e n -i(-ta) is

a d d e d , - p a l e t a m e a n s 'put in a p a r t i c u l a r location', a s in 1 3 . 8 5 .

1 3 . 8 4 d i w h i d a n a - p i s a n a - p a l a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f + h e a d 3 p l - c u t 3 p l - p u t - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y c u t h i s h e a d a n d p u t (it).'

1 3 . 8 5 i t a - w h y a h i - n u k u p i - p a l e - t a

c a n o e - C L : C A N O E D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - p u t + C A U S l - C A U S 2

'Put t h e c a n o e here.'

T h e m e a n i n g o f -i(-ta) d e r i v a t i o n s m a y b e rather idiosyncratic. W i t h a n u m b e r o f

v e r b s it i m p l i e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t ; for i n s t a n c e , -maya m e a n s 'act in

a false, t r e a c h e r o u s w a y ' , w h i l e maye(-ta) m e a n s 'tell a l i e ' ; -Ira m e a n s 'order', a n d -ireta

m e a n s 'order b y s a y i n g s o m e t h i n g ' . T h e v e r b -paleta, illustrated in 1 3 . 8 5 , also m e a n s

'cover' ( w i t h s o m e t h i n g ) , a s illustrated in 13.86.

1 3 . 8 6 d u h a y a r u - m a k a - s i - t u p e d u - s o l e - t a

s h e t h i n g - C L : C L O T H - N P O S S - D I M : P L 3 s g f - t e a r . o f f + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

d i - n a d u - p a l e - t a - p i d a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g f - p u t + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - P R E S . R E P

' S h e t o o k o f f h e r c l o t h e s , a n d c o v e r e d h i m (the n e w - b o r n baby).'

T h u s , t h e m o r p h e m e w h i c h m a r k s t h e c a u s a t i v e o f intransitive a n d j u s t a f e w

transitive v e r b s is u s e d to m a r k a k i n d o f a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g d e r i v a t i o n w h e n u s e d w i t h

transitive v e r b s .

In § 1 3 . 3 . 1 I m e n t i o n e d transitive v e r b s w h i c h refer to traditional activities a n d f o r m a

m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e w i t h -i(-ta). In j u s t o n e c a s e , t h e a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g or c a u s a t i v e

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 2 8 2 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

r e a d i n g o f -i(-ta) d e r i v a t i o n in t h e s e c a s e s d e p e n d s o n w h i c h c o n s t i t u e n t is p r e s e n t in t h e

s u r f a c e structure. ( D i f f e r e n t r e a d i n g s are i m p o s s i b l e for - e m e / e m e t a , a n d -peruf-perita

b e c a u s e t h e s e v e r b s a r e restricted to traditional stories.) A transitive v e r b -napa 'bless',

w i t h o u t -i(-ta), is illustrated in 1 3 . 8 7 . T h e O is o m i t t e d (but is u n d e r s t o o d f r o m t h e

c o n t e x t ) .

1 3 . 8 7 d i h a - k u m a k h e m a - k a r i n a - n a p a - s i n a

A R T - C L : R I T E R E L + h e a r - P A S T . R E L . M A S C 3 p l - b l e s s - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h o s e w h o u n d e r s t a n d t h e ritual, u s e d to b l e s s ( d o t h e blessing).'

If j u s t a n O c o n s t i t u e n t is p r e s e n t , t h e -i(-ta) d e r i v a t i o n h a s a c a u s a t i v e r e a d i n g .

1 3 . 8 8 w a h a h a n i r i - n u k u K o s e

w e f a t h e r - T O P . N O N . A / S C o n c e ^ a o

d u - n a p e - t a - s i n a d u - r i - n u k u

3 s g f - b l e s s + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g f - s o n - T O P . N O N . A / S
1
' C o n c e 9 a o m a d e o u r father b l e s s h e r s o n (to c u r e him).

It h a s a n a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g r e a d i n g if t h e r e is a n o v e r t i n s t r u m e n t a l constituent.

1 3 . 8 9 m a i n i - n e n a - n a p e - t a

t a r - I N S 3 p l - b l e s s + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

' T h e y b l e s s e d (the g a m e ) w i t h tar.'

T h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g a n d c a u s a t i v e r e a d i n g is often d e t e r m i n e d b y

c o n t e x t . In 1 3 . 9 0 t h e -i(-ta) d e r i v a t i o n h a s a c a u s a t i v e r e a d i n g , b e c a u s e it u s e d to b e

' c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e ' that t h e late Y u n u l i ( E u g e n i o M u n i z ) w a s a s h a m a n .

1 3 . 9 0 n u - w h i d a k a i - k a y a m i y u n u r i - n u k u

1 s g - h e a d a c h e - B E C A U S E : D S Y u n u l i - T O P . N O N . A / S

n u - n a p e - t a

1 s g - b l e s s + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

' B e c a u s e m y h e a d a c h e d , I m a d e Y u n u l i b l e s s ( m e ) . '

In c o n t r a s t , 1 3 . 9 1 c a n o n l y h a v e a n a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g r e a d i n g , b e c a u s e it d e s c r i b e s a

'typical activity' o f t h e M o o n .

1 3 . 9 1 k e : r i d i - n a p e - t a - k a w a - n a

m o o n 3 s g n f - b l e s s + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E C . P . V I S l p l - O B J

' M o o n h a s b l e s s e d u s ( w i t h its p o w e r , for a trip).' ( S a i d b e f o r e p e o p l e g o o n a trip,

t o m a k e s u r e it is safe.)

H o w e v e r , if t h e c o n t e x t is u n k n o w n , b o t h r e a d i n g s are p o s s i b l e . F o r i n s t a n c e , di-

napeta c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d b o t h a s 'he m a d e s o m e o n e b l e s s s o m e o n e else', o r 'he

b l e s s e d s o m e o n e w i t h t h e h e l p o f s o m e t h i n g , o r for s o m e p u r p o s e ' ; this h o m o n y m y c a n

b e s o l v e d in a n u m b e r o f w a y s . 1 3 . 9 2 c a n b e o n l y u n d e r s t o o d a s 'hej g o t s o m e o n e else to

b l e s s h i m j b u t hej d i e d a n y w a y ' b e c a u s e t h e s u b o r d i n a t i n g enclitic - n i k h e c a n o n l y b e

u s e d if b o t h c l a u s e s h a v e t h e s a m e subject.

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 73.5 Argument-manipulating derivation 2 8 3

1 3 . 9 2 d i - f i a p e - t a - n i k h e d i - n a m i di-a

3 s g n f - b l e s s + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - I N . S P I T E : S S 3 s g n f - d i e 3 s g n f - g o

' T h o u g h hei h a d m a d e ( s o m e o n e ) b l e s s himj, hej died.'

A r g u m e n t - a d d i n g -i(-ta) c a n n o t a p p e a r o n v e r b s f r o m a n u m b e r o f s e m a n t i c g r o u p s

(e.g. ' w a n t , l o o k for', 'eat', 'dig'). W i t h v e r b s o f p e r c e p t i o n -i(-ta) d e r i v a t i o n y i e l d s

s e m a n t i c a l l y i d i o s y n c r a t i c v e r b s ; cf. -ka 'see' vs. -ke-ta 'meet, e n c o u n t e r ' ; - h i m a 'hear,

u n d e r s t a n d ' v s . - h i m e - t a 'think, feel'.

1 3 . 5 A r g u m e n t - m a n i p u l a t i n g d e r i v a t i o n

T a r i a n a h a s a v e r b a l d e r i v a t i o n m a r k e d b y a - w suffix ( S c h e m e 12.1) w h o s e p r o p e r t i e s

are:

(i) it a p p l i e s o n l y to transitive a n d a c t i v e intransitive (S a ) v e r b s ( a n d n o t t o S 0 o r

S i 0 v e r b s ) ;

(ii) a p r e d i c a t e a r g u m e n t N P o t h e r t h a n t h e s u b j e c t ( A / S a c o n s t i t u e n t ) is p l a c e d in

s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n in s u r f a c e structure p r o v i d e d it is m o r e topical t h a n t h e s u b j e c t

N P ; it c a n n o t t a k e either o f t h e n o n - s u b j e c t p r o n o m i n a l -na o r t o p i c a l n o n -

s u b j e c t - n u k u , a n d it c a n b e m a r k e d w i t h a g e n t i v e -ne/-nhe ( § 7 . 2 . 1 ) if

c o n t r a s t i v e ;

(iii) t h e v e r b i n c l u d e s a classifier c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g the N P m o v e d into s u r f a c e

s u b j e c t slot;

(iv) t h e o r i g i n a l s u b j e c t ( A / S a ) p r o n o m i n a l p r e f i x e s to t h e v e r b are m a i n t a i n e d ;

(v) t h e r e m a y b e a n N P referring to t h e u n d e r l y i n g A / S a (or else it c a n b e o m i t t e d ) ;

it m u s t f o l l o w t h e N P p r o m o t e d into t h e s u r f a c e s u b j e c t slot;

(vi) o t h e r a r g u m e n t N P s ( b e s i d e s t h e original subject, a n d t h e N P p r o m o t e d into

s u r f a c e s u b j e c t slot) are m a i n t a i n e d .

S i n c e t h e p r a g m a t i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e -ni- d e r i v a t i o n c o n s i s t s in p r o m o t i n g a topical

n o n - A / S a c o n s t i t u e n t in t h e s u b j e c t slot I call it 'topic a d v a n c i n g derivation' ( a n d s e e

d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 2 5 ) . C o m p a r e t h e p l a i n transitive c l a u s e in 1 3 . 9 3 w i t h its

a r g u m e n t - m a n i p u l a t i n g d e r i v a t i o n in 1 3 . 1 0 8 .

1 3 . 9 3 h a - d a p a n a - n u k u p i - n a n u - a - k a

D E M : I N A N - C L : H A B - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - O B J l s g - g i v e - R E C . P . V I S

'I g a v e y o u this h o u s e . '

1 3 . 9 4 h a - d a p a n a - n e

D E M : I N A N - C L : H A B - F O C . A / S

n u - a - n i - d a p a n a - k a p i - n a

1 s g - g i v e - T O P . A D V - C L : H A B - R E C . P . V I S 2 s g - O B J

' T h i s h o u s e ( n o t a n y o t h e r h o u s e ) w a s g i v e n b y m e to you.'

It is n o t e w o r t h y that (1) t h e l s g p r e f i x referring to t h e A a r g u m e n t is retained; (2) t h e

i n d i r e c t o b j e c t c o n s t i t u e n t p i - n a 'to y o u ' is r e t a i n e d ; (3) t h e u n d e r l y i n g O N P is n o w

s u r f a c e s u b j e c t s h o w n b y t h e i n c l u s i o n o f classifier -dapana in t h e v e r b , f o l l o w i n g t h e

m a r k e r -ni, a n d b y t h e f o c u s s e d s u b j e c t m a r k e r -ne. T h u s , t h e N P w h i c h is m o v e d to t h e

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 2 8 4 13 Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

front o f t h e c l a u s e s h o w s m o s t p r o p e r t i e s o f a s u b j e c t e x c e p t for p r o n o m i n a l c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c i n g o n t h e v e r b ( r e t a i n e d b y t h e u n d e r l y i n g subject).

A n y n o n - s u b j e c t a r g u m e n t c a n b e p r o m o t e d into surface subject position. In 1 3 . 9 5 ,

t h e t a r g e t o f t h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g d e r i v a t i o n is t h e o b j e c t o f t h e transitive v e r b ('see'). In

this story t h e m a n (the overall t o p i c o f t h e narrative) c o m e s b a c k to t h e h o u s e o f the evil

spirit w h i c h h e r e m e m b e r s h a v i n g s e e n b e f o r e ; 'house' is the t o p i c o f this stretch o f

d i s c o u r s e .

1 3 . 9 5 d i h a - d a p a n a - p i d a n a - n i k i d i - k a - n i - d a p a n a - y a

A R T - C L : H A B - R E M . P . R E P - C O M P L 3 s g n f - s e e - T O P . A D V - C L : H A B - E M P H

' T h i s h o u s e w a s e x a c t l y t h e o n e h e h a d seen.'

E x a m p l e s 1 3 . 9 6 a n d 1 3 . 9 7 illustrate t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f locative N P s , w i t h i n a

transitive a n d a n intransitive c l a u s e respectively. 1 3 . 9 6 is also a n e x a m p l e o f a -ni-

d e r i v a t i o n o n a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ; like m o s t v e r b a l suffixes (see S c h e m e 12.1) the

-ni- suffix is u s e d o n c e p e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is in s q u a r e

b r a c k e t s . T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a m a n w h o s a w a w o m a n ( w h o w a s a n

evil spirit in d i s g u i s e ) at a clearing. T h e m a n is t h e t o p i c o f t h e story; h o w e v e r , in this

stretch o f d i s c o u r s e - w h e r e h e c o m e s b a c k to t h e v e r y c l e a r i n g w h e r e h e h a d s e e n t h e

w o m a n - t h e c l e a r i n g is m o r e topical, a n d t h u s this c o n s t i t u e n t ('the clearing') is t h e

target o f t h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g d e r i v a t i o n .

1 3 . 9 6 d i h a - p u s i t a - y a d i h a i n a r u

A R T - C L : C L E A R I N G - E M P H h e w o m a n

[ d i - k a - n i - p u s i t a - p i d a n a di-a]

3 s g n f - s e e - T O P . A D V - C L : C L E A R I N G - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - g o

' T h i s c l e a r i n g w a s t h e c l e a r i n g w h e r e h e h a d s e e n the w o m a n . '

1 3 . 9 7 h a - k u

D E M : I N A N - C L : F O L D E D . C L O T H

n e m a - n i - k u - k a

3 p l + s l e e p - T O P . A D V - C L : F O L D E D . C L O T H - R E C . P . V I S

' T h i s h a m m o c k is t h e o n e t h e y s l e e p in.'

1 3 . 9 8 illustrates a d v a n c e m e n t o f a l o c a t i v e N P into t h e subject slot; t h e u n d e r l y i n g

s u b j e c t ( c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e v e r b ) is o v e r t l y e x p r e s s e d .

1 3 . 9 8 d i h a - k e r e p a m u n a - p i d a n a d i h a i:ta

A R T - C L . I S L A N D m i d d l e - R E M . P . R E P A R T c a n o e

d i - n i - n i - p u s i t a - p i d a n a p u s a r u

3 s g n f - d o - T O P . A D V - C L : C L E A R I N G - R E M . P . R E P sloth

i:ta di-ni-ni-pusita

c a n o e 3 s g n f - d o - T O P . A D V - C L : C L E A R I N G - R E M . P . R E P

'In t h e m i d d l e o f t h e island t h e r e w a s a c l e a r i n g w h e r e h e m a d e t h e c a n o e , w h e r e

t h e s l o t h m a d e t h e c a n o e . '

In 1 3 . 9 6 - 8 t h e l o c a t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t , o n c e it h a s b e e n p r o m o t e d to the s u b j e c t slot,

c a n n o t a c q u i r e t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e - m a r k i n g .

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 73.5 Argument-manipulating derivation 2 8 5

1 3 . 9 9 illustrates t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f a t e m p o r a l c o n s t i t u e n t , a n d 1 3 . 1 0 0 that o f a n

i n s t r u m e n t a l c o n s t i t u e n t .

1 3 . 9 9 d i h a d i - k e t a - n i - k a d a - p i d a n a

h e 3 s g n f - m e e t - T O P . A D V - C L : D A Y - R E M . P . R E P

'It w a s t h e d a y w h e n h e m e t (the evil spirit).'

1 3 . 1 0 0 h a sipi itfiri n u - i n u - n i - p i - n a

D E M : I N A N g u n a n i m a l l s g - k i l l - n i - C L : L O N G - R E M . P . V I S

' T h i s g u n w a s for m e to kill a n i m a l s . '

U n l i k e i n a p a s s i v e , transitivity is m a i n t a i n e d w h e n t h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g d e r i v a t i o n

a p p l i e s . T h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g d e r i v a t i o n a s s i g n s s o m e , b u t n o t all, s u b j e c t p r o p e r t i e s to a

n o n - s u b j e c t N P , w h i l e still r e t a i n i n g s o m e o f t h e s u b j e c t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e original

subject. B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a h a s a f u n c t i o n a l l y a n d f o r m a l l y s i m i l a r d e r i v a t i o n : s e e

A i k h e n v a l d ( m s ) . T h e -ni d e r i v a t i o n is f u n c t i o n a l l y s i m i l a r to ( b u t f o r m a l l y distinct

f r o m ) t h e f o c u s - m a r k i n g d e r i v a t i o n s in W a r e k e n a ( A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 8 b : 3 7 4 - 5 ) . S e e

D i x o n a n d A i k h e n v a l d ( 1 9 9 7 : 9 2 - 7 ) .

T h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g d e r i v a t i o n h a s a n u m b e r o f n o u n - l i k e p r o p e r t i e s (also s e e

§ 2 0 . 3 ) . U n l i k e o t h e r v e r b a l f o r m s , it c a n b e u s e d a s a m o d i f i e r , as in 1 3 . 1 0 1 ; a s a

t e m p o r a l a d j u n c t , as in 1 3 . 1 0 2 ; o r a s a l o c a t i v e a d j u n c t as in 1 3 . 1 0 3 ( t h e n t h e t o p i c -

a d v a n c i n g d e r i v a t i o n c a n t a k e t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e ) .

1 3 . 1 0 1 d i h a ita d i - n i - n i - w h y a d i - s w a - p i d a n a

A R T c a n o e 3 s g n f - d o - T O P . A D V - C L : C A N O E 3 s g n f - s t a y - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e c a n o e m a d e b y h i m w a s sitting there.'

1 3 . 1 0 2 n h a ira-ka-si n a - n i - n i - k a d a n a : - s i n a

t h e y d r i n k - T H - N O M 3 p l - d o - T O P . A D V - C L : D A Y 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . I N F R

T h e y w e n t (there) o n a d r i n k i n g day.'

If t h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g d e r i v a t i o n is u s e d as a m o d i f i e r , t h e h e a d n o u n c a n b e o m i t t e d

( t h e n t h e classifier h a s a n a n a p h o r i c f u n c t i o n ) , as in 1 3 . 1 0 3 , o r it c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d , a s

in m a w a r i p h i a p i - a - n i t e ( s n a k e y o u 2 s g - g i v e - T O P . A D V - N C L : A N i M ) ' y o u t h e o n e w h o w a s

g i v e n to a s n a k e ' .

1 3 . 1 0 3 n u - a - k a - t h a - n a te d i h a - p u a

l s g - g o - D E C L - F R - R E M . P . V I S until A R T - C L : S T R E T C H . R I V E R

y e p u a - s e k u p h e n a - w a k a - n i - n a i - s e

u p s t r e a m - L O C fish 3 p l - g e t . t o g e t h e r - T O P . A D V - C L : L A K E - L O C

'I w e n t (in v a i n ) u p to t h e l a k e w h e r e t h e fish u s e d to get t o g e t h e r , u p s t r e a m

f r o m that river.'

T h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g f o r m s c a n b e u s e d a s n o m i n a l h e a d s o n their o w n , e.g. p a - d e n a -

n i - w h y a ( i M P - p a d d l e - T O P . A D V - C L : C A N O E ) ' c a n o e w i t h p a d d l e s ' (as o p p o s e d to the o n e

w i t h a n o u t b o a r d m o t o r ) , n u - m u k h u a - n i - d a ( l s g - r i n s e . m o u t h - T O P . A D V - C L : R O U N D ) 'a c u p

I r i n s e m y m o u t h with', p a : r u - n i - d a ( i M P + t a k e . w a t e r . o u t . o f . c a n o e - T O P . A D V - C L : R O U N D ) 'a

c u p o n e u s e s to bail t h e e x c e s s w a t e r o u t o f t h e c a n o e ' . T h e f o r m s o f t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g

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 2 8 6 IS Valency changing and argument rearranging mechanisms

v o i c e d e r i v e d f r o m transitive a n d S a v e r b s w i t h classifiers are s i m i l a r to p a s s i v e

p a r t i c i p l e s , e.g. n u - k a - n i t e ( l s g - s e e - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N i M ) 'the o n e I saw', p i - y e k a - n i - m a

( 2 s g - k n o w - T O P . A D V - C L : F E M ) 'the w o m a n ( f e m a l e o n e ) k n o w n b y y o u ' (see also § 2 0 . 3 ) .

Y o u n g e r a n d i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s s o m e t i m e s o m i t t h e -ni- suffix in n o m i n a l i s e d

d e r i v a t i o n s ; for i n s t a n c e , n e w h a - n i - k a d a ( 3 p l + b u r y - T O P . A D V - C L : D A Y ) 'the d a y o f t h e

burial' w a s r e a l i s e d a s n e w h a - k a d a . T h e y also t e n d e d to u s e -ni- w i t h stative S 0 v e r b s ,

s a y i n g t a r a d a - n i - e h k w a p i (alive-TOP.ADV-CL:DAY) i n s t e a d o f tarada-ehkwapi (alive-

C L : D A Y ) 'lifetime, d a y s o f life1; w h e n J o s e said this h e w a s c o n s i s t e n t l y c o r r e c t e d b y his

father C a n d i d o .

1 3 . 6 S u m m a r y

T a b l e 13.1 s u m m a r i s e s c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n v a l e n c y r e d u c i n g m e c h a n i s m s a n d v e r b

t y p e s .

T A B L E 1 3 . 1 . V A L E N C Y R E D U C I N G M E C H A N I S M S A N D V E R B T Y P E S

S E M A N T I C S
V E R B T Y P E S P A S S I V E S R E C I P R O C A L S R E F L E X I V E S
O F P A S S I V E

T R A N S I T I V E y e s p a s s i v e yes: v a l e n c y - r e d u c i n g (yes)

I N T R A N S I T I V E S a y e s i m p e r s o n a l yes: m u l t i p l e p a r t i c i p a n t s n o

I N T R A N S I T I V E S 0 n o h a b i t u a l n o n o

I N T R A N S I T I V E S i o n o n / a n o n o

T h e transitivity d e c r e a s i n g d e r i v a t i o n s p r o v i d e a n i m p o r t a n t c l u e for d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

c o r e c o n s t i t u e n t s from o b l i q u e - t h e y affect o n l y c o r e a r g u m e n t s : A / S a a n d O .

A r g u m e n t s o t h e r t h a n t h e s e (e.g. 'recipient', for ditransitive v e r b s , o r o b l i q u e

c o n s t i t u e n t s ) c a n n o t b e p a s s i v i s e d o r 'reciprocalised'.

S c h e m e 13.1 s u m m a r i s e s c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e transitivity i n c r e a s i n g m e c h a n i s m s

a n d v e r b t y p e s in T a r i a n a . A l t h o u g h it is n o t u n u s u a l for a l a n g u a g e to h a v e m o r e t h a n

o n e m e c h a n i s m for f o r m i n g c a u s a t i v e s , o r to u s e different t e c h n i q u e s o f c a u s a t i v e

m a r k i n g d e p e n d i n g o n t h e transitivity v a l u e o f a v e r b (see D i x o n 2 0 0 0 ) , T a r i a n a is

t y p o l o g i c a l l y u n u s u a l in h a v i n g f o u r m e c h a n i s m s for m a r k i n g c a u s a t i v e s : o n e

m o r p h o l o g i c a l , t w o p e r i p h r a s t i c , a n d a c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n .

A n o t h e r u n u s u a l p r o p e r t y o f T a r i a n a is that t h e s a m e m o r p h e m e (-i-ta) is u s e d to

m a r k c a u s a t i v e s w i t h intransitive a n d a f e w transitive v e r b s , a n d also t o specify t h a t a n

a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b is o b l i g a t o r i l y transitive a n d that a p e r i p h e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t m u s t b e

stated. T h i s a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g d e r i v a t i o n is rather rare cross-linguistically. It is a special

s u b t y p e o f v a l e n c y i n c r e a s i n g m e c h a n i s m distinct f r o m b o t h c a u s a t i v e s a n d a p p l i c a t i v e s

t h o u g h it d o e s b e a r a similarity to a p p l i c a t i v e s (see A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 d for d i s c u s s i o n

a n d s o m e t y p o l o g i c a l parallels).

T r a n s i t i v i t y c h a n g i n g m e c h a n i s m s in T a r i a n a p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f t h e

g r a m m a t i c a l relations: A , Sa, O , S 0 , Si 0 w h i c h b e h a v e in different w a y s , a n d o t h e r

o b l i q u e s w h i c h c a n b e c o m e o b l i g a t o r y - b u t are n o t e q u a l to c o r e a r g u m e n t s - b y m e a n s

o f t h e a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g d e r i v a t i o n . T h e a r g u m e n t - m a n i p u l a t i n g d e r i v a t i o n d i s c u s s e d in

§ 1 3 . 5 is q u i t e distinct f r o m o t h e r d e r i v a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d h e r e in that it d o e s n o t affect t h e

transitivity o f t h e c l a u s e a n d h a s to d o w i t h topicality o f a r g u m e n t s .

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 14

T e n s e a n d evidentiality

1 4 . 1 G e n e r a l r e m a r k s

In a f f i r m a t i v e c l a u s e s , T a r i a n a d i s t i n g u i s h e s f o u r t e n s e s : P R E S E N T , R E C E N T P A S T ,

R E M O T E PAST, a n d F U T U R E . W i t h i n e a c h n o n - f u t u r e t e n s e t h e r e a r e f o u r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s for

e v i d e n t i a l i t y ( t h e s e are t h e s a m e a s in T u c a n o a n d h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d u n d e r areal

p r e s s u r e - s e e A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) : V I S U A L , N O N - V I S U A L , I N F E R R E D A N D

REPORTED. O n e i n s t a n c e o f o n g o i n g areally i n d u c e d c h a n g e is t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a fifth

e v i d e n t i a l t e r m , 'specific' inferred, c a l q u e d f r o m T u c a n o b y i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f

T a r i a n a .

F o r i n s t a n c e , in d e s c r i b i n g a n e v e n t s u c h a s T h e d o g bit h i m ' t h e u s e o f t h e v i s u a l

e v i d e n t i a l w o u l d i m p l y that t h e s p e a k e r s a w t h e d o g bite t h e m a n , a s in 1 4 . 1 . T h e n o n -

v i s u a l m a r k e r m i g h t b e u s e d if t h e s p e a k e r h e a r d t h e n o i s e o f t h e d o g b i t i n g t h e m a n a n d

t h e m a n s c r e a m i n g , a s in 14.2. T h e inferred e v i d e n t i a l c o u l d b e u s e d if t h e m a n r u s h e d

in t o s h o w h i s b l e e d i n g w o u n d , w i t h t h e t r a c e s o f t h e d o g ' s t e e t h o n it, a s in 14.3. T h e

r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l w o u l d b e e m p l o y e d if s o m e o n e told t h e s p e a k e r that t h e m a n h a d

b e e n bitten, a s in 14.4.

14.1 t|inu n i w h a - k a d i - n a

d o g 3 s g n f + b i t e - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - O B J

T h e d o g bit h i m ( w e h a v e s e e n it).'

1 4 . 2 tfinu n i w h a - m a h k a d i - n a

d o g 3 s g n f + b i t e - R E C . P . N O N V I S 3 s g n f - O B J

T h e d o g bit h i m ( w e h a v e h e a r d t h e noise).'

14.3 tjlnu n i w h a - s i k a d i - n a

d o g 3 s g n f + b i t e - R E C . P . I N F R 3 s g n f - O B J

T h e d o g bit h i m ( h e h a s a s c a r a n d I c a n m a k e a n inference).'

1 4 . 4 t|inu n i w h a - p i d a k a d i - n a

d o g 3 s g n f + b i t e - R E C . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J

T h e d o g bit h i m ' ( s o m e o n e told m e ) . '

I n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s a r e d e v e l o p i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l t e r m to m a t c h a c o n s t r u c t i o n f o u n d

in T u c a n o - a 'specific inferred' evidential. It results f r o m r e a n a l y s i s o f a n t e r i o r a s p e c t

m a r k e r - n h i a n d a n o n - p r e s e n t v i s u a l evidential, f o r m i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s - n i h k a ( f r o m

-nhi-kd) a n d - n h i n a ( f r o m - n h i - n a ) . T h e 'specific inferred' e v i d e n t i a l is u s e d to refer to

s o m e t h i n g o n e h a s n o t seen, b u t w h i c h is b a s e d o n o b v i o u s e v i d e n c e w h i c h c a n b e seen.

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 2 8 8 14 Tense and evidentiality

F o r i n s t a n c e , if o n e s a w a m a n w i t h u n m i s t a k a b l e s i g n s o f a d o g ' s teeth o n his h a n d , o n e

w o u l d s a y 1 4 . 5 , a s a n alternative to 14.3.

14.5 tjlnu n i w h a - n i h k a d i - n a

d o g 3 s g n f f b i t e - S P E C . I N F R . R E C P 3 s g n f - O B J

T h e d o g bit h i m (I c a n s e e o b v i o u s signs).'

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e 'generic' inferred (as in 14.4) a n d t h e 'specific' inferred (as

in 14.5) lies in a c c e s s to direct e v i d e n c e o f s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n i n g a n d to t h e d e g r e e o f

' r e a s o n i n g ' i n v o l v e d . T h e less o b v i o u s t h e e v i d e n c e a n d t h e m o r e t h e s p e a k e r h a s to rely

o n r e a s o n i n g b a s e d o n g e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e (or c o m m o n s e n s e ) , t h e m o r e c h a n c e t h e r e is

that t h e g e n e r i c i n f e r r e d will b e u s e d (see § 1 4 . 2 . 4 ) .

L i k e E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , T a r i a n a m a k e s all evidentiality c h o i c e s in p a s t t e n s e s .

I n f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l s h a v e n o p r e s e n t t e n s e f o r m . T e n s e a n d evidentiality s p e c i f i c a t i o n s

a r e e x p r e s s e d w i t h o n e p o r t m a n t e a u suffix (see C h a p t e r 5 o f A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ,

o n t h e e t y m o l o g y a n d m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s o f the evidentials). T h e r e p o r t e d evidential

differs f r o m o t h e r e v i d e n t i a l s i n that it refers to the t i m e o f the a c q u i s i t i o n o f

i n f o r m a t i o n ( s e e § 1 4 . 2 . 5 ) . T h e r e are f e w e r evidentiality specifications in i n t e r r o g a t i v e

c l a u s e s , a n d n o n e in future.

U n l i k e E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k e r s are enclitics. ( T h e y

o c c u p y p o s i t i o n s 13 o r 1 5 : s e e S c h e m e 12.2 in §12.2.) L i k e all enclitics, t h e y c a n attach

to t h e v e r b , o r to t h e f o c a l i s e d c o n s t i t u e n t in a c l a u s e ; t h e y m a y b e o m i t t e d u n d e r certain

d i s c o u r s e c o n d i t i o n s ( o u t l i n e d in § 1 4 . 2 . 8 a n d § 1 4 . 3 . 4 ) .

T h e e x p r e s s i o n o f evidentiality g o e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f explicitly

stating t h e e x a c t s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y to t h e s y s t e m d e s c r i b e d b y B a r n e s

( 1 9 8 4 ) for T u y u c a , i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d v i s u a l l y is c o n s i d e r e d t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e .

H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e c a s e s w h e n a s p e a k e r h a s a 'choice' as to w h i c h s o u r c e o f

i n f o r m a t i o n to e x p r e s s . A f t e r d e s c r i b i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f evidentiality m a r k i n g , w e will

d i s c u s s t h e p r o b l e m o f p r e f e r e n c e s in evidentiality c h o i c e s in a f f i r m a t i v e a n d in

i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s .

T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y is i n d e p e n d e n t o f m o o d s , m o d a l i t i e s o r a s p e c t (see A i k h e n v a l d

f o r t h c o m i n g - e , for a cross-linguistic p e r s p e c t i v e o n evidentiality as a g r a m m a t i c a l

c a t e g o r y in its o w n right). T h e d e c l a r a t i v e m o o d ( m a r k e d w i t h -ka), t h e frustrative m o o d

(-tha) a n d t h e i n t e n t i o n a l (-kasu) s h o w all t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y d i s t i n c t i o n s (see

§ § 1 6 . 2 - 3 ) . T h e a d m i r a t i v e m o d a l i t y h a s j u s t t w o evidentiality distinctions; i m p e r a t i v e

m o o d h a s o n e - r e p o r t e d ('do o n s o m e o n e else's order'); a n d c o n d i t i o n a l h a s n o n e at all,

w h i l e a p p r e h e n s i v e a n d p u r p o s i v e d i s t i n g u i s h visual a n d n o n - v i s u a l (see § 1 9 . 6 ) .

I n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s h a v e a r e d u c e d evidentiality s y s t e m : t h e r e is n o r e p o r t e d

s p e c i f i c a t i o n , a n d t h e t e n s e d i s t i n c t i o n s a n d t h e rules o f their u s e are different f r o m

a f f i r m a t i v e c l a u s e s . T h e evidentiality s y s t e m in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s p r o v i d e s a d d i t i o n a l

e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f a special status o f r e p o r t e d evidentiality in T a r i a n a . T h e u s e o f

t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k e r s is restricted t o m a i n c l a u s e s a n d o n e k i n d o f d e p e n d e n t

c l a u s e : t h a t m a r k e d w i t h the s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka (see §24.1). It is g e n e r a l l y n o t u s e d w i t h

a n y o t h e r d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e types.

T e n s e a n d evidentiality in a f f i r m a t i v e c l a u s e s are d e s c r i b e d in § 1 4 . 2 . T h e r e d u c e d

s y s t e m u s e d in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s is c o n s i d e r e d in § 1 4 . 3 . F u t u r e , w h i c h d o e s n o t h a v e

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification, is d i s c u s s e d in § 1 4 . 4 . § 1 4 . 5 is a s u m m a r y .

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 14.2 Tense-evidentiality in affirmative clauses 2 8 9

1 4 . 2 T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y in a f f i r m a t i v e c l a u s e s

T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n is o b l i g a t o r y in m o s t c l a u s e s . It c a n h o w e v e r b e

o m i t t e d u n d e r s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , for i n s t a n c e , if t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n h a s a l r e a d y b e e n

e s t a b l i s h e d a n d / o r is c l e a r f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . W e will first d i s c u s s t h e s e m a n t i c s o f t e n s e s

in T a r i a n a ( § 1 4 . 2 . 1 ) . T h e u s e o f visual, n o n - v i s u a l , 'generic' a n d 'specific' inferred a n d

r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l is d e s c r i b e d in § § 1 4 . 2 . 2 - 5 . In 14.2.6 w e d i s c u s s 'lexical

r e i n f o r c e m e n t ' o f e v i d e n t i a l s . P r e f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l are a n a l y s e d in § 1 4 . 2 . 7 , t o g e t h e r w i t h

their c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e s . § 1 4 . 2 . 8 d e s c r i b e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h

t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n c a n b e o m i t t e d a n d h o w s p e a k e r s differ in their

c o m p e t e n c e in e v i d e n t i a l s .

T A B L E 14.1 E V I D E N T I A L S A N D T E N S E I N A F F I R M A T I V E C L A U S E S I N T A R I A N A

P R E S E N T R E C E N T P A S T R E M O T E P A S T

V I S U A L - n a k a - k a - n a

N O N - V I S U A L - m h a - m a h k a - m h a n a

I N F E R R E D G E N E R I C - -sika - s i n a

I N F E R R E D S P E C I F I C - - n i h k a - n h i n a

R E P O R T E D -pida -pidaka -pidana

1 4 . 2 . 1 S e m a n t i c s of t e n s e s

I n m o s t l a n g u a g e s t e n s e relates to t h e s p e c i f i e d t i m e o f a n e v e n t . It c a n a l s o relate to t h e

t i m e o f a p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f t h e e v e n t , that is, a n e v e n t v i e w e d in t e r m s o f its e n d p o i n t s .

In T a r i a n a a n d t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , t h r e e t e n s e s - p r e s e n t , r e c e n t p a s t

a n d r e m o t e p a s t - refer to t h e t i m e w h e n t h e a c t i o n o r state started. W h e t h e r it is

finished o r n o t is irrelevant. P r e s e n t t e n s e is u s e d for t h e a c t i o n o r state w h i c h h a s j u s t

s t a r t e d a n d is o n g o i n g ; r e c e n t p a s t is u s e d for s o m e t h i n g w h i c h started f r o m a f e w

m i n u t e s t o a f e w d a y s a g o ; a n d r e m o t e p a s t is u s e d w h e n t h e a c t i o n o r state started a

l o n g t i m e a g o ( a n d m a y , o r m a y not, b e finished). T h e c l a u s e i t a w h y a a l i a - n a k a ( c a n o e

E X I S T - P R E S E N T . V I S U A L ) m e a n s 'there is a c a n o e ' , i t a w h y a a l i a - k a ( c a n o e EXIST-

R E C E N T . P A S T . V I S U A L ) m e a n s 'there h a s b e e n a c a n o e ' , o r 'the c a n o e h a s b e e n h e r e for a

little w h i l e ' ( f r o m f e w m i n u t e s to a c o u p l e o f d a y s a g o ) , a n d i t a w h y a a l i a - n a ( c a n o e

E X I S T - R E M O T E . P A S T . V I S U A L ) m e a n s 'there w a s a c a n o e (I s a w it, it is g o n e n o w ) ' o r 'there

is a c a n o e ( a n d it h a s b e e n h e r e for a l o n g w h i l e ; I c a n s e e it a n d s a w it before)'. F o r

s i m i l a r s e m a n t i c s o f t e n s e in T u c a n o s e e R a m i r e z ( 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 1 2 5 - 6 ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , in

1 4 . 6 t h e r e m o t e p a s t v i s u a l - n a refers to a state o f affairs w h i c h started a l o n g t i m e a g o

a n d is still r e l e v a n t .

1 4 . 6 n u h a - m i s i n i h i p e - k a d e - n a

I - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R l a n d - N E G - R E M . P . V I S

' M e t o o , I h a v e n e v e r h a d a n y l a n d ( a n d still h a v e n o n e ) . '

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 2 9 0 14 Tense and evidentiality

R e m o t e p a s t c a n a l s o b e u s e d to d e s c r i b e p e r m a n e n t states, a s in 14.7. H e r e t h e

colibri b i r d tells a b o u t h o w h e feels a n d h a s a l w a y s felt w h e n h e h a s to fly t o o m u c h

( u s i n g n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l ) .

1 4 . 7 t u k i - t u k i n u - a f a - p u - t h a - m ( h ) a n a m a : - k a r e

little-little 1s g - f l y - A U G - F R - R E M . P . N O N V I S N E G - b r e a t h

n u - a n u - y a - k a - m h a n a n u - a r a - k h e

1 s g - g o 1 s g - s t a y - D E C L - R E M . P . N O N V I S 1 s g - f l y - B E C A U S E

'I f l y a little, I feel o u t o f b r e a t h , b e c a u s e I fly.'

I n 14.8 t h e r e m o t e p a s t v i s u a l - e m p l o y e d for s t a t e m e n t s o f g e n e r a l l y k n o w n facts -

d e s c r i b e s t h e 'fact' t h a t all t h e p e o p l e a r e a n g r y ( f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a m o u s e ) .

1 4 . 8 h i - n a k u n a w i k i k e r u - p u - n a

D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S p e o p l e a n g r y - A U G - R E M . P . V I S

' P e o p l e h e r e a r e v e r y a n g r y ( a n d h a v e a l w a y s been).'

P r e s e n t c a n a l s o b e u s e d if t h e a c t i o n o r p r o c e s s h a s j u s t started a n d is g o i n g o n , as in

14.9, w h e r e t h e T a r i a n a a n c e s t o r s are c o m m e n t i n g o n their g r a n d f a t h e r d y i n g in front o f

t h e m .

14.9 w a - w h e - r i d i - f i a m i - k a - n a k a

l p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C 3 s g n f - d i e - D E C L - P R E S . V I S

' O u r g r a n d f a t h e r is dying.'

R e c e n t p a s t is u s e d in a s i m i l a r w a y : r e c e n t p a s t v i s u a l in 1 4 . 1 0 refers to a n a c t i o n

t h a t h a s started recently; it w a s s a i d b y o n e o f t h e B r i t o s a b o u t a h o u s e in t h e P e r i q u i t o s

v i l l a g e w h i c h w a s b e i n g e a t e n b y termites. In 1 4 . 1 1 , r e c e n t p a s t refers to a r e c e n t l y

c o m p l e t e d a c t i o n .

1 4 . 1 0 k a m a r a n a - n h a - k a

t e r m i t e s 3 p l - e a t - R E C . P . V I S

T e r m i t e s h a v e e a t e n (it) ( a n d are still eating).'

1 4 . 1 1 n u - p i t a - k a - s i t a

1 s g - b a t h e - R E C . P . V I S - P E R F

'I h a v e a l r e a d y bathed.'

W h e t h e r t h e a c t i o n h a s f i n i s h e d o r n o t is u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c o n t e x t . W e will

s e e i n § 1 4 . 2 . 2 that t h e r e m o t e p a s t v i s u a l is w i d e l y u s e d in a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e s

w h i c h d e s c r i b e e v e n t s w h i c h t o o k p l a c e l o n g a g o (also s e e T e x t 1). U n l i k e o t h e r

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specifications, inferred h a s n o p r e s e n t t e n s e (just like T u c a n o a n d o t h e r

E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s ) . T h i s restriction h a s to d o w i t h its s e m a n t i c s : inferred is u s e d if

t h e s t a t e m e n t is b a s e d o n c o n j e c t u r e a n d a s s u m p t i o n - w h i c h c a n b e a r r i v e d at in o n e o f

t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o w a y s . Firstly, t h r o u g h logical r e a s o n i n g o r g u e s s w o r k . 1 4 . 1 2 c o m e s

f r o m a s t o r y a b o u t a m a n w h o e n c o u n t e r e d a n evil spirit; after h a v i n g t a l k e d to t h e spirit,

t h e m a n a r r i v e d at a c o n c l u s i o n that t h e spirit w a s t a l k i n g to h i m a b o u t t h e m a n ' s o w n

s o n .

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 14.2 Tense-evidentiality in affirmative clauses 291

1 4 . 1 2 n u r i - n u k u d i - a - k a - s i k a d i h a n u - n a

l s g + s o n - T O P . N O N . A / s 3 s g n f - s a y - D E C L - R E C . P . I N F R h e l s g - O B J

' H e h a s s p o k e n to m e a b o u t m y son.'

1 4 . 1 3 is w h a t O l i v i a u s e d to s a y after feeling t h e c l o t h e s (to see if t h e y w e r e dry).

1 4 . 1 3 m a k a r a - s i k a

d r y - R E C . P . I N F R

' M u s t b e dry.'

S e c o n d l y , if t h e r e are s o m e u n e q u i v o c a l s i g n s l e a d i n g to a certain c o n c l u s i o n . 1 4 . 1 4

w a s p r o d u c e d after w e learnt a b o u t t h e u n t i m e l y d e a t h o f T i a g o C a r d o s o , a prefect o f

S a o G a b r i e l d a C a c h o e i r a , P i r a t a p u y a b y o r i g i n a n d d i s c u s s e d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f this

for his w i f e a n d s e v e n c h i l d r e n .

1 4 . 1 4 m a : t j i - s i k a

b a d - R E C . P . I N F R

T h i s m u s t b e bad.'

S p e c i f i c i n f e r r e d is a n alternative w i t h i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s . In 1 4 . 1 5 , t h e c h i l d r e n o f a

m a n w h o d i d n o t c o m e b a c k f r o m t h e j u n g l e w e n t to l o o k for h i m a n d f o u n d his g u n a n d

h i s f a e c e s . F o r t h e m , this w a s g o o d e n o u g h e v i d e n c e that s o m e b o d y h a d d o n e s o m e t h i n g

b a d t o h i m . T h e e v i d e n t i a l - n i h k a g o e s o n t o t h e first c o m p o n e n t o f t h e serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) , w h i l e t h e a n t e r i o r - n h i g o e s o n t o t h e last c o m p o n e n t .

1 4 . 1 5 w h a - n i r i - n u k u

1 p l + p a r e n t - M A S C - T O P . N O N . A / S

[ m a : t f i - p u - n i h k a n a - n i - n h i ]

b a d - A U G - R E C . P . V I S . S P E C . I N F R 3 p l - d o - A N T

T h e y h a v e i n d e e d d o n e s o m e t h i n g b a d to o u r father ( w e s e e t h e o b v i o u s

e v i d e n c e ) . '

If i n f e r e n c e w a s m a d e in t h e distant p a s t a b o u t e v e n t s f r o m t h e distant past, r e m o t e

p a s t is u s e d . T h u s , r e m o t e p a s t inferred is u s e d in traditional n a r r a t i v e s b a s e d o n t a n g i b l e

r e s u l t s ( s e e § 1 4 . 2 . 4 ) , a n d is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t o c o m m e n t o n stories t o l d in r e m o t e p a s t

w i t h o t h e r e v i d e n t i a l specifications. F o r i n s t a n c e , 1 4 . 1 6 w a s said a s a n a n s w e r to a

clarification q u e s t i o n - ' w h o s a i d this?' - a b o u t a n otter story (cast in r e m o t e p a s t

r e p o r t e d ) .

1 4 . 1 6 p u s a r u - n e - s i n a

o t t e r - F O C . A / S - R E M . P . I N F R

'It m u s t h a v e b e e n t h e otter.'

R e m o t e p a s t i n f e r r e d is a l s o u s e d in oral translations, for i n s t a n c e , f r o m t h e B i b l e in

t h e c h u r c h , o r f r o m o t h e r b o o k s , a n d in retelling r e a d stories.

I f it is i m p o r t a n t t o spell o u t that t h e e v e n t o r state is o v e r , a n a n t e r i o r clitic is a d d e d ,

a l i a - n h i - m h a n a (exist-ANTERiOR-REMOTE.PAST.NON-vlsUAL) '(it) w a s t h e r e (previously)',

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 2 9 2 14 Tense and evidentiality

o r if it is i m p o r t a n t that t h e e v e n t o r state is o n g o i n g , a n ' o n g o i n g ' clitic is a d d e d , e.g.

a l i a - n a - d a k a ( e x i s t - R E M O T E . P A S T . v i s u A L - O N G O l N G ) 'it is still h e r e ( a n d h a s b e e n h e r e

for a l o n g w h i l e ) ' ; s e e § 1 5 . 1 . 5 .

In s u m m a r y , t h e t e n s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f visual, n o n - v i s u a l a n d inferred evidentiality

i n T a r i a n a c o m b i n e r e f e r e n c e to t h e t i m e o f t h e a c t i o n a n d to t h e t i m e w h e n t h e

i n f o r m a t i o n w a s a c q u i r e d . T h e r e p o r t e d evidential differs f r o m o t h e r e v i d e n t i a l s in that

t e n s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n refers e x c l u s i v e l y to t h e t i m e o f t h e report. T h e t i m e o f t h e actual

h a p p e n i n g is irrelevant. T h i s is illustrated w i t h 1 4 . 1 7 - 1 9 . 1 4 . 1 7 w a s said i m m e d i a t e l y

after w e h e a r d t h e r a d i o m e s s a g e a b o u t T i a g o ' s d e a t h ( h e actually d i e d a f e w d a y s b e f o r e

that).

1 4 . 1 7 T i a g o d i - n a m i - p i d a

T i a g o 3 s g n f - d i e - P R E S . R E P

T i a g o h a s died.'

1 4 . 1 8 w a s s a i d b y a s p e a k e r w h o h a d learnt t h e n e w s a f e w d a y s b e f o r e t h e u t t e r a n c e .

1 4 . 1 8 T i a g o d i - n a m i - p i d a k a

T i a g o 3 s g n f - d i e - R E C . P . R E P

' T i a g o h a s died.'

Finally, 1 4 . 1 9 w a s said b y a s p e a k e r w h o learnt a b o u t it a w e e k o r so b e f o r e t h e t i m e

o f t h e u t t e r a n c e .

1 4 . 1 9 d i - n a m i - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - d i e - R E M . P . R E P

' H e died.'

T 1 . 2 6 illustrates a s i m i l a r point. T h e i n f o r m a t i o n h e r e is s e c o n d h a n d ; a n d s i n c e the

s p e a k e r learnt this a l o n g t i m e a g o , h e u s e d r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d ( t h o u g h h e o v e r t l y said

t h a t t h e s e facts are p r o b a b l y true n o w j u s t as t h e y m u s t h a v e b e e n true before). T 1 . 2 7 is

direct s p e e c h o f a Y a n o m a m i m a n . It is cast in p r e s e n t visual a s is often t h e c a s e w i t h

s t a t e m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g 'general truth' (see §14.2.2). T h e c o m m e n t b y L e o n a r d o B r i t o

('they s a i d then') is cast in r e m o t e p a s t v i s u a l (as is t h e rest o f this story), s i n c e t h e

Y a n o m a m i m a n told this to t h e s p e a k e r h i m s e l f a n d t h u s L e o n a r d o s a w t h e m telling h i m

t h e story.

P r e s e n t r e p o r t e d is u s e d a s a q u o t a t i v e - w h e n s o m e t h i n g s o m e o n e j u s t said is

r e p e a t e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , d u r i n g d i c t i o n a r y w o r k , J o s e L u i z w o u l d often a s k C a n d i d o

w h e t h e r this o r that w o r d 'exists' in t h e l a n g u a g e , a n d t h e n r e p e a t his c o n f i r m a t i o n as

a l i a - p i d a (EXIST-PRES.REP) 'it exists ( h e says)'. A c l a u s e w i t h a r e p o r t e d evidential c a n

a c q u i r e a d o u b l e t e n s e specification. A s w a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e r e are n o evidentiality

d i s t i n c t i o n s in future ( n o t e that intentional m o o d c a n o c c u r w i t h all t h e t e n s e a n d

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specifications). If a future a c t i o n h a s to b e r e p o r t e d to t h e s p e a k e r , future is

m a r k e d o n t h e v e r b w i t h -karu ' p u r p o s i v e visual', a n d t h e t i m e o f r e p o r t is e x p r e s s e d

t h r o u g h t h e t e n s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f -pida. ( T h e r e a r e n o e x a m p l e s o f -hyu ' p u r p o s i v e

n o n - v i s u a l ' w i t h r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l s e e § 1 6 . 7 ) . In 14.20, the s p e a k e r h a s j u s t a c q u i r e d

t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a future action, a n d -pida 'present reported' is u s e d .

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 1 4 . 2 T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l ity in affirmative c l a u s e s 2 9 3

1 4 . 2 0 d i - a - k a r u - p i d a

3 s g n f - g o - P U R P . V I S - P R E S . R E P

' H e w i l l c o m e reportedly.' (I h a v e j u s t a c q u i r e d this i n f o r m a t i o n . )

I n 1 4 . 2 1 , t h e s p e a k e r h a s learnt t h e n e w s a f e w d a y s p r i o r t o t h e u t t e r a n c e , a n d

c o n s e q u e n t l y -pidaka 'recent p a s t reported' is u s e d . In 1 4 . 2 2 , t h e n e w s w a s learnt s o m e

t i m e a g o , a n d -pidana ' r e m o t e p a s t reported' o c c u r s .

1 4 . 2 1 d i - a - k a m - p i d a k a

3 s g n f - g o - P U R P . V I S - R E C P . R E P

' H e will c o m e reportedly.' (I h a v e a c q u i r e d this i n f o r m a t i o n recently.)

1 4 . 2 2 d i - a - k a r u - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o - P U R P . V I S - R E M . P . R E P

' H e will c o m e reportedly.' (I h a v e a c q u i r e d this i n f o r m a t i o n a l o n g t i m e a g o . )

T h e s e f o r m s c a n b e n e g a t e d w i t h t h e p r e f i x m a - a n d t h e suffix -kade (see § 1 7 . 2 ) , e.g.

m a - n u - k a d e - k a r u - p i d a n a ( N E G - c o m e - P U R P . v i s - N E G - R E M . P . R E P ) 'he w a s said n o t to b e

g o i n g t o c o m e ' . I n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y e m p l o y t h e n o m i n a l future -pena in

c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f this sort, w i t h a r e p o r t e d evidential, to d e s c r i b e a r e p o r t a b o u t a future

e v e n t . E x a m p l e 1 4 . 2 3 , w i t h k a m - p e n a ( P U R P O S I V E . V I S U A L - N O M . F U T ) , c o m e s f r o m a

story t o l d b y B a t i s t a Brito. H e r e , t h e k i n g o f t h e a n i m a l s , the lion, is telling the a n i m a l s

t h e n e w s h e a c q u i r e d a s h o r t t i m e a g o .

1 4 . 2 3 h a - e h k w a p i di-sisa

D E M : I N A N - C L : W O R L D 3 s g n f - e n d

d i - a - k a r u - p e n a - p i d a k a w a - n a

3 s g n f - g o - P U R P . V I S - N O M . F U T - R E C P . R E P l p l - O B J

' T h e w o r l d w i l l e n d o n u s (I h a v e b e e n told).'

T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f t h e s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e o f v i s u a l - b a s e d

a n d r e p o r t e d - b a s e d e v i d e n t i a l s u b s y s t e m s in T a r i a n a . T h e r e is a d d i t i o n a l d i a c h r o n i c

e v i d e n c e for t h e i r s e p a r a t e d e v e l o p m e n t : t h e r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l is likely to b e inherited

f r o m P r o t o - A r a w a k , w h i l e o t h e r e v i d e n t i a l s e m e r g e d a s t h e result o f areal diffusion f r o m

T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s (cf. § 1 4 . 4 ) .

T a b l e 1 4 . 2 s u m m a r i s e s t h e s e m a n t i c s o f e v i d e n t i a l s in T a r i a n a . T h e m a i n m e a n i n g is

g i v e n u n d e r 1 in e a c h r o w . T h e s e m a n t i c s o f e a c h e v i d e n t i a l is d i s c u s s e d in s o m e detail

u n d e r § 1 4 . 2 . 2 - 6 .

1 4 . 2 . 2 Visual e v i d e n t i a l s

V i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s a r e u s e d ( A ) w h e n a s p e a k e r h a s s e e n t h e e v e n t o r a state o r is l o o k i n g

at it n o w ; ( B ) t o refer to e v e n t s that c a n b e easily o b s e r v e d ; ( C ) to refer to a n e v e n t o r a

state o b v i o u s t o t h e s p e a k e r for w h i c h h e o r s h e t a k e s full responsibility; a n d ( D ) to

d e s c r i b e g e n e r a l l y k n o w n ( a n d o b s e r v a b l e ) facts.

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 2 9 4 14 Tense and evidentiality

T A B L E 14.2 T H E S E M A N T I C S O F E V I D E N T I A L S : A S U M M A R Y

E V I D E N T I A L U S E

1. Information obtained through seeing

2. Information o n events w h i c h can b e easily observed

V I S U A L
3. T o refer to events for w h i c h s p e a k e r t a k e s full responsibility
(§14.2.2)
4. Generally k n o w n (and observable) facts; the preferred evidential in s t o r i e s relating

personal experience

1. T o report events or states w h i c h the speaker has heard, smelt, tasted o r felt b u t not

s e e n ; h e a r i n g , n o t s e e i n g , is i m p o r t a n t ( e . g . p h o n e , o r t h e B a d W o l f s voice)

2. Events or states never seen (but perceived in s o m e other ways), also in negative
N O N - V I S U A L
c l a u s e s ('I d i d n o t see')
' S E N S O R Y '
3. Accidental uncontrollable actions for w h i c h n o responsibility is t a k e n (hence use
(§14.2.3)
with verbs o f obligation, feeling, illnesses, physical processes), as well as with verbs

like 'be lost'; a c t i o n s in d r e a m s , d e s c r i p t i o n s o f u n c o n t r o l l a b l e actions of evil spirits

w h o cannot b e seen but can b e felt a n d heard

I N F E R R E D 1. Information obtained b y reasoning or c o m m o n sense through observing evidence of

' G E N E R I C an event or a state without directly experiencing it ( n o p r e s e n t tense)

(§14.2.4) 2. Preferred evidential in s o m e traditional stories

I N F E R R E D
Information obtained through observing direct evidence of an event or a state (no
' S P E C I F I C
present tense)
(§14.2.4)

1. Information obtained through repetition of information related by s o m e o n e else

R E P O R T E D ( s e c o n d h a n d a n d thirdhand)

(§14.2.5) 2. A w a y of'distancing' oneself from the responsibility

3. Preferred evidential in story-telling

A . E V E N T S O R S T A T E S S E E N B Y T H E S P E A K E R . In 1 4 . 2 4 , t h e v i s u a l p r e s e n t - n a k a is u s e d

w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o a s p e e c h act h a p p e n i n g h e r e a n d n o w in front o f t h e s p e a k e r .

1 4 . 2 4 w a h a i k a s u - n u k u h i - n u k u a l i a - n a k a

w e n o w - T O P . N O N . A / S D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S E X I S T - P R E S . V I S

' H e r e w e a r e right n o w (talking).'

T h e u s e o f v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l o f t e n i n v o l v e s p o i n t i n g at t h i n g s . C a p t i o n s for

p h o t o g r a p h s - w h i c h w e r e p r o v i d e d b y t h e n a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f T a r i a n a a n d t h e n u s e d a s

illustrative m a t e r i a l d u r i n g t h e 2 0 0 0 literacy c o u r s e - c o n t a i n e d v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s . A

p i c t u r e o f M e l b o u r n e w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y the c a p t i o n duha d u - h p a n i - y a k a l e - n a k a ( s h e

3 s g f - w o r k - C L : v i L L A G E - P R E S . V i s ) '(this is) t h e city w h e r e s h e w o r k s ' .

E x a m p l e s 1 4 . 2 5 - 7 illustrate a n o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n visual a n d n o n - v i s u a l e x p e r i e n c e .

A n a s t y b e e t l e w h o m a n a g e d to c a t c h a m a n c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d w h a t a f u n n y a n i m a l h e

is; h e s a y s t h a t h e h a s s e e n e v e r y t h i n g in t h e w o r l d ( u s i n g p a s t t e n s e v i s u a l t o g e t h e r w i t h

frustrative, t o i n d i c a t e that h e h a d s e e n it all in v a i n , s i n c e h e c a n n o t m a k e s e n s e o f t h e

s t r a n g e b e i n g in front o f h i m - 14.25), b u t h e h a s n o t s e e n a n y o n e w h o w o u l d h a v e a

h o r n in t h e m i d d l e o f h i s belly (referring to t h e m a n ' s p e n i s , a n d u s i n g n o n - v i s u a l r e c e n t

p a s t - s i n c e h e hasn't s e e n it b e f o r e - 14.26).

1 4 . 2 5 h a - e h k w a p i - n u k u n u - k a - t h a - n a

D E M : I N A N - w o r l d - T O P . N O N . A / S 1s g - s e e - F R - R E M . P . V I S

n u - y a - k a n u h u a

l s g - s t a y - S U B I

'I h a d s e e n e v e r y t h i n g (in vain).'

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 14.2 Tense-evidentiality in affirmative clauses 2 9 5

1 4 . 2 6 k a y u d i - w a p a m u f i a - s e d i - s a w i - p u

s o 3 s g n f - b e l l y m i d d l e - L O C 3 s g n f - h o r n - A U G

d i - d e - k a m a - k a - k a d e - m h a n u - y a - k a n u h u a

3 s g n f - h a v e - S U B N E G - s e e - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S l s g - s t a y - S U B I

'I h a v e n e v e r s e e n o n e h a v i n g a h o r n in t h e m i d d l e o f his belly.'

V i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s c a n b e u s e d w i t h t h e a d m i r a t i v e m o o d (if t h e actual s e e i n g is

i m p l i e d ) , a s in 1 9 . 1 8 (in § 1 9 . 6 ) .

B . E V E N T S T H A T C A N BE E A S I L Y O B S E R V E D . T h e v i s u a l p r e s e n t e v i d e n t i a l c a n b e u s e d in

stories a b o u t e v e n t s w h i c h c a n b e e a s i l y o b s e r v e d . 1 4 . 2 7 c o m e s f r o m t h e story a b o u t t h e

T a r i a n a year. T h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is u s e d s i n c e t h e ' d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g ' o n w h a t m o n t h it

a c t u a l l y is is b a s e d o n v i s u a l e v i d e n c e - s i n c e m o n t h s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h certain

o b s e r v a b l e w e a t h e r p h e n o m e n a o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f certain c o n s t e l l a t i o n s (see

A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 a for t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e traditional T a r i a n a c a l e n d a r ) .

1 4 . 2 7 d i h a d i - k e n a - n a k a y e d i - k e n a - k a

h e 3 s g n f - s t a r t - P R E S . V I S a r m a d i l l o 3 s g n f - s t a r t - S U B

d i - m u s a - k a di-ni-ta n a h a - n u k u

3 s g n f - f l o o d - S U B 3 s g n f - d o - R E P t h e y - T O P . N O N . A / S

n a : - n a k a k a s i t e r u n a : - n a k a

3 p l + s a y - P R E S . V I S e d i b l e . a n t s 3 p l + s a y - P R E S . V I S

' H e r e it starts. W h e n t h e m o n t h o f " a r m a d i l l o " starts, f l o o d i n g b e g i n s , (that is

w h a t ) t h e y s a y a b o u t t h e s e ( e v e n t s ) : e d i b l e a n t s are c o m i n g . '

T h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h v a r i o u s a s p e c t specifications. T h e p r e s c r i b e d -

h a b i t u a l a s p e c t m a r k e r - h y u n a o c c u r s w i t h v i s u a l evidential w h e n u s e d to d e s c r i b e w h a t

is b e i n g d o n e 'here a n d n o w ' : p a - s a p e - h y u n a - n a k a (iMP-speak-HABiT-PRES.vis) 'it i s said'

is t h e w a y to c h a r a c t e r i s e u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t a b l e e x p r e s s i o n s (see § 1 5 . 1 . 2 ) .

C . E V E N T O R A S T A T E O B V I O U S T O T H E S P E A K E R F O R W H I C H H E O R S H E T A K E S F U L L

R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y . V i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is a l s o u s e d w h e n a state, o r a n activity, is a n o b v i o u s

fact ( w h i c h m a y h a v e r e l e v a n c e b e y o n d t h e p r e s e n t ) , a s in 1 4 . 2 8 ( f r o m a story a b o u t t h e

T a r i a n a d e n o m i n a t i o n s a n d identity).

1 4 . 2 8 w a h a i r i - n e - n a k a w a h a w e p i t a n a

w e b l o o d - P L - P R E S . V I S w e l p l + n a m e

e n u y a n a - p e r i a l i a - n a k a

t h u n d e r c h i l d - C O L L E X I S T - P R E S . V I S

' W e are Irine (lit. c h i l d r e n o f t h e (thunder's) b l o o d ) , o u r n a m e is c h i l d r e n o f

t h u n d e r . '

D . T O D E S C R I B E G E N E R A L L Y K N O W N ( A N D O B S E R V A B L E ) F A C T S . T h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is

u s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o w e l l - k n o w n facts. 1 4 . 2 9 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a m a n w h o d i d

n o t w a n t t o o b s e r v e a t a b o o n o t to h u n t o n G o o d F r i d a y . T h e evil spirit r e m i n d s h i m o f

this, s a y i n g 1 4 . 2 9 .

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 2 9 6 14 Tense and evidentiality

1 4 . 2 9 i k a s u y a p h i n i - n u k u itjiri m a - i n u - k a d e - n a k a

t o d a y t h i n g ; l i k e - T O P . N O N . A / S g a m e N E G - k i l l - N E G - P R E S . V I S

n e m h a n i

3 p l + g o . r o u n d

' O n a d a y like t o d a y n o o n e g o e s a r o u n d hunting.'

In d a n g e r o u s situations, p e o p l e often try to c o n v i n c e t h e m s e l v e s that t h e y h a v e

e n o u g h c o u r a g e b y s a y i n g to t h e m s e l v e s : n u h a - m i s i n i tfari-naka ( I - T O O : A C T . C O N T R m a n -

P R E S . V I S ) 'I a m a l s o a m a n ' ; a s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is 14.8. Similarly, a v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is

u s e d in g e n e r i c s t a t e m e n t s : 'this is h o w t h i n g s are d o n e ' , a s s h o w n in 6.14.

T h e u s e o f a v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l w i t h a v e r b referring to a s p e e c h act o r a m e n t a l state

i m p l i e s a l m o s t a m a g i c ' o m n i s c i e n c e ' , a s in 1 4 . 3 0 , w h e r e the evil spirit u s e s t h e v i s u a l

e v i d e n t i a l w h e n a c c u s i n g t h e m a n o f telling h i m a lie: this u s a g e i m p l i e s s o m e t h i n g like

'I c a n s e e all t h e w a y t h r o u g h y o u ' (see further d i s c u s s i o n in §14.2.7).

1 4 . 3 0 k a y k a p i - a p h i a p i - m a n e - k a - n a k a p h i a n u - n a

b e . i n . v a i n 2 s g - s a y y o u 2 s g - l i e - D E C L - P R E S . V I S y o u l s g - O B J

'It i s i n v a i n that y o u are lying to m e . '

V i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is p r e f e r r e d in a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e s a n d n a r r a t i v e s a b o u t

w h a t p e o p l e h a v e s e e n for t h e m s e l v e s (cf. T e x t 1).

1 4 . 2 . 3 N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s are u s e d ( A ) t o r e p o r t e v e n t s o r states w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r h a s

h e a r d , s m e l t , t a s t e d o r felt b u t n o t s e e n (or p e r c e i v e d in s o m e o t h e r w a y s ) , o r ( B ) for

a c c i d e n t a l u n c o n t r o l l a b l e a c t i o n s for w h i c h n o responsibility is t a k e n . T h e y are also u s e d

w i t h ( C ) v e r b s o f m e n t a l activities, e m o t i o n , c o g n i t i o n a n d obligation, a n d ( D ) to refer

to u n c o n t r o l l a b l e a c t i o n s o f evil spirits w h o c a n n o t b e s e e n b u t c a n b e felt a n d h e a r d .

A . R E P O R T I N G E V E N T S O R S T A T E S H E A R D , S M E L T , T A S T E D O R F E L T B U T N O T S E E N . N o n -

v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s a r e u s e d to r e p o r t a n e v e n t o r a state n o t s e e n b u t p e r c e i v e d b y t h e

s p e a k e r i n o t h e r w a y s ( h e a r d o r s m e l t ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , in 14.31 t h e r e c e n t p a s t n o n - v i s u a l

e v i d e n t i a l is u s e d if w e k n e w that t h e d o g stole t h e fish b y t h e n o i s e o f the d o g b a r k i n g .

1 4 . 3 1 t j i n u k u p h e d i - n i t u - m a h k a

d o g fish 3 s g n f - s t e a l - R E C . P . N O N V I S

' T h e d o g stole t h e fish.'

In 1 4 . 3 2 , f r o m t h e traditional story a b o u t t h e F l o o d , t h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is u s e d

t o refer to a b u n d l e o f turi (a t y p e o f w o o d u s e d for lighting fires at n i g h t ) - w h i c h t h e

s o n d i d n o t s e e - a n d t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l refers to t h e s n a k e - w h i c h h e d i d s e e -

i n s t e a d o f t h e turi. A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is 1 4 . 2 6 .

1 4 . 3 2 p a i m e s a p e - n a k i m a - k e t a - d e - m a h k a n u h a

D a d : V O C t u r i - C L : B U N D L E N E G - m e e t - N E G - R E C . P . N O N V I S I

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 14.2 Tense-evidentiality in affirmative clauses 2 9 7

d i - a - p i d a n a m a w a r i - m i a - k a d i - s w a

3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P s n a k e - O N L Y - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - s t a y

' " D a d , I d i d n o t find t h e b u n d l e o f turi, t h e r e is o n l y a s n a k e there," h e (the s o n o f

t h e C r e a t o r ) said.'

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s refer to e v e n t s w h i c h are typically n o t s e e n - s u c h as the

p h o n e r i n g i n g , o r r e p o r t i n g w h a t o n e h e a r d o n t h e p h o n e (see §14.2.7).

1 4 . 3 3 kali-si p h e m a - r i p i m a - m a h k a

t e l l - N O M I M P + h e a r - R E L s o u n d - R E C . P . N O N V I S

T h e p h o n e (lit. ' s p e e c h - h e a r e r ' ) h a s rung.'

B . D E S C R I B I N G A C C I D E N T A L U N C O N T R O L L A B L E A C T I O N S F O R W H I C H N O R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y

IS T A K E N . N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s are e m p l o y e d to refer to s o m e t h i n g that h a p p e n s

a c c i d e n t a l l y ( a n d for w h i c h n o r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is t a k e n b y t h e s p e a k e r ) . T h e w a y o f s a y i n g

'I c u t m y finger' is 1 4 . 3 4 - i m p l y i n g that t h e p e r s o n d i d n o t see it h a p p e n ( a n d t h e r e f o r e

c o u l d n o t h e l p it).

1 4 . 3 4 n u - k a p i n u - p i s a - m a h k a

1 s g - h a n d 1 s g - c u t - R E C . P . N O N V I S

'I c u t m y finger.'

1 4 . 3 5 c o m e s from a story w h e r e t h e u n c l e let t h e traira fish eat t h e s o n o f t h e C r e a t o r

( h e d i d n o t s e e it h a p p e n : h e w a s n o t l o o k i n g w h i l e this h a p p e n e d ; h o w e v e r , h e w a s

a w a r e o f w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g ) . T h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is u s e d to a n s w e r a q u e s t i o n

cast in t h e v i s u a l i n t e r r o g a t i v e ( 1 4 . 8 2 ) t o d o w n p l a y t h e responsibility o f the culprit w h o

' o v e r l o o k e d ' w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d .

1 4 . 3 5 k a : r u - k a n u h a n u - a - m a h k a n u - h n a - n i k i

f e a r - S U B I l s g - g e t - R E C . P . N O N V I S l s g - e a t - C O M P L

' B e i n g s c a r e d , I let ( h i m ) eat ( y o u r son).'

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s are a l s o u s e d to refer to u n c o n t r o l l a b l e p h y s i c a l states, s u c h a s

'sleep', 'get d r u n k ' - that o n e c a n n o t 'see' o n e s e l f get into, as in 1 2 . 2 4 a n d 1 2 . 2 5 . T h i s is

a l s o s h o w n in 1 4 . 3 6 , a n i n s t r u c t i o n o n w h a t to d o to b e s u c c e s s f u l in h u n t i n g . T h e

a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ( h e a r - t h r o w : listen).

1 4 . 3 6 m e m a - d e - h y u n a - m h a p a - y e k a

N E G + s l e e p - N E G - H A B I T - P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - b e . a b l e

[ p h e m a - h y u n a p a - p e ]

I M P + h e a r - H A B I T I M P - t h r o w

' O n e c a n n o t s l e e p , o n e listens.'

P e o p l e ' s d r e a m s a r e cast in n o n - v i s u a l evidential. A n interesting e x a m p l e o f s u c h

u s a g e o f e v i d e n t i a l s c o m e s f r o m a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a d r e a m w h i c h d i d n o t c o m e true; the

e v i d e n t i a l u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d r e a m is r e m o t e p a s t n o n - v i s u a l .

G r a c i l i a n o d r e a m t a b o u t h o w h e g o t a seat in a military p l a n e to g o b a c k to Iauarete

( w h i c h , in a c t u a l fact, h e didn't).

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 2 9 8 14 Tense and evidentiality

1 4 . 3 7 d i h a d e p i t a n u m a - k a t a p u r i s a - m h a n a

A R T n i g h t + A D V 1s g + s l e e p - S U B d r e a m - R E M . P . N O N V I S

n e s e - n u k u n u h u a n u - s a - d o

t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S I l s g - s p o u s e - F E M

n u - e n i p e - t u p e w a - k a - m h a n a

l s g - c h i l d r e n - D I M : P L l p l - a r r i v e - R E M . P . N O N V I S

k a r a - k a - w h y a - p u n a - s e t a p u r i - s e - n u k u

R E L + f l y - T H - C L : C A N O E - C L : S T R E T C H - L O C d r e a m - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h i s n i g h t I h a v i n g g o n e to s l e e p h a d a d r e a m . T h a t w e a r r i v e d at t h e airport in t h e

d r e a m . '

In c o n t r a s t , d r e a m s w h i c h d o c o m e true - s u c h a s s h a m a n i c v i s i o n s w h i c h are

b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e m o s t reliable s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n o f all - are told in v i s u a l

e v i d e n t i a l , a s in t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e w h i c h relates a d r e a m o f a s h a m a n w h o ' k n o w s it

all' w i t h h i s p o w e r . In this c a s e , v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is u s e d to d e s c r i b e t h e a c t i o n s o f a n

evil spirit w h i c h c a n n o t b e 'seen' a s d r e a m t o f b y a n o l d s h a m a n (see D ) .

1 4 . 3 8 p a i t a n a w i k i d i - n a - n a k a dhita-niki d i h a

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M p e r s o n 3 s g n f - O B J - P R E S . V I S 3 s g n f + t a k e - C O M P L h e

' O n e m a n , t h e y (evil spirits) are t a k i n g h i m ( d r e a m t t h e s h a m a n ) . '

M o s t o f t h e e x a m p l e s d i s c u s s e d s o far i n v o l v e first p e r s o n subject. W e will s e e in

§ 1 4 . 2 . 7 h o w t h e c h o i c e o f e v i d e n t i a l in t a l k i n g a b o u t p h y s i c a l states d e p e n d s o n t h e

p e r s o n o f t h e subject.

C . V E R B S O F M E N T A L A C T I V I T I E S , E M O T I O N , C O G N I T I O N A N D O B L I G A T I O N . N o n - v i s u a l

e v i d e n t i a l s a r e u s e d to d e s c r i b e m e n t a l activities, feelings, o b l i g a t i o n a n d c o g n i t i o n , e.g.

h a m a 'be f e d u p , tired', - m h e t a 'feel, think', - r e n a 'feel (physically)', -tafieta 'fast' (6.13),

o r -yeka 'be a b l e to'.

1 4 . 3 9 a d a k i d i - n u - k a h a p e - p u - m a h k a

f e v e r 3 s g n f - g o - S U B c o l d - A U G - R E C . P . N O N V I S

d i - p u m i - s e s a k a m u - m a h k a

3 s g n f - a f t e r - L O C w a r m - R E C . P . N O N V I S

' W h e n t h e f e v e r c a m e ( u p o n m e ) , it w a s v e r y cold, t h e n w a r m (i.e. I w a s c o l d , t h e n

w a r m ) . '

1 4 . 4 0 m a t j i - p u - m h a n u - r e n a

b a d - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S 1 sg-feel

'I f e e l p h y s i c a l l y sick.'

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s are p r e f e r r e d w i t h v e r b s o f liking a n d w a n t i n g ; also s e e 1 2 . 6 5 ,

for i n u n a 'be u n w i l l i n g ' .

1 4 . 4 1 w a h a n a - n a h a n i p a - m a h k a n h e s i r i

w e 3 p l - O B J b i g + C L : L A R G E - R E C . P . N O N V I S like

' W e l i k e d t h e m (the t e a c h e r s ) v e r y m u c h indeed.'

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 14.2 Tense-evidentiality in affirmative clauses 2 9 9

1 4 . 4 2 i-nu-r i n u - n a - p u - m a h k a

2 p l - c o m e - R E L 1 s g - w a n t - A U G - R E C . P . N O N V I S

'I w a n t e d y o u to c o m e . '

W h e n a n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is u s e d w i t h t h e v e r b -yami 'faint, die', t h e m e a n i n g is

'faint', a s in 1 4 . 4 3 . W h e n this v e r b m e a n s 'die' it is n e v e r u s e d w i t h first p e r s o n ( o t h e r

v e r b s o f d y i n g a r e e m p l o y e d instead: - h a l e 'disappear', o r -pa 'rot'). T h a t is, e v i d e n t i a l s

h e l p d i s t i n g u i s h i n g different m e a n i n g s o f a p o l y s e m o u s v e r b .

1 4 . 4 3 n u h a p a t h i n a - m h a m a : tfi-wani

I s u d d e n l y - P R E S . N O N V I S b a d - C L : N A T . P H E N

n u - y a m i - m h a n u - a

1 s g - d i e - P R E S . N O N V I S 1 s g - g o

'I s u d d e n l y feel sick, I a m fainting.'

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s are p r e f e r r e d w i t h t h e v e r b o f o b l i g a t i o n ira (as in 12.63), a n d

w i t h v e r b s o f c a l l i n g o r n a m i n g - s e e 1 4 . 4 4 .

1 4 . 4 4 n u - e r i n a : - m h a n a - s a p e - m h a w a - n a

l s g - b r o t h e r 3 p l + s a y - P R E S . N O N V I S 3 p l - s a y - P R E S . N O N V I S l p l - O B J

' ( T h o s e w h o a p p e a r e d after u s ) call u s y o u n g e r brothers.'

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s c a n b e u s e d w i t h a d m i r a t i v e ( w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e v e r b o f

s e e i n g a s a p a r t o f its m a r k i n g ) if t h e a c t i o n h a s n o t b e e n seen, a s in 1 9 . 1 9 .

O n e w o u l d n o t e x p e c t n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s to b e e m p l o y e d w i t h t h e v e r b 'see'.

I n d e e d , this o n l y h a p p e n s w h e n t h e v e r b 'see' a p p e a r s in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h

v e r b s o f feeling:

1 4 . 4 5 w a - n a k a s i t a n a n a - k a - m h a

l p l - O B J b e . e n v i o u s 3 p l - s e e - P R E S . N O N V I S

' T h e y h a t e us.'

D . T A L K I N G A B O U T U N C O N T R O L L A B L E A C T I O N S O F E V I L S P I R I T S W H O C A N N O T B E S E E N

B U T C A N B E FELT A N D HEARD. N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s are p r e f e r r e d to d e s c r i b e a c t i o n s o f

evil spirits w h i c h o n e c a n n o t s e e w i t h t h e n a k e d e y e . In 14.46, t h e m a n is telling his

c h i l d r e n t h a t h e is g o i n g t o die ('disappear') b e c a u s e t h e devil d e v o u r e d h i m .

1 4 . 4 6 n u - n a ine d i - n h a - m a h k a - n i k i

1 s g - O B J evil.spirit 3 s g n f - e a t - R E C . P . N O N V I S - C O M P L

' T h e d e v i l h a s e a t e n m e up.'

1 4 . 2 . 4 Inferred e v i d e n t i a l s

T h e i n n o v a t i v e T a r i a n a l a n g u a g e h a s t w o inferred evidentials: 'generic' a n d 'specific'.

T h e 'generic' i n f e r r e d is u s e d to d e s c r i b e a n e v e n t o r a state w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r d i d n o t

o b s e r v e , b u t a b o u t w h i c h t h e y h a v e e n o u g h g e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e o r c o m m o n s e n s e to

d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s . T h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n n o n - v i s u a l a n d g e n e r i c inferred is s h o w n in

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 3 0 0 14 Tense and evidentially

T 3 . 3 3 , f r o m t h e story a b o u t a w o m a n w h o h a d m a r r i e d a n evil spirit. T h e c h i l d r e n f r o m

h e r first m a r r i a g e d e c i d e d to kill h i m b y letting h i m d r i n k p o i s o n o u s m a n i o c b r o t h . H e

realises t h a t s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g - t h e b r o t h d o e s n o t s m e l l right ( h e c o m m e n t s u p o n this

u s i n g a n o n - v i s u a l evidential), a n d c o n c l u d e s that it h a s n o t b e e n p r o p e r l y c o o k e d (this

is m a r k e d w i t h a n inferred evidential). S h e a n s w e r s u s i n g t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l - h e

trusts her, d r i n k s t h e b r o t h a n d dies. W h e n t h e w o m a n realised that the c h i l d r e n killed

h e r h u s b a n d , s h e s a y s T 3 . 3 6 . T h i s is a n i n f e r e n c e - if t h e c h i l d r e n did s u c h a n evil thing,

t h e y a r e evil. W h e n T i a g o , a n i m p o r t a n t i n d i g e n o u s politician, died, t h e g e n e r a l r e a c t i o n

w a s 1 4 . 1 4 . T h i s s t a t e m e n t w a s b a s e d o n c o m m o n s e n s e r e a s o n i n g .

T h e g e n e r i c inferred is e m p l o y e d in culturally i m p o r t a n t stories, s u c h as t h e travels o f

t h e T a r i a n a s ' a n c e s t o r s ( w h o are s u p p o s e d to h a v e left 'signs', s u c h as s t o n e s a n d c a v e s ,

b e h i n d t h e m ) . L e s s i m p o r t a n t stories ( s u c h a s a n i m a l tales; or stories like T e x t 3) are

told in r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d (see § 1 4 . 2 . 5 ) . 1 4 . 4 7 is t h e b e g i n n i n g o f o n e o f t h e v e r s i o n s

o f t h e o r i g i n m y t h t o l d b y C a n d i d o u s i n g r e m o t e p a s t inferred.

1 4 . 4 7 w a l i k a s u - n u k u h i k u - s i n a d i - k e n a

b e g i n n i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S a p p e a r - R E M . P . I N F R 3sgnf-start

h i Y a p i r i k u r i w a l i k a s u - n a k u n a w i k i - n a k u

D E M - . A N I M G o d b e g i n n i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S p e o p l e - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - n a l e t a - t h a - s i n a

3 s g n f - d i s a p p e a r + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - F R - R E M . P . I N F R

n a w i k i s e d e - s i n a

p e o p l e N E G . E X I S T - R E M . P . I N F R

'In t h e b e g i n n i n g this w a s h o w it started. T h e (traditional) g o d d e s t r o y e d t h e

p e o p l e at t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e w e r e n o p e o p l e . '

T h e r e a r e n o e v i d e n t i a l i t y d i s t i n c t i o n s in m o s t i m p e r a t i v e s ( e x c e p t for t h e i m p e r a t i v e

b y p r o x y - s e e § 1 6 . 1 . 4 ) . T h e third p e r s o n m a l e f a c t i v e i m p e r a t i v e tupe is u n u s u a l in that

it c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h t h e inferred evidential. 1 4 . 4 8 w a s said b y a m a n n o t l o v e d b y

w o m e n - w h o s e r e a c t i o n is b a s e d o n inferred i n f o r m a t i o n - a b o u t t h e w o m a n w h o h a d

r e f u s e d t o m a r r y h i m a n d h a d j u s t b e e n e a t e n b y a s n a k e .

1 4 . 4 8 d u h m e t a - s i k a - t u p e d u h a - y a n a n u - n a

3 s g f + f e e l - R E C . P . G E N . I N F R - I M P V : D E T R s h e - P E J 1s g - O B J

d u - d u i h a - k a - k a p u a

3 s g f - h a t e - S U B - B E C A U S E : D S

'Let this b a d o n e feel b a d ( b a s e d o n inferred i n f o r m a t i o n ) , b e c a u s e s h e h a t e d m e . '

In c o n t r a s t , t h e specific inferred is u s e d w h e n t h e s p e a k e r c a n o b s e r v e t h e e v i d e n c e

straight a w a y . In 1 4 . 4 9 t h e m o t h e r o f t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r h a s j u s t s e e n t h e r e m a i n s o f h e r

n i e c e f l o a t i n g in t h e l a k e w h e r e a n a s t y s n a k e lived; this is w h y s h e says:

1 4 . 4 9 p i - t e d u a - r u - n u k u p a t h e s e d a p e

2 s g - c o u s i n - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S t h e . d a y . b e f o r e . y e s t e r d a y

m a w a r i d i - h n a - n i h k a - n i k i

s n a k e 3 s g n f - e a t - S P E C . I N F R . R E C . P - C O M P L

T h e s n a k e ate u p y o u r c o u s i n t h e d a y b e f o r e yesterday.'

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 1 4 . 2 T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y in affirmative c l a u s e s 3 0 1

T h e specific i n f e r r e d is p r e f e r r e d w h e n telling o t h e r s a b o u t t h e result o f o n e ' s

i n f e r e n c e s , a s in 1 4 . 5 0 , f r o m a h u n t i n g story b y I s m a e l Brito. H e d i d n o t s e e t h e t i n a m o u

b i r d l a y i n g e g g s , b u t s e e i n g t h e e g g s w a s g o o d e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to a l l o w I s m a e l to u s e

specific i n f e r r e d p o s t f a c t u m .

1 4 . 5 0 n e s e d i h a d i - s a w i i t h a n i - n h i n a

t h e n A R T 3 s g n f - r o o t n e a r - S P E C . I N F R . R E M . P

p a i t a m a : m i na:-nite

o n e + C L : A N I M t i n a m o u 3 p l + c a l l - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N I M

d i - s w a - n h i n a d i - e h w e t a - k a

3 s g n f - s t a y - S P E C . I N F R . R E M . P 3 s g n f - l a y . e g g - S U B

T h e n at t h e r o o t o f this (tree) o n e (bird) called t i n a m o u w a s s t a y i n g l a y i n g eggs.'

T h e u s e o f t h e specific inferred in story-telling h a s a particular stylistic load: it m e a n s

t h a t o n e c a n s e e t h e ' p r o o f o f w h a t ' s b e i n g said. 14.51 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t the

o r i g i n o f t h e T a r i a n a o f S a n t a R o s a - t h e specific inferred is u s e d s i n c e t h e s p e a k e r h a s

e n o u g h e v i d e n c e for t h e c l a i m that a certain part o f t h e l a n d w a s ( a n d still is) 'ours'. T h i s

h a s o v e r t o n e s o f a l a n d c l a i m .

1 4 . 5 1 a i - n h i n a w a l i k a s u k a - n a w i k a w a - s i t a

t h e r e - S P E C . I N F R . R E M . P b e g i n n i n g R E L - p e o p l e 1 p l - f i n i s h , m a n a g e

w a - y a - h i p e w a - d e - n h i n a

l p l - P O S S - C L : L A N D l p l - h a v e - S P E C . I N F R . R E M . P

T h e r e w e w e r e c r e a t e d (lit. b e c a m e p e o p l e ) , w e h a d o u r land.'

T h e specific inferred is often u s e d to retell i n f o r m a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h a n o t h e r

p e r s o n , if o n e v o u c h e s for its v e r a c i t y a n d is p r e p a r e d to p r e s e n t it a s if o n e ' s s o u r c e o f

i n f o r m a t i o n w a s s o m e t h i n g o n e h a s seen. A s w e will see in § 1 4 . 2 . 5 , the r e p o r t e d

e v i d e n t i a l c a n b e u s e d w i t h a t i n g e o f m e a n i n g o f unreliability - t h e specific inferred is

n o t u s e d this w a y . O n e s u c h e x a m p l e is 1 4 . 5 2 , also f r o m a h u n t i n g story b y I s m a e l Brito.

T h e relatives o f t h e s p e a k e r d i d n o t g o r o u n d w i t h their g r a n d p a r e n t s (as is o b v i o u s f r o m

t h e rest o f t h e story); b u t s i n c e t h e y are fully c o n f i d e n t o f this i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e y u s e t h e

specific inferred.

1 4 . 5 2 n e w a - s a p e - k a n u - k e s i - p e h i k u - n a na:

t h e n l p l - t e l l - S U B 1s g - r e l a t i v e - P L a p p e a r - R E M . P . V I S 3 p l + s a y

w a - n a i t a k a - s e w h a w a - h w e - r i - n i p e

l p l - O B J u p - L O C w e l p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - P L

n a - n a w a n e m h a n i - n h i n a

3pl-collect.fruit 3 p l + w a l k - S P E C . I N F R . R E M . P

T h e n , w h e n w e said this, o u r relatives said to u s like this: " U p there, o u r

g r a n d p a r e n t s w e n t r o u n d p i c k i n g fruit".'

W h a t is g o o d e n o u g h 'direct' e v i d e n c e , a n d w h a t is not, is culture-specific. In 1 4 . 5 3 ,

t h e d i r e c t e v i d e n c e that t h e T a r i a n a s ' g r a n d f a t h e r d i e d t h r o u g h w i t c h c r a f t ('poisoning')

lies in t h e fact that t h e r e are p e o p l e in t h e T a r i a n a c o m m u n i t y w h o are o l d e r t h a n their

g r a n d f a t h e r a n d w h o a r e still alive. T h a t is, there w a s n o natural c a u s e for h i m to die

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 3 0 2 14 Tense and evidentiality

( s u c h a s a g e ) - t h a t t h e y s a w h i m d i e a n d that h e is d e a d n o w s h o w s that h e w a s

'poisoned'.

1 4 . 5 3 w a - w h e - r i-miki-r i h i w y a s i - n e

1 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - N O M . P A S T - M A S C p o i s o n - I N S

d i - n a m i - n h i n a

3 s g n f - d i e - S P E C . I N F R . R E M . P

' O u r late g r a n d f a t h e r h a d d i e d t h r o u g h poison.'

N e i t h e r o f t h e inferred s p e c i f i c a t i o n s h a s p r e s e n t tense. T h e n o n - v i s u a l p r e s e n t f o r m s

c a n b e u s e d if o n e h a s t o m a k e i n f e r e n c e s w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e present. O n c e , in t h e

village, w e w e r e w a l k i n g b e h i n d a m a n a n d c o u l d n ' t q u i t e s e e w h o h e w a s ; I a s k e d

w h e t h e r it w a s Batista, a n d t h e a n s w e r w a s d i h a - m h a (he-PRES.NONVis) 'It i s h i m ( n o n -

v i s u a l ) ( w e infer it b e c a u s e o f h i s characteristic gait)'.

N o n e o f t h e inferred e v i d e n t i a l s h a s a n y o v e r t o n e s o f d o u b t o r s p e c u l a t i o n . S p e c i f i c

i n f e r e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d m o r e reliable t h a n g e n e r i c i n f e r e n c e b a s e d o n r e a s o n i n g - this

g o e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p r e f e r e n c e for visually o b t a i n e d i n f o r m a t i o n o v e r a n y o t h e r (if

t h e r e is a c h o i c e ) .

1 4 . 2 . 5 R e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l s

R e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l s h a v e t h r e e t e n s e s ( u n l i k e T u y u c a a n d o t h e r T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s

w h e r e r e p o r t e d d o e s n o t h a v e p r e s e n t t e n s e : B a r n e s 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e u s e o f r e p o r t e d

e v i d e n t i a l s is restricted t o i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h w a s learnt f r o m s o m e o n e else. T h e s o u r c e

o f this r e p o r t e d i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e explicitly stated. 1 4 . 5 4 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t t h e

C r e a t o r o f M a n i o c w h o u s e d to live w i t h his s o n . T h e son's o b n o x i o u s w i f e c o m p l a i n e d

t o h e r h u s b a n d t h a t h e r f a t h e r - i n - l a w h a d t o u c h e d h e r genitals. In 1 4 . 5 4 , t h e s o n is

r e p e a t i n g this c o m p l a i n t t o h i s father, u s i n g t h e r e c e n t p a s t r e p o r t e d evidential.

. 5 4 p h i a p a i n u - s a - d o - n u k u h l k u - p i d a k a

y o u D a d l s g - s p o u s e - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S s o - R E C . P . R E P

pi-ni p h i a p h i p a - p i d a k a p h i m a p h i a

2 s g - d o y o u 2 s g + t a k e - R E C . P . R E P 2 s g + h e a r y o u

' D a d , y o u ( r e p o r t e d l y ) d i d like this to m y w i f e , y o u tried to g r a b her, listen!'

T h e r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l c a n refer t o a n y k i n d o f r e p o r t e d i n f o r m a t i o n - s e c o n d h a n d

a n d t h i r d h a n d etc. 1 4 . 5 5 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a m a n w h o w e n t fishing, a n d all o f a

s u d d e n s a w a h a n d s o m e m a n d r e s s e d u p in w h i t e in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e fish w e i r ; t h e n t h e

m a n d i s a p p e a r e d a n d a h u g e p i r a i b a fish briefly a p p e a r e d instead. H e tells his w i f e a b o u t

this ( 1 4 . 5 5 a ) u s i n g specific inferred evidential. S h e in t u r n tells h e r father u s i n g p r e s e n t

r e p o r t e d ( 1 4 . 5 5 b ) , a n d h e tells h i s friends ( 1 4 . 5 5 c ) also u s i n g p r e s e n t r e p o r t e d . ( T h e

s t o r y itself is t o l d in r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d . )

1 4 . 5 5 a k a t u - n i h k a di-he-niki m e : p u k u - s e

p i r a i b a . f i s h - R E C . P . S P E C . I N F R 3 s g n f - e n t e r - C O M P L n e t - L O C

d i - a - p i d a n a di-kalite

3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-tell

' H e t o l d his w i f e , a p i r a i b a fish m u s t h a v e e n t e r e d t h e net.'

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 1 4 . 2 T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y in affirmative c l a u s e s 3 0 3

1 4 . 5 5 b d u h u a - s e - p i d a n a h a - n i r i - n u k u d u - k a l i t e

s h e - C O N T R - R E M . P . R E P p a r e n t - M A S C - T O P . N O N . A / S 3sgnf-tell

p a i m e p u k u - n u k u k a t u - p i d a d h e

D A D : V O C n e t - T O P . N O N . A / S p i r a i b a - P R E S . R E P 3 s g n f + e n t e r

'It w a s s h e w h o t o l d h e r father: " D a d , a piraiba-fish e n t e r e d ( o u r net), I a m

told".'

1 4 . 5 5 c d i h a d i - n h a w e - r i d i - k e s i - p e - n u k u

A R T 3 s g n f - p a r e n t . i n . l a w - M A S C 3 g n f - r e l a t i v e - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - k a l i t e - p i d a n a k a : t u - p i d a d i - h e - p i d a

3 s g n f - t e l l - R E M . P . R E P p i r a i b a - P R E S . R E P 3 s g n f - e n t e r

m a i p u k u - n u k u w a s a w a p h u a d i - a - p i d a n a

n e t - T O P . N O N . A / S l e f s . g o l p l + d i v e 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

' H i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w told h i s relatives: " A p i r a i b a e n t e r e d t h e net, I a m told,

let's g o a n d d i v e (to g e t it)," h e said.'

I n 1 4 . 5 5 c , t h e enclitic -pida 'present reported' is r e p e a t e d t w i c e in t h e s a m e c l a u s e ;

s e e § 2 5 . 3 , for a d i s c u s s i o n o f this.

T h e r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l is o f t e n u s e d in y e t a n o t h e r m e a n i n g to 'avoid' t a k i n g t h e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e i n f o r m a t i o n to indicate a k i n d o f c o n c e p t u a l d i s t a n c e (this is

s i m i l a r t o t h e u s e o f r e p o r t e d in o t h e r l a n g u a g e s - s e e A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - e ) . In

1 4 . 5 6 , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n h e r e is correct, b u t the e v i d e n t i a l is w r o n g ; r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l is

u s e d t o r e m o v e a n y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f r o m t h e s p e a k e r . It c o m e s f r o m t h e story a b o u t t h e

frogs. A m a n m a r r i e d a f r o g - w o m a n , b u t failed t o o b e y h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s n o t to b o t h e r t h e

f r o g s w h e n t h e y s l e e p . T h e frogs get c o v e r e d w i t h ' m o u l d ' in their sleep, a n d this w a s

m e a n t t o b e k e p t secret f r o m t h e m a n . T h e f r o g - w o m a n h a s to r e p o r t o n h i m to h e r

father, w h i c h s h e d o e s , u s i n g r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l i n s t e a d o f a v i s u a l to s h o w that s h e h a s

n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e 'crime'. S h e d e l i b e r a t e l y u s e d t h e w r o n g evidential, t h u s g i v i n g

h e r a u d i e n c e m i s l e a d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a s to t h e s o u r c e o f e v i d e n c e s h e h a d .

1 4 . 5 6 h ! - p i d a d i - u k a w a - d a l i p a - s e

D E M : A N I M - P R E S . R E P 3 s g n f - a r r i v e l p l - n e a r - L O C

d u - a - p i d a n a d u - k a l i t e h a - n i r i - n u k u

3 s g f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P 3sgf-tell p a r e n t - M A S C - T O P . N O N . A / S

n a - p i a - r i - k a - p i d a n a n h a k a y u na: k e r i - m i

3 p l - h i d e - R E L - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P t h e y t h u s 3 p l + g o m o u l d - N O M

" T h i s o n e ( h e r e x - h u s b a n d ) h a s c o m e to u s ( a n d s e e n w h a t h e s h o u l d n ' t h a v e ) , I

a m told," s h e t o l d h e r father, b e c a u s e their w a y o f m o u l d i n g w a s their secret.'

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 3 0 4 14 Tense and evidentiality

In 1 4 . 2 3 a n d 1 4 . 5 9 , t h e r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l s are also u s e d in telling a d e l i b e r a t e lie:

t h e w h o l e s t o r y a b o u t t h e w o r l d e n d i n g b e c a u s e o f a s t o n e falling d o w n h a d b e e n
1
i n v e n t e d b y t h e lion in t h e first p l a c e , w h i l e h e p r e t e n d s that s o m e o n e else told him.

T h e m a r k e r -pida is also u s e d in t h e r e p o r t e d i m p e r a t i v e , e.g. p i - n h a - p i d a (2sg-eat-

IMPV.SEC) 'eat ( o n y o u r sister's order)'. T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n , as w e l l as the r e p o r t e d

i m p e r a t i v e itself, is a c a i q u e f r o m T u c a n o . H o w e v e r , T u c a n o u s e s t h e m a r k e r -a-to

w h i c h h a s n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a n y o f t h e evidentiality-tense p a r a d i g m s (cf. R a m i r e z

1 9 9 7 , v o l . 1: 1 4 6 ) , w h i l e T a r i a n a u s e s t h e m o r p h e m e -pida e m p l o y e d for r e p o r t e d ; s e e

§ 1 6 . 1 . 4 for d i s c u s s i o n .

1 4 . 2 . 6 L e x i c a l reinforcement of evidentials

M e t a l i n g u i s t i c justification for a s s o c i a t i n g evidentiality m a r k e r s w i t h particular s o u r c e s

o f e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m 'lexical r e i n f o r c e m e n t ' o f e v i d e n c e . If a s p e a k e r u s e s a particular

e v i d e n t i a l , t h e y m a y c h o o s e to s t r e n g t h e n t h e s o u r c e b y a d d i n g a lexical e x p l a n a t i o n .

F r e q u e n t l y , if a s p e a k e r d i d s e e s o m e t h i n g a n d tells a story a b o u t it i n v i s u a l evidential,

b u t t h e n realises t h a t h i s a u d i e n c e m a y b e a bit i n c r e d u l o u s , h e m a y c h o o s e to s t r e n g t h e n

h i s 'visual s o u r c e ' b y s a y i n g 'I s a w it'.

In 1 4 . 5 7 , t h e story-teller u s e d the r e m o t e p a s t visual evidential to stress that h e h a d

h i m s e l f s e e n t h e s t o n e - o n e o f t h e traces o f t h e C r e a t o r o f M a n i o c - w h i c h is still there.

T h e rest o f t h e story is told in r e m o t e p a s t reported. T h i s lexical ' r e i n f o r c e m e n t ' p r o v i d e s

a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f ' s e e i n g ' as t h e b a s i c s e m a n t i c s for t h e v i s u a l evidential.

1 4 . 5 7 d i - r u k u - i - t a - k a d i h a k a i n i k i - d a

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - C A U S l - C A U S 2 - S U B A R T m a n i o c - C L : R O U N D

d i - w h a - n a n u - k a - n a n u h a

3 s g n f - s t a y - R E M . P . V I S 1s g - s e e - R E M . P . V I S I

k a s i n a - m i s i n i d i h a - d a - n u k u

n o w - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R A R T - C L : R O U N D - T O P . N O N . A / S

' D o w n s t r e a m f r o m it ( a r a p i d ) t h e r e is the m a n i o c s t o n e , I h a v e s e e n it, too.'

T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t t h e ' g o o d o l d e n days' told b y

A m e r i c o B r i t o , t h e o l d e s t living s p e a k e r o f T a r i a n a . H e h a d s e e n it all w i t h his o w n

e y e s , a n d e m p h a t i c a l l y r e p e a t s 'I s a w it', t o m a k e his s t a t e m e n t s o u n d e v e n stronger.

1 4 . 5 8 h i k u - n a n a - n i n a - y a - n a , n u - k e s i - d o ,

t h u s - R E M . P . V I S 3 p l - d o 3 p l - l i v e - R E M . P . V I S 1 s g - r e l a t i v e - F E M

p e d a l e - p e - s e , n h u a - n i r i - p e - s e n h a k a y u

o l d - P L - C O N T R l s g + p a r e n t - M A S C - P L - C O N T R t h e y like.this

n a - n i - k a , n u - k a - n a n h u a y a n a p e - k a

3 p l - d o - S U B 1s g - s e e - R E M . P . V I S I c h i l d - S U B

1
T h e m o t i f o f an animal getting other animals to stand under a falling tree or a falling stone to prevent the

e n d o f the w o r l d is w i d e s p r e a d in the U p p e r R i o N e g r o : a similar story, obviously of a E u r o p e a n origin,

w a s told b y H u m b e r t o Baltazar, m y teacher o f W a r e k e n a (Aikhenvald 1998a).

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 14.2 Tense-evidentiality in affirmative clauses 3 0 5

n u - k a - n a m e d a

1 s g - s e e - R E M . P . V I S C O U N T E R E X

' T h i s is h o w t h e y lived, m y relative, o l d p e o p l e , o u r p a r e n t s (not a n y o n e else), 1

s a w t h e m d o t h u s , w h e n I w a s a c h i l d I d i d s e e t h e m . '

A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, n o n - v i s u a l i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d b e r e i n f o r c e d b y v e r b s like - h i m a

'hear, feel', o r - h i m e t a 'think, feel (sad, etc.)'. T h e v e r b - a n i h t a 'think, b e a b l e to r e a s o n '

d e s c r i b e s i n f e r e n c e s ; a n d a 'lexical r e i n f o r c e m e n t ' for r e p o r t e d is 'this is w h a t p e o p l e told

m e / u s ' .

A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, t h e s o u r c e for r e p o r t e d i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e o v e r t l y stated, a s in

1 4 . 5 9 , f r o m a n a n i m a l story told b y B a t i s t a Brito. A f t e r the lion - the k i n g o f a n i m a l s -

s a y s 1 4 . 2 3 , o n e o f t h e a n i m a l s retells this to t h e c r o c o d i l e as 1 4 . 5 9 , a d d i n g that it w a s

t h e k i n g h i m s e l f w h o ' d said this. T h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l specification is a d d e d to t h e latter

s t a t e m e n t , t h u s m a k i n g it s t r o n g e r a n d m o r e p e r s u a s i v e .

1 4 . 5 9 h a h i p a d a d i - w h a - k a d i - r u k u di-a

D E M : I N A N s t o n e 3 s g n f - f a l l - S U B 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - g o

h a - e h k w a p i d i - s i s a - k a r u - p e n a - p i d a k a w a - n a

D E M : I N A N - C L : D A Y 3 s g n f - e n d - P U R P . V I S - B E N - R E C P . R E P l p l - O B J

k a y u d i - a - k a d i - s a p e w h a w e k a n a leo

t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - R E C . P . V I S 3sgnf-tell w e l p l + c h i e f lion

' H e r e , w h e n this ( s t o n e ) falls, t h e w o r l d will e n d for u s , t h u s o u r c h i e f t h e lion h a s

said.'

1 4 . 2 . 7 Preferred e v i d e n t i a l s a n d their c u l t u r a l c o r r e l a t e s

T h e p r e f e r e n c e in m a k i n g o n e ' s c h o i c e o f a n e v i d e n t i a l is c o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e p r i m a r y

v a l u e o f v i s u a l 'firsthand' i n f o r m a t i o n o v e r t h e rest, as w e l l as a r e q u i r e m e n t to b e

p r e c i s e a n d 'honest' a b o u t o n e ' s s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . T h a t is:

(i) if t h e r e is v i s u a l e v i d e n c e , t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is preferred;

(ii) n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is p r e f e r r e d if n o v i s u a l e v i d e n c e is available;

(iii) r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l is p r e f e r r e d if t h e i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d r e p o r t e d .

T h e p r e f e r e n c e in e v i d e n t i a l c h o i c e s is s h o w n in D i a g r a m 1 4 . 1 .

D I A G R A M 14.1 P R E F E R R E D E V I D E N T I A L S I N T A R I A N A

V I S U A L < — N O N - V I S U A L <— I N F E R R E D < — R E P O R T E D

H o w d o s p e a k e r s m a k e a c h o i c e in t h e c a s e o f conflicting e v i d e n c e ? N o t e first o f all,

a s w e h a v e s e e n a b o v e , that t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l c a n b e u s e d if the s p e a k e r t a k e s

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for t h e action, w h i l e t h e n o n - v i s u a l evidential i m p l i e s that t h e e v e n t

h a p p e n e d a c c i d e n t a l l y . T h e c h o i c e m a y d e p e n d o n the p e r s p e c t i v e t h e s p e a k e r c h o o s e s

to t a k e o n t h e e v e n t .

F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e d a y a d r u n k e n M a k u m a n w a s a t t a c k e d b y a d o g ; w e d i d n o t see it,

b u t w e h e a r d t h e n o i s e o f t h e m a n s w e a r i n g a n d t h e d o g b a r k i n g ; I w a s t o l d that this c a n

b e d e s c r i b e d in t h r e e w a y s . W e w o u l d u s e 14.1 if w e h a d s e e n this h a p p e n . W e w o u l d

u s e 14.2 if w e w e r e truthful a b o u t h a v i n g to rely o n t h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n c e , for

i n s t a n c e , if w e h e a r d t h e n o i s e . W e c o u l d u s e 14.3 if w e h a d w a n t e d to e m p h a s i s e t h e

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 3 0 6 14 Tense and evidentially

p h y s i c a l d i s t a n c e ( a n d in fact w e c o u l d o n l y infer that the m a n w a s bitten), a n d e v e n o u r

d i s i n t e r e s t e d n e s s . B u t w e c o u l d a l s o u s e 14.1 o r 14.5, after w e h a v e s e e n t h e bitten m a n ,

s i n c e w e c o u l d o b s e r v e t h e e n d result o u r s e l v e s , if w e w e r e really interested in w h a t h a d

h a p p e n e d t o h i m a n d w e r e s u r e that h e w a s bitten b y t h e d o g - for i n s t a n c e , o b s e r v i n g

t h e m a r k s o f d o g ' s t e e t h o n h i s o p e n w o u n d .

I n R a f a e l Brito's h o u s e in S a n t a R o s a w h e r e w e s t a y e d t h e r e w a s a c u c k o o c l o c k

w h i c h w o u l d p l a y a t u n e o n t h e h o u r . I w a s told to s a y 1 4 . 6 0 w i t h a v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l to

d e s c r i b e this. S i n c e w e c o u l d s e e t h e c l o c k d o it, t h e u s e o f a n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l w a s

c o n s i d e r e d w e i r d .

1 4 . 6 0 k e f i-da d i - r a p a - k a - s i t a

s u n / m o o n - C L : R O U N D 3 s g n f - s i n g / d a n c e - R E C . P . V I S - C O M P L

T h e c l o c k h a s s u n g . '

T h e c l o c k ' s 'singing' p r o v i d e d e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to s a y w h a t t i m e it w a s . T h i s c o u l d b e

d o n e w i t h a n inferred e v i d e n t i a l , a s in 1 4 . 6 1 . H o w e v e r , I w a s told to m a k e this s t a t e m e n t

w i t h a n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l , a s in 1 4 . 6 2 , s i n c e w e h a v e h e a r d t h e c l o c k sing, a n d s i n c e it

is c o n s i d e r e d c o r r e c t to state n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n c e rather t h a n i n f e r e n c e if at all p o s s i b l e .

I w a s t o l d t h a t 1 4 . 6 1 c o u l d b e u s e d if w e h a d n ' t h e a r d t h e t u n e , for i n s t a n c e , b u t h a d

i n f e r r e d f r o m , say, t h e s u n s e t that it w a s e i g h t o'clock.

1 4 . 6 1 o i t o h o r a - k a - s i k a

e i g h t h o u r - D E C L - R E C . P . I N F R

'It i s e i g h t o ' c l o c k (inferred).'

1 4 . 6 2 o i t o h o r a - k a - m h a

e i g h t h o u r - D E C L - P R E S . N O N V I S

'It i s e i g h t o ' c l o c k ( w e h e a r it).'

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s o f t e n o c c u r r e d in c o n v e r s a t i o n s w h e n s p e a k e r s w e r e n o t q u i t e

s u r e o f t h e a n s w e r . F o r i n s t a n c e , J o v i n o w o u l d s a y 1 4 . 6 3 as a n a n s w e r to a q u e s t i o n

a b o u t a n a m e o f a p l a c e if h e w a s n o t q u i t e sure, a n d 1 4 . 6 4 if h e w a s sure.

1 4 . 6 3 d a r u - d a p a n a - m h a

p a r r o t - C L : H A B - P R E S . N O N V I S

'It i s ( p r o b a b l y ) D a r u d a p a n a . '

1 4 . 6 4 d a r u - d a p a n a - n a k a

p a r r o t - C L : H A B - P R E S . V I S

'It i s ( d e f i n i t e l y ) D a r u d a p a n a . '

T h e f o l l o w i n g t w o e x a m p l e s illustrate a s i m i l a r point. 1 4 . 6 5 w a s the a n s w e r t h e

C r e a t o r o f M a n i o c g a v e t o h i s relatives w h e n a s k e d h o w c o m e h e m a n a g e d to get s o

m a n y g o o d fish.

1 4 . 6 5 n u h l i t u - k a n u - y a - k a n u h a - k a

l s g + f i s h - R E C . P . V I S l s g - s t a y - R E C . P . V I S I - R E C . P . V I S

'I h a v e fished.'

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 14.2 T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y in affirmative c l a u s e s 3 0 7

T h e y d i d n o t b e l i e v e h i m feeling that t h e r e w a s s o m e t h i n g else t h e r e that h e w a s n o t

telling t h e m , a n d t h e y said:

1 4 . 6 6 p u a y a - m h a - p i t a h i k a y u d i - n i - k a

d i f f e r e n t / a d v e r s e - P R E S . N O N V I S - R E P D E M : A N I M so 3 s g n f - d o - S U B

'It is s o m e t h i n g else ( b a d ) t h a t h e is doing.'

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l are p r e f e r r e d to i n d i c a t e that t h e s p e a k e r w a s n o t q u i t e in

c o n t r o l o f their a c t i o n s - s e e 1 4 . 3 9 - 4 0 . I n this s e n s e , t h e y o c c u r w i t h first p e r s o n subject.

T h i s f i r s t - p e r s o n - l i k e u s a g e o f t h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l h e l p s d i s t i n g u i s h t h e t w o

m e a n i n g s o f t h e i m p e r s o n a l p r e f i x p a - a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g i m p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n .

U n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f T u c a n o , t h e i m p e r s o n a l in t h e i n n o v a t i v e T a r i a n a c a n b e u s e d in

t h e i n c l u s i v e s e n s e ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a , C h a p t e r 3). W h e n t h e i m p e r s o n a l is

u s e d i n t h e first p e r s o n i n c l u s i v e s e n s e , 'us', t h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l o c c u r s w i t h v e r b s

o f f e e l i n g a n d w a n t i n g , a s in 1 4 . 6 7 .

1 4 . 6 7 y a s e n i - k u - n e - m i a - n a p a - s a p e - h y u n a

T u c a n o - A F F - I N S - O N L Y - R E M . P . V I S I M P ( l s t . i n c l ) - t a l k - C U S T

k a p e m a n i - m h a n a p h a

f e e l . s h a m e - R E M . P . N O N V I S I M P E R S O N A L ( 1st i n c l u s i v e )

' ( W e ) s p o k e o n l y T u c a n o , w e felt s h a m e . '

B u t if t h e i m p e r s o n a l h a s a g e n e r i c non-first p e r s o n r e f e r e n c e , t h e n o n - v i s u a l

e v i d e n t i a l c a n n o t b e u s e d to refer to internal states o r feelings; a n o t h e r e v i d e n t i a l

s p e c i f i c a t i o n h a s t o b e u s e d instead. 1 4 . 6 8 d e s c r i b e s a g e n e r a l fact, a n d t h e v i s u a l

e v i d e n t i a l is a p p r o p r i a t e h e r e .

1 4 . 6 8 h i k u - n a k a p a - r e n a tfar i

t h u s - P R E S . V I S I M P - f e e l m a n

'This is h o w a m a n feels.'

T h i s 'first-person' effect is a t e n d e n c y rather t h a n a strict rule - 1 4 . 3 6 a b o v e c a n b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s ' o n e c a n n o t sleep' o r ' w e c a n n o t sleep'. T h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l

o c c a s i o n a l l y o c c u r s w i t h a s e c o n d o r third p e r s o n w h o m t h e s p e a k e r is c l o s e l y

o b s e r v i n g ; this u s a g e i m p l i e s that t h e s p e a k e r identifies t h e m s e l f w i t h t h e o t h e r p e r s o n .

It is f u n c t i o n a l l y s i m i l a r to u s i n g 'disjunct' m a r k e r s w i t h first p e r s o n ( w h e r e c o n j u n c t

m a r k e r s w o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e ) , to signal ' e m p a t h y ' o r ' e n g a g e m e n t ' w i t h t h e s p e a k e r .

1 4 . 6 9 w a s a c o m m e n t o n J o v i n o ' s state: after h e h a d s t e p p e d o n a nail, h e w a s lying in

h i s h a m m o c k e x h a u s t e d b y fever. E v e r y o n e s e e m e d to k n o w h o w h e felt.

1 4 . 6 9 p a - k a m i a - n i p e J u v i - n u k u i n u n a

I M P - i l i n e s s - N O M J o v i n o - T O P . N O N . A / S lazy,debilitated

d i - n i - m a h k a

3 s g n f - d o - R E C . P . N O N V I S

'Illness h a s m a d e J o v i n o debilitated.'

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 3 0 8 14 Tense and evidentiality

I n f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l s a r e u s e d w i t h first p e r s o n if t h e first p e r s o n w a s n o t c o n s c i o u s o f

w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g to t h e m ( a n d h a d to m a k e i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t their situation). I d o n o t

h a v e a n y e x a m p l e s o f r e p o r t e d w i t h first p e r s o n .

T h e c o m b i n a t i o n - t a h k a ( F R U S T R A T I V E + R E C . P . V I S ; u n d e r l y i n g f o r m : -tha-ka) is

a l m o s t l e x i c a l i s e d - it is e m p l o y e d t o c o n t r a s t w h a t t h e s p e a k e r d i d w i t h w h a t t h e

a d d r e s s e e d i d n o t d o : it is typically u s e d w i t h t h e v e r b o f s p e a k i n g (-kalite) in the

m e a n i n g : 'I t o l d y o u n o t to d o s o - a n d - s o , b u t y o u d i d it a n y w a y - s o t a k e the

c o n s e q u e n c e s ' .

E v i d e n t i a l i t y a n d t h e r u l e s o f its u s e a r e l i n k e d to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f explicitly stating

t h e e x a c t s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d m a y g o t o g e t h e r w i t h certain cultural attitudes a n d

p r a c t i c e s . W e c a n o n l y s p e c u l a t e a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e correlations, b e a r i n g in m i n d

t h e d a n g e r o f b e i n g either circular o r t o o d a r i n g .

T h e c h o i c e o f e v i d e n t i a l s c a n s o m e t i m e s b e s h o w n to correlate w i t h cultural

s t e r e o t y p e s . T h e u s e o f v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l in m u l t i - t e r m s y s t e m s in t h e T a r i a n a a n d

T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g e n e r a l l y k n o w n facts a n d w i t h o m n i s c i e n c e .

S h a m a n s a r e traditionally c o n s i d e r e d o m n i s c i e n t ; this is w h y s h a m a n i c s p e e c h is u s u a l l y

cast in v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l (also s e e G o m e z - I m b e r t 1 9 8 6 , o n s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s f r o m

T a t u y o ) . P o w e r f u l evil spirits o f t h e j u n g l e are also p e r c e i v e d as o m n i s c i e n t , a n d t h u s

u s u a l l y e m p l o y v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s w h e n t h e y talk a b o u t their o w n k n o w l e d g e . T h e evil

spirits t h e m s e l v e s are n o t s e e n b u t are 'perceived' in o t h e r w a y s ; for that r e a s o n , the n o n -

v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is p r e f e r r e d w h e n t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e m .

T h e p e r c e p t i o n o f d r e a m s in different c u l t u r e s g o e s t o g e t h e r w i t h different

e v i d e n t i a l s . In J a r a w a r a ( D i x o n f o r t h c o m i n g - b ) d e s c r i p t i o n s o f d r e a m s h a v e t h e visual

e v i d e n t i a l s i n c e t h e y are s u p p o s e d to b e 'seen'. In t h e V a u p e s area, t h e u s e o f e v i d e n t i a l s

w h e n d e s c r i b i n g d r e a m s is a g a i n r e l a t e d t o cultural practices. D r e a m s are n o r m a l l y

p r e s e n t e d a s n o n - v i s u a l s i n c e t h e y are n o t s u p p o s e d to b e l o n g to t h e 'real w o r l d ' ;

h o w e v e r , p r o p h e t i c d r e a m s o f s h a m a n s are treated as visual (since s h a m a n s are

o m n i s c i e n t ) . T h i s m a y also h a v e to d o w i t h certain 'truth v a l u e s ' o f e v i d e n t i a l s a n d their

cultural a s p e c t s . N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s are e m p l o y e d to d e s c r i b e p e o p l e ' s d r e a m s (as in

14.37). W e h a v e s e e n that s h a m a n i c d r e a m s are u s u a l l y cast in v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s

( 1 4 . 3 8 ) . Interestingly, s o are t h e s t a t e m e n t s m a d e b y evil spirits w h o a p p e a r in t h e j u n g l e

if p e o p l e b r e a c h t h e t a b o o s , a s in 1 4 . 2 9 . A m o n g s u c h t a b o o s are w o r k i n g o n G o o d

F r i d a y - this s h o w s h o w w e l l C h r i s t i a n i t y is i n t e g r a t e d into t h e V a u p e s s y s t e m o f

beliefs.

O b l i g a t o r y m a r k i n g o f t h e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n d o e s n o t e x c l u d e d e l i b e r a t e lying; o n

t h e c o n t r a r y , lying b e c o m e s m o r e intricate. O n e c a n g i v e t h e right i n f o r m a t i o n u s i n g t h e

w r o n g e v i d e n t i a l (as in 1 4 . 5 6 a b o v e ) , o r t h e o t h e r w a y r o u n d . In 1 4 . 7 0 t h e c u n n i n g turtle

g i v e s t h e b a d j a g u a r t h e w r o n g i n f o r m a t i o n b y k e e p i n g t h e right evidential. T h e j a g u a r

h a s a c t u a l l y g r a b b e d t h e turtle b y its foot; h o w e v e r , t h e turtle d e c e i v e s the j a g u a r b y

telling h i m h e h a d actually g r a b b e d t h e r o o t o f a tree. T h e turtle u s e s visual e v i d e n t i a l

b e c a u s e b o t h p a r t i c i p a n t s c a n s e e w h a t is h a p p e n i n g .

1 4 . 7 0 a w i n a i - p a r i - n u k u p h i p a - n a k a

w a c u . t r e e I N D F - r o o t - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g + g r a b - P R E S . V I S

' Y o u are g r a b b i n g t h e r o o t o f a tree ( a n d n o t m y leg, as y o u think).'

T h e j a g u a r b e l i e v e s h i m a n d a n s w e r s u s i n g n o n - v i s u a l evidential, t h u s a d m i t t i n g h e

c a n n o t s e e w h a t is h a p p e n i n g ( a n d t h u s is n o t r e s p o n s i b l e for the m i s t a k e : s e e § 1 4 . 2 . 3 ) .

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 14.2 Tense-evidentiality in affirmative clauses 3 0 9

1 4 . 7 1 tfa! n u h a a w i n a i - p a r i - m h a n h u p a

w o u ! l s g w a c u . t r e e I N D F - r o o t - P R E S . N O N V I S l s g + g r a b

' W o u ! I a m g r a b b i n g t h e r o o t o f a tree (accidentally).'

N e w i n s i g h t s o n e v i d e n t i a l s c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e w a y s in w h i c h e v i d e n t i a l s are

u s e d to d e s c r i b e n e w l y e m e r g i n g cultural practices. O n e s u c h practice is r e a d i n g .

L i t e r a t e T a r i a n a s p e a k e r s t e n d to u s e inferred - rather t h a n r e p o r t e d evidential - w h e n

retelling stories t h e y h a v e j u s t read, w h e n translating C a t h o l i c p r a y e r s , o r a c t i n g a s B i b l e

t r a n s l a t o r s d u r i n g c h u r c h s e r v i c e s - s i n c e t h e p r o o f o f t h e validity o f the i n f o r m a t i o n c a n

b e s e e n p r i n t e d in t h e b o o k . T h i s m a y b e d u e to the fact that the r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l in

T a r i a n a h a s c o n n o t a t i o n s o f 'unreliability' a n d d i s t a n c i n g o n e s e l f f r o m t h e s o u r c e . In

contrast, t h e inferred e v i d e n t i a l in T a r i a n a d o e s n o t h a v e a n y e p i s t e m i c c o n n o t a t i o n a n d

c a n b e safely u s e d for i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s m i s s i o n . I h a v e b e e n a b l e to o b s e r v e T a r i a n a

s p e a k e r s t a l k i n g a b o u t w h a t t h e y h a d s e e n o n t e l e v i s i o n - t h e y c o n s i d e r e d it e q u i v a l e n t

to real s e e i n g a n d b e l i e v e d e v e r y t h i n g t h e y s a w , a n d s o t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l w a s used.

W h e n a f e w s p e a k e r s h a d t a l k e d o n t h e p h o n e (in P o r t u g u e s e , r e f u s i n g to u s e either

T a r i a n a o r T u c a n o in this c o n t e x t ) t h e y d e s c r i b e d w h a t t h e y h e a r d w i t h n o n - v i s u a l .

E v i d e n t i a l i t y m a y also h a v e to d o w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l i s e d attitudes to i n f o r m a t i o n . In

l a n g u a g e s w i t h e v i d e n t i a l s , p e o p l e w h o c a n n o t u s e e v i d e n t i a l s correctly are d e s p i s e d ,

t r e a t e d a s c r a z y a n d n o t a s fully r e s p o n s i b l e m e m b e r s o f society (see F l o y d 1 9 9 7 : 1 0 4 ,

o n Q u e c h u a , a n d G o m e z - I m b e r t 1 9 8 6 o n s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s f r o m T a t u y o , a n E a s t T u c a n o

l a n g u a g e ) . T h i s p r e c i s i o n g o e s t o g e t h e r w i t h a t e n d e n c y to a v o i d a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t

e v i d e n c e that o t h e r p e o p l e m i g h t h a v e . E v i d e n t i a l s in T a r i a n a d o h a v e a n u m b e r o f

e p i s t e m i c e x t e n s i o n s - this also m a k e s interpreting o t h e r p e o p l e ' s s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n

m o r e c o m p l e x . T h i s m a y (at least partly) e x p l a i n t h e cultural i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f a s k i n g

q u e s t i o n s ( s e e § 1 4 . 3 ) .

T h e T a r i a n a u s e y e t a n o t h e r strategy to a v o i d interpreting o t h e r p e o p l e ' s s o u r c e s o f

i n f o r m a t i o n . W h e n r e p o r t i n g w h a t s o m e o n e else h a s said, t h e p r e f e r r e d strategy is a

d i r e c t s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t . T h i s m e a n s that t h e s p e a k e r c a n a v o i d m a k i n g a c h o i c e o f a n

e v i d e n t i a l for a n o t h e r p e r s o n a n d r u n t h e risk o f u n d e s i r e d i m p l i c a t i o n s as to 'validation'

o f t h e o t h e r p e r s o n ' s e v i d e n c e . T h u s , i n s t e a d o f s a y i n g , 'he is c o m i n g - r e p o r t e d ' , t h e

s p e a k e r w o u l d p r e f e r s a y i n g 'he said: I a m c o m i n g - v i s u a l ' (see § 2 4 . 3 ) .

T h i s attitude to i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e related to t h e fact that in A m a z o n i a n societies it

is h e l d t h a t t h e r e is a n explicit c a u s e - m o s t often, s o r c e r y - for e v e r y t h i n g that h a p p e n s .

S o a s n o t t o b e b l a m e d for s o m e t h i n g that in fact t h e y h a d n o responsibility for, a

s p e a k e r is careful a l w a y s t o b e a s explicit as p o s s i b l e a b o u t w h a t t h e y h a v e d o n e . T h i s

relates t o t h e desirability o f stating t h e e v i d e n c e for e v e r y t h i n g that is said, visually

o b t a i n e d i n f o r m a t i o n b e i n g t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e .

1 4 . 2 . 8 O m i s s i o n of e v i d e n t i a l s a n d speakers' competence

F o r e a c h c l a u s e a listener m u s t b e a b l e to infer its t e n s e a n d evidentiality status. T h e r e is

g e n e r a l l y 'direct' s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s , b u t s o m e t i m e s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c a n

b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e d i s c o u r s e c o n t e x t . T h e tense-evidentilaity enclitics c a n b e o m i t t e d if

t h e t i m e - a n d - e v i d e n c e f r a m e is set in t h e p r e v i o u s o r in t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a u s e , o r is clear

f r o m t h e c o n t e x t , a s in repetition. T h e first c l a u s e o f 1 8 . 1 0 c o n t a i n s n o t e n s e -

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 3 1 0 14 Tense and evidentiality

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification. T h e evidentiality specification a p p e a r s o n the s e c o n d c l a u s e ,

w i t h i n t h e s a m e s e n t e n c e .

In 1 4 . 7 2 , t h e clitic -pidana ' r e m o t e p a s t reported' sets t h e s c e n e in t h e first c l a u s e

( 1 4 . 7 2 a ) ; t h e n e x t c l a u s e ( 1 4 . 7 2 b ) d o e s n o t h a v e a n y t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specifications.

T h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a p p e a r a g a i n in t h e third c l a u s e ( 1 4 . 7 2 c ) . N o t e that

t h e n o m i n a l t e n s e c o - o c c u r s w i t h t h e clausal tense. In 1 4 . 7 2 d t h e specification is a g a i n

o m i t t e d a n d is easily r e c o v e r a b l e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t .

1 4 . 7 2 a d i - p i k a d i - w a d i - a - p i d a n a a w a k a d a - s e

3 s g n f - g o . m a d 3 s g n f - e n t e r 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P j u n g l e - L O C

' H e ( t h e m a n w h o c o u l d n o t o b s e r v e t h e rules o f sniffing snuff) w e n t m a d

a n d r a n into t h e j u n g l e . '

1 4 . 7 2 b d i h a y a t u d i - p i k a - k a n a d i - p i k a d i - w a d i - a

h e s n u f f 3 s g n f - g o . m a d - P A S S 3 s g n f - g o . m a d 3 s g n f - e n t e r 3 s g n f - g o

' H e w e n t m a d b e c a u s e o f s n u f f a n d w e n t o f f

1 4 . 7 2 c d i h a n a w i k i - m i k i - r i - p i d a n a

h e p e r s o n - N O M . P A S T - M A S C - R E M . P . R E P
1
' H e u s e d t o b e a p e r s o n ( b u t is n o m o r e ) .

1 4 . 7 2 d d i - d i a d i h a hi a w a k a d a - s e

3 s g n f - r e t u r n h e D E M : A N I M j u n g l e - L O C

' H e w e n t b a c k t o t h e j u n g l e ( w h e r e all n o n - p e r s o n s b e l o n g ) . '

T h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n c a n b e o m i t t e d in short a n s w e r s w h e r e t h e

s p e c i f i c a t i o n is r e c o v e r a b l e f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . 1 4 . 7 3 is a n a n s w e r to a q u e s t i o n in 1 6 . 1 7 ;

t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o m i t t e d is n o n - v i s u a l . N o t e that it is a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f a lie. T h e

s n a k e w o m a n is l o o k i n g for a p e a c h p a l m s e e d a n d a s k i n g h e r h u m a n h u s b a n d w h e r e it

c o u l d h a v e g o n e ( 1 6 . 1 7 ) : s h e h e r s e l f h a d g i v e n it t o h i m a n d k n o w s that h e s a w it - this

is w h y h e r q u e s t i o n is cast in v i s u a l interrogative. H e h a s the s e e d h i d d e n in h i s m o u t h ,

a n d s a y s h e hasn't s e e n it.

1 4 . 7 3 m a - k a - k a d e n h u a

N E G - s e e - N E G I

'"I c a n ' t s e e it (I d o n ' t k n o w ) , " ( h e said).'

T h e r e a r e n o evidentiality specifications in o n e - w o r d a n s w e r s , e.g. h a w 'Ok, all right'

a n d ne 'no!' ( s e e C h a p t e r 3 ) ; cf. 1 4 . 7 4 a n d t h e a n s w e r , 1 4 . 7 5 .

1 4 . 7 4 k w e p i - n i - k a - n h a ?

w h a t 2 s g - d o - D E C L - I N T E R . P R E S . V I S

' W h a t a r e y o u d o i n g ? '

1 4 . 7 5 m a - n i - k a d e

N E G - d o - N E G

' N o t h i n g (lit. n o t doing).'

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 14.3 Tense-evidentiality in interrogative clauses 311

T h e p r e d i c a t e m a y t a k e a m o o d o r a n a s p e c t specification that d o e s n o t a l l o w t e n s e -

e v i d e n t i a l i t y - e.g. a p p r e h e n s i v e , c o n d i t i o n a l (see C h a p t e r 16), o r a s p e c t -daka 'yet'.

E v i d e n t i a l s a r e n o t u s e d in m o s t c o m m a n d s (see § 1 6 . 1 ) . T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s

a r e n o t u s e d in s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h m o s t s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e sensitive

enclitics o r in relative c l a u s e s (see C h a p t e r s 2 2 - 2 4 ) .

T h e s p e a k e r s o f T a r i a n a v a r y in t e r m s o f their p r o f i c i e n c y in u s i n g e v i d e n t i a l s (see

d i s c u s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k e r s in §1.9). O n e o f t h e m a i n p o i n t s o f d i v e r g e n c y is in the

u s e o f r e p o r t e d evidential. A n u m b e r o f s p e a k e r s , m a i n l y t h o s e w h o g r e w u p e x p o s e d to

t h e H o h o d e n e d i a l e c t o f B a n i w a r a t h e r t h a n to T a r i a n a , d o n o t m a k e t e n s e d i s t i n c t i o n s in

r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l s e m p l o y i n g o n l y t h e f o r m -pida - this is t h e c a s e w i t h E m i l i o Brito,

R a i m u n d o B r i t o , their father D i k a ( R i c a r d o ) a n d also w i t h J o s e M a n o e l a n d h i s s o n

S a b a . ( I n c i p i e n t s p e a k e r s , e.g. Ireni B r i t o , u s e n o evidentials.) A typical e x a m p l e is

s h o w n in 1 4 . 7 6 , f r o m t h e story a b o u t a r u n n i n g c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n a d e e r a n d a turtle,

w i d e s p r e a d i n t h e area, t o l d b y J o s e M a n o e l Brito. H e c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e d -pida i n s t e a d o f

-pidana ' r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d ' ( s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s are 5.18 a n d 5.28, f r o m stories t o l d b y

E m i l i o B r i t o ) .

1 4 . 7 6 k i a k u d i - e k u - p i d a te n a - p a t u - p i d a

s t r o n g 3 s g n f - r u n - R E P until 3 p l - a r r i v e - R E P

' H e ( t h e d e e r ) r a n q u i c k l y u p t o t h e p o i n t w h e n t h e y (the turtles) arrived.'

T h e o t h e r B r i t o w e r e p u z z l e d w h e n t h e y realised that J o s e M a n o e l w a s n o t u s i n g the

right e v i d e n t i a l ; t h e first e x p l a n a t i o n t h e y v o l u n t e e r e d w a s that 'he h a s j u s t learnt this

story, a n d this is w h y h e is u s i n g -pida ( p r e s e n t r e p o r t e d ) i n s t e a d o f -pidana " r e m o t e

p a s t reported'". H o w e v e r , this e x p l a n a t i o n h a r d l y w o r k e d for a w e l l - k n o w n story, a n d

t h e y t h e n e x p l a i n e d t o m e t h a t t h e 'true' r e a s o n w a s that J o s e M a n o e l w a s b r o u g h t u p b y

H o h o d e n e s p e a k e r s .

T h e u s e o f e v i d e n t i a l s in t h e dialect o f S a n t a T e r e z i n h a is drastically r e d u c e d

c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect. T h e o n l y e v i d e n t i a l that is e m p l o y e d w i t h s o m e

r e g u l a r i t y a p p e a r s t o b e r e p o r t e d -pida ( w i t h n o t e n s e distinctions). T h e evidentiality

s y s t e m in t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a v a r i e t y r e q u i r e s further investigation.

1 4 . 3 T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s

L i k e T u y u c a a n d T u c a n o , T a r i a n a i n c l u d e s a t h r e e - w a y e v i d e n t i a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n in its

i n t e r r o g a t i v e m a r k i n g . T h e p a r a d i g m is g i v e n in T a b l e 14.3.

T A B L E 1 4 . 3 . E V I D E N T I A L S A N D T E N S E I N I N T E R R O G A T I V E C L A U S E S I N T A R I A N A

P R E S E N T P A S T R E M O T E P A S T

V I S U A L - n h a - n i h k a - n h i n a

N O N - V I S U A L -tha, - m h a - m h a (-mhana)

I N F E R R E D - -sika -sina

Y e s - n o q u e s t i o n s d o n o t c o n t a i n a q u e s t i o n w o r d ; t h e y are d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y rising

i n t o n a t i o n , a n d t h e c h o i c e o f a n evidential. C o n t e n t q u e s t i o n s d o c o n t a i n a q u e s t i o n

w o r d ( s e e § 2 1 . 4 . 3 ) .

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 3 1 2 14 Tense and evidentially

A v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l in a q u e s t i o n i m p l i e s that t h e p e r s o n w h o is a s k e d is a s s u m e d to

h a v e h a d v i s u a l f i r s t h a n d e x p e r i e n c e . A s k i n g a q u e s t i o n w i t h a n o n - v i s u a l or inferred

e v i d e n t i a l i m p l i e s that t h e p e r s o n is s u p p o s e d n o t to h a v e s e e n t h e a c t i o n t a k e p l a c e , or

to h a v e h a d n o a c c e s s w h a t s o e v e r to t h e i n f o r m a t i o n . W e c o n s i d e r visual, n o n - v i s u a l

a n d i n f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l in § § 1 4 . 3 . 1 - 3 . O m i s s i o n o f e v i d e n t i a l is d i s c u s s e d in § 1 4 . 3 . 4 .

T h e n , in § 1 4 . 3 . 5 , w e l o o k at p r e f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l s in q u e s t i o n s .

1 4 . 3 . 1 Visual i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l s

A s k i n g a q u e s t i o n in v i s u a l p r e s e n t indicates that t h e p e r s o n a s k i n g a s s u m e s that t h e

p e r s o n a s k e d s a w o r s e e s t h e a c t i o n t a k e p l a c e . F o r instance, if I a s s u m e that s o m e o n e

h a s n o f o o d a n d c a n p e r c e i v e t h e fact that h e h a s n o food, I c a n ask:

1 4 . 7 7 p a - n h a - n i p e p i - n a s e d e - n h a ?

I M P - e a t - N O M 2 s g - O B J N E G . E X I S T - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

' Y o u d o n ' t h a v e f o o d ? '

If t h e r e is f o o d , t h e a n s w e r will b e :

1 4 . 7 8 a l i a - n a k a

E X I S T - P R E S . V I S

T h e r e is (food).'

If t h e r e is n o f o o d , t h e a n s w e r c o u l d m a k e u s e o f n o n - v i s u a l , or visual evidentials. If

o n e a s k s a q u e s t i o n like 1 4 . 7 9 , o n e a s s u m e s that t h e f i s h e r m a n s a w h o w m a n y fish h e

h a d killed.

1 4 . 7 9 k a n a p a d a k u p h e p i n u - n i h k a

h o w . m a n y fish 2 s g + k i l l - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R

' H o w m a n y fish d i d y o u kill?'

I n T 3 . 3 3 , t h e evil spirit c a n s m e l l t h e o d o u r o f h u m a n b l o o d ( h e c a n n o t s e e t h e m a n ) .

H e a s k s w h o t h e p e r s o n is u s i n g t h e visual e v i d e n t i a l b e c a u s e h e a s s u m e s that his w i f e

s a w t h e m a n w h o s e b l o o d h e c a n s m e l l .

U s i n g v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l i m p l i e s a n a s s u m p t i o n o n t h e part o f t h e s p e a k e r a b o u t t h e

a d d r e s s e e ' s k n o w l e d g e . In 1 4 . 8 0 , t h e m a t e r n a l u n c l e a s k s the s o n o f t h e C r e a t o r a b o u t

h o w t h e y m a n a g e to get s o m a n y fish, u s i n g p a s t t e n s e visual e v i d e n t i a l ( h e k n o w s t h e

b o y h a d s e e n h i s u n c l e fish). A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is 1 2 . 1 1 .

1 4 . 8 0 k a n i - n i h k a d i - s w e - t a d i - y a - k a

w h e r e - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 3 s g n f - s t a y + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 3 s g n f - s t a y - S U B

' W h e r e d o e s h e p u t y o u ? '

T h e b o y a n s w e r s h i m , u s i n g r e c e n t p a s t visual:

1 4 . 8 1 a l - k a d i - s w e - t a d i - y a - k a

h e r e - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - s t a y + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 3 s g n f - s t a y - S U B

'It i s h e r e (that) h e p u t s m e . '

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 J 4.3 Tense-evidentiality in interrogative clauses 313

In 1 4 . 8 2 , f r o m t h e s a m e story, t h e C r e a t o r a s k s his son's u n c l e w h a t h a p p e n e d to t h e

c h i l d w h o w a s killed b y a d a n g e r o u s fish: h e h a d left the u n c l e in c h a r g e o f his s o n a n d

is s u r e t h a t t h e u n c l e d i d s e e w h a t h a p p e n e d .

1 4 . 8 2 n u r i [ P A U S E ] k a n i - n i h k a di-a d i h a

l s g + s o n [ P A U S E ] w h e r e - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 3 s g n f - g o h e

' M y s o n [ P A U S E ] , w h e r e is h e g o n e ? '

T h e a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n , 1 4 . 3 5 , c o n t a i n s a n o n - v i s u a l evidential: t h e u n c l e w a s

t h e r e w h e n t h e c h i l d w a s d e v o u r e d , b u t h e tries n o t to a d m i t his guilt. T h e C r e a t o r

c o n t i n u e s i n t e r r o g a t i n g t h e u n c l e , still u s i n g t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l a n d t h u s a s s u m i n g h e

d i d s e e w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d a n d t h u s a c c u s i n g h i m o f b e i n g slack.

1 4 . 8 3 k w e - n i h k a k a y - p i - n i - n i k i p h i a

w h y - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R t h u s - 2 s g - d o - C O M P L y o u

n u r i - k a n u h a - m i s i n i - n u k u

l s g + s o n - R E C . P . V I S I - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R - T O P . N O N . A / S

' W h y d i d y o u d o it, h e w a s m y s o n , too.'

T h e v i s u a l i n t e r r o g a t i v e is o f t e n u s e d if t h e p e r s o n a s k i n g c a n n o t s e e w h a t ' s

h a p p e n i n g , b u t t h e p e r s o n b e i n g a s k e d can, a s in 1 4 . 8 4 - 5 . In 1 4 . 8 4 t h e C r e a t o r o f

M a n i o c is n o t l o o k i n g at t h e g a r d e n s h e is b u r n i n g for his s o n ; h e k n o w s t h e s o n is

l o o k i n g a n d a s k s h i m :

1 4 . 8 4 1 a m a - n i h k a k a p i n a di-a

b u r n - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R g a r d e n 3 s g n f - g o

' D i d t h e g a r d e n b u r n ? '

T h e s o n d o e s s e e that t h e g a r d e n h a s burnt, a n d a n s w e r s :

1 4 . 8 5 p a i l a m a - k a di-a

D a d : V O C b u r n - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - g o

' D a d , it h a s burnt.'

V i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s are u s e d in rhetorical q u e s t i o n s to oneself. T h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f the

s t o r y s e e s s o m e t h i n g s t r a n g e a n d a s k s h i m s e l f 14.86.

1 4 . 8 6 k u i t e y a p h i n i - n h a

I N T E R + N C L : A N I M t h i n g - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

' W h a t is this?'

1 4 . 3 . 2 N o n - v i s u a l i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l s

N o n - v i s u a l i n t e r r o g a t i v e s are u s e d w h e n t h e s p e a k e r p r e s u p p o s e s that t h e a d d r e s s e e d o e s

n o t h a v e a c c e s s to a n y visual i n f o r m a t i o n . N o n - v i s u a l interrogatives d i s t i n g u i s h p r e s e n t

a n d past. In 1 4 . 8 7 a r e c e n t p a s t n o n - v i s u a l interrogative evidential is u s e d in a q u e s t i o n

a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f a p e c u l i a r s o u n d .

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 3 1 4 14 Tense and evidentiality

1 4 . 8 7 k u i t e y a p h i n i - m h a k a y u p i m i : t e

I N T E R + N C L : A N I M t h i n g - P A S T . N O N V I S . I N T E R t h u s s o u n d + N C L : A N I M

' W h a t t h i n g c o u l d h a v e b e e n m a k i n g a s o u n d like this?'

A m o r n i n g g r e e t i n g (that, a s I w a s told, refers to i n q u i r i n g a b o u t t h e w a y o n e feels)

is:

1 4 . 8 8 k a w h i - t h a p i h a

b e . a w a k e - P R E S . N O N V I S . I N T E R y o u

' A r e y o u a w a k e ? '

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s are u s e d w h e n b o t h t h e s p e a k e r a n d the a d d r e s s e e o n l y h a v e

a c c e s s to n o n - v i s u a l i n f o r m a t i o n . In 1 4 . 8 9 , t h e y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r o f a c h i e f u s e s a n o n -

v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l t o a s k o f h e r sisters w h o is f o l l o w i n g t h e m ; n e i t h e r s h e , n o r t h e o t h e r

sisters h a d s e e n a n y o n e ; s h e h e a r d s o m e rustling b e h i n d h e r a n d felt that s o m e o n e

s t e p p e d o n h e r l o n g d r e s s , a n d a s s u m e s t h e o t h e r girls m u s t h a v e h a d t h e s a m e

e x p e r i e n c e .

1 4 . 8 9 t f o ! p a : t j i - m h a w a - p u m i n a - n u n h a

o h ! s o m e o n e - P A S T . N O N V I S . I N T E R lpl-after 3 p l - c o m e t h e y

' H a s t h e r e b e e n s o m e o n e (different) c o m i n g after u s ? '

N o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s a r e o f t e n u s e d in q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e a d d r e s s e e ' s w i s h e s -

w h e r e t h e a n s w e r s w o u l d a l s o r e q u i r e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s (as s h o w n u n d e r C in

§ 1 4 . 2 . 3 ) . In 1 4 . 9 0 t h e s n a k e m a n a s k s t h e m a n , w h o m w o m e n dislike, w h a t h e w o u l d

like d o n e t o t h e w o m a n w h o d i d n o t w a n t to m a r r y h i m .

1 4 . 9 0 k w e - m h a p i - n a p h i a

I N T E R - P A S T . N O N V I S . I N T E R 2 s g - w a n t y o u

h a - m a - n u k u

D E M : I N A N - C L : F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S

p i - n a k a - d u h y a - k a r u - n u k u

2 s g - O B J R E L - d i s l i k e - R E L . P A S T . F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S

' W h a t d i d y o u w a n t for t h e o n e w h o d i s l i k e d y o u ? '

A v e r b o f w a n t i n g u s u a l l y o c c u r s w i t h a n o n - v i s u a l evidential b o t h in a q u e s t i o n a n d

in a n a n s w e r , a s in 14.91 a n d 1 4 . 9 2 .

1 4 . 9 1 p i - n a - t h a litena

2 s g - w a n t - P R E S . N O N V I S . I N T E R m o r e

' D o y o u w a n t m o r e ?

1 4 . 9 2 n u - n a - m h a

1 s g - w a n t - P R E S . N O N V I S

' Y e s , I d o (lit. I w a n t ) . '

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 1 4 . 3 T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s 3 1 5

T h e r e is a c e r t a i n variability in t h e u s e o f t h e n o n - v i s u a l i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l s .

T h e a f f i r m a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l s y s t e m c a n b e u s e d in q u e s t i o n s w h i c h c o n t a i n a n o n - v i s u a l

e v i d e n t i a l . O n e f r e q u e n t l y h e a r s p i - n a - m h a ( 2 s g - w a n t - P R E S . N O N V i s ) i n s t e a d ofpi-na-tha

in q u e s t i o n s like 1 4 . 9 1 . T h i s m a y b e d u e to t h e i n f l u e n c e o f T u c a n o w h e r e t h e s a m e set

o f e v i d e n t i a l m a r k e r s is u s e d i n t h e n o n - v i s u a l interrogative (see § 1 4 . 3 . 4 ) . T h e n o n -

v i s u a l r e m o t e p a s t i n t e r r o g a t i v e is h a r d l y e v e r u s e d ( u n l e s s it is u s e d a s a

c o n v e n t i o n a l i s e d c o n v e r s a t i o n sustainer: s e e § 1 4 . 3 . 5 ) .

1 4 . 3 . 3 Inferred i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l s

T h e third set o f e v i d e n t i a l s a r e g l o s s e d a s inferred. T h e y are u s e d if t h e p e r s o n a s k i n g

t h e q u e s t i o n a s s u m e s that t h e p e r s o n b e i n g a s k e d h a s n o firsthand k n o w l e d g e o f t h e

i n f o r m a t i o n . I n f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l s d o n o t h a v e p r e s e n t t e n s e ; t h e r e is a distinction

b e t w e e n r e c e n t p a s t a n d r e m o t e past. T h e y are often u s e d w h e n t h e s p e a k e r d o e s n o t

h a v e a c l u e a b o u t t h e a n s w e r o r t h e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . 1 4 . 9 3 w a s said b y J o v i n o

B r i t o w h e n w e h a d j u s t a r r i v e d in a h a m l e t c a l l e d M a r a b i t a n a a n d t h e r e w a s n o o n e to

m e e t u s .

1 4 . 9 3 w a - t j i m a r i k a n i - s i k a di-a

l p l - b r o t h e r . i n . l a w w h e r e - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R 3 s g n f - g o

' W h e r e is o u r b r o t h e r - i n - l a w g o n e ( w e h a v e n o idea)?'

In 1 4 . 9 4 , t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f a village are a s k i n g e a c h o t h e r a b o u t w h o c o u l d h a v e

m o v e d a m o u n t a i n t o t h e o t h e r side o f t h e river; n o n e o f t h e m c o u l d h a v e s e e n it o r h a d

a n y i d e a a b o u t it.

1 4 . 9 4 k w a n a - t h a - s i k a h a - n a

w h o - F R - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R D E M : I N A N - C L : V E R T

h y a p a - n a - n u k u p e m e - d a l a - s e

h i l l - V E R T - T O P . N O N . A / S o n e + C L : S I D E - C L : O T H E R . S I D E - L O C

n h e t a n a - t h a k e - t a

3 p l + t a k e 3 p l - c r o s s + C A U S 1- C A U S 2

n e : m e - t a - t h a - s i k a

3 p l - s t a n d + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - F R - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R

' W h o c o u l d h a v e t a k e n this m o u n t a i n to t h e o t h e r side (in vain)?'

In t h e s a m e story, t h e 'chief o f t h e village w h o o r d e r e d t h e p o o r s o l d i e r to t a k e t h e

m o u n t a i n a c r o s s h a d a g o o d g u e s s that it m u s t h a v e b e e n t h e soldier w h o h a d d o n e it,

a n d h e a s s u m e s t h a t t h e s o l d i e r - w h o m u s t h a v e d o n e it - h a s v i s u a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t

it; t h i s a c c o u n t s for t h e u s e o f t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l in t h e s u b s e q u e n t stretch o f t h e s a m e

s t o r y ( 1 8 . 8 ) . T h e s o l d i e r r e s p o n d s w i t h a v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s i n c e h e w a s i n d e e d t h e o n e

w h o h a d d o n e it ( 1 8 . 9 ) .

T h e i n f e r r e d i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l c a n b e u s e d in a q u e s t i o n t o o n e s e l f if o n e d o e s

n o t h a v e a c l u e a b o u t t h e a n s w e r . In 1 4 . 9 5 , a f e m a l e j a g u a r is a s k i n g h e r s e l f a rhetorical

q u e s t i o n a b o u t h o w h e r n e i g h b o u r , a m a l e deer, c o u l d h a v e killed a n o t h e r j a g u a r w i t h o u t

a n y c l a w s - s h e p r e s u m e s that h e killed t h e j a g u a r s i n c e h e h a d b r o u g h t a j a g u a r ' s b o d y

for t h e m t o eat.

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 3 1 6 1 4 T e n s e a n d e v i d e n t i a i i t y

1 4 . 9 5 k w e - s i k a di-ni d i n u h i

h o w - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R 3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f + c o m e D E M : A N I M

k a y u d i - p a d a - s e d i t e

t h u s 3 s g n f - c l a w - N E G . E X + N C L : A N I M

' H o w c o m e h e h a s killed ( a j a g u a r ) w i t h o u t c l a w s ? '

T h e e m p h a t i c clitic -so is f u n c t i o n a l l y a n d s e m a n t i c a l l y s i m i l a r to inferred

i n t e r r o g a t i v e s a n d c a n r e p l a c e t h e m if u s e d b y itself. W h e n e m p l o y e d in a f f i r m a t i v e

c l a u s e s , this m o r p h e m e m e a n s ' o b v i o u s e v i d e n c e ' - s e e § 1 5 . 4 . It c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h

v a r i o u s i n t e r r o g a t i v e evidentiaiity specifications, w i t h future a n d w i t h t h e m a r k e r o f

d o u b t , -da ( d i s c u s s e d in § 1 6 . 5 ) , to i n d i c a t e u n c e r t a i n t y as to t h e s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e .

W h e n - s o is u s e d b y itself, t h e q u e s t i o n refers to t h e p a s t a n d i m p l i e s either that t h e

a n s w e r will b e b a s e d o n inferred i n f o r m a t i o n , a s in 1 4 . 9 6 , o r that t h e s p e a k e r d o e s n o t

h a v e a c l u e a s to w h a t t h e s o u r c e for t h e i n f o r m a t i o n for t h e a n s w e r w o u l d b e , as in

1 4 . 9 7 .

In 1 4 . 9 6 t h e p e o p l e w h o h a v e j u s t b e e n a t t a c k e d b y the evil spirit feel their b o d i e s to

s e e if t h e y h a v e b e e n d a m a g e d ('eaten up') b y it; to see w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e b e c o m e evil

spirits t h e m s e l v e s o r are still p e o p l e . F r o m w h a t t h e y find t h e y infer ( h e n c e t h e inferred

e v i d e n t i a l -sika) that t h e y h a v e n ' t b e e n e a t e n b y t h e evil spirit. T h e n , to m a k e sure, t h e y

a s k e a c h o t h e r t o feel their h e a d s , a n d a s k in a m a z e m e n t a n d d o u b t b a s e d o n t h e inferred

i n f o r m a t i o n : c o u l d w e p o s s i b l y still b e p e o p l e ?

1 4 . 9 6 w h a n a w i k i - m i a - d a - s o

w e p e o p l e - o n l y - D O U B T - E M P H . I N T E R

'Aren't w e still p e o p l e ? '

1 4 . 9 7 c o m e s f r o m a d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h t o o k p l a c e w h e n w e w e r e l o o k i n g t o g e t h e r at a

p i c t u r e o f s o m e B r a z i l i a n b i r d s u n k n o w n to t h e s p e a k e r s . T h e i r r e a c t i o n w a s :

1 4 . 9 7 k u i t e - s o ? h a w a y a - t u p e - s o

I N T E R + N C L : A N I M - E M P H . I N T E R e a g l e - P L : D I M - E M P H . I N T E R

' W h a t a r e t h e s e ? C o u l d t h e y b e s m a l l e a g l e s ? '

W h e n u s e d w i t h a n e v i d e n t i a l specification, -so also i m p l i e s a s t r o n g d o u b t . In 1 4 . 9 8

t h e p e o p l e a s k e a c h o t h e r a b o u t a s t r a n g e l o o k i n g m a n w h o m t h e y c a n see; h o w e v e r ,

t h e y h a v e n ' t g o t a c l u e a b o u t w h o h e is ( h e t u r n s o u t to b e a n evil spirit).

1 4 . 9 8 k w a n a y a p h i n i - n h a - s o h i n t

w h o t h i n g - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R - E M P H . I N T E R this.very

k a y u tjari matji:te

t h u s m a n b e a u t i f u l + N C L : A N I M

' W h o c o u l d this v e r y h a n d s o m e m a n b e ? '

In j u s t a f e w e x a m p l e s -so c o - o c c u r s w i t h -sika 'past inferred interrogative'; it i m p l i e s

s t r o n g s u r p r i s e a n d total l a c k o f a n y i d e a w h a t t h e a n s w e r c o u l d b e . In 1 4 . 9 9 , t h e m a n is

w o n d e r i n g w h o c o u l d h a v e b e e n to t h e s t r e a m w h e r e h e w a s fishing, s i n c e all the

v i l l a g e r s w e r e s u p p o s e d to h a v e g o n e a w a y .

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 14.3 Tense-evidentiality in interrogative clauses 3 1 7

1 4 . 9 9 k w a n a - s i k a n a - n u - s o

w h o - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R 3 p l - c o m e - E M P H . I N T E R

n a - k a t h u y - n i k i

3 p l + g o - S U B a l l - C O M P L

' W h o o n e a r t h c o u l d h a v e c o m e , s i n c e all (the villagers) w e n t a w a y ? '

T h e m a r k e r - s o is o f t e n u s e d w i t h future m a r k e d w i t h -mhade (see §4.4), w h e n t h e

s p e a k e r h a s n o a n s w e r to t h e q u e s t i o n , as a r e a c t i o n to s o m e u n e x p l a i n a b l e event.

E x a m p l e 1 4 . 1 0 0 c o m e s f r o m t h e story a b o u t a w i d o w w h o h a s j u s t b e e n told b y a fish-

m a n t h a t h e r w h o l e v i l l a g e will b e d e s t r o y e d ; h e r r e a c t i o n is:

1 4 . 1 0 0 k w e - m h a d e d i - a - s o

h o w - F U T 3 s g n f - g o - E M P H . I N T E R

' H o w o n e a r t h is it g o i n g to h a p p e n (lit. is it g o i n g to be)?'

1 4 . 3 . 4 O m i s s i o n a n d variability of i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l

I n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s c a n b e u n m a r k e d for tense-evidentiality, in t h e s a m e w a y s as in

a f f i r m a t i v e c l a u s e s (see § 1 4 . 2 . 7 ) . T h e evidentiality specification is o f t e n o m i t t e d if it h a s

b e e n g i v e n in a c o n t i g u o u s c l a u s e . 1 4 . 1 0 1 is a n e x a m p l e o f t w o c o n t i g u o u s i n t e r r o g a t i v e

c l a u s e s ; o n l y t h e s e c o n d o n e o f t h e m is m a r k e d for t h e inferred evidential. T h i s is f r o m a

story a b o u t t h e a d v e n t u r e s o f t h e T a r i a n a forefathers. H e r e , the g r a n d m o t h e r o f the

T a r i a n a e n e m i e s h a s n o i d e a w h e r e t h e s e s t r a n g e w o m e n ( w h o are the T a r i a n a in

d i s g u i s e ) c o u l d h a v e c o m e f r o m .

1 4 . 1 0 1 k w a n a ina: n a k a

w h o w o m a n : P L 3 p l + a r r i v e

k a n i - p e n i - s i k a n a - n u

w h e r e - P L : A N I M - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R 3 p l - c o m e

' W h o c o u l d b e t h e w o m e n w h o a r r i v e d ? W h e r e c o u l d t h e y b e c o m i n g f r o m ? '

S i n c e q u e s t i o n s are m a r k e d w i t h i n t e r r o g a t i v e intonation, e v i d e n t i a l are often

o m i t t e d , e s p e c i a l l y b y y o u n g e r p e o p l e - cf. 1 4 . 1 0 2 . T h i s is a q u e s t i o n f r e q u e n t l y a s k e d

b y J o s e B r i t o o f h i s father C a n d i d o :

1 4 . 1 0 2 w a - y a r u p e - n e k u i t e w a : w h a

l p l - t h i n g / l a n g u a g e - I N S I N T E R + N C L : A N I M l p l + s a y w e

' W h i c h is (the w o r d ) w e u s e in o u r l a n g u a g e ? ' (i.e. ' H o w d o w e s a y this in

T a r i a n a ? ' )

Y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e the affirmative evidential s y s t e m in c o n t e n t

q u e s t i o n s ; t h e y a l s o u s e future ( a c c o m p a n i e d b y interrogative i n t o n a t i o n ) , as in 1 4 . 1 0 3 .

In q u e s t i o n s w i t h first p e r s o n o n l y t h e u n c e r t a i n future c a n b e u s e d (see § 1 4 . 4 ) .

1 4 . 1 0 3 k w e - m h a d e n u - n i n h u t a d u n a

I N T E R - F U T . U N C E R T 1s g - d o 1s g + b r i n g 3 s g f - O B J

' H o w a m I t o b r i n g h e r ? '

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 3 1 8 14 Tense and evidentiality

1 4 . 3 . 5 Preferred i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l s

P r e f e r e n c e s for e v i d e n t i a l s in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s are s i m i l a r to t h o s e in a f f i r m a t i v e

c l a u s e s . T h e u s e o f t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l p r e s u p p o s e s that the a d d r e s s e e h a s h a d direct

e x p e r i e n c e ; it s h o u l d b e t h e p r e f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l s i n c e visual e v i d e n c e is v a l u e d m o r e

t h a n a n y other. T h e u s e o f n o n - v i s u a l evidential p r e s u p p o s e s less direct a c c e s s to

i n f o r m a t i o n , w h i l e t h e inferred e v i d e n t i a l w h i c h in fact c o v e r s a n y k i n d o f indirect

e x p e r i e n c e m e a n s that t h e q u e s t i o n e r a s s u m e s that t h e a d d r e s s e e c a n h a r d l y g i v e a n

i n f o r m e d a n s w e r .

If t h e r e is a c h o i c e o f evidentials, t h e v i s u a l evidential m a y b e t h e first c h o i c e ;

h o w e v e r , o n s e c o n d t h o u g h t s a ' m o r e precise' c h o i c e c a n b e m a d e . In 1 4 . 1 0 4 , t h e father

o f a d a u g h t e r w h o h a d b r o k e n a t a b o o ( s h e left h e r ritual s e c l u s i o n , a n d as t h e result w a s

k i d n a p p e d b y evil spirits a n d f o r c e d to m a r r y o n e o f t h e m ) s e e s h e r w a s h i n g c l o t h e s in

t h e m i d d l e o f t h e river. H e a s k s h i m s e l f w h o c o u l d it b e - u s i n g t h e visual evidential.

1 4 . 1 0 4 k w a n a y a p h i n i - n h a

w h o t h i n g - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

' W h o is it?1

W h e n t r a n s c r i b i n g t h e story, I w a s g i v e n a n o t h e r v e r s i o n w i t h a n o n - v i s u a l evidential;

t h e e x p l a n a t i o n w a s that h e w a s a c t u a l l y a s k i n g a b o u t s o m e t h i n g w h i c h c a n n o t b e s e e n

w i t h o n e ' s e y e s - s i n c e t h e girl w a s a l r e a d y a n evil spirit herself.

1 4 . 1 0 5 k w a n a y a p h i n i - m h a - s o

w h o t h i n g - P R E S . N O N V I S - E M P H . I N T E R

' W h o is it?'

H o w e v e r , w e h a v e s e e n that t h e u s e o f visual, n o n - v i s u a l a n d inferred e v i d e n t i a l s in

q u e s t i o n s is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s o s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . T h e u s e o f v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l m a y b e

a c c u s a t o r y , a s in 1 4 . 8 3 w h e r e t h e u n c l e r e f u s e s to g i v e a n a n s w e r in visual e v i d e n t i a l

w a n t i n g t o a v o i d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y that g o e s w i t h it - a n d t h e C r e a t o r c o n t i n u e s a s k i n g

h i m i n v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l i m p l y i n g h e will n o t t a k e a n o for a n a n s w e r . T h e p r e f e r e n c e s

for t h e u s e o f e v i d e n t i a l s i n i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s are s u m m a r i s e d in D i a g r a m 14.2.

D I A G R A M 1 4 . 2 P R E F E R E N C E S F O R E V I D E N T I A L S I N I N T E R R O G A T I V E C L A U S E S

V I S U A L (I k n o w y o u <— N O N - V I S U A L ( y o u d i d <— I N F E R R E D

s a w it) n o t s e e it)

I a m s u r e y o u k n o w Y o u m a y n o t k n o w Y o u d o n o t h a v e direct

A c c u s a t i o n Y o u are n o t really i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t it

Y o u d o a n d / o r y o u r e s p o n s i b l e Y o u are n o t k n o w l e d g e a b l e

a r e r e s p o n s i b l e e n o u g h

It s h o u l d a l s o b e n o t e d that it is n o t culturally a p p r o p r i a t e to a s k t o o m a n y q u e s t i o n s

in T a r i a n a . O n e a s k s a q u e s t i o n if o n e is s u r e t h e 'responder' c a n g i v e y o u t h e d e s i r e d

i n f o r m a t i o n . O t h e r w i s e , a s k i n g a q u e s t i o n m a y p r e s u p p o s e t h e 'questioner's' i n s i s t e n c e

a b o u t t h e m a t t e r - w h i c h is r e a d i l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s d u e to the fact that (s)he s u s p e c t s that

s o m e t h i n g is w r o n g . T h e restriction o n a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s is l i n k e d to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f

b e i n g p r e c i s e a s t o o n e ' s s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . S i n c e t h e u s e o f e v i d e n t i a l s in q u e s t i o n s

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 14.3 Tense-evidentiality in interrogative clauses 3 1 9

i m p l i e s t h e q u e s t i o n e r ' s a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t t h e a d d r e s s e e ' s s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e , o n e a s k s

a q u e s t i o n o n l y if o n e a b s o l u t e l y h a s to. A s k i n g o n e s e l f q u e s t i o n s (often, o f a rhetorical

k i n d ) is a b s o l u t e l y a p p r o p r i a t e - s e e 1 4 . 8 6 or 1 4 . 1 0 3 . Q u e s t i o n s c a n also b e a d d r e s s e d to

o n e s e l f a n d t o n o o n e in p a r t i c u l a r - s e e 1 4 . 1 0 4 a n d 1 4 . 9 5 . T h e s e q u e s t i o n s are

f u n c t i o n a l l y n o t q u i t e i n f o r m a t i o n q u e s t i o n s ; t h e y c a n b e interpreted as m a r k s o f

s u r p r i s e o r l a c k o f k n o w l e d g e . T h i s e x p l a i n s t h e relative f r e q u e n c y o f inferred

e v i d e n t i a l s in t h e s e e x a m p l e s .

E c h o - q u e s t i o n s a r e u s e d a s a ' c o n v e r s a t i o n sustainer' strategy; t h e y are t h e n

' a s s u m p t i o n - n e u t r a l ' . In t h e l a n g u a g e s o f t h e V a u p e s , e c h o - q u e s t i o n s are a c o m m o n

s t r a t e g y for s h o w i n g listeners' p a r t i c i p a t i o n in c o n v e r s a t i o n a l interaction (their u s e in

T u y u c a is d e s c r i b e d b y M a l o n e 1 9 8 8 ; a n d m e n t i o n e d b y R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 1 4 4 , in

r e l a t i o n to T u c a n o ) . W h e n A ( s p e a k e r ) tells a story, B (listener) is e x p e c t e d to g i v e

f e e d b a c k , after j u s t a b o u t e v e r y s e n t e n c e , b y r e p e a t i n g t h e p r e d i c a t e (or t h e last v e r b

w i t h i n a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ) a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l a n d

i n t e r r o g a t i v e i n t o n a t i o n . F o r T a r i a n a a n d m o s t E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , t h e

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s a r e a s s h o w n in D i a g r a m 14.3 (also s e e § 2 5 . 5 . 2 ) .

Cf. t h e f o l l o w i n g d i a l o g u e s .

D I A G R A M 14.3 E V I D E N T I A L S I N Q U E S T I O N - R E S P O N S E : T A R I A N A A N D E A S T T U C A N O

Q U E S T I O N : A N S W E R :

A : v i s u a l B : v i s u a l

A : n o n - v i s u a l B : n o n - v i s u a l

A : i n f e r r e d B : inferred

A : r e p o r t e d B : inferred

1 4 . 1 0 6 A : h a w d i - a - k a

O K 3 s g n f - s a y - R E C . P . V I S

' H e said, " O K " . '

B . d i - a - n i h k a

3 s g n f - s a y - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R

' H e said.'

1 4 . 1 0 7 A . h e k u d u k a - k a r u - p i d a k a

t o m o r r o w 3 s g f + a r r i v e - P U R P . V I S - R E C . P . R E P

' S h e w i l l c o m e t o m o r r o w , I h a v e b e e n told recently.'

B . d u k a - s i k a

3 s g f + a r r i v e - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R

' S h e is c o m i n g . '

T h e c o n v e r s a t i o n s u s t a i n e r p a t t e r n p r o v i d e s a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f a special

status o f t h e r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l in T a r i a n a ; w e r e t u r n to this in § 1 4 . 5 .

S i n c e T a r i a n a d i s c o u r s e is h i g h l y elliptical, t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a story cast in inferred

r e m o t e p a s t c a n b e o m i t t e d , a n d t h e e v i d e n t i a l g o e s o n t o t h e direct s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t

w h i c h a l r e a d y h a s a n o t h e r evidential. 1 4 . 1 0 8 is a n e x a m p l e o f s u c h 'double' e v i d e n t i a l -

w h i c h is s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r to d o u b l e c a s e (see C h a p t e r 7 ) . It c o m e s f r o m a s t o r y told in

r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d ; t h e m a n a s k s h i m s e l f a q u e s t i o n in n o n - v i s u a l i n t e r r o g a t i v e

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 3 2 0 14 Tense and evidentiality

( u n d e r l i n e d ) , a n d t h e r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d m a r k e r -pidana g o e s o n t o it. I d o n o t h a v e

a n y s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s for a f f i r m a t i v e evidentials.

1 4 . 1 0 8 f f k a n i - t h a l - p i d a n a l

w h e r e - P R E S . N O N V I S . I N T E R - R E M . P . R E P
1
' W h e r e (is t h e w o m a n w h o s e p r e s e n c e h e h a s j u s t felt)?

1 4 . 4 F u t u r e

T a r i a n a h a s t w o future m a r k e r s . O n e o f t h e m , -de, refers to a definite future a n d is u s e d

w i t h first p e r s o n o n l y . T h e o t h e r o n e , - m h a d e , c a n b e u s e d w i t h a n y p e r s o n . W h e n u s e d

w i t h first p e r s o n , it d e s c r i b e s less definite future e v e n t s . W i t h non-first p e r s o n , it is the

o n l y future m a r k e r . T h e r e a r e n o evidentiality distinctions in the future (see e x a m p l e s

1 4 . 2 0 - 2 2 , for future m a r k i n g in r e p o r t e d clauses). T h e t w o futures w i t h first p e r s o n are

illustrated b e l o w . T h e -de future in 1 4 . 1 0 9 refers to s o m e t h i n g that will definitely b e

d o n e straight a w a y .

1 4 . 1 0 9 k a s i n a - w y a - n u k u n u - w h e n i - d e

n o w - E X T R - T O P . N O N . A / S 1 s g - r e v e n g e - F U T . C E R T

n u h u a n u - k a l e - n u k u

I 1 s g - h e a r t - T O P . N O N . A / S

' N o w I will t a k e r e v e n g e for m y heart ( w h i c h w a s d e v o u r e d b y a n evil

spirit).'

In c o n t r a s t , a future m a r k e d w i t h -mhade w h e n u s e d w i t h first p e r s o n is less definite

a n d m o r e r e m o t e . In 1 4 . 1 1 0 t h e future refers to t i m e a w e e k a w a y f r o m n o w .

1 4 . 1 1 0 i k a s u y a p h i n i w a - m a r a w a : - m h a d e

t o d a y t h i n g l p l - g o . d o w n s t r e a m l p l + g o - F U T . U N C E R T

S a o G a b r i e l - s e - n u k u

S a o G a b r i e l - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e d a y like t o d a y (i.e. n e x t S u n d a y ) w e will g o d o w n s t r e a m to S a o

Gabriel.'

T h e - m h a d e future w a s u s e d in 1 9 . 3 3 - said b y Y u n u r i (the late E u g e n i o M u n i z , a

s h a m a n ) t o h i s w i f e b e f o r e h e w e n t to a feast f r o m w h i c h h e n e v e r returned. H e u s e d the

- m h a d e future b e c a u s e h e felt h e m i g h t n o t c o m e b a c k . T h e -de future c a n n o t b e u s e d

w i t h t h e e p i s t e m i c m o d a l i t y m a r k e r , p a . p e n u - n i - k a ' m a y b e (I w i l l d o it)' ( s e e § 1 9 . 1 1 ) .

O n l y t h e - m h a d e future c a n b e e m p l o y e d in c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s , w h e r e repetition

i n d i c a t e s d o u b t (see § 1 9 . 1 ) . T h e -mhade future w i t h first p e r s o n o c c u r s in t h e d e o n t i c

m e a n i n g o f ' o b l i g a t i o n ' , a s in 1 4 . 1 0 3 . T h e -de future n e v e r h a s this m e a n i n g .

W i t h a n o n - f i r s t p e r s o n , o n l y t h e -mhade future is p o s s i b l e . 1 4 . 1 1 1 illustrates this.

1 4 . 1 1 1 h a - m a - p e p e d a l i e - m a - p e

D E M : I N A N - C L : F E M - P L o l d - C L : F E M - P L

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 14.5 Final remarks 321

n a - y a m i - m h a d e - t h u y na:

3 p l - d i e - F U T . U N C E R T - a l l 3 p l + g o

T h e s e o l d w o m e n will all die.'

T h i s f u t u r e h a s a d e o n t i c m e a n i n g ' o u g h t to, s h o u l d ' w h e n u s e d w i t h s e c o n d p e r s o n ,

a s in 1 4 . 1 1 2 ; this is s i m i l a r to 1 4 . 1 0 3 .

1 4 . 1 1 2 k a y - m i a p i - p i t a - m h a d e

t h u s - J U S T 2 s g - b a t h e - F U T

' Y o u are to b a t h e this w a y . '

T h i s d e o n t i c future is n e g a t e d w i t h t h e p r o h i b i t i v e m h a i d a , as illustrated in 1 4 . 1 1 3

( s e e further d i s c u s s i o n in § 1 7 . 3 ) .

1 4 . 1 1 3 d e : p i h a - t i k i - n u k u m h e d a - m h a d e

n i g h t + A P P R O X - D I M - T O P . N O N . A / S P R O H - F U T

h a p e - p e r i i - n h a i h y a

c o l d - C O L L 2 p l - e a t y o u

'In t h e early e v e n i n g y o u s h o u l d n ' t eat c o l d things.'

T h e i n t e n t i o n a l - k a s u - s e e § 1 6 . 3 - is s e m a n t i c a l l y c l o s e to t h e future; it c o m b i n e s

w i t h m o s t t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specifications a n d m a y e x p r e s s i m m e d i a t e a n d d e t e r m i n a t e

i n t e n t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e s p e a k e r to carry o u t t h e future action. Intentional m o o d is

u s e d in lieu o f a n e g a t i v e future - s e e § 1 7 . 2 . T h e intentional is also u s e d to e x p r e s s

future w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e past, a c t i n g like a 'future-in-the past' w i t h i n a n a r r a t i v e in

r e m o t e p a s t t e n s e :

1 4 . 1 1 4 d i h a d i - d i a d i - n u y a w i d i - p u m i - s e

h e 3 s g n f - r e t u r n 3 s g n f - c o m e j a g u a r 3 s g n f - a f t e r - L O C

d i - n u - p i d a n a d i - n a d h i p a - k a s u

3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f + c a t c h - I N T

' H e c a m e b a c k , t h e j a g u a r c a m e after h i m , it w a s g o i n g to g r a b h i m . '

1 4 . 5 F i n a l r e m a r k s

T a r i a n a h a s a n o b l i g a t o r y t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y s y s t e m . T h e u s e o f e v i d e n t i a l s h a s to d o

p r i m a r i l y w i t h identification o f the s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n . In addition, it h a s a v a s t array

o f p r a g m a t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s for s p e a k e r s ' attitudes, responsibility a n d a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t

o t h e r s (in t h e c a s e o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e evidentials). T e l l i n g lies w i t h e v i d e n t i a l s is o n e o f t h e

m o s t f a s c i n a t i n g a s p e c t s o f their u s e : o n e c a n g i v e w r o n g i n f o r m a t i o n b u t u s e the right

e v i d e n t i a l , o r o n e c a n g i v e a w r o n g s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n .

A c a s e c a n b e m a d e for t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t w o s u b s y s t e m s o f e v i d e n t i a l s in T a r i a n a :

r e p o r t e d v e r s u s t h e o t h e r s . Firstly, t h e r e p o r t e d is t h e o n l y evidentiality specification n o t

u s e d in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s ( s e e § 1 4 . 3 ) , w h e r e it c o r r e s p o n d s , functionally, to t h e

inferred e v i d e n t i a l in t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n s u s t a i n e r p a t t e r n s h o w n in D i a g r a m 14.3.

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 3 2 2 14 Tense and evidentiality

S e c o n d l y , t h e r e p o r t e d is t h e o n l y evidentiality specification w h i c h is u s e d in

i m p e r a t i v e s ( s e e § 1 6 . 1 ) . S u b s y s t e m s o f T a r i a n a e v i d e n t i a l s a n d their a s s o c i a t e d c l a u s e

t y p e s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 14.4.

T h i r d l y , t h e r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l interacts w i t h t e n s e in a different w a y f r o m o t h e r

e v i d e n t i a l s : w h i l e t e n s e a n d t h e o t h e r e v i d e n t i a l s c o m b i n e r e f e r e n c e to t h e t i m e o f t h e

a c t i o n a n d t h e t i m e o f t h e report, t h e t e n s e o f a r e p o r t e d specification refers j u s t to the

t i m e o f t h e report. In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l a l l o w s a d o u b l e t e n s e

s p e c i f i c a t i o n ( f u t u r e - r e p o r t e d ) , t o talk a b o u t future t h i n g s b e i n g r e p o r t e d b e f o r e t h e y

h a v e h a p p e n e d - s e e § 1 4 . 1 .

T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f t h e s e p a r a t e e x i s t e n c e o f v i s u a l - b a s e d

a n d r e p o r t e d - b a s e d e v i d e n t i a l s u b s y s t e m s in T a r i a n a . T h e r e is also d i a c h r o n i c e v i d e n c e

for their s e p a r a t e d e v e l o p m e n t in T a r i a n a . T h e m o r p h e m e -pida f o u n d in all t h e r e p o r t e d

e v i d e n t i a l s a n d in t h e r e p o r t e d i m p e r a t i v e is t h e o n l y e v i d e n t i a l m a r k e r to h a v e a

c o g n a t e in t h e c l o s e l y related B a n i w a o f l9ana: B a n i w a h a s a clitic -pida w i t h a b a s i c

m e a n i n g o f 'reported' a n d is u s e d in n a r r a t i v e s w h i c h d o n o t i n v o l v e a n y p e r s o n a l

e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e s p e a k e r . T h e o t h e r e v i d e n t i a l s in T a r i a n a h a v e n o c o g n a t e s in B a n i w a .

T A B L E 1 4 . 4 E V I D E N T I A L S A N D C L A U S E T Y P E S I N T A R I A N A

T E R M S IN T H E S Y S T E M C L A U S E T Y P E

visual, non-visual sensory, reported, inferred declarative

visual, non-visual sensory, inferred interrogative

reported imperative

T h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y s y s t e m in T a r i a n a a p p e a r s to h a v e a r i s e n as t h e result o f areal

d i f f u s i o n f r o m E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , m a i n l y f r o m T u c a n o w i t h its five-term

e v i d e n t i a l i t y distinctions. It is a n e x a m p l e o f b o r r o w i n g t h e w h o l e s y s t e m o f

g r a m m a t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s (see A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) . L i k e T a r i a n a , t h e T u c a n o

l a n g u a g e s d o n o t h a v e a n y evidentiality distinctions in future, a p p r e h e n s i v e o r in t h e

i m p e r a t i v e . T h e o n l y evidentiality-like distinction in i m p e r a t i v e s is t h e r e p o r t e d

i m p e r a t i v e ; h o w e v e r , u n l i k e T a r i a n a , t h e m a r k e r o f t h e r e p o r t e d i m p e r a t i v e in T u c a n o

l a n g u a g e s is n o t s e g m e n t a b l e .

W e h y p o t h e s i s e that after T a r i a n a c a m e in c o n t a c t w i t h E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , t h e

e x i s t i n g o p t i o n a l t e n s e a n d m o o d s y s t e m w a s r e a n a l y s e d a s o b l i g a t o r y t e n s e - m a r k i n g :

t h e p a s t / p e r f e c t i v e - n a w a s r e a n a l y s e d a s a r e m o t e p a s t m a r k e r , a n d t h e e r s t w h i l e

d e c l a r a t i v e -ka a s r e c e n t p a s t m a r k e r . T h e u n m a r k e d f o r m w a s r e a n a l y s e d a s present.

T h e e x i s t i n g r e p o r t e d specification, -pida, c a m e to b e r e a n a l y s e d a s h a v i n g u n m a r k e d

p r e s e n t r e f e r e n c e . T h e n e w l y e v o l v e d t e n s e m a r k e r s w e r e a d d e d to it.

T h e g e n e r i c i n f e r r e d a r o s e a s t h e result o f r e a n a l y s i s o f a d u b i t a t i v e m a r k e r , -si-ka

( u s e d a s a m a r k e r o f d o u b t a n d s p e c u l a t i o n in P i a p o c o , a n o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e c l o s e l y

r e l a t e d t o T a r i a n a b u t s p o k e n o u t s i d e t h e V a u p e s a r e a in C o l o m b i a ) .

T h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l d e v e l o p e d v i a g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f a v e r b o f n o n - v i s u a l

p e r c e p t i o n , - h i m a 'hear, feel, s e e m , perceive'. T h e v i s u a l specification r e m a i n e d f o r m a l l y

u n m a r k e d .

T h e r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f specific inferred i n v o l v e s r e a n a l y s i s o f t h e T a r i a n a

a n t e r i o r m a r k e r - n h i ( w h i c h m a n y y o u n g e r p e o p l e p r o n o u n c e a s -ni) in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h

t h e v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l . T h i s r e a n a l y s i s is b a s e d o n a n a n a l o g y w i t h a h o m o p h o n o u s 'look-

alike' u s e d in a c o m p l e x specific inferred c o n s t r u c t i o n in T u c a n o . S u c h a c o n s t r u c t i o n in

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 1 4 . 5 F i n a l r e m a r k s 3 2 3

T u c a n o i n v o l v e s a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n a n d t h e a u x i l i a r y nil 'do; be' w h i c h t a k e s a n y visual

e v i d e n t i a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n (see W e s t 1 9 8 0 : 7 5 - 6 ; R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 1 4 0 - 1 ; 2 9 1 - 2 ) . T h e

s y s t e m o f e v i d e n t i a l s in T a r i a n a is e t y m o l o g i c a l l y h e t e r o g e n o u s - different

s p e c i f i c a t i o n s c o m e f r o m different s o u r c e s . T h e origin o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e e v i d e n t i a l s

r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

T h e f u t u r e in T a r i a n a s h o w s a r e m a r k a b l e similarity to T u c a n o patterns. S i m i l a r l y to

T a r i a n a , T u c a n o h a s t w o futures. O n e is u s e d o n l y to refer to first p e r s o n . T h e o t h e r is

u s e d to refer to a n y o t h e r p e r s o n , a n d it is f o r m e d w i t h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e n o n - v i s u a l

m a r k e r p l u s g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r suffixes. T h e T a r i a n a m a r k e r - m h a - w h i c h a p p e a r s in

t h e future m a r k e r - m h a d e - is u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l p a r a d i g m (see

T a b l e 14.1). T h i s is a n e x a m p l e o f a m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a i q u e into T a r i a n a .

T h e o r i g i n o f t h e future m a r k e r -de in T a r i a n a is u n c l e a r ; it c o u l d b e related to t h e

h a b i t u a l m a r k e r -de in B a n i w a (cf. B a n i w a future m a r k e r -daka w h i c h m a y b e c o g n a t e to

T a r i a n a -daka 'yet, still'). T h e m a r k e r for T u c a n o first p e r s o n future is -// ( c o g n a t e to

G u a n a n o -tja 'intentional; 1st p e r s o n future'). T h e T a r i a n a suffix c o u l d h a v e b e e n

i n f l u e n c e d b y T u c a n o .

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 15

A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

T a r i a n a h a s a n u m b e r o f n o n - s p a t i a l c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h are realised i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f

t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k i n g . W e s h o w e d in C h a p t e r 12 that t h e n o n - s p a t i a l setting

m a r k e r s c a n o c c u r in s e v e r a l different p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n the v e r b structure. T h e y also

d i s p l a y a r a n g e o f restrictions in their ability to o c c u r w i t h o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s , a n d w i t h

e a c h other.

I n § 1 5 . 1 w e c o n s i d e r all t h e n o n - s p a t i a l setting m a r k e r s . T h e A k t i o n s a r t enclitics

d i s c u s s e d in § 1 5 . 2 f o r m a c o h e r e n t class f r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f their o c c u r r e n c e ,

s e m a n t i c s , o r i g i n s a n d a f e w o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s ; t h e y o c c u p y o n e slot in v e r b a l structure

(slot 17 in S c h e m e 12.2). D e g r e e m a r k e r s are a n a l y s e d in § 1 5 . 3 , a n d e m p h a t i c m a r k e r s

in § 1 5 . 4 .

1 5 . 1 A s p e c t m a r k e r s

A s p e c t m a r k e r s fall w i t h i n t h e b r o a d s e m a n t i c field o f ' c o m p l e t i o n ' a n d 'duration'. T h e y

a r e h e t e r o g e n o u s a s t o their distribution, m o r p h o l o g i c a l status a n d origins. W e call t h e m

'aspectual' for short.

A c o m p l e t e list o f a s p e c t u a l m a r k e r s is g i v e n in T a b l e 1 5 . 1 , w i t h a n i n d i c a t i o n o f the

slot t h e y g o into w i t h i n t h e v e r b a l structure in S c h e m e s 12.1-2. M o s t o f t h e s e are

enclitics, a n d j u s t a f e w are not. W e d i s c u s s t h e m o n e b y o n e , starting f r o m t h e slots

w h i c h a r e c l o s e s t to t h e v e r b a l root.

1 5 . 1 . 1 'Short d u r a t i o n , l i t t l e by little' -ina

T h e m a r k e r - i n a i n d i c a t e s t h e s h o r t d u r a t i o n o f a n a c t i o n o r p r o c e s s , as in p i - w h a w h e t a -

i n a (2sg-rest-LiTTLE.BY.LiTTLE) ' h a v e a little rest', see also 1 5 . 1 ; t h e incipient c h a r a c t e r

o f a n a c t i o n o r p r o c e s s , a s in 15.2; o r t h e short e x t e n t o f a n a c t i o n ( ' c o m e c l o s e to'), as in

15.3.

T h i s m a r k e r is u n u s u a l in a n u m b e r o f w a y s , p h o n o l o g i c a l l y a n d o t h e r w i s e : it s h a r e s

s o m e p r o p e r t i e s w i t h suffixes a n d s o m e w i t h fixed p o s i t i o n enclitics. U n l i k e suffixes,

b u t s i m i l a r l y to enclitics, it c a n t a k e s e c o n d a r y stress in v e r y s l o w s p e e c h . U n l i k e

enclitics, - i n a h a s v o w e l f u s i o n b o u n d a r y w i t h t h e root; h o w e v e r , t h e r e is a certain

variability in t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f t h e v o w e l fusion. In n o r m a l a n d r a p i d s p e e c h ,

y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s a l w a y s a p p l y v o w e l fusion w i t h -ina if t h e root o r t h e p r e c e d i n g affix

e n d s in -a, a s s h o w n in 15.3. E x a m p l e 15.1 s h o w s that in s l o w s p e e c h v o w e l f u s i o n d o e s

n o t a p p l y a n d s e c o n d a r y stress a p p e a r s o n -ina w h i c h also h a s a v a r i a n t -yona. In v e r y

s l o w s p e e c h - i n a c a n e v e n b e p r o n o u n c e d a s -yena.

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 1 5 . 1 A s p e c t m a r k e r s 3 2 5

T A B L E 1 5 . 1 . A S P E C T U A L M A R K E R S I N T A R I A N A

S E M A N T I C S F O R M S L O T G L O S S S E C T I O N

a c t i o n c o m p l e t e d b e f o r e
= n h i 1 4 d ' a n t e r i o r ' § 1 5 . 1 . 5
t h e s p e e c h act

n o n - c o m p l e t e d o n g o i n g = d a k a 'yet' § 1 5 . 1 . 6

1 9 a
n o n - c o m p l e t e d o n g o i n g
=sida ' y e t . P R O X * § 1 5 . 1 . 7
C O M P L E T I O N
p r o x i m a t e

a l r e a d y a c c o m p l i s h e d
= s i t a 1 9 b ' p e r f e c t i v e ' § 1 5 . 1 . 8
( p e r f e c t i v e - l i k e )

d o c o m p l e t e l y , c o m p l e t e
= n i k i 1 9 d ' c o m p l e t i v e ' § 1 5 . 1 . 1 0
i n v o l v e m e n t o f S / O

n o t q u i t e c o m p l e t e d = m a n a 1 9 d ' a l m o s t ' § 1 5 . 1 . 1 1

short d u r a t i o n , little b y
=/-ina 7 'little b y little' § 1 5 . 1 . 1
little; c l o s e to, a l m o s t

habitual, p r e s c r i b e d = h y u n a 1 4 a ' h a b i t u a l / p r e s c r i b e d ' § 1 5 . 1 . 2

D U R A T I O N c u s t o m a r y =kape 1 4 b ' c u s t o m a r y ' § 1 5 . 1 . 3

repetitive ' m a n y times',

- n i p e 1 4 c ' h a b i t u a l / r e p e t i t i v e ' § 1 5 . 1 . 4
h a b i t u a l

repetitive: o n c e a g a i n = p i t a , =ta 1 9 b ' r e p e t i t i v e ' § 1 5 . 1 . 9

15.1 i y a d i - n a w a - y a n a - n a k a [ s l o w s p e e c h ]

iya d i - n a w a - i n a - n a k a [ s l o w e r s p e e c h ]

i y a d i - n a w a - y e n a - n a k a [very s l o w s p e e c h ]

i y a d i - n a w e n a - n a k a [ n o r m a l s p e e c h ]

r a i n 3 s g n f - s t o p . r a i n i n g - L I T T L E . B Y . L I T T L E - P R E S . V I S

T h e r a i n is s t o p p i n g little b y little ( o n e s e e s f e w e r a n d f e w e r drops).'

1 5 . 2 e m i t e d i - s a p e - y o n a - n a k a

c h i l d 3 s g n f - s p e a k - L I T T L E . B Y . L I T T L E - P R E S . V I S

T h e c h i l d is starting to talk little b y little.'

I n 15.3 t h e u n d e r l y i n g f o r m for d i - u k e n a is d i - u k a - i n a .

15.3 d i - d a r i p a - t u k i - p i d a n a d i - u k e n a d i h a - n e

3 s g n f - n e a r - D I M - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - a r r i v e + L I T T L E . B Y . L I T T L E h e - F O C . A / S

' H e ( t h e j a g u a r ) c a m e a little c l o s e r to the m a n . '

O l d e r s p e a k e r s d o n o t a p p l y v o w e l f u s i o n at all, as illustrated in 15.4 a n d 15.5. T h a t

is, in 1 5 . 4 d h i p a - y m a - p i d a n a d o e s n o t b e c o m e *dhipa-ina-pidana o r *dhipena. In 15.5,

d i - u k a - i n a b e c o m e s d i - u k a - i n a ( w i t h a s h o r t e n e d /), b u t n o t * d i - u k e n a , a s is t h e c a s e

w i t h y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s (see 15.3).

1 5 . 4 n a - m i t a n a - s w a - h a te h e k w a

3 p l - s m o k e 3 p l - s t a y - P A U S until m i d d a y

d h i p a - y a n a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f + g e t - L I T T L E . B Y . L I T T L E - R E M . P . R E P

T h e y w e r e s m o k i n g ( g a m e ) until m i d d a y started getting o n little b y little.'

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 3 2 6 15 Aspect, Aktionsart and degree

15.5 d i h a - w h y a p a : m u n a - t h a - p i d a n a

A R T - C L : C A N O E m i d d l e - F R - R E M . P . R E P

d i - u k a - i n a d i h a i t a - w h y a

3 s g n f - a r r i v e - L I T T L E . B Y . L I T T L E A R T c a n o e - C L : C A N O E

di-ni-ri[...] d i - a w a - i n a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - d o - C O N V 3 s g n f - g r o w . g r a s s - L I T T L E . B Y . L I T T L E - R E M . P . R E P

' H e a r r i v e d little b y little to t h e m i d d l e o f h i s c a n o e - m a k i n g ( a n d t h e n a b a n d o n e d

it) [...] g r a s s started g r o w i n g . '

T h a t is, =/-ina s h a r e s o n e p r o p e r t y - v o w e l f u s i o n - w i t h suffixes a n d o t h e r

p r o p e r t i e s ( s e c o n d a r y stress a n d l a c k o f v o w e l f u s i o n d e p e n d i n g o n s p e a k e r s ' g e n e r a t i o n

a n d o n h o w s l o w their s p e e c h is) w i t h enclitics. T h i s m a r k e r o c c u p i e s a n i n t e r m e d i a r y

p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n a suffix a n d a n enclitic.

A n e x p l a n a t i o n for this p e c u l i a r b e h a v i o u r m a y lie in the o r i g i n o f t h e m a r k e r : it g o e s

b a c k t o a g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d v e r b c o m p o u n d structure i n v o l v i n g t h e ( p h o n o l o g i c a l l y

d e p l e t e d ) v e r b - y e n a 'pass', 'pass f r o m o n e state to a n o t h e r , e x c e e d ' (see C h a p t e r 18 o n

its u s e i n serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , a n d § 1 1 . 1 1 o n its g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n a s a

p o s t p o s i t i o n , a n d its u s e in c o m p a r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) . T h i s g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n p a t h is

d e s c r i b e d at l e n g t h in A i k h e n v a l d ( 2 0 0 0 b ) . T h e -ina m a r k e r is a c a i q u e o f T u c a n o

c o m p o u n d e d v e r b tiha 'do little b y little1, cf. 15.6, f r o m T u c a n o ( R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1:

1 9 5 ) , a n d 15.7, f r o m T a r i a n a .

15.6 d i a weti-tlha'

river d r y - d o . l i t t l e . b y . l i t t l e + P R E S . V I S : 3 r d . i n a n i m a t e

' R i v e r is g o i n g d o w n little b y little.'

15.7 u n i [ d i - w a - y a n a - n a k a

w a t e r 3 s g n f - c o m e . i n - L I T T L E . B Y . L I T T L E - P R E S . V I S

d i - r u k u di-a]

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - g o

' R i v e r is g o i n g d o w n little b y little.'

W e w i l l s e e i n § 1 5 . 2 that m o s t A k t i o n s a r t clitics are d e r i v e d f r o m v e r b s

g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d a s p a r t s o f v e r b c o m p o u n d e d structures c a l q u e d f r o m E a s t T u c a n o

l a n g u a g e s . A n o t h e r clitic d e r i v e d f r o m a s i m i l a r sort o f structure is -sita d i s c u s s e d in

§ 1 5 . 1 . 8 . U n l i k e a n y o t h e r m a r k e r w h i c h a r o s e o u t o f a g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d v e r b in T a r i a n a ,

- i n a o r - y m a b e h a v e s m o r e like a suffix t h a n like a n enclitic.

1 5 . 1 . 2 H a b i t u a l p r e s c r i b e d - h y u n a

T h e enclitic - h y u n a 'habitual' is u s e d to d e s c r i b e h a b i t u a l p r e s c r i b e d activity, e.g. 15.8

a n d 15.9. It h a s o n l y b e e n attested in i m p e r s o n a l e x p r e s s i o n s . In g e n e r i c s t a t e m e n t s in

c o n v e r s a t i o n s - e.g. 15.8 - t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification is often o m i t t e d ; in

stories t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y is p r e s e n t a s in 15.9, 1 5 . 1 0 a n d 1 5 . 1 1 .

1 5 . 8 k a r e y a p h i n i - n u k u p a - s a p e - h y u n a

w i n d t h i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S I M P - s a y - H A B I T

' O n e s a y s this t o d e s c r i b e w h a t w i n d d o e s (lit. f o r t h i n g o f w i n d ) . '

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 15.1 A s p e c t m a r k e r s 3 2 7

1 5 . 9 d i h a - k a d a - p e y a p h i n i - n u k u h i k u - p i d a n a

A R T - C L . D A Y - P L t h i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S a p p e a r - R E M . P . R E P

p a - r e n a - h v u n a

I M P - s u f f e r - H A B I T

T h i s is h o w o n e u s e d to suffer t h o s e days.'

1 5 . 1 0 u n i p a - p i t a - k a p a - d a k i k i a k u - i t e

w a t e r I M P - b a t h e - S U B I M P - b o d y s t r o n g - N C L : A N I M

p a - h v u n a - p i d a

I M P + g o - H A B I T - P R E S . R E P

' W h e n o n e b a t h e s , o n e ' s b o d y g e t s s t r o n g (I a m told).'

In 1 5 . 1 1 t h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is u s e d b e c a u s e this e x a m p l e d e s c r i b e s w h a t o n e

u s u a l l y h e a r s .

1 5 . 1 1 d i h a p u s a r u - n e h y u k a d e - m h a

A R T s l o t h - F O C . A / S n o t . a p p e a r - P R E S . N O N V I S

d i - p i t a n a - m i a p h e m a - h y u n a - m h a

3 s g n f - n a m e - O N L Y I M P + h e a r - H A B I T - P R E S . N O N V I S

T h e s l o t h d o e s n o t a p p e a r , o n e o n l y h e a r s his n a m e . '

In 1 5 . 1 2 , f r o m G r a c i l i a n o Brito's s t o r y a b o u t h o w t h e T a r i a n a lost their l a n g u a g e , t h e

r e m o t e p a s t v i s u a l m a r k e r is e m p l o y e d s i n c e t h e story r e c o u n t s t h e c o m m u n a l p e r s o n a l

e x p e r i e n c e .

1 5 . 1 2 p a i - n e - y a - d a p a n a p a - y a - h y u n a p a w e y a

f a t h e r - P L - P O S S - C L : H A B I M P - l i v e - H A B I T t o g e t h e r

t a l i a - s a w a k u p h e m e n a - s a w a - p e p a n u m a - p e

T a r i a n a - C L : G R O U P P i r a t a p u y a - C L : G R O U P - P L G u a n a n o - P L

y a s e - n e t h u y a - s a w a - p e

T u c a n o - P L a l l : N O N . I N D I V - C L : G R O U P - P L

p a - v a - h y u n a - n a k a y u - m a k a h i

I M P - l i v e - H A B I T - R E M . P . V I S t h u s - A F F D E M : A N I M

y a s e - n i k u - m i a - n a p a - s a p e - h y u n a

T u c a n o - P L + A F F - O N L Y - R E M . P . V I S I M P - t a l k - H A B I T

' W e l i v e d all t o g e t h e r in fathers' (i.e. t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s ' ) h o u s e , t h e T a r i a n a , t h e

P i r a t a p u y a , t h e G u a n a n o , t h e T u c a n o , all t h e g r o u p s t o g e t h e r w e u s e d to live, this

is w h y w e u s e d to s p e a k o n l y T u c a n o . '

H a b i t u a l - h y u n a is o f t e n u s e d in instructions; in t h e s e c a s e s t h e r e is n o t e n s e -

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification, a s in 1 5 . 1 3 , f r o m a story a b o u t w h a t o n e m u s t d o to b e

s u c c e s s f u l i n h u n t i n g .

1 5 . 1 3 w a l i - k a s u p h e t a - m h a k w a k a m a w i m a w i

n e w - I N T I M P + t a k e - P R E S . N O N V I S w h a t h o o k h o o k

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 3 2 8 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

p h e t a d:api p h e t a - h y u n a

I M P + t a k e c i p o . v i n e I M P + t a k e - H A B I T

'First o n e t a k e s - w h a t ' s its n a m e - a h o o k , o n e t a k e s a h o o k , o n e u s u a l l y t a k e s a

c i p o - v i n e . '

I n 1 5 . 1 4 - h y u n a is a l s o u s e d to refer to w h a t is g e n e r a l l y d o n e : h e r e , a n a u g h t y

m o n k e y is t r y i n g to c o n v i n c e a n a i v e d e e r that o n e eats g r e e n b a n a n a s .

1 5 . 1 4 h i p o r e - p e r i-na m a t f a - p e r i d i h a - n a

g r e e n - C L : C O L L - C L : V E R T g o o d - C L : C O L L A R T - C L : V E R T

p a - h n a - h y u n a d i - a - p i d a n a

I M P - e a t - H A B I T 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

' " G r e e n ( b a n a n a s ) are g o o d , o n e eats t h e m " , h e (the m o n k e y ) said.'

1 5 . 1 5 c o m e s f r o m a story w i t h instructions c o n c e r n i n g h o w to b e s u c c e s s f u l in

h u n t i n g . A serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s y m m e t r i c a l t y p e is in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ('hear-

throw* = 'listen').

1 5 . 1 5 m e m a - d e - h y u n a - m h a p a - y e k a

N E G + s l e e p - N E G - H A B I T - P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - b e . a b l e

[ p h e m a - h y u n a p a - p e ]

I M P + h e a r - H A B I T I M P - t h r o w

' O n e c a n n o t sleep, o n e listens.'

T h e m o r p h e m e - h y u n a is l e x i c a l i s e d in t h e i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e v e r b m a - h y u n a 'be

i m p o s s i b l e ' w h i c h c o n s i s t s of m a - 'negative', -a 'do, go' a n d -hyuna (see C h a p t e r s 12 a n d

17). T h e f o r m a t i v e - h y u n a c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d part o f t h e s t e m , s i n c e it p r e c e d e s t h e

n e g a t i o n m a r k e r - h a d e , a s in 1 5 . 1 6 ( a n e x a m p l e o f e m p h a t i c d o u b l e n e g a t i o n ) , u n l i k e

1 5 . 1 5 .

1 5 . 1 6 m a t f i n a - r e n a n a k u - n u k u n a - n a - k a

b a d 3pl-feel 3 p l + s p e e c h - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - w a n t - S U B

n a - s a p e m a - h v u n a - k a d e - m h a

3 p l - s p e a k N E G + g o - H A B I T - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

T h e y feel b a d w h e n t h e y w a n t to s p e a k their l a n g u a g e , it is a b s o l u t e l y i m p o s s i b l e

( a b o u t t h e T a r i a n a w h o lost their l a n g u a g e ) . '

1 5 . 1 . 3 C u s t o m a r y - k a p e

T h e c u s t o m a r y -kape refers to a u s u a l activity o r state r e p e a t e d m a n y t i m e s o v e r , m o s t

o f t e n i n t h e past. It is n o t restricted to a n y p e r s o n o r a n y t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y

specification. In 1 5 . 1 7 f r o m a story a b o u t t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e T a r i a n a -kape o c c u r s w i t h

r e m o t e p a s t inferred (see C h a p t e r 14).

1 5 . 1 7 k e w h e d a n a - n a - k a p e - s i n a

s e p a r a t e l y 3 p l - l i v e - C U S T - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e y (different T a r i a n a s u b t r i b e s ) u s e d to live separately.'

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 1 5 . 1 A s p e c t m a r k e r s 3 2 9

T h e m a r k e r s -kape a n d - h y u n a are s i m i l a r s e m a n t i c a l l y , b u t n o t identical; for

i n s t a n c e , n a - n a - k a p e m e a n s 'they u s e d to live (there for a l o n g time)', a n d n a - h a - h y u n a

m e a n s 'they u s e d to live a n d o u g h t to h a v e lived (there)'.

In 1 5 . 1 8 , f r o m a s t o r y told b y C a n d i d o B r i t o a b o u t childbirth rituals, -kape o c c u r s

w i t h p r e s e n t v i s u a l ( s i n c e w h a t h e is s a y i n g is o b v i o u s to h i m ) .

1 5 . 1 8 i h y a - m i s i n i y a l a n a - m i s i n i

2 p l - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R w h i t e . p e r s o n - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R

k a y a y e p o s a n a - m i s i n i k a y a - n a k a

like.this I n d i a n - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R l i k e . t h i s - P R E S . V I S

w a - d e h a - e h k w a p i - n a k u w a - n i

l p l - h a v e D E M : I N A N - C L : W O R L D - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - d o

k a - n a w i k i w a - y a - k a p e - n a k a

R E L - p e r s o n l p l - s t a y - C U S T - P R E S . V I S

' Y o u , t o o , w h i t e p e o p l e , t o o are like this, a n I n d i a n w o m a n is like this, w e all h a v e

it ( l i k e t h i s ) in this w o r l d , w e h a v e c h i l d r e n (this w a y ) . '

In 1 5 . 1 9 , -kape c o - o c c u r s w i t h r e m o t e p a s t v i s u a l evidential; it r e l a t e s to the s p e a k e r ' s

e x p e r i e n c e .

1 5 . 1 9 m a t f a - p u n u - n a - k a p e - n a n u h a

b e . g o o d - A U G 1s g - l i v e - C U S T - R E M . P . V I S I

'I u s e d t o live v e r y well.'

T o i n d i c a t e a p r o l o n g e d c u s t o m a r y action, a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c o n t a i n i n g r e p e t i t i o n

is u s e d , a s in 1 5 . 2 0 ( f r o m a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the O f f e r i n g F e a s t b y J o s e M a n o e l Brito).

1 5 . 2 0 d i - n i d i - n i - k a p e - s i n a d i h a

3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - d o - C U S T - R E M . P . I N F R h e

' H e u s e d t o d o it ( i . e . t a l k ) like that for a l o n g time.'

1 5 . 1 . 4 H a b i t u a l repetitive - n i p e

U n l i k e t h e o t h e r a s p e c t u a l m a r k e r s in slot 14 in t h e v e r b a l structure, -nipe is a v e r b a l

suffix a n d n o t a n enclitic. P r e d i c a t e s m a r k e d w i t h -nipe d e s c r i b e r e p e a t e d a n d / o r

h a b i t u a l activities, a s i n 1 5 . 2 1 .

1 5 . 2 1 t s u - i t a - p e - t u p e - p i d a n a n a - m u s u n a - k e n a

s m a l l - C L : A N I M - P L - D I M : P L - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - g o . o u t 3pl-start

n h a - t u p e - n u k u d i - n a - n i p e - w i s a - p i d a n a

t h e y - D I M : P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - h i t - H A B I T . R E P - S M A S H - R E M . P . R E P

p a ! d i - w h i d a m a n a [ d h e m a t h a n i d i - a - n i p e - p i d a n a l

p a ! 3 s g n f - h e a d m i d d l e 3 s g n f + s h o u t 3 s g n f - g o - H A B I T . R E P - R E M . P . R E P

'Little o n e s (evil spirits) started c o m i n g o u t ( o f the tree w h e r e t h e y lived), h e

r e p e a t e d l y hit t h e m b y s m a s h i n g , p a ! in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e h e a d , ( a n d ) t h e y k e p t

s h o u t i n g . '

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 3 3 0 15 Aspect, Aktionsart and degree

T h e s e c o n d o c c u r r e n c e o f -nipe is w i t h i n a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (in s q u a r e

b r a c k e t s ) ; t h e r e t h e m o t i o n v e r b -a 'go' i n d i c a t e s that t h e a c t i o n w e n t o n for a l o n g t i m e .

1 5 . 2 2 d i h a k a r a p i - p e - n u k u d i - n a - b a l a

h e p l a t e - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - h i t - E V E R Y W H E R E

d i - f u k u - i - n i p e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - C A U S - H A B I T . R E P - R E M . P . R E P

' H e ( t h e a n g r y y o u n g m a n ) k e p t hitting a n d t h r o w i n g t h e p l a t e s e v e r y w h e r e . '

T h e h a b i t u a l m e a n i n g of -nipe is illustrated in 1 5 . 2 3 a n d 15.24.

1 5 . 2 3 p h i a itjiri p i : n u - n i p e p i - d i a

y o u g a m e 2 s g + k i l l - H A B I T . R E P 2 s g - r e t u r n

p i - n u - n a k a k a y u p u i s a n i - k a

2 s g - c o m e - P R E S . V I S t h u s s m e l l . o f . b l o o d - S U B

' Y o u a l w a y s kill g a m e a n d return, s m e l l i n g o f b l o o d like this.'

1 5 . 2 4 n u - n a n a - n u n a - h a r a m e t a - n i p e - n a k a

1 s g - O B J 3 p l - c o m e 3 p l - b e . s c a r e d + C A U S - H A B I T . R E P - P R E S . V I S

T h e y u s u a l l y c o m e a n d s c a r e m e . '

1 5 . 2 5 illustrates a c o m b i n a t i o n o f repetitive a n d h a b i t u a l m e a n i n g ; this e x a m p l e

c o m e s f r o m a s t o r y a b o u t w h a t t h e m o o n u s e d to d o all t h e t i m e b e f o r e n i g h t a p p e a r e d .

1 5 . 2 5 h a - k e r i d i s a d i - n u d i - d i a

D E M : I N A N - M O O N 3 s g n f + g o . u p 3 s g n f - c o m e 3 s g n f - r e t u r n

d i - n u d i - n i - n i p e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - c o m e 3 s g n f - d o - H A B I T . R E P - R E M . P . R E P

T h e m o o n u s e d to g o u p , c o m e a n d g o b a c k all t h e time.'

T h e suffix -nipe is h o m o n y m o u s w i t h -nipe 'action n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' (see § 2 0 . 2 . 1 ) . T h e

m a r k e r s -kape a n d -nipe c a n c o - o c c u r in o n e p r e d i c a t e , to d e s c r i b e w h a t u s u a l l y h a p p e n s

o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n ; t h e t w o m a r k e r s t e n d to g o o n t o different v e r b s in a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n f o l l o w i n g e a c h other. 1 5 . 2 6 c o m e s f r o m a story (told b y

C a n d i d o B r i t o ) a b o u t m a n i o c b e e r o f different k i n d s . A serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is in

s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

1 5 . 2 6 d i h a p u a y a - m h a [ k a p u a - k a p e n a : - n i p e ]

it d i f f e r e n t - P R E S . N O N V I S [ b e . d r u n k - C U S T 3 p l + g o - N O M ]

T h e w a y o f b e c o m i n g d r u n k w i t h this ( t y p e o f m a n i o c b e e r ) is different.'

1 5 . 1 . 5 A n t e r i o r -nhi

A n t e r i o r - n h i m a r k s a n a c t i o n (a p r o c e s s o r a state) w h i c h starts b e f o r e t h e t i m e - f r a m e o f

t h e n a r r a t i v e , o r t h e s p e e c h act, a n d c o n t i n u e s t o b e r e l e v a n t t h u s setting t h e s c e n e for

t h e n a r r a t i v e (cf. t h e definition o f a n t e r i o r a s 'past a c t i o n r e l e v a n t to t h e c u r r e n t situation'

in B y b e e , P e r k i n s a n d P a g l i u c a 1 9 9 4 : 18). In 1 5 . 2 7 (the b e g i n n i n g o f a story a b o u t t h e

o r i g i n s o f t h e n i g h t ) - n h i is u s e d to set t h e s c e n e ; p r e v i o u s l y , b e f o r e t h e story started,

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 1 5 . 1 A s p e c t m a r k e r s 3 3 1

t h e r e w a s n o n i g h t , a n d a s t h e result o f this ( w i t h i n t h e t i m e - f r a m e o f t h e story

e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d ) p e o p l e c o u l d n o t get a n y rest.

1 5 . 2 7 e h k w a p i d i - k e n a - r i-se d e : p i s e d e - p i d a n a

d a y / w o r l d 3 s g n f - s t a r t - C O N V - L O C n i g h t N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

d i - y a - n h i k e : r i - m i a - p i d a n a alia

3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T m o o n / s u n - O N L Y - R E ML . PP . . RR EEPP E X I S T

d i - n a - n h i k a y u - m a k a atfa ka: - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T t h u s - A F F m a n : P L l i k e . t h a t - R E M . P . R E P

n e h p a n i n e m a - n i k i

3 p l + w o r k 3 p l + s t a n d - C O M P L

'In t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e w o r l d t h e r e h a d b e e n n o night, t h e r e h a d b e e n o n l y

m o o n / s u n , a n d t h u s p e o p l e s t a y e d w o r k i n g j u s t like that.'

In 1 5 . 2 8 , - n h i a l s o d e s c r i b e s t h e a c t i o n s w h i c h o c c u r r e d prior to t h e t i m e - f r a m e o f t h e

n a r r a t i v e ( a l s o i n r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d ) , setting t h e s c e n e for t h e m a n ' s suffering.

1 5 . 2 8 d e : p i - p e d i - a d h i r i t u d i - n a - n h i - t a

n i g h t - P L 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f + f i s h 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T - A G A I N

n e m a - i n u - k a d e - p i d a n a d i - y a - n h i

N E G N E G - k i l l - N E G - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T

k w e - m h a d e n u - n i n h u a n u - i n i p e - n u k u

w h a t - F U T . U N C E R T l s g - d o I 1 s g - c h i l d r e n - T O P . N O N . A / S

k w a k a - m h a d e n u - a n u - h n a n h u a

w h a t - F U T . U N C E R T 1 s g - g i v e l s g - e a t I

d i - a d h i m e t a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s a y 3 s g n f + t h i n k - R E M . P . R E P

'(For s e v e r a l ) n i g h t s h e h a d g o n e fishing, h e h a d n ' t killed a n y t h i n g . " H o w a m I

g o i n g to f e e d m y c h i l d r e n ? " h e thought.'

In 1 5 . 2 9 t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d h a d p l a n n e d w h a t h e w a s g o i n g to m a k e b e f o r e t h e s e

t h i n g s a p p e a r e d ; this is w h y t h e 'plan' o c c u r s w i t h t h e anterior m a r k e r ; t h e story is t o l d in

r e m o t e p a s t i n f e r r e d ( s e e C h a p t e r 14 o n t h e u s e o f inferred e v i d e n t i a l in traditional

stories if o n e c a n still s e e 'the signs' o f t h e h a p p e n i n g s a n d in retelling w r i t t e n texts, e.g.

1 4 . 4 7 ) . H i s p l a n n i n g is a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e for t h e 'very g o o d w a t e r ' a n d o t h e r

t h i n g s that a p p e a r a s t h e result.

1 5 . 2 9 d i - k a k w a - n h i - s i n a - p i t a hi

3 s g n f - p l a n - A N T - R E M . P . I N F R - F O C . A / S - A G A I N D E M : A N I M

u : n i - n u k u h i u : n i - n u k u d i - k a k w a - n h i

w a t e r - T O P . N O N . A / S D E M : A N I M w a t e r - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - p l a n - A N T

d i - n i - s i n a m a t f a - w a n i u:ni h i k u - s i n a

3 s g n f - d o - R E M . P . I N F R g o o d - C L : N A T . P H E N w a t e r a p p e a r - R E M . P . I N F R

' H e ( G o d ) h a d p l a n n e d this w a t e r a g a i n (after h a v i n g p l a n n e d o t h e r t h i n g s ) , h e h a d

p l a n n e d this w a t e r , v e r y g o o d w a t e r a p p e a r e d . '

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 3 3 2 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

1 5 . 3 0 c o m e s f r o m t h e traditional story a b o u t the origin o f t o b a c c o . T h e d a u g h t e r o f

t h e C r e a t o r s a w h e r h u s b a n d s m o k e t h e l e a v e s o f a p l a n t o t h e r t h a n t o b a c c o , a n d as a

result o f this s h e w e n t u p t o t h e s k y to a s k h e r father to g i v e t h e m s o m e t o b a c c o .

1 5 . 3 0 y e m a s e d e - k a p a n a p h e - p i d a n a di-sita

t o b a c c o N E G . E X - S U B l e a f - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s m o k e

d i - a - n h i p a n a p h e di-sita-ka d u - k a

3 s g n f - g o - A N T leaf 3 s g n f - s m o k e - S U B 3 s g f - s e e

d i - s a - d o d u - a - p i d a n a tfo!

3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P o h . d e a r !

' S i n c e t h e r e w a s n o t o b a c c o , h e h a d s m o k e d leaves, after s h e s a w h i m s m o k e

l e a v e s , h i s w i f e said, " O dear!'"

W e s a w a b o v e that - n h i d e s c r i b e s a n a c t i o n in t h e p a s t w h i c h sets t h e s c e n e for the

o n g o i n g a c t i o n in t h e n a r r a t i v e o r for t h e s p e e c h act, w h i c h is a past a c t i o n still r e l e v a n t

to t h e c u r r e n t situation. S e m a n t i c a l l y , it o v e r l a p s w i t h the r e m o t e past, e s p e c i a l l y the

r e m o t e p a s t v i s u a l w h i c h is v e r y often u s e d to d e s c r i b e a n a c t i o n o r state w h i c h started a

l o n g t i m e a g o a n d is still g o i n g o n (for instance, a n a n s w e r to a q u e s t i o n : ' D o e s this

w o r d exist in T a r i a n a ? ' w o u l d b e a l i a - n a ( E X I S T - R E M . P . V I S ) 'it exists', m e a n i n g : 'it h a s

b e e n t h e r e for a l o n g t i m e a n d still is'). U n l i k e o t h e r a s p e c t u a l m a r k e r s , w h e n -nhi d o e s

o c c u r w i t h r e c e n t p a s t a n d r e m o t e p a s t visual e v i d e n t i a l , it f o r m s n o n - c o m p o s i t i o n a l

c o m b i n a t i o n s - n i h k a ( f r o m -nhi-kd) a n d - n h i n a or - n i h n a ( f r o m -nhi-na) (see §2.5 o n t h e

p h o n o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s o f a s p i r a t i o n floating that a p p l i e s here). T h e s e are u s e d to c o n f i r m

t h e a c t i o n , p r o c e s s o r state for w h i c h 'visual' (or e q u i v a l e n t - s e e § 1 4 . 2 . 2 ) e v i d e n c e is

a v a i l a b l e . T h e y o f t e n h a v e o v e r t o n e s o f c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n .

T h e n e x t e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a m a n w h o w e n t fishing a n d s a w a h u g e

catfish e n t e r t h e w e i r ; h e s a y s 15.31 to his wife. T h e r e is a n e l e m e n t o f c o u n t e r -

e x p e c t a t i o n h e r e - a catfish is v e r y rare, a n d t h e m a n h a d n o t p r e v i o u s l y b e e n s u c c e s s f u l

in fishing.

1 5 . 3 1 k a t u - n i h k a d i - h e - n i k i m e : p u k u - s e

p i r a i b a - A N T + R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - e n t e r - C O M P L w e i r - L O C

' A catfish h a s i n d e e d e n t e r e d t h e weir.'

In 1 5 . 3 2 , t h e h u s b a n d r e p r o a c h e s his w i f e w h o c a m e to visit h i m in the j u n g l e b u t d i d

n o t b r i n g t h e c h i l d r e n w i t h her; h e c a n s e e that s h e h a s n o t b r o u g h t t h e m , a n d is

s u r p r i s e d .

1 5 . 3 2 p h i a - n e w a - i n i p e m e h t a - k a d e - n i h k a

2 s g - F O C . A / S l p l - c h i l d r e n N E G + b r i n g - N E G - A N T + R E C . P . V I S

p i - n u

2 s g - c o m e

' Y o u h a v e n ' t b r o u g h t o u r children.'

1 5 . 3 3 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t E m i l i o Brito's p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e (told in r e m o t e

p a s t visual). H e u s e s - n h i n a to d e s c r i b e t h e a c t i o n s o f w i l d pigs. It is n o t clear f r o m t h e

c o n t e x t w h e t h e r h e c o u l d a c t u a l l y s e e t h e p i g s t h e m s e l v e s ; h e s a y s later o n that h e c o u l d

tell t h e y h a d b e e n t h e r e b e c a u s e o f t h e fruit scattered all o v e r the p l a c e ; a s s h o w n in

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 1 5 . 1 A s p e d m a r k e r s 3 3 3

§ 1 4 . 2 . 1 , this k i n d o f ' o b v i o u s ' s i g n c a n b e treated as e q u i v a l e n t to v i s u a l e v i d e n c e . T h e

' c o n f i r m a t i o n ' - n h i n a h a s o v e r t o n e s o f c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n - t h e w h o l e p o i n t o f t h e story

is that t h e s p e a k e r w a s n o t p r e p a r e d to h u n t t h e p i g s (but h e killed a c o u p l e o f t h e m

a n y w a y ) .

1 5 . 3 3 k a y n u - n i d e k i n a n u - d i a , n u - m a r a

t h u s l s g - d o a f t e r n o o n l s g - r e t u r n l s g - g o . d o w n s t r e a m

n u - n u - n a - p i t a k a y n u - n i p a - k a p u k u - r i

l s g - c o m e - R E M . P . V I S - A G A I N t h u s l s g - d o I M P - t u r n - C O N V

p e s a p a : d i h a - t a k u p u w e - t a k u

I M P + g o . u p I M P + g o A R T - C L : P O I N T m o n k e y - C L : P O I N T

y e d a a p i a n a - m a r a n a - n u - n h i n a

d o w n s t r e a m w i l d . p i g 3 p l - g o . d o w n s t r e a m 3 p l - c o m e - A N T + R E M . P . V I S

' T h u s I c a m e b a c k in t h e a f t e r n o o n , I w e n t d o w n s t r e a m a g a i n , after this at t h e

t u r n i n g p o i n t , d o w n s t r e a m f r o m that M o n k e y point, w i l d p i g s w e r e c o m i n g

d o w n s t r e a m indeed.'

1 5 . 3 4 , f r o m a n o t h e r p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e story, told b y I s m a e l B r i t o , c o n t r a s t s w h a t

o u r a n c e s t o r s d i d d o ( w e d i d n o t s e e it b u t w e k n o w it f o r a fact - w h i c h is s u f f i c i e n t to

justify a v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l ; s e e § 1 4 . 2 . 2 ) w i t h o u r p r e s e n t i g n o r a n c e . T h e 'confirmation'

- n h i n a i m p l i e s contrast.

1 5 . 3 4 a l t a - k a - s e w h a w a - w h e - r i-nipe

u p s t r e a m - S U B - L O C w e 1 s g - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - P L

n a - n a w a n e m h a n i - n h i n a w h a

3pl-collect.fruit 3 p l + w a l k - A N T + R E M . P . V I S w e

n e s e - n u k u h i n i p u - n u k u m a - y e k a - d e - m h a

t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S w a y - T O P . N O N . A / S N E G - k n o w - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

' T h e r e , u p s t r e a m , o u r g r a n d p a r e n t s d i d g o r o u n d a n d collect fruit, a n d w e d o n o t

k n o w t h e w a y . '

T h e ' c o n f i r m a t i o n ' - n h i n a often a p p e a r s in traditional narratives, as a sort o f s u m m a r y

('this is w h a t t h e y d i d do'). 1 5 . 3 5 is o n e s u c h e x a m p l e .

1 5 . 3 5 h i k u - n h i n a n a - n i n a - w a l i t a

a p p e a r - A N T + R E M . P . V I S 3 p l - d o 3pl-offer

n a - k e t j i - p e - n u k u n a - w a l i t a - k a p e

3 p l - f r i e n d - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - o f f e r - C U S T

' T h i s is i n d e e d h o w t h e y d i d offerings to their friends, t h e y u s e d to offer.'

T h e c o n f i r m a t i o n s - n i h k a a n d - n h i n a d i s p l a y a s e m a n t i c similarity to the analytic

' c o n f i r m a t i o n c o n s t r u c t i o n ' in T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , a s m y c o n s u l t a n t s p o i n t e d o u t to m e . In

T u c a n o , this c o n s t r u c t i o n i n v o l v e s a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n (often m a r k e d w i t h 0 ) a n d t h e

a u x i l i a r y nil 'do', a n d c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l (see W e s t 1 9 8 0 : 7 5 - 6 ;

R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 vol. 1: 2 9 1 - 2 ) . N o t e that in T a r i a n a - n h i d o e s n o t c o - o c c u r w i t h visual

p r e s e n t - n a k a . S e e A i k h e n v a l d ( f o r t h c o m i n g - c ) for a p o s s i b l e T u c a n o i n f l u e n c e in t h e

a c c o m m o d a t i o n o f this c o n s t r u c t i o n .

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 3 3 4 15 Aspect, Aktionsart and degree

H o w e v e r , t h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e in that - n h i 'anterior' a n d the -nhi- in - n h i n a a n d in

- n i h k a a r e b e c o m i n g different m o r p h e m e s . In s o m e narratives, u s u a l l y t h o s e p r o d u c e d

b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s , - n h i a n d - n h i n a c a n b o t h o c c u r in o n e c l a u s e , e a c h w i t h its

different m e a n i n g . In 1 5 . 3 6 , t h e s m e l l o f b u r n t f o o d (keweri) a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e evil

spirit w h o w a s w a i t i n g t o eat u p t h e s p e a k e r s (all m a r k e d w i t h t h e a n t e r i o r -nhi) s e r v e a s

t h e b a c k g r o u n d for t h e evil spirit's a p p e a r a n c e ( m a r k e d w i t h r e m o t e p a s t n o n - v i s u a l

s i n c e o n e u s u a l l y c a n n o t s e e s u c h a spirit: see § 1 4 . 2 . 2 ) . T h e ' c o n f i r m a t i o n ' - n h i n a is

e m p l o y e d t w i c e t o i n d i c a t e that this w a s i n d e e d t h e c a s e ( c o n t r a r y to e x p e c t a t i o n - t h e

evil spirit c a u g h t t h e s p e a k e r s u n p r e p a r e d ) . T h i s is a n interesting e x a m p l e o f n e w

m o r p h o l o g i c a l m a r k e r s e m e r g i n g in a situation o f l a n g u a g e o b s o l e s c e n c e (cf. S c h m i d t

1 9 8 5 for s i m i l a r d e v e l o p m e n t s in Y o u n g P e o p l e ' s D y i r b a l ) .

1 5 . 3 6 n e - n h i n a k e w e r i - n h i ne-tiki

t h e n - A N T + R E M . P . V I S b u r n i n g . s m e l l - A N T t h e n - D I M

w e w h e - n u k u n a m u alia-nhi

l p l + a m o n g - T O P . N O N . A / S evil.spirit E X I S T - A N T

n e - n h i n a alia d i - w a p a - n h i

t h e n - A N T + R E M . P . V I S E X I S T 3 s g n f - w a i t - A N T

w a - h n a w a - s i t a w a - n i - k a y a m i h i k u - m h a n a

l p l - e a t l p l - f i n i s h l s g - d o - A F T E R : D S a p p e a r - R E M . P . N O N V I S

' T h e n i n d e e d t h e r e h a d b e e n a b u r n i n g s m e l l , a m o n g u s t h e r e h a d b e e n a n evil

spirit, i n d e e d h e h a d b e e n w a i t i n g , ( a n d ) after w e h a d eaten, (he) a p p e a r e d . '

1 5 . 3 7 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a m a n w h o d i d n o t c o m e b a c k f r o m t h e j u n g l e ; his

c h i l d r e n w e n t t o l o o k for h i m a n d f o u n d his g u n a n d his faeces. T h i s w a s e n o u g h for

t h e m t o c o n f i r m that s o m e b o d y d i d s o m e t h i n g b a d to h i m , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y h a d

t o u n d e r t a k e v e n g e a n c e .

1 5 . 3 7 w h a - n i r i - n u k u m a : t f i - p u - n i h k a n a - n i - n h i

l p l + p a r e n t - M A S C - T O P . N O N . A / S b a d - A U G - A N T + R E C . P . V I S 3 p l - d o - A N T

' T h e y h a v e i n d e e d d o n e s o m e t h i n g b a d to o u r father ( a n d w e will d o s o m e t h i n g

a b o u t it).'

A n t e r i o r - n h i a n d - n h i n a o r - n i h k a c a n n e v e r c o - o c c u r o n o n e s i m p l e p r e d i c a t e ; this

s h o w s t h a t t h e i r 'split' a s different m o r p h e m e s is at a n incipient s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t .

1 5 . 1 . 6 N o n - c o m p l e t e d o n g o i n g - d a k a

T h e m a r k e r -daka is u s e d to refer to n o n - c o m p l e t e d o n g o i n g a c t i o n s , p r o c e s s e s or states,

a s illustrated in 1 5 . 3 8 a n d 1 5 . 3 9 . T h e r e are n o restrictions o n t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y

1
specifications.

1
T h e m o r p h e m e -daka s h o w s semantic similarities to T u c a n o dependent v e r b ni'i *do y e t ' ( s e e e x a m p l e s in

R a m i r e z 1997, vol. 2: 94). T h e form used in P e r i q u i t o s i n s t e a d o f -daka i s -sula: see §15.1.7.

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 1 5 . 1 A s p e c t m a r k e r s 3 3 5

1 5 . 3 8 n e - a - p i d a n a m a - m a t a r a - k a d e - p i d a n a - d a k a

t h e n - E M P H - R E M . P . R E P N E G - l e t . g o - N E G - R E M . P . R E P - Y E T
1
" T h e n h e (the M o o n ) d i d n o t let (the m a n ) g o yet," ( h e w e n t o n a c c u s i n g him).

1 5 . 3 9 d i h a - n a k a s i n a - n u k u a l i a - n a k a - d a k a

A R T - C L : V E R T n o w a d a y s - T O P . N O N . A / S E X I S T - P R E S . V I S - Y E T

T h i s (tree) ( a r o u n d w h i c h t h e story t o o k p l a c e ) is still there.'

It c a n refer t o s o m e t h i n g that h a s n o t started yet.

1 5 . 4 0 n h u a h a m i a - p e r i - n u k u m a - n i - k a d e - m h a - d a k a

I h e a v y - C O L L T O P . N O N . A / S N E G - d o - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S - Y E T

'I c a n n o t d o (i.e. c a r r y ) h e a v y t h i n g s yet ( b e c a u s e I a m a y o u n g horse).'

In 1 5 . 4 1 -daka refers to w h a t r e m a i n s to b e d o n e .

1 5 . 4 1 n a - n a n u - a n u - r e t a - d a k a

3 p l - O B J l s g - g o l s g - g i v e . o r d e r - Y E T

'I w i l l g o a n d g i v e (the b i r d s ) o r d e r s yet.'

It c a n a l s o refer to i n c o m p l e t e k n o w l e d g e . 1 5 . 4 2 is t h e e n d i n g o f a story a b o u t t h e

O f f e r i n g R i t u a l t o l d b y C a n d i d o B r i t o - h e felt h e w a s n o t k n o w l e d g e a b l e e n o u g h to tell

t h e w h o l e story.

1 5 . 4 2 k a y u - m a k a n u h u a m a - y e k a d e - m h a t h u y - d a k a

t h u s - A F F I N E G - k n o w - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S a l l - Y E T

T h u s I still d o n o t k n o w t h e w h o l e story.'

1 5 . 4 3 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a y o u n g p r i n c e a n d a n evil spirit told b y J o s e B r i t o ;

-d a k a a p p e a r s in a n o b l i q u e q u e s t i o n c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e .

1 5 . 4 3 n u - n a h i - k a y u - k a di-a p e d a r e k w a n a - d a k a

l s g - O B J D E M : A N I M - t h u s - S U B 3 s g n f - s a y o l d . m a n w h o - Y E T

d i h a m a - y e k a d e - m a h k a n h u a

A R T N E G - k n o w + N E G - R E C . P . N O N V I S I

" T h e o l d m a n h a v i n g t h u s s p o k e n t o m e , w h o is h e yet, I d o n o t k n o w this," (said

t h e y o u n g p r i n c e to his father).'

It is u s e d in d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s e q u e n c e s o f e v e n t s , in t h e m e a n i n g o f 'and t h e n a n o t h e r

t h i n g h a p p e n e d ' (that is, t h e story is still g o i n g o n ) , a s in:

1 5 . 4 4 w a - d e n a w a - r u k u k a r p a r u w a - k e t a - n a - d a k a

l p l - p a d d l e l p l - g o . d o w n b i g . b e l l i e d . m o n k e y l p l - e n c o u n t e r - R E M . P . V I S - Y E T

' W e p a d d l e d d o w n s t r e a m , a n d w e still e n c o u n t e r e d b i g - b e l l i e d m o n k e y s . '

T h i s m a r k e r is o f t e n u s e d w i t h i m p e r a t i v e s , m a r k i n g a p r o l o n g e d a c t i o n o r state, e.g.

d a i n u - d a k a ( b e . a s l e e p - Y E T ) 'Let's s l e e p n o w (it is late)', a n d 1 5 . 4 5 .

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 3 3 6 1 5 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

1 5 . 4 5 p i - w h a - d a k a p h i a

2 s g - s i t - Y E T y o u

' H a v e a seat ( a n d w a i t for a while).'

7 5 . 1 . 7 N o n - c o m p l e t e d o n g o i n g p r o x i m a t e -sida

T h e m a r k e r -sida is u s e d to refer to n o n - c o m p l e t e d o n g o i n g a c t i o n s w h i c h are to b e

f i n i s h e d in n e a r future; s e m a n t i c a l l y , it is v e r y c l o s e to -daka. T h e difference b e t w e e n

t h e t w o is illustrated w i t h 1 5 . 4 6 - 7 .

1 5 . 4 6 i k a s u w a - n i - d a k a

t o d a y l p l - d o - Y E T

' W e a r e still g o i n g to d o it t o d a y ( a n y time).'

1 5 . 4 7 i k a s u w a - n i - s i d a

t o d a y l p l - d o - Y E T . P R O X

' W e a r e still g o i n g to d o it t o d a y (straight a w a y ) . '

In 1 5 . 4 8 -sida is u s e d to refer to a n i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n the s p e a k e r is p l a n n i n g .

1 5 . 4 8 n u - m e r i t a n u - h n a - k a s u m a n a p i n u - a

l s g - f r y l s g - e a t - I N T little.fish l s g - g o

n u m a - k h a n i - s i d a

1 s g + l o o k . f o r - A W A Y - Y E T . P R O X

'I a m g o i n g to fry a n d eat (fish). I will g o a n d l o o k for (it) i m m e d i a t e l y . '

T h e enclitic -sida is o f t e n u s e d in c o m m a n d s . 1 5 . 4 9 m e a n s 'hear e v e r y t h i n g that is yet

to b e t o l d ( b e f o r e a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s ) right n o w ' , w h i l e 1 5 . 5 0 - w h i c h c o n t a i n s -daka -

m e a n s 'hear e v e r y t h i n g that is yet to b e told' w i t h o u t i m p l y i n g that t h e telling will t a k e

p l a c e i m m e d i a t e l y .

1 5 . 4 9 p h i m a t h u y m e - s i d a

2 s g + h e a r a l l : D I F F E R E N T . K I N D - Y E T . P R O X

' H e a r e v e r y t h i n g yet (right n o w ) . '

1 5 . 5 0 p h i m a t h u y m e : d a k a

2 s g + h e a r a l l : D I F F E R E N T . K I N D - Y E T

' H e a r e v e r y t h i n g yet.'

W h e n d u r i n g a feast w e r a n o u t o f c a n d l e s , E m i l i o B r i t o said 1 5 . 5 1 .

1 5 . 5 1 n h u t a - s i d a

l s g + b r i n g - Y E T . P R O X

'I w i l l b r i n g ( t h e m ) straight a w a y . '

T h e u s a g e o f -sida in c o m m a n d s to b e a c c o m p l i s h e d i m m e d i a t e l y is f o u n d in stories

t o l d b y o l d e r s p e a k e r s . 1 5 . 5 2 c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g R i t u a l told b y

A m e r i c o B r i t o .

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 1 5 . 1 A s p e c t m a r k e r s 3 3 7

1 5 . 5 2 n e i h y a i h m e t a - s i d a n u - k e s i - p e

T h e n y o u . p l 2 p l + t h i n k - Y E T . P R 0 X 1 s g - r e l a t i v e - P L

T h e n y o u t h i n k straight a w a y , m y relatives...'

In stories t o l d b y o l d e r s p e a k e r s -sida m a r k s a n a c t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g a n o t h e r

a c t i o n , a s in 1 5 . 5 3 from a story told b y J o s e M a n o e l B r i t o a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g Feast, a n d

in 8.32 f r o m t h e story a b o u t t h e s a m e ritual told b y A m e r i c o Brito.

1 5 . 5 3 k a : d h i m a d i - e m a - s i d a

like.this 3 s g n f + h e a r 3 s g n f - s t a n d - Y E T . P R 0 X

'(After I s p o k e to t h e M a s t e r o f t h e C e r e m o n y ) , h e g a v e n o r e p l y (lit. w a s j u s t

listening).'

T h e a r c h a i c p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f -sida is -suda (attested in A m e r i c o Brito's s p e e c h ) . In

t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect o n e clitic s u l a , w i t h a v a r i a n t -suda ( w h i c h is c o g n a t e to S a n t a

R o s a - s i d a / s u d a ) c o r r e s p o n d s to b o t h -daka a n d - s i d a / s u d a in t h e dialect o f S a n t a

R o s a . Its u s e is illustrated w i t h 1 5 . 5 4 , b y B a t i s t a M u n i z , a y o u n g e r s p e a k e r , a n d 1 5 . 5 5 ,

f r o m a s t o r y t o l d b y M a r i n o M u n i z , o n e o f t h e o l d e s t s p e a k e r s o f t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect.

1 5 . 5 4 i - w a p a - s u l a

2 p l - w a i r - Y E T

2 p l - w a i t - Y E T

' W a i t for w h i l e yet (until M a r i n o c o m e s h o m e f r o m hunting).'

1 5 . 5 5 t a r a d a - n a k a n u - w a - s u l a . E n u - m a k i n i - s e r i Talia-seri

a l i v e - P R E S . V I S l s g - f e e l - Y E T T h u n d e r - M a k u - S I N G L T a r i a n a - S I N G L

n a : - n i t e n h u a n h u a - n a k a - s u l a

3 p l + s a y - T 0 P . A D V + N C L : A N I M I I - P R E S . V I S - Y E T
f
I a m still alive. I a m still a m e m b e r o f t h e W a m i a r i k u n e g r o u p (lit. t h e M a k u o f

T h u n d e r ) , c a l l e d Tariana.'

1 5 . 1 . 8 A Iready a c c o m p l i s h e d -sita

T h i s enclitic m a r k s a c c o m p l i s h e d a c t i o n s ( t h u s h a v i n g a perfective-like m e a n i n g ) , e.g.

1 5 . 5 6 b - a n a n s w e r to t h e q u e s t i o n ' H a v e y o u b a t h e d yet?' ( 1 5 . 5 6 a ) w h i c h I u s u a l l y

r e c e i v e d f r o m m y c o n s u l t a n t s e v e r y m o r n i n g in S a n t a R o s a .

1 5 . 5 6 a . p i - p i t a - n i h k a p h i a ?

2 s g - b a t h e - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R y o u

' H a v e y o u b a t h e d ? '

1 5 . 5 6 b n u - p i t a - k a - s i t a

l s g - b a t h e - D E C L - P E R F

'I h a v e b a t h e d already.'

In 1 5 . 5 7 , s i t a m a r k s a c c o m p l i s h e d 'state o f k n o w l e d g e ' . T h e r e are n o restrictions o n

t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f s i t a w i t h t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification.

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 3 3 8 15 Aspect, Akt ions art and degree

5 . 5 7 k a y n a - n i n a - m u s u n a n h e

s o 3 p l - d o 3 p l - g o . o u t 3 p l + g o 3 p l + e n t e r

n a - p i d a n a d i h a inari

3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P A R T rat

h i r o - p e r u - n e d u - y e k a - p i d a n a - s i t a

g r a n d m o t h e r - O L D . F E M - F O C . A / S 3 s g f - k n o w - R E M . P . R E P - P E R F

' S o t h e y ( T a r i a n a a n c e s t o r s d i s g u i s e d a s w o m e n ) w e n t o u t ( o f their h i d i n g p l a c e )

a n d c a m e i n s i d e (the h o u s e w h e r e t h e R a t lived), t h e Rat's g r a n d m o t h e r a l r e a d y

k n e w ( w h o t h e y w e r e ) . '

T h e enclitic -sita (also p r o n o u n c e d a s -esta, -sta, -jka - s e e § 2 . 2 ) g o e s b a c k to a

c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d v e r b -sita 'finish, m a n a g e ' (see A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 b

o n g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f -sita)? T h e v e r b -sita 'finish, m a n a g e ' is often u s e d b y itself

( s e e A u n d e r § 1 2 . 1 . 4 ) o r a s a c o m p o n e n t o f a s y m m e t r i c a l a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e enclitic a n d t h e full v e r b are c o n t r a s t e d in 1 5 . 5 8 , f r o m t h e s a m e text -

a c o m m e n t a r y b y J o v i n o B r i t o to t h e T a r i a n a s h a m a n i c c h a n t s r e c o r d e d b y B i o c c a . In

t h e c h a n t , t h e s h a m a n is s a y i n g ('singing') a b o u t h o w h e h a s a l r e a d y s u c c e e d e d in killing

Y a w i w a r i , t h e m y t h i c a l e n e m y o f t h e T a r i a n a . A serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h -sita a n d

t h e enclitic -sita a r e u n d e r l i n e d ( b o t h in t h e e x a m p l e a n d in t h e translation).

1 5 . 5 8 n h u a p i - n a n u - i n u - d e - n i k i k a s i n a - w y a - n u k u

I 2 s g - O B J 1s g - k i l l - F U T - C O M P L n o w - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S

n u - i n u - n a k a n u - s i t a d i - a - n h i

l s g - k i l l - P R E S . V I S l s g - f i n i s h 3 s g n f - s a y - A N T

k a y u - m a k a h i - n u k u k a y u d i - a - n h i

t h u s - A F F D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - A N T

p h i a k u i t e y a w i w a r i - n u k u p i - n a

y o u I N T + N C L : A N I M Y a w i w a r i - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - O B J

n u - i n u - n a k a n h u a n u - w i n i - n a k a p h i a p i - u k a

l s g - k i l l - P R E S . V I S I l s g - g a m e - P R E S . V I S y o u 2 s g - a r r i v e

p i - d i a i k a s u - n u k u di-a-nhi d i - r a p a - n h i

2 s g - r e t u r n n o w - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s a y - A N T 3 s g n f - s i n g / d a n c e - A N T

p a m u n a - n h e - n u k u di-a d i - r a p a - n h i

m i d d l e - I N S - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s a y 3 s g n f - s i n g / d a n c e - A N T

p i - n a n u - i n u - n a k a n u - p e t a - n a k a - s i t a

2 s g - O B J l s g - k i l l - P R E S . V I S l s g - b e a t - P R E S . V I S - P E R F

k a s i n a - w y a - n u k u

n o w - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S

'"I will kill y o u , Y a w i w a r i , I h a v e a l r e a d y killed y o u " , h e (the s h a m a n ) says, a n d

s o h e s a y s this, " y o u , w h a t ' s y o u r n a m e , Y a w i w a r i , y o u are m y g a m e (that I

s u c c e e d e d in h u n t i n g d o w n ) , y o u a r e c o m i n g b a c k n o w " , h e s a y s s i n g i n g , in t h e

m i d d l e ( o f t h e t a p e ) h e s a y s s i n g i n g , "I h a v e b e a t e n y o u , I h a v e b e a t e n y o u n o w " . '

2
Semantically it is c l o s e t o T u c a n o c o m p o u n d e d v e r b pe'ti 'finish' (see R a m i r e z 1997, vol. 2: 142).

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 1 5 . 1 A s p e c t m a r k e r s 3 3 9

T h e p e r f e c t i v e m e a n i n g o f t h e enclitic -sita is v e r y c l o s e to that o f -sita as a

c o m p o n e n t o f a n a s y m m e t r i c a l a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s often results in

a l m o s t total i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e enclitic a n d t h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

e s p e c i a l l y w i t h y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s , a s s h o w n in 1 5 . 5 9 a a n d 1 5 . 5 9 b . A c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h

a n enclitic o f t e n g e t s r e p h r a s e d a s a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w h e n s p e a k e r s are a s k e d to

r e p e a t w h a t t h e y h a v e j u s t said. T h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

1 5 . 5 9 a n a h a n u m u k u n a - i r a - k a w h i - p i d a n a n a - i r a

t h e y m a s h 3 p l - d r i n k - E A R L Y - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - d r i n k

n a - s i t a n e s a n a - p i d a n a

3 p l - f i n i s h 3 p l + g o u p s t r e a m 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P

1 5 . 5 9 b n a h a n u m u k u n a - i r a - k a w h i - p i d a n a [na-ira-sita

t h e y m a s h 3 p l - d r i n k - E A R L Y - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - d r i n k - P E R F

n e s a n a - p i d a n a ]

3 p l + g o . u p s t r e a m 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P
1
T h e y d r a n k t h e m a s h early, t h e y f i n i s h e d d r i n k i n g a n d w e n t u p s t r e a m .

O l d e r s p e a k e r s o f t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect a l w a y s p r e f e r a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n o v e r

t h e enclitic -sita. T h i s enclitic is n o t e m p l o y e d in t h e a r c h a i c P e r i q u i t o s dialect w h e r e

t h e g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f -sita into a n a s p e c t m a r k e r d i d n o t o c c u r ; a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n is u s e d instead.

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are a p r o p e r t y T a r i a n a s h a r e s w i t h g e n e t i c a l l y related N o r t h

A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s , w h i l e v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g is a t e c h n i q u e b o r r o w e d f r o m t h e T u c a n o

l a n g u a g e s ; this e x p l a i n s t h e s p r e a d o f t h e enclitic -sita ( w h i c h g o e s b a c k to a

g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d v e r b c o m p o u n d e d structure) w i t h y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o f t h e S a n t a R o s a

d i a l e c t at t h e e x p e n s e o f a c o r r e s p o n d i n g serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (see further details in

A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 b ) .

1 5 . 1 . 9 R e p e t i t i v e -pita, -ta

R e p e t i t i v e -pita m e a n s 'do s o m e t h i n g again', as s h o w n in 1 5 . 6 0 ( n o t e t h e t w o

o c c u r r e n c e s o f -pita in t h e o n e c l a u s e ) , a n d in 1 5 . 6 1 . T h e r e are n o restrictions a s t o

t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specifications.

1 5 . 6 0 w a s a w a - w a n a - p i t a n a : - p i d a n a k a y - n a - n i

let's.go l p l - s e l l - A G A I N 3 p l + s a y - R E M . P . R E P t h u s - 3 p l - d o

n a - k a p u k u n a - m a r a n a - n u - p i d a n a - p i t a

3 p l - t u r n 3 p l - g o . d o w n s t r e a m 3 p l - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P - A G A I N

'"Let's g o a n d sell (fish) a g a i n , " t h e y said, after that t h e y t u r n e d b a c k a n d w e n t

d o w n s t r e a m again.'

1 5 . 6 1 ira p a - h n a - m h a n u - a n u - a w a d a - m h a n a - p i t a

n e e d I M P - e a t - P R E S . N O N V I S l s g - s a y l s g - t h i n k - R E M . P . N O N V I S - A G A I N

'It i s n e c e s s a r y t o eat, I t h o u g h t again.'

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 3 4 0 7 5 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

In 1 5 . 6 2 -pita m e a n s 'be a n o t h e r p e r s o n again'.

1 5 . 6 2 p a i t a - p e r i alia-na

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M - O L D : M A S C E X I S T - R E M . P . V I S

p a n u m a p e - s e r i - p e f i - p i t a d i h a - n a

G u a n a n o - S l N G - O L D : M A S C - A G A I N h e - R E M . P . V I S

T h e r e w a s o n e o l d i s h o n e , h e w a s a n o t h e r G u a n a n o (lit. ' h e w a s G u a n a n o again').'

T h e enclitic -pita is in free v a r i a t i o n w i t h -ta, e s p e c i a l l y in t h e s p e e c h o f y o u n g e r

p e o p l e (also s e e § 1 5 . 4 , o n -ta). T h e v a r i a n t -ta is n o t c o n s i d e r e d 'correct' T a r i a n a ; w h e n

s p e a k e r s a r e a s k e d t o r e p e a t a s e n t e n c e o r w h e n t r a n s c r i b i n g a t a p e t h e y a l w a y s c o n d e m n
1
it a s a 'sloppy p r o n o u n c i a t i o n o f - p i t a . T h i s is illustrated in 1 5 , 6 3 , f r o m a story told b y

J o s e B r i t o . 1 5 . 6 3 a is t h e w a y t h e s e n t e n c e w a s uttered, a n d 1 5 . 6 3 b is t h e w a y I w a s told

to w r i t e it d o w n .

1 5 . 6 3 a d i - d i a d i - u k a - p i d a n a - t a p a n i - s i - s e

3 s g n f - r e t u r n 3 s g n f - a r r i v e - R E M . P . R E P - A G A I N h o u s e - N P O S S - L O C

d i - h a - d o d u - s a t a d h u m a - p i d a n a - t a

3 s g n f - p a r e n t - F E M 3 s g f - g r e e t 3 s g f + h e a r - R E M . P . R E P - A G A I N

1 5 . 6 3 b d i - d i a d i - u k a - p i d a n a - p i t a pani-si-se

3 s g n f - r e t u r n 3 s g n f - a r r i v e - R E M . P . R E P - A G A I N h o u s e - N P O S S - L O C

d i - h a - d o d u - s a t a d h u m a - p i d a n a - p i t a

3 s g n f - p a r e n t - F E M 3 s g f - g r e e t 3 s g f + h e a r - R E M . P . R E P - A G A I N

' H e c a m e b a c k a g a i n . H i s m o t h e r a s k e d h i m again.'

T h e v a r i a n t -ta b e a r s a striking similarity to T u c a n o m a r k e r t a h a (cf. e x a m p l e s in

R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 3 4 3 ) , w h i l e -pita h a s a c o g n a t e in B a n i w a -peta 'again' (this f o r m

a l s o o c c u r s in t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a dialect o f T a r i a n a ) . T h e T u c a n o o r i g i n o f -ta m a y b e

t h e r e a s o n w h y s p e a k e r s c o n s i s t e n t l y reject it.

U n l i k e a n y o t h e r a s p e c t m a r k e r , -pita m a y also b e u s e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b

'again', to e m p h a s i s e t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f a n action. T h i s is illustrated in 15.64.

1 5 . 6 4 d i - a - p i d a n a p i t a

3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P a g a i n

' H e said, again.'

1 5 . 1 . 1 0 C o m p l e t i v e -niki

T h e c o m p l e t i v e -niki h a s a w i d e r a n g e o f m e a n i n g s w h i c h c o v e r a totally c o m p l e t e d

a c t i o n o r state a s in 1 5 . 6 5 , c o m p l e t e i n v o l v e m e n t o f S / O , as in 1 5 . 6 6 a n d in t h e first line

o f 1 5 . 6 7 , o r intensifies m e a n i n g , a s in 1 5 . 6 8 - 9 . It is e x t r e m e l y frequent, a n d is often

a d d e d o n t o a p r e d i c a t e a s a sort o f intensifying afterthought.

1 5 . 6 5 k a s i n a - p e n i w a h a n e

n o w a d a y s - P L : A N I M w e N E G

m a - k a d e - v a - m h a - n i k i

N E G + s a y - N E G - E M P H - P R E S . N O N V I S - C O M P L

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 1 5 . 1 A s p e c t m a r k e r s 3 4 1

m a n i h t a - d e m h a m e t a - k a d e

N E G + r e a s o n - N E G N E G + f e e l - N E G

' N o w a d a y s w e (lit. w e o f n o w a d a y s ) are c o m p l e t e l y g o o d for n o t h i n g (lit. w e d o

n o t s a y a n y t h i n g , w e don't r e a s o n , w e d o n ' t think).'

1 5 . 6 6 n a - h n a - t h u y - n h i n a - n i k i a p i a

3 p l - e a t - a l l - A N T + R E M . P . V I S - C O M P L w i l d . p i g

' T h e w i l d p i g s ate e v e r y t h i n g . '

1 5 . 6 7 h a - n e - n e - p i d a n a d i - m u s u

D E M . I N A N - D I S T - I N S - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - g o . o u t

d i - a - n i k i d i h a tare

3 s g n f - g o - C O M P L A R T c u p

' T h e w h o l e c u p w e n t d o w n in that direction.'

1 5 . 6 8 w y a p i m a - n i k i to to to

far s o u n d - C O M P L t o t o t o

' ( T h e w a y t h e sloth w a s b a t h i n g ) s o u n d e d really far: to to to.'

1 5 . 6 9 d e i k i n a - s e d a i n u - n i k i

a f t e r n o o n - L O C b e . a s l e e p - C O M P L

'In t h e a f t e r n o o n w e d i d fall asleep.'

In m a n y c a s e s - a s in 1 5 . 7 0 — n i k i m a r k s i n t e n s i v e a c t i o n a n d t h e c o m p l e t e

i n v o l v e m e n t o f O . N o t e t h e p a u s a l f o r m {-nikeeee) at t h e e n d o f this e x a m p l e , u s e d

b e c a u s e t h e s p e a k e r , E m i l i o B r i t o , w a s s h o u t i n g to his father f r o m afar.

1 5 . 7 0 n e s e n u - n a m a t f a n u - k a p i - d a i - w h i d a - n a

t h e n l s g - O B J g o o d l s g - h a n d - C L : R O U N D I N D F - h e a d - A F F

t u k i ni w h a - m h a n a - n i k i n h u e m a t a - k h a

little 3 s g n f + b i t e - R E M . P . N O N V I S - C O M P L 1 s g + s h o u t - A W A Y

n u - a - m h a n a sa! n u - a - m h a n a pai!

l s g - s a y - R E M . P . N O N V I S sa! l s g - s a y - R E M . P . N O N V I S D a d !

n u - a - n a n u - a - m h a n a api

1 s g - s a y - R E M . P . V I S 1s g - s a y - R E M . P . N O N V I S s n a k e

n i w h a - m h a - n i k e e e e n u - a - n a

3 s g n f + b i t e - P R E S . N O N V I S - C O M P L 1s g - s a y - R E M . P . V I S

' T h e n ( s o m e t h i n g ) s t r o n g l y bit m e o n this little bit o n t o p o f m y finger, I s h o u t e d ,

"sa!", I s h o u t e d , " D a d ! " , I said, " A s n a k e h a s c o m p l e t e l y (or really) bitten

m e e e e e ! " '

T h e enclitic -niki is u s e d m o r e f r e q u e n t l y b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s t h a n b y o l d e r p e o p l e .

It r e s e m b l e s t h e T u c a n o c o m p o u n d e d v e r b n i k o 'do c o m p l e t e l y , constantly' b o t h in its

f o r m a n d i n s e m a n t i c s (see e x a m p l e s in R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 2: 121). T h i s a p p e a r s to b e

a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f ' g r a m m a t i c a l a c c o m m o d a t i o n ' o f T u c a n o m o r p h e m e s , a n d o f

T u c a n o - s t y l e v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g structures ( d i s c u s s e d in A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) .

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 3 4 2 1 5 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

1 5 . 1 . 1 1 N o t q u i t e c o m p l e t e d -mafia 'just a b o u t , a l m o s t '

T h e enclitic -mafia (or -mayo) d e s c r i b e s a n a c t i o n w h i c h w a s a b o u t to h a p p e n , b u t d i d

n o t h a p p e n . Its m e a n i n g is ' s o m e t h i n g n e g a t i v e a l m o s t h a p p e n e d b u t t h e a g e n t ( A / S a )

m a n a g e d t o p r e v e n t it1. W h a t w a s d o n e t o p r e v e n t this h a s to b e stated a s w e l l ; all this

i n f o r m a t i o n is p r e s e n t e d in a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , as in 1 5 . 7 1 - 2 . S i m i l a r l y to -ina

( s e e § 1 5 . 1 . 1 ) , this enclitic g o e s b a c k to t h e g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d v e r b , -maya 'cheat, forget,

d o a w r o n g t h i n g , a l m o s t d o s o m e t h i n g ' (see A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 b for a m o r e d e t a i l e d

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n at w o r k here). In r a p i d s p e e c h this

enclitic u n d e r g o e s p h o n o l o g i c a l d e p l e t i o n a n d is p r o n o u n c e d as - m a y e .

1 5 . 7 1 h a - n a - n u k u n u - w h e - t a - m a v a

t h i s - C L : V E R T - T O P . N O N . A / S 1s g - f a l l + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - A L M O S T

n h u p a - k a

l s g + g r a b - D E C L

' H e r e I w a s o n t h e v e r g e o f d r o p p i n g this l o n g o n e ( p e n ) b u t m a n a g e d to g r a b it.'

T h e enclitic -mafia o f t e n o c c u r s w i t h o n e o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n s m e a n i n g 'be a b o u t to

h a p p e n ' . I n 1 5 . 7 2 it o c c u r s w i t h t h e a d v e r b w a d e n a 'just a b o u t , almost'.

1 5 . 7 2 w a d e n a n u - n a m i - m a n a n u - m i n a n u k a

j u s t a b o u t l s g - d i e - A L M O S T lsg-float l s g + a r r i v e

'I a l m o s t d i e d ( b y d r o w n i n g ) (but) m a n a g e d to float.'

I n 1 5 . 7 3 -mafia o c c u r s t o g e t h e r w i t h tuki 'a little' w i t h t h e n o n - v i s u a l evidentiality

s p e c i f i c a t i o n - this c o m b i n a t i o n is a n o t h e r w a y o f s a y i n g ' a l m o s t h a p p e n ' .

1 5 . 7 3 n e s e - n u k u n u h a tuki n u - y a - m a y a

t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S I a.little 1 s g - c r y - A L M O S T

k e t e m i - m h a n a

s t a y - R E M . P . N O N V I S

' T h e n I w a s o n t h e v e r g e o f c r y i n g ( b u t didn't cry).'

1 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t enclitics

T a r i a n a h a s a l a r g e h e t e r o g e n o u s c l a s s o f enclitics w h i c h d e s c r i b e t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h

t h e a c t i o n is p e r f o r m e d . S o m e o f t h e s e enclitics c a n b e s h o w n to h a v e arisen f r o m

i n d e p e n d e n t v e r b s v i a t h e g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g ; t h e s e are listed in

T a b l e 1 5 . 2 . E n c l i t i c s w h i c h d o n o t h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b are g i v e n in T a b l e 1 5 . 3 ;

s o m e b u t n o t all o f t h e m d i d c o m e f r o m v e r b s .

M a n y enclitics h a v e r a t h e r i d i o s y n c r a t i c s e m a n t i c s , a n d h a v e certain restrictions o n

t h e v e r b s t h e y c o m b i n e w i t h . I h a v e s h o w n e l s e w h e r e ( A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 b , f o r t h c o m i n g -

c) that t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f A k t i o n s a r t enclitics in T a r i a n a m a y b e d u e to t h e p r o c e s s o f

c a l q u i n g T u c a n o v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g s t r u c t u r e s w h e r e t h e s e are fully p r o d u c t i v e . W h i l e

v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g is n o t p r o d u c t i v e in T a r i a n a , t h e p r o c e s s e s o f c a l q u i n g a n d l o a n

t r a n s l a t i o n a r e e x t r e m e l y w i d e s p r e a d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the A k t i o n s a r t enclitics c a l q u e d

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 1 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t e n c l i t i c s 3 4 3

f r o m T u c a n o c a n in fact b e t r e a t e d a s a s e m i - o p e n class; t h e r e m a y w e l l b e further

m e m b e r s in a d d i t i o n to t h o s e listed h e r e .

A k t i o n s a r t enclitics o c c u r in p o s i t i o n 17 in t h e v e r b structure ( S c h e m e 12.2). In

a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s t h e y g o o n t o t h e m a i n v e r b . S o m e enclitics c a n

o c c u r t o g e t h e r , a n d s o m e c a n b e u s e d a s i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b i a l s .

M o s t , b u t n o t all t h e A k t i o n s a r t enclitics c a n o c c u r a s a d v e r b i a l m o d i f i e r s . T h i s

p r o p e r t y differentiates t h e m f r o m aspect, m o o d , m o d a l i t y a n d t e n s e a n d evidentiality

m a r k e r s .

T h i s s e c t i o n is o r g a n i s e d a s f o l l o w s : in § 1 5 . 2 . 1 I e x e m p l i f y t h e A k t i o n s a r t enclitics

w h i c h h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b in t h e l a n g u a g e ; a n d in § 1 5 . 2 . 2 I d i s c u s s o t h e r

A k t i o n s a r t enclitics. Finally, a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e s e m a n t i c s o f t h e A k t i o n s a r t enclitics,

a n d o f their a d d i t i o n a l s y n t a c t i c p r o p e r t i e s ( s u c h a s their c o - o c c u r r e n c e w i t h i n o n e

p r e d i c a t e a n d t h e u s e a s i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b i a l s ) is g i v e n in § 1 5 . 2 . 3 .

1 5 . 2 . 1 A k t i o n s a r t enclitics w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b s

A list o f t h e s e enclitics is g i v e n in T a b l e 15.2. A l l b u t t h r e e o f t h e m c o m e f r o m

i n t r a n s i t i v e a c t i v e (S a ) v e r b s w h i l e t w o c o m e f r o m S 0 v e r b s a n d o n e c o m e s f r o m a n Sj 0

v e r b . T h e y a r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e x a m p l e s o f g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n : f r o m a full v e r b to a

g r a m m a t i c a l m a r k e r . S o m e c a n b e u s e d as a n a d v e r b i a l m o d i f i e r , w h i l e o t h e r s c a n n o t .

T A B L E 1 5 . 2 A K T I O N S A R T E N C L I T I C S W I T H C O R R E S P O N D I N G V E R B S

S E M A N T I C S E N C L I T I C C O R R E S P O N D I N G V E R B

1. -d(h)ala ' t o u c h t h e surface, -d(h)ala ' c o m e u n s t u c k , peel,

u n s t i c k i n g o r s c r a t c h i n g it1 b e scratched' (S a )

2. - k o l o 'turn o v e r , k n o c k over' - k o l o 'roll, fall d o w n ' (S a )

(i) A s s o c i a t e d 3. - k u s u ' m o v e to a n d fro' -kusu 'be s h a k e n ' (S a )

a c t i o n o r state 4. - s e k u 'slip all o f a s u d d e n ' -seku 'slip, slide' (S a )

k a . w h i ' w a k e u p ; b e early in
5. - k a w h i 'do early in t h e m o r n i n g '
t h e m o r n i n g ' (S 0 )

6. -yare 'lose c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' y a r e 'be u n c o n s c i o u s ' (Sj0)

1. - j w y ' s p r e a d o v e r flat surface' -yari-pana 'cover' (S a )

(ii) T y p e o f o b j e c t
2. - h a l a ' s p r e a d o v e r entire
o r l o c a t i o n h a l a 'be o p e n ' (S 0 )
surface'

L e t u s b e g i n w i t h set (i) in T a b l e 15.2.

1 . -d(h)ala ' t o u c h t h e s u r f a c e , u n s t i c k i n g o r s c r a t c h i n g it'

T h e g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f a c t i v e intransitive (S a ) p r e f i x e d v e r b -dhala ' c o m e u n s t u c k ,

p e e l , b e s c r a t c h e d ' ( u n d e r l i n e d ) is illustrated w i t h 1 5 . 7 4 - 6 . In 1 5 . 7 4 it o c c u r s a s a n

i n d e p e n d e n t v e r b , in 1 5 . 7 5 a s a n a d v e r b i a l m o d i f i e r , a n d in 1 5 . 7 6 a s a n A k t i o n s a r t

enclitic.

1 5 . 7 4 d i y a - t u p e - m i a - p i d a n a d i - d h a l a

3 s g n f + b a r k - D I M . P L - O N L Y - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - c o m e u n s t u c k

' O n l y t h e p i e c e s o f b a r k ( o f t h e tree) h a d c o m e u n s t u c k . '

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 3 4 4 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

1 5 . 7 5 f i a m e m a d i h a i - p h i n a - p e - n u k u d h i p a

t w o + C L : S I D E h e I N D F - t h i g h - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + g r a b

di-api d h a l a d i - p e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - p u l l U N S T I C K 3 s g n f - l e a v e - R E M . P . R E P

' H e g r a b b e d (the d e a d b o d y ' s ) t h i g h s , p u l l e d t h e m , u n s t i c k i n g ( t h e m ) f r o m t h e

b o d y . '

1 5 . 7 6 h a l e m i d i - n i - d ( h ) a l a d i - r u k u - i - n i p e d i - n a

all t h e t i m e 3 s g n f - d o - U N S T I C K 3 s g n f - f a l l - C A U S - N O M 3 s g n f - O B J

' H e ( t h e forefather) a l w a y s let h i m (the s o n w h o t u r n e d into a fish) c o m e u n s t u c k

(as this t y p e o f f i s h n a t u r a l l y d o e s ) a n d fall (off t h e canoe).'

W h e n u s e d a s a n a d v e r b i a l m o d i f i e r , dhala c a n b e r e p e a t e d to i n d i c a t e intensity o f

action.

1 5 . 7 7 h i p a d a e p i s i - n e - p i d a n a d i - n a d h a l a

s t o n e a x e - I N S - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-hit U N S T I C K

d h a l a d i - y a - n a k u

U N S T I C K 3 s g n f - b a r k - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e hit t h e b a r k ( o f a tree) t o u n s t i c k it f r o m t h e tree t r y i n g really hard.'

2. - k o l o 'turn o v e r , k n o c k over'

T h e i n d e p e n d e n t v e r b -kolo 'turn over, roll' is illustrated in 1 5 . 7 8 . It is also u s e d in the

w o r d for 'car': k a - k o l o - k a - w h y a (REL-roll-TH-CL:CANOE), literally, 'a rolling canoe'. In

1 5 . 7 9 k o l o is u s e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t m o d i f i e r . T h e enclitic is m o s t often u s e d w i t h

v e r b s o f affect, e.g. ' s h o o t d o w n m a k i n g roll', a s in 15.80.

1 5 . 7 8 n a - k o l o - k a n a - r u k u n a - p i d a n a

3 p l - r o l l - D E C L 3 p l - g o . d o w n 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P

T h e y r o l l e d d o w n ( h i l l ) . '

1 5 . 7 9 d i h a f i a m u k a y u d i - a - k a - m i d i - u k a k o l o

A R T evil.spirit like 3 s g n f - s a y - S U B - N O M 3 s g n f - a r r i v e R O L L

d i - s u e , d i h a m e s a p e - n a k i - n u k u

3 s g n f - p u t + C A U S A R T t u r i - C L : B U N D L E - T O P . N O N . A / S

n e - p i d a n a d i - p e - n i k i

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - t h r o w - C O M P L

' T h e evil spirit, after h e h a d said it, t h r e w t h e b u n d l e o f turi t u r n i n g it o v e r b y

rolling.'

1 5 . 8 0 i t a - w h y a - n u k u dita d i - p e - k o l o

c a n o e - C L : C A N O E - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + s h o o t . a r r o w 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R O L L

' H e s h o t a n a r r o w at t h e c a n o e m a k i n g it roll.'

3. - k u s u ' m o v e t o a n d fro'

T h e v e r b r o o t - k u s u m e a n s 'be s h a k e n ' . A s a n i n d e p e n d e n t v e r b , it is attested o n l y w i t h

t h e c a u s a t i v e -i(-ta) (see C h a p t e r 13), e.g. 1 5 . 8 1 .

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 J 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t e n c l i t i c s 3 4 5

1 5 . 8 1 h e k u - n a i n a k a d i - w e r a - p i d a

t r e e - C L : V E R T fruit 3 s g n f - f a l l . b y . i t s e l f - I M P V . S E C

p a : - k a p a - k u s e

I M P + s a y - S U B I M P - s h a k e + C A U S

T o m a k e t h e fruit fall o f f a tree, t h e y s h a k e (it).'

In 1 5 . 8 2 , - k u s u is u s e d a s a n a d v e r b i a l m o d i f i e r .

1 5 . 8 2 n u - w e - r i J u v i n o d i - a p i - n a

1 s g - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - M A S C J o v i n o 3 s g n f - p u l l - R E M . P . V I S

k u s u d i h a - d a - n u k u

T O . A N D . F R O A R T - C L : R O U N D - T O P . N O N . A / S

' M y y o u n g e r b r o t h e r J o v i n o p u l l e d this r o u n d o n e (motor).'

In t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s - k u s u a p p e a r s as a n enclitic, w i t h v e r b s o f affect, s u c h a s

'pull' ( 1 5 . 8 3 ) , o r 'do, affect' ( 1 5 . 8 4 ) .

1 5 . 8 3 k u m a l i - d a - p e n a : p i - k u s u n h e na:

t u c u m a - C L : R O U N D - P L 3 p l + p u l l - T O . A N D . F R O 3 p l + e n t e r 3 p l + g o

n a - k a n e m a n a - y a - n h i

3 p l - l o o k 3 p l + s t a n d 3 p l - s t a y - A N T

' T h e y (the T a r i a n a a n c e s t o r s ) p u l l e d (the m e a t ) o f t u c u m a fruit, e n t e r e d a n d s t a y e d

l o o k i n g (at w o m e n ) . '

1 5 . 8 4 d i - n i - k u s u d i - n i - k u s u d i - k a w h e t a - n a

3 s g n f - d o - P U L L 3 s g n f - d o - T O . A N D . F R O 3 s g n f - a w a k e + C A U S - R E M . P . V I S

' H e p u l l e d a n d p u s h e d h i m to a n d fro, h e w o k e h i m up.'

T h i s enclitic c a n o c c u r w i t h v e r b s o f m o t i o n , a s in 1 5 . 8 5 , a n d w i t h s t a n c e v e r b s , a s in

1 5 . 8 6 .

1 5 . 8 5 i y h e - d a d i - p h u a - k u s u - y a n a d i - a - p i d a n a

d r a g o n f l y - C L : R O U N D 3 s g n f - s t e p - T 0 . A N D . F R 0 - P E J 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

T h e d r a g o n f l y s t e p p e d to a n d fro ( o n t h e m u d ) . '

1 5 . 8 6 a m a k u - n u k u n a - y a - k u s u n a - p e - p i d a n a

h a m m o c k - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - s t a y - T 0 . A N D . F R 0 3 p l - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P

T h e y k e p t s t a y i n g in t h e h a m m o c k m o v i n g to a n d fro.'

4. - s e k u 'slip all o f a s u d d e n '

T h e v e r b - s e k u m e a n s 'slip, slide'; it is v e r y rarely u s e d . T h e i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b i a l s e k u

a n d t h e enclitic a r e less rare. T h e i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b i a l u s e d w i t h a v e r b o f affect is

illustrated in 1 5 . 8 7 . T h e enclitic is s h o w n in 1 5 . 8 8 .

1 5 . 8 7 p a - w e t a - k a r u pa:pi-ri s e k u

I M P - m a k e . t r a p - P U R P . V I S I M P + p u l l - C O N V S L I D E

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 3 4 6 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

p i - e m e - t a

2 s g - s t a n d + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

T o m a k e a trap, pull (the trigger) u p w a r d s , w i t h a sliding m o v e m e n t . '

1 5 . 8 8 d i h a sTpi n h u p a - s e k u n u - e m e - t a

A R T s h o t g u n 1s g + g r a b - S L I D E l s g - s t a n d + C A U S l - C A U S 2

n u k a n u - a - n a n h u a

l s g + a r r i v e l s g - g o - R E M . P . V I S I

'I m a n a g e d to slide (the trigger of) a s h o t g u n u p w a r d s . '

T h e enclitic - s e k u is a l s o u s e d w i t h v e r b s o f m o t i o n ( w h e r e it is better t r a n s l a t e d as

'slip'), a s i n 1 6 . 6 4 .

5. - k a w h i 'do e a r l y in t h e m o r n i n g '

T h e S 0 v e r b k a . w h i ' w a k e u p , b e early in t h e m o r n i n g ' is illustrated w i t h 1 5 . 8 9 , k a w h i a s

a n i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b i a l is s h o w n in 1 5 . 9 0 , a n d a s a n enclitic in 1 5 . 9 1 .

1 5 . 8 9 k a : w h i - t h a p h i a

b e . a w a k e - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R y o u

' A r e y o u a w a k e ? ' (a m o r n i n g g r e e t i n g )

1 5 . 9 0 k a y u ma:tfi-peri i - s a p e - k a k a : w h i

s o b a d - C O L L 2 p l - s p e a k - D E C L b e . a w a k e

' Y o u ( p e o p l e ) s a y b a d t h i n g s w h e n y o u are a w a k e (or: early in the m o r n i n g ) . '

1 5 . 9 1 halite i - p e y a k u : n a

w h i t e + N C L : A N I M I N D F - b e . f i r s t fish.poison

n a - t u d a - k a w h i - p i d a n a n a : - k a s u n a m a

3 p l - c r u s h - B E . E A R L Y - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + g o - I N T 3 p l + p o i s o n fish

' B e f o r e d a w n t h e y w e r e g o i n g to c r u s h t h e fish p o i s o n early in t h e m o r n i n g to

p o i s o n fish.'

6. -yare 'lose c o n s c i o u s n e s s '

T h e Sio v e r b -yare 'lose c o n s c i e n c e ; b e u n c o n s c i o u s b e c a u s e o f d r u n k e n n e s s o r snuff, b e

tipsy' is illustrated in 1 5 . 9 2 w h e r e it is serialised a n d in 1 5 . 9 3 (see A i k h e n v a l d

f o r t h c o m i n g - d a n d C h a p t e r 12 for t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f Sj 0 v e r b s ) ; t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g

enclitic a p p e a r s in 1 5 . 9 4 . T h i s r o o t is n o t u s e d a s a n a d v e r b i a l .

1 5 . 9 2 n u - a - m a h k a y a r e - n i k i

1 s g - g o - R E C . P . N O N V I S l o s e . c o n s c i e n c e - C O M P L

'I l o s t c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w a s u n c o n s c i o u s . '

1 5 . 9 3 y a f e - m a h k a n u - n a

l o s e . c o n s c i e n c e - R E C . P . N O N V I S 1 s g - O B J

'I f e l t ( t e m p o r a r i l y ) tipsy.'

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 15.2 Aktionsart enclitics 3 4 7

1 5 . 9 4 d i - a - y a r e d i - e k u d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o - L O S E . C O N S C I E N C E 3 s g n f - r u n 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

'All o f a s u d d e n h e b e c a m e u n c o n s c i o u s . '

W e c a n n o w c o n s i d e r set (ii) in T a b l e 15.2, d e a l i n g w i t h t h e t y p e o f o b j e c t o r

l o c a t i o n .

1 . -yari ' s p r e a d o v e r flat surface'

T h e v e r b a l r o o t -(y)ari a p p e a r s o n l y in t h e v e r b -yari-pana 'cover' w h i c h p o s s i b l y

c o n t a i n s t h e enclitic -pana 'ALL' a s a fossilised part o f it - s e e 1 5 . 9 5 .

1 5 . 9 5 m a r a w i - k a r a p i - n e - p i d a n a n a - m h u e

p a i n t e d - C L : P L A T E - I N S - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - t u r n . u p s i d e . d o w n + C A U S

n a r i p a n a n a - s u e - n i k i

3 p l + c o v e r 3 p l - p u t + C A U S - C O M P L

T h e y c o v e r e d (the light) w i t h a p a i n t e d p l a t e p u t u p s i d e d o w n . '

T h e enclitic -(y)ari ' s p r e a d o v e r flat surface' o c c u r s o n l y w i t h -wera 'spill, scatter', o r

-ni ' d o ' - s e e 1 5 . 9 6 .

1 5 . 9 6 k a i d o - n e d i - w e f a - y a r i d i - s u e

s a n d - I N S 3 s g n f - s c a t t e r - O V E R . F L A T . S U R F A C E 3 s g n f - s t a y + C A U S

te d i - n a l e

until 3 s g n f - d i s a p p e a r

' H e ( t h e M o o n ) s c a t t e r e d (the s p o t ) w i t h s a n d until (the light) d i s a p p e a r e d . '

2. - h a l a ' s p r e a d o v e r entire surface'

T h e S 0 v e r b h a l a 'be o p e n ' is illustrated in 1 5 . 9 7 , a n d the c o r r e s p o n d i n g enclitic in

1 5 . 9 8 - 9 . T h i s r o o t d o e s n o t f u n c t i o n a s a n a d v e r b .

1 5 . 9 7 h a l a - k a d e - p i d a n a y a k o l e k a

o p e n - N E G - R E M . P . R E P d o o r

' T h e d o o r w a s n o t o p e n . '

W h e n u s e d a s a n enclitic, - h a l a refers to s p r e a d i n g a n d e x t e n d i n g o n t o a n ' o p e n

space'. I n e x a m p l e s like 1 5 . 9 8 b e l o w it is u s e d a l m o s t as a v e r b a l classifier, e.g. s i m i l a r

t o t h e 'areal' p r e f i x in A t h a p a s k a n l a n g u a g e s (see T h o m p s o n 1 9 9 3 ) : it d e s c r i b e s t h e

w h o l e s u r f a c e o f t h e chest.

1 5 . 9 8 d i h a a m a n a - p i d a n a n a w i k i - y a - m a k a - n u k u

A R T d o l p h i n - R E M . P . R E P p e r s o n - P O S S - C L : C L O T H - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - n a - h a l a - w h y u m e - p i d a n a n a w i k i

3 s g n f - p u t . o n - O P E N . S P A C E - A F T E R . S S - R E M . P . R E P p e r s o n

d i - m a : t f i - k a di-fiu d i - n u - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - b a d - T H E M E 3 s g n f - g o . u p 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

'After t h e d o l p h i n p u t o n t h e h u m a n shirt ( o n t h e o p e n s u r f a c e o f h i s chest), h e

t u r n e d i n t o a m a n a n d c a m e u p s t r e a m . '

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 3 4 8 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

In 1 5 . 9 9 - h a l a d e s c r i b e s ' w i p i n g c l e a n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e face', that i s , it r e f e r s b o t h to

t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e a c t i o n is p e r f o r m e d ( ' w i p i n g clean') a n d to the location: the

s u r f a c e o f t h e object.

1 5 . 9 9 p i - y e k w a - n u k u m a t f a p i - a t h a - h a l a

2 s g - f a c e - T O P . N O N . A / S w e l l 2 s g - w i p e - O P E N . S P A C E

' W i p e t h e w h o l e o f y o u r face clean.'

In 1 5 . 1 0 0 - h a l a refers j u s t to t h e m a n n e r o f action.

1 5 . 1 0 0 n a - y a - h a l a n a - s u e - t a - p i d a n a - n i k i

3 p l - h i t - O P E N . S P A C E 3 p l - s t a y + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P - C O M P L

' T h e y hit (the g a r d e n ) c l e a n a n d p u t (the s e e d s there).'

A n u n u s u a l p r o p e r t y o f t h e s e A k t i o n s a r t enclitics is that t h e y d e r i v e f r o m v e r b s w i t h

v e r y specific m e a n i n g s . T h i s s e e m s u n u s u a l , s i n c e linguistic e x p r e s s i o n s s e r v i n g as a

s o u r c e for g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n t e n d to h a v e fairly g e n e r a l m e a n i n g s ( H e i n e , C l a u d i a n d

H u n n e m e y e r 1 9 9 1 : 3 8 - 9 ) ; s e e § 1 5 . 2 . 3 a n d A i k h e n v a l d ( 2 0 0 0 b ) .

1 5 . 2 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t enclitics n o t u s e d a s independent v e r b s

A list o f t h e A k t i o n s a r t enclitics n o t u s e d as i n d e p e n d e n t v e r b s ( f o u n d so far) is g i v e n in

T a b l e 1 5 . 3 . T h e y fall into f o u r b r o a d g r o u p s : m a n n e r o f a c t i o n ( b r e a k i n g o r cutting);

d i r e c t i o n a l s ; e x t e n t o f a c t i o n o r state; a n d a s s o c i a t e d action, or s t a t e / m a n n e r o f action.

T h e y d i s p l a y different abilities to c o m b i n e w i t h v e r b s o f different s e m a n t i c g r o u p s .

E n c l i t i c s o f g r o u p (i) are m o s t l y u s e d w i t h v e r b s o f affect.

1. - b o s a ' b r e a k b y s m a s h i n g ; split'

E x a m p l e s 1 5 . 1 0 1 - 2 illustrate t h e u s e o f - b o s a 'break b y s m a s h i n g ; split' w i t h t h e v e r b

-tuda 'split b y hitting' a n d -yd 'hit'.

1 5 . 1 0 1 d i w h i d a - n a k u d i - t u d a - b o s a

3 s g n f + h e a d - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s p l i t - B R E A K . B Y . S M A S H I N G

d i - p e - p i d a n a d i - k u di-ni di-pe-niki

3 s g n f - l e a v e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - o p e n 3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - l e a v e - C O M P L

' H e (the little bird) split (the crocodile's) h e a d b y s m a s h i n g l e a v i n g it o p e n

(for t h e h i d d e n fire to c o m e out).'

1 5 . 1 0 2 n a - y a - b o s a n a - r u k u - i - p i d a n a

3 p l - h i t - B R E A K . B Y . S M A S H I N G 3 p l - g o . d o w n - C A U S - R E M P . R E P

' T h e y hit (the evil spirits) b y s m a s h i n g t h e m a n d m a d e t h e m g o d o w n . '

T h e f o r m b o s a c a n b e u s e d a s a n a d v e r b i a l , as illustrated in 1 5 . 1 0 3 .

1 5 . 1 0 3 p a ! b o s a n u - w e t a - b o t h a - n i k i

p a ! B R E A K . B Y . S M A S H I N G l s g - t r a p - C O N D - C O M P L

'Pa! I will t r a p a n d s m a s h (him).'

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 1 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t e n c l i t i c s 3 4 9

T A B L E 15.3 A K T I O N S A R T E N C L I T I C S N O T U S E D A S I N D E P E N D E N T V E R B S

S E M A N T I C S E N C L I T I C S

1. - b o s a 'break b y s m a s h i n g ; split'
(i) M a n n e r o f
2. -weri 'crush b y c o m p r e s s i n g ( w i t h a hit, o r a bite)'
a c t i o n : b r e a k i n g o r
3. - w i s a 'flatten, c r u s h till it b e c o m e s flat'
c u t t i n g
4. -taka, - t a k h a 'cut in t w o '

1. -bili 'inside'

2. -thepi 'in(to) water'

3. -bisi 'into fire'

(ii) D i r e c t i o n a l s
4. - t a t h a 'up w i t h force'

5. - h u ' a w a y w i t h a b r u s q u e m o v e m e n t '

6. - k h a , - k h a n a 'away'

1. - b a l a 'in e v e r y direction, e v e r y w h e r e , large e x t e n s i o n '

2. -sa 'tightly, firmly; to a large extent'

(iii) E x t e n t o f
3. -pana 'all, t h e w h o l e surface o f
a c t i o n o r state
4. -thuy 'all, every'

5. - k h a n i 'do straight a w a y , i m m e d i a t e l y '

1. - n u 'feel a s h a r p p a n g o f pain'

2. -dhuli ' b o w ; b e f o l d e d into t w o ; t o u c h slightly'

3. -ku 'stay still, d o s o m e t h i n g s l o w l y o r quietly'

4. - s u 'suddenly'

5. -khuli 'rub a g a i n s t s o m e o n e in a friendly w a y , e.g. a cat or a

d o g '

6. -khuli ' s u d d e n l y slip, get o u t o f h a n d '

7. - h o l o 'spill (water)'

(iv) M i s c e l l a n e o u s : 8. -liphe 'hold o n firmly'

a s s o c i a t e d a c t i o n 9. -kaka ' p e r f o r m a n activity w i t h o u t m a k i n g noise'

o r state; m a n n e r o f 10. -pari ' s w a y falling asleep'

a c t i o n
11. -yana ' m a k e fire'

1 2 . - l i h a , liyha 'take off s k i n or insides'

13. -ni, - n i k u ' s w a y , a l m o s t falling (like a tree w h e n it is w i n d y ) '

14. - t e w ' s t r e t c h '

1 5 . -pitfi.pisi 'stretch'

16. - m i h a 'light'

1 7 . -phali 'light'

18. -mikiri 'despise, h u m i l i a t e '

2. - w e r i ' c r u s h b y c o m p r e s s i n g '

T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e illustrates t h e u s e o f -weri 'crush b y c o m p r e s s i n g ' , w i t h t h e v e r b

f
bite».

1 5 . 1 0 4 d i h a y a w i w a r i y a w i - m a k a d h e

A R T Y a w i w a l i j a g u a r - C L : C L O T H 3 s g n f + e n t e r

d i - k a p e t a - s i n a d i - n a - t h a - s i n a n a - n a

3 s g n f - b l e s s - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g n f - w a n t - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - O B J

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 3 5 0 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

n i w h a - w e r i d i - s u e - n i k i

3 s g n f + b i t e - C R U S H . B Y . C O M P R E S S I N G 3 s g n f - s t a y + C A U S - C O M P L

' Y a w i w a l i (a m y t h i c a l m a n ) e n t e r e d t h e j a g u a r skin, h e b l e s s e d (the p e o p l e ) ,

h e w a n t e d (in v a i n ) to c r u s h t h e m b y biting.'

In 1 5 . 1 0 5 , - w e d refers to t h e result o f a n a c t i o n o f t h r o w i n g . H e r e , t h e enclitic

d e s c r i b e s t h e m a n n e r o f a c t i o n a n d a n a s s o c i a t e d a c t i o n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

1 5 . 1 0 5 m a w i n a - w a t a w i k a - s e

a b a c a x i - C L : B U S H o v e r - L O C

d i - u k a - w e r i

3 s g n f - a r r i v e , g e t - C R U S H . B Y . C O M P R E S S I N G

d i - s u e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s t a y + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

' H e g o t h i m o v e r t h e t o p o f a p i n e a p p l e b u s h c r u s h i n g h i m b y c o m p r e s s i n g . '

T h i s enclitic h a r d l y e v e r a p p e a r s as a n i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b i a l . 1 5 . 1 0 6 is a rare

e x a m p l e ; n o t e that it c o m e s f r o m a c o m i c story told b y J u v e n a l B r i t o w h o s e T a r i a n a is

n o t fully fluent.

1 5 . 1 0 6 n u h u a C r i s t a o - k a d e - k a , n u h u a

I C h r i s t i a n - N E G - S U B I

w e n n u - a - b o h t a k a n u h u a

C R U S H . B Y . C O M P R E S S I N G l s g - g o - R E C . P . C O N D I

'If I h a d n ' t b e e n a C h r i s t i a n , I w o u l d h a v e b e e n c r u s h e d b y c o m p r e s s i n g

( p e o p l e w o u l d h a v e s t e p p e d o n m e ) . '

3. - w i s a 'flatten, c r u s h till it b e c o m e s flat'

T h e enclitic - w i s a m e a n s 'flatten, c r u s h till it b e c o m e s flat', a s in 1 5 . 1 0 7 - 8 . It is m o s t l y

u s e d w i t h v e r b s o f hitting a n d c r u s h i n g , a n d n e v e r o c c u r s a s a n a d v e r b .

1 5 . 1 0 7 d i h a - p i d a n a d i - p a s y e - t a

h e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - f l a t t e n + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

d i - p a s y a - w i s a n a - n a

3 s g n f - f l a t t e n - C R U S H . B Y . F L A T T E N I N G 3 p l - O B J

' H e flattened, flattened t h e m (the evil spirits) c r u s h i n g t h e m till t h e y b e c a m e

flat'

1 5 . 1 0 8 k a - m u s u k a - n u - n u k u

R E L - g o . o u t R E L - c o m e - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - n a - k a s u - w i s a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - h i t - I N T - C R U S H . B Y . F L A T T E N I N G - R E M . P . R E P

' H e (the w i d o w e r ) w a s a b o u t to hit t h o s e w h o w e r e c o m i n g o u t ( o f the h o l e )

b y flattening t h e m . '

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 15.2 A ktionsart enclitics 3 51

4. - t a k a , - t a k h a 'cut in t w o '

T h e enclitic - t a k a , - t a k h a 'cut in t w o ' ( w i t h t h e t w o a l l o m o r p h s in free v a r i a t i o n ) is

illustrated in 1 5 . 1 0 9 . It is a l w a y s u s e d w i t h v e r b s o f c u t t i n g a n d hitting, a n d m a y o c c u r

a s a n a d v e r b .

1 5 . 1 0 9 n e s e i n a r i - y a n a iri di-a d i - n a

t h e n traira.fish-PEJ l s g + s o n 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - O B J

d i - p i s a - t a k a d i - p e - n a - n i k i

3 s g n f - c u t - C U T . I N . T W O 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R E M . P . V I S - C O M P L

' T h e n m y s o n w e n t , c u t t h e traira fish into t w o a n d t h r e w it.'

G r o u p (ii) i n v o l v e s direction, u s u a l l y , o f t h r o w i n g o r putting.

1. - b i l i 'inside'

T h e enclitic -bili i n v o l v e s m o v e m e n t i n s i d e o r into t h e d e p t h o f s o m e t h i n g , e.g. s t e p p i n g

into m u d a n d s i n k i n g , as in 1 5 . 1 1 0 . N o t e that in 1 5 . 1 1 0 t h e future m a r k e r -mhade

f o l l o w s -bili i n s t e a d o f p r e c e d i n g it, b e c a u s e o f e m p h a s i s o n s t e p p i n g INSIDE t h e m u d .

1 5 . 1 1 0 h e p o . l e t a p a t h i n a i - t h u k a i-a

2 p l + s t u m b l e s u d d e n l y 2 p l - b r e a k 2 p l - g o

i - p h u a - b i l i - m h a d e i - y a m i : h y a - y a n a - p e

2 p l - s t e p - I N S I D E - F U T 2 p l - d i e y o u - P E J - P L

' Y o u will s t u m b l e all o f a s u d d e n , b r e a k (a l i m b ) , s t e p (inside m u d ) a n d die,

y o u n a u g h t y o n e s . '

T h e enclitic -bili c a n refer to t h e i n s i d e o f a n o v e r t l y stated location. In 1 5 . 1 1 1 , -bili

i n d i c a t e s that t h e a r r o w s w e r e d i r e c t e d i n s i d e t h e grater (rather t h a n at t h e e n e m y w h o

e s c a p e d ) , a n d in 1 5 . 1 1 2 -bili refers to t h e i n s i d e o f t h e rapids.

1 5 . 1 1 1 a d a - s e - p i d a n a na-ita-bili

g r a t e r - L O C - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - s h o o t . a r r o w - I N S I D E

' T h e y s h o t a r r o w s hitting t h e i n s i d e o f t h e ( m a n i o c ) grater.'

1 5 . 1 1 2 u k a r a - p a n i - n u k u d i - u k a

s a r d i n e - C L : R A P I D - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - a r r i v e

d i - s u m u - t a - b i l i d i - y e n a - k h a d i s a

3 s g n f - f u l l - C A U S - I N S I D E 3 s g n f - o v e r c o m e - A W A Y 3 s g n f + g o . u p

d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' H e ( t h e m a g i c a l b e i n g ) m a n a g e d to fill t h e i n s i d e o f t h e R a p i d o f S a r d i n e s ,

( w h i c h ) w a s o v e r f l o w i n g . '

T h i s enclitic c a n b e u s e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b i a l , albeit rarely, a s in 1 5 . 1 1 3

w h e r e 'inside t h e m u d ' is in f o c u s a s u n e x p e c t e d i n f o r m a t i o n .

1 5 . 1 1 3 n e n u - p h u a - s u n u - p h u a - s u

t h e n 1s g - s t e p - S U D D E N L Y 1s g - s t e p - S U D D E N L Y

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 3 5 2 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

n u - w h a - m h a n a u r u p e d a - s e bili n u - s w a - m h a n a

l s g - f a l l - R E M . P . N O N V I S m u d - L O C I N S I D E l s g - s t a y - R E M . P . V I S

T h e n I s u d d e n l y s t e p p e d , I s u d d e n l y s t e p p e d a n d fell, I s t a y e d i n s i d e the

m u d . '

2. -thepi 'in(to) w a t e r '

T h e d i r e c t i o n a l -thepi 'in(to) w a t e r ' is u s e d a s a n a d v e r b i a l m o d i f i e r in 1 5 . 1 1 4 , a n d in

1 5 . 1 1 5 - 1 6 it is u s e d a s a n enclitic to t h e v e r b . T h i s enclitic u s u a l l y o c c u r s w i t h v e r b s o f

m o t i o n .

1 5 . 1 1 4 u p i - m i a i-dia i-a-pita i - d i a - m h a

o l d - O N L Y 2 p l - s t a y 2 p l - g o - A G A I N 2 p l - s t a y - P R E S . N O N V I S

ihia d i - a - p i d a n a d i - w a s a

y o u 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-slip

d i - w a s a - t a t h a

3 s g n f - j u m p - U P . W I T H . F O R C E

t h e p i d i - r u k u di-a

I N T O . W A T E R 3 s g n f - g o d o w n 3 s g n f - g o

" ' Y o u are s t a y i n g w h e r e y o u w e r e b e f o r e , " h e (the m a g i c fish) said, [and] h e

j u m p e d u p , j u m p e d u p a n d into w a t e r h e went.'

1 5 . 1 1 5 d u - w h a - t h e p i d u - a d u - a p h u a h u

3 s g f - f a l l - I N T O . W A T E R 3 s g f - g o 3 s g f - d i v e A W A Y

d u - r u k u d u - a - p i d a n a

3 s g f - g o . d o w n 3 s g f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' S h e (the girl t r a n s f o r m e d into a s n a k e - w o m a n ) fell into w a t e r , d i v e d a w a y

a n d w e n t d o w n . '

_ e
1 5 . 1 1 6 p i - u k a - t h e p i p i P

2 s g - g e t - I N T O . W A T E R 2 p l - t h r o w

T h r o w (this) into water.'

W h e n u s e d a s a n a d v e r b i a l , thepi c a n b e r e p e a t e d , to indicate repetition o f the action,

a s in 1 5 . 1 1 7 .

1 5 . 1 1 7 d i h a d i - m a r a di-nari thepi

h e 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n s t r e a m 3 s g n f - d i s a p p e a r I N T O . W A T E R

t h e p i d i - m a r a d i - a - p i d a n a d i - k a

I N T O . W A T E R 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n s t r e a m 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s e e

' H e w e n t d o w n s t r e a m a n d d i s a p p e a r e d into t h e w a t e r (several t i m e s ) , g o i n g

d o w n s t r e a m a n d looking.'

3. -bisi 'into t h e fire'

T h e enclitic -bisi is m o s t l y u s e d w i t h v e r b s o f t h r o w i n g or putting. It c a n o c c u r o n its

o w n a s a n a d v e r b i a l .

1 5 . 1 1 8 d i h a - d a - p e - n u k u d h i t a

A R t - C L : R O U N D - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + t a k e

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 1 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t e n c l i t i c s 3 5 3

d i - u k a - b i s i di-pe-niki

3 s g n f - g e t - I N T 0 . F I R E 3 s g n f - t h r o w - C O M P L

' H e t h r e w t h e r o u n d o n e s ( p e o p l e ' s e y e s ) into t h e fire.'

4. - t a t h a 'up w i t h force'

T h e enclitic - t a t h a 'up w i t h force' is u s e d w i t h v e r b s o f m o t i o n , as in 1 5 . 1 1 4 , or affect

v e r b s , a s in 1 5 . 1 1 9 - 2 1 . It c a n o c c u r a s a n a d v e r b i a l .

1 5 . 1 1 9 d i - n a d i - k o l o t a n i y a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f - e n c o n t e r 3 s g n f + h i t

d i - y a - t a t h a d i - p e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - h i t - U P . W I T H . F O R C E 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P

d i h a t u i r i p u p a n i n a - n u k u

A R T s p e a r - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e e n c o u n t e r e d (the e n e m y ) , hit h i m b y t h r o w i n g the s p e a r u p w a r d s . '

A d i r e c t i o n a l v e r b c a n o c c u r w i t h -tatha, as in 1 5 . 1 2 0 .

1 5 . 1 2 0 d i - a p i - t a t h a d i - n l t a - p i d a n a d i h a

3 s g n f - p u l l - U P . W I T H . F O R C E 3 s g n f - g o . u p + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P A R T

n a w i k i - n u k u

m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e p u l l e d t h e m a n u p w a r d s w i t h force ( w i t h i n t h e s p a c e h e c o u l d reach).'

1 5 . 1 2 1 n u - m a t a r a - t a t h a n u - m u s u n u - a

l s g - l e t . g o - U P . W I T H . F O R C E l s g - g o . o u t l s g - g o

n h u a h i - n u k u

I D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I a m g o i n g to let this g o (up).'

5. - h u ' a w a y w i t h a b r u s q u e m o v e m e n t '

T h e enclitic - h u ' a w a y w i t h a b r u s q u e m o v e m e n t ' is illustrated in 1 5 . 1 2 2 . W h e n u s e d as

a n i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b i a l it i n d i c a t e s a s t r o n g e r a n d m o r e u n e x p e c t e d m o v e m e n t , a s in

1 5 . 1 2 3 .

1 5 . 1 2 2 d i - d a w a - n i k i d i - e k u - h u d i - w a

3 s g n f - h i d e - C O M P L 3 s g n f - r u n - O F F 3 s g n f - e n t e r

d i - a - p i d a n a a w a k a d a - s e

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P j u n g l e - L O C

' H e h i d a n d r a n o f f into t h e j u n g l e . '

1 5 . 1 2 3 d i - d a w a d i - e k u h u ! d i - r u k u - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - h i d e 3 s g n f - r u n O F F ! 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - R E M . P . R E P

' H e h i d a n d r a n a w a y v e r y b r u s q u e l y a n d q u i c k l y a n d w e n t d o w n . '

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 3 5 4 15 Aspect, Aktionsart and degree

6. - k h a , - k h a n a ' a w a y '

T h e enclitic - k h a , - k h a n a (the f o r m s are in free variation) refers to a m o v e m e n t a w a y

f r o m t h e s p e a k e r , o r t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , as in 1 5 . 1 2 4 - 5 . T h i s enclitic c a n a l s o b e u s e d a s a n

a d v e r b i a l .

1 5 . 1 2 4 n a - t u t u n a - s u e t a - p i d a n a n a - n u - k h a n a

3pl-tie 3 p l - s t a y + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - g o . u p - A W A Y

T h e y w e n t a w a y ( f r o m their g r a n d f a t h e r ) to tie ( h a m m o c k s ) . '

1 5 . 1 2 5 k a y n u - n i sipi n h u t a n u - a - k h a - n a

t h u s l s g - d o s h o t g u n l s g + t a k e l s g - g o - A W A Y - R E M . P . V I S

' T h u s I t o o k ( m y ) s h o t g u n a n d w e n t a w a y . '

T h i s enclitic m a y i m p l y m o v e m e n t a w a y f r o m a p r e v i o u s location.

1 5 . 1 2 6 n e s e n a - t h a k a - k h a ( n a ) na:-pita

t h e n 3 p l - c r o s s - A W A Y 3 p l + g o - R E P

h a - n i r i - n i p e - s e n a : k a n a - k a l i t e - p i d a n a

f a t h e r - M A S C - P L - L O C 3 p l + a r r i v e 3 p l - t e l l - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e n t h e y c r o s s e d (the river) a w a y ( f r o m w h e r e t h e y w e r e ) , a r r i v e d a n d t o l d

( e v e r y t h i n g ) to their parents.'

T h e m o v e m e n t ' a w a y ' m a y b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m a i n action, as in 1 5 . 1 2 7 .

1 5 . 1 2 7 n a - s i w a n a - k a - k a k a n e m a - k h a n a - p i d a - t a

3 p l - t o g e t h e r 3 p l - s e e - R E C 3 p l + s t a n d - A W A Y - R E P - A G A I N

' T h e y l o o k e d at e a c h o t h e r a n d a w a y (standing).'

T h e five enclitics in g r o u p (iii) refer to e x t e n t o f a c t i o n o r state.

1. - b a l a 'in e v e r y direction, e v e r y w h e r e '

T h e enclitic - b a l a is u s e d w i t h a large variety o f v e r b s , e.g., 'go', as in 1 5 . 1 2 8 , or 'look

e v e r y w h e r e ' , a s in 1 5 . 1 2 9 . It c a n refer to a n a c t i o n w h i c h s p a n s t h e w h o l e s u r f a c e in

e v e r y d i r e c t i o n , a s in 1 5 . 1 3 0 .

1 5 . 1 2 8 n a : - b a l a n a - s e r i k a - p i d a n a

3 p l + g o - E V E R Y W H E R E 3 p l - s p r e a d - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y w e n t e v e r y w h e r e s p r e a d i n g a r o u n d . '

1 5 . 1 2 9 n u - d a k i - r i - m i a d i - y e k a - m h a ,

l p l - g r a n d c h i l d - M A S C - O N L Y 3 s g n f - k n o w - P R E S . N O N V I S

d i h a - k a h a - e h k w a p i k h i d a h a l i a w a k a k h i d a

h e - D E C L D E M - C L : W O R L D w h o l e w h o l e . w o r l d w h o l e

d i - k a - b a l a d i - e r u d i - n a - k a

3 s g n f - s e e - E V E R Y W H E R E 3 sgnf-stick 3 s g n f - s t a y - S U B

' O n l y m y g r a n d s o n k n o w s this, h e is t h e o n e w h o o v e r s e e s e v e r y t h i n g , t h e

w h o l e w o r l d . '

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 1 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t e n c l i t i c s 3 5 5

1 5 . 1 3 0 p h i a n u h a p a n i s i - n u k u p i - n a - b a l a

y o u I h o u s e - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - h i t - E V E R Y W H E R E

p i - r u k u - i - t a - k a

2 s g - g o . d o w n - C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E C P . V I S

' Y o u h a v e c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y e d m y h o u s e , s p r e a d i n g (its r e m a i n s )

e v e r y w h e r e . '

T h e f o r m b a l a c a n b e u s e d a s a n a d v e r b i a l if t h e e x t e n t o f a c t i o n is c o n t r a s t i v e , as in

1 5 . 1 3 1 .

1 5 . 1 3 1 k a y - n a - n i n h a y a w i - n e n a : - p i d a n a

t h u s - 3 p l - d o t h e y j a g u a r - P L 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P

b a l a - n i k i

E V E R Y W H E R E - C O M P L

'After t h e y ( p e o p l e ) d i d t h u s (i.e. p l a n n e d to h u n t j a g u a r s ) , t h e j a g u a r s w e n t

all o v e r t h e p l a c e ( a n d n o o n e c o u l d find t h e m ) . '

2. - s a 'tightly, f i r m l y ; t o a large extent'

T h e enclitic - s a o c c u r s w i t h v e r b s o f v a r i o u s s e m a n t i c g r o u p s , e.g. 'grab', a s in 1 5 . 1 3 2 ,

'bite, eat', a s in 1 5 . 1 3 3 , o r 'step on', a s in 1 5 . 1 3 4 . It is n o t u s e d a s a n a d v e r b i a l .

1 5 . 1 3 2 k i a k u - i h a - p i d a n a d i - k a p i - m a - n u k u

s t r o n g - A P P R O X - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - h a n d - C L : S I D E - T 0 P . N 0 N . A / S

d h u p a - s a d u - p e d u - m a t a r a - p i d a n a

3 s g f + g r a b - T I G H T L Y 3 s g f - t h r o w 3 s g f - s t o p - R E M . P . R E P

' S h e g r a b b e d his h a n d tightly a n d let it go.'

1 5 . 1 3 3 d i - n a d i - p a t u - p i d a n a d h i t a - k h a

3 s g n f - 0 B J 3 s g n f - c o m e . c l o s e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + t a k e - A W A Y

d i - n h a - s a d i e m e - t a - n i k i

3 s g n f - e a t - T I G H T L Y 3 s g n f + s t a n d + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - C 0 M P L

'(Fish) c a m e to h i m , ate (the bait) s t r o n g l y (or b y h o l d i n g tightly o n t o it)

p u t t i n g (the f i s h i n g r o d ) u p r i g h t a n d t a k i n g a w a y . '

1 5 . 1 3 4 w y u m e - k h a - s e - n u k u d i - p h u a - s a

l a s t - C L : C U R V E D - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s t e p - T I G H T L Y

d i - e m a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s t a n d - R E M . P . R E P

' H e s t e p p e d h a r d o n t o t h e last vine.'

3. - p a n a 'all, t h e w h o l e s u r f a c e o f

T h e enclitic -pana m e a n s 'all, o v e r t h e w h o l e s u r f a c e o r e x t e n s i o n of, as in 1 5 . 1 3 5 , o r

' w h o l l y , absolutely', a s in 1 5 . 1 3 6 . In r a p i d s p e e c h , -pana is p r o n o u n c e d as -pa. U n l i k e

- b a l a , - p a n a in 1 5 . 1 3 5 d o e s n o t i m p l y a n y direction.

1 5 . 1 3 5 if a - m h a p a - s e r i k a - p a n a

n e e d - P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - s p r e a d - A L L

' " W e n e e d t o s p r e a d a r o u n d e v e r y w h e r e , " (said t h e a n c e s t o r o f t h e T a r i a n a ) . '

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 3 5 6 7 5 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

1 5 . 1 3 6 d i h a d i h a h i p a t u h i k u - p a n a m a : - k a d e - p i d a n a

h e A R T s n u f f a p p e a r - A L L N E G + g i v e - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

' H e d i d n o t g i v e t h e s n u f f (to his d a u g h t e r ) in a totally o p e n w a y . '

4. - t h u y 'all, e v e r y '

T h e enclitic -thuy 'all, e v e r y ; c o m p l e t e l y ' is s e m a n t i c a l l y v e r y c l o s e to t h e c o m p l e t i v e

-niki, a n d o f t e n c o - o c c u r s w i t h it. In 1 5 . 4 2 it o c c u r s as a n i n d e p e n d e n t m o d i f i e r , a n d in

1 5 . 6 6 a s a n enclitic.

5. - k h a n i 'do straight a w a y , i m m e d i a t e l y '

T h e last m e m b e r o f this g r o u p , - k h a n i , m e a n s 'do straight a w a y , i m m e d i a t e l y ' , e.g.

w e m a - k h a n i ( l p l + s l e e p - S T R A I G H T . A W A Y ) 'let's s l e e p straight a w a y ' a n d p i - k a l i t e - k h a n i

(2sg-tell-STRAlGHT.AWAY) 'tell (the story) straight a w a y ' . T h i s enclitic is u s e d w i t h a

w i d e v a r i e t y o f v e r b s , a n d c o u l d b e related to - k h a n a , -kha 'away'. H o w e v e r ,

s y n c h r o n i c a l l y it is a different m o r p h e m e . It c a n also b e u s e d as a n a d v e r b .

1 5 . 1 3 7 h a w d i - a - p i d a n a d i h a - m i s i n i d u - p u m i

O K 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P h e - T O O 3sgf-after

d i - a - k h a n i - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o - S T R A I G H T . A W A Y - R E M . P . R E P

' " O K , " h e said, a n d w e n t straight off after her.'

G r o u p (iv) enclitics refer to all k i n d s o f a s s o c i a t e d action. T h e y t e n d to h a v e q u i t e

specific m e a n i n g s a n d o c c u r w i t h l i m i t e d s e m a n t i c g r o u p s o f v e r b s . A l l o f t h e m - w i t h

t h e e x c e p t i o n o f 3 , 13, 16, 17 a n d 18 - c a n b e u s e d a s a d v e r b s .

1. - n u 'step o n s o m e t h i n g a n d feel s h a r p pain'

T h e enclitic - n u is u s e d m a i n l y w i t h v e r b s o f m o t i o n , as in 1 5 . 1 3 8 .

1 5 . 1 3 8 d i - p h u a - n u d i - s u e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s t e p - P A I N 3 s g n f - s t a y + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

' H e s t e p p e d ( o n t h e m ) p u t t i n g his foot a n d felt s h a r p pain.'

T h i s enclitic o f t e n c o - o c c u r s w i t h - w e d 'crush b y c o m p r e s s i n g ' , as in 1 5 . 1 3 9 .

1 5 . 1 3 9 d i - w h a - w e r i - n u d i - s w a

3 s g n f - f a l l - C R U S H . B Y . C O M P R E S S I N G - P A I N 3 s g n f - s t a y

d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' H e fell, c r u s h e d a n d felt s h a r p pain.'

2. - d h u l i m e a n s 'be f o l d e d in t w o ; b o w '

T h e enclitic - d h u l i m e a n s 'be f o l d e d in t w o ; b o w ' (e.g. a tree o n a w i n d y d a y ) , as in

1 5 . 1 4 0 - 1 .

1 5 . 1 4 0 d i h a n a w i k i - n u k u di-sole

A R T p e r s o n - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - t e a r + C A U S

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 1 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t e n c l i t i c s 3 5 7

d i - k a p i - p e - n u k u d i - u k a - n h i - d u l i di-tutu

3 s g n f - h a n d - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - g e t - A N T - I N . T W 0 3sgnf-tie

d i - d i a - k h a d i - a - p i d a n a te d i h a p a n i s i - s e

3 s g n f - r e t u r n - A W A Y 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P until A R T h o u s e - L O C

' H e ( t h e d r a g o n f l y ) tore at t h e m a n ' s h a n d s , f o l d e d ( t h e m ) in t w o a n d tied

t h e m , a n d r e t u r n e d h o m e . '

1 5 . 1 4 1 d i h a k a r e d i - d i e t a - p i d a n a d i h a - p i - n u k u

A R T w i n d 3 s g n f - b l o w - R E M . P . R E P A R T - C L : L O N G - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - n a - k a d i - d i e t a - d h u l i d i - p e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - w a n t - S U B 3 s g n f - b l o w - I N . T W O 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e w i n d b l e w , w a n t i n g to b l o w o v e r t h e l o n g o n e ( p a l m tree) b y m a k i n g it

f o l d in t w o w i t h b r u s q u e m o v e m e n t s (lit. 'throwing').'

W h e n u s e d a s a n a d v e r b dhuli c a n b e r e p e a t e d to i n d i c a t e repetitive action. In 1 5 . 1 4 2

d h u l i d e s c r i b e s t h e b i t i n g o f a c a n e into t w o p i e c e s .

1 5 . 1 4 2 h e k u - p u d a - n a k u m a t f a - p i d a n a ni w h a

t r e e - C L : C A N E - T O P . N O N . A / S g o o d - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + b i t e

d h u l i d h u l i - p i d a n a

I N . T W O I N . T W O - R E M . P . R E P

' H e bit t h e c a n e w e l l , h e bit it r e p e t i t i v e l y into t w o parts, into t w o parts.'

T h e m o r p h e m e - d h u l i c a n h a v e a n o t h e r m e a n i n g , ' t o u c h slightly', as in 1 5 . 1 4 3 . H e r e

• d h u l i refers to t h e w a y a m o n k e y w a s o n l y slightly t o u c h e d b y a bullet. T h i s c o u l d b e a

h o m o n y m o u s m o r p h e m e .

1 5 . 1 4 3 d i - k a p i - s e di-sita-dhuli

3 s g n f - h a n d - L O C 3 s g n f - s h o o t - T O U C H . S L I G H T L Y

d i - y e n e t a - n a

3 s g n f - p a s s + C A U S - R E M . P . V I S

' H e s h o t t h e m o n k e y t o u c h i n g its h a n d (slightly) a n d m i s s e d . '

3. - k u 'stay still, d o s o m e t h i n g s l o w l y or quietly'

T h e enclitic -ku m e a n s 'stay still, d o s o m e t h i n g s l o w l y o r quietly'. T h i s enclitic o c c u r s

w i t h a w i d e v a r i e t y o f v e r b s - in 1 5 . 1 4 4 - 5 it o c c u r s w i t h s t a n c e v e r b s , in 1 5 . 1 4 6 w i t h

'drink' a n d in 1 5 . 1 4 7 w i t h 'think'.

1 5 . 1 4 4 h a n u - i t e - p a s i - p i d a d i h a d i - s w a - k u - p i d a

b i g - N C L : A N I M - A U G - R E P h e 3 s g n f - l i e - Q U I E T L Y - R E P

' H e (the d e a d evil spirit) w a s big, h e w a s lying quietly.'

1 5 . 1 4 5 a m a k u di-tutu d i - k a

h a m m o c k 3sgnf-tie 3 s g n f - s e e

d i - r u k u - i - t a - k u d i - k w a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - C A U S l - C A U S 2 - Q U I E T L Y 3 s g n f - h a n g - R E M . P . R E P

' H e tied h i s h a m m o c k , l o o k e d ( a r o u n d ) , p u t t h e h a m m o c k d o w n a n d h u n g

(in it) quietly.'

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 3 5 8 7 5 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

1 5 . 1 4 6 k a : w h i d i - p u s i t a d i r a - k u

m a n i o c . f l o u r 3 s g n f - m a k e . w e t 3 s g n f + d r i n k - Q U I E T L Y

d i - w h a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s t a y - R E M . P . R E P

' H e m i x e d s o m e m a n i o c flour w i t h w a t e r (lit. m o i s t e n e d s o m e m a n i o c flour)

a n d d r a n k it quietly.'

1 5 . 1 4 7 d e i k i n a d i h a i n a m e n i n i t e p a n i s i

a f t e r n o o n h e w o m a n : P L n o t . l o v e d + N C L : A N I M h o u s e

y a k o l e k a d i h m e t a - k u d i - e m a - p i d a n a

d o o r 3 s g n f + t h i n k - Q U I E T L Y 3 s g n f - s t a n d - R E M . P . R E P

'In t h e a f t e r n o o n t h e m a n n o t l o v e d b y w o m e n k e p t t h i n k i n g , s t a n d i n g

q u i e t l y at t h e d o o r o f t h e h o u s e . '

4. - s u ' s u d d e n l y '

T h e enclitic - s u d e s c r i b e s s u d d e n a c t i o n s , a s in 1 5 . 1 1 3 a n d 1 5 . 1 4 8 . It c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y

v e r b .

1 5 . 1 4 8 p a t h i n a d i h a d i - w e t a - n i p e - n u k u

s u d d e n l y h e 3 s g n f - t r a p - T O P . N O N . A / S

d h i p a - s u niTta-pidana

3 s g n f + g r a b - S U D D E N L Y 3 s g n f + g o . u p + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

' H e g r a b b e d his t r a p a n d m a d e it g o s u d d e n l y up.'

5. - k h u l i 'rub a g a i n s t s o m e o n e in a friendly w a y , a s a cat or a d o g '

T h e enclitic - k h u l i m e a n s 'rub a g a i n s t s o m e o n e in a friendly w a y , e.g. cat o r d o g ' a n d is

u s e d o n l y w i t h t h e v e r b -peta 'for a n a n i m a l to w a g its tail in greeting'. In 1 5 . 1 4 9 , this

v e r b is u s e d to d e s c r i b e a 'greeting' c u s t o m a r y for m y t h i c a l s n a k e - p e o p l e .

1 5 . 1 4 9 di-simari-nuku di-sata-ka-pidana

3 s g n f - s o n . i n . l a w - T O P . N O N A / S 3 s g n f - g r e e t - S U B - R E M . P . R E P

di-peta-khuli-pidana

3 s g n f - w a g . t a i l . g r e e t i n g - R U B . A G A I N S T . I N . A . F R I E N D L Y . W A Y - R E M . P . R E P

'Greeting his son-in-law, he (the snake-man) w a g g e d his tail rubbing against (the
1
son-in-law) in a friendly way.

T h i s enclitic c a n b e r e p e a t e d , a s in 1 5 . 1 5 0 , w h e r e it o c c u s a s a n a d v e r b .

1 5 . 1 5 0 d i - n u d u - w i k a - s e - p i d a n a d i - p e t a

3 s g n f - c o m e 3 s g f - o n . t o p - L O C - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-hit.with.tail

k h u l i - k h u l i - p i d a n a

R U B . A G A I N S T . I N . A . F R I E N D L Y . W A Y - R U B . A G A I N S T . I N . A .

F R I E N D L Y . W A Y - R E M . P . R E P

d i - s i m a r i - n u k u d i - s a t a - k a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s o n . i n . l a w - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - g r e e t - S U B - R E M . P . R E P

' H e (the s n a k e ) c a m e ( a n d sat) in h e r (his d a u g h t e r ' s ) lap, a n d g r e e t e d his

s o n - i n - l a w , r u b b i n g a g a i n s t h i m w i t h his tail in a friendly w a y . '

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 1 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t e n c l i t i c s 3 5 9

6. - k h u l i ' s u d d e n l y slip, g e t o u t o f h a n d '

T h e enclitic - k h u l i ' s u d d e n l y slip, get o u t o f hand', a h o m o n y m o f -khuli 'rub' (see 5

a b o v e ) , is u s e d w i t h a w i d e v a r i e t y o f v e r b s . In 1 5 . 1 5 1 it is u s e d w i t h t h e v e r b 'hit', to

d e s c r i b e a b l o w t h a t m i s s e d its target; a n d i n 1 5 . 1 5 2 it r e f e r s t o t a l k i n g a b o u t s o m e t h i n g

'a little bit'. T h i s u s a g e is characteristic o f 'attenuative' s p e e c h register d e s c r i b e d in

§ 2 5 . 5 . 2 .

1 5 . 1 5 1 d i - n a - k h u l i d i - p e - p i d a n a d i - k a w a n a

3 s g n f - h i t - S L I P 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - l e g

y a p i - s e - p i d a n a d i - n a - n i k i

u n d e r - L O C - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - h i t - C O M P L

' H e hit a n d s l i p p e d , h e hit ( b y m i s t a k e ) t h e part u n d e r n e a t h h i s leg.'

1 5 . 1 5 2 w a - s a p e - k h u l i w a - p e

l p l - t a l k - S L I P l p l - t h r o w

'Let's t a l k ( a b o u t it) j u s t a bit.'

In 1 5 . 1 5 3 - k h u l i is u s e d w i t h t h e v e r b 'bite' to d e s c r i b e a n a c c i d e n t that h a d a l m o s t

h a p p e n e d . T h i s enclitic is u s e d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , i m p l y i n g 'slipping o u t o f death's hand',

a s i n 1 5 . 1 5 4 .

1 5 . 1 5 3 t u k i n i w h a - k h u l i - m h a n a

little 3 s g n f + b i t e - S L I P - R E M . P . N O N V I S

' H e a l m o s t bit ( m e ) b y s l i p p i n g o u t o f hand.'

1 5 . 1 5 4 n u - n a m i - k h u l i , t h e p e n u - w a n u - a - k h a n i - n a

l s g - d i e - S L I P f e d . u p l s g - e n t e r l s g - g o - A W A Y - R E M . P . V I S

'I a l m o s t d i e d (lit. s l i p p e d o u t o f d y i n g ) , g o t fed u p a n d w e n t off.'

7. - h o l o 'spill w a t e r '

T h e enclitic - h o l o 'spill w a t e r ' is u s e d w i t h v e r b s w h i c h refer to m o v i n g w a t e r : - a m

' s c o o p w a t e r ' , a s i n 1 5 . 1 5 5 , a n d - n u a ' p o u r water', a s in 1 5 . 1 5 6 ( h e r e h o l o is u s e d as a n

i n d e p e n d e n t a d v e r b i a l ) .

1 5 . 1 5 5 d u - a r u - k a s u - h o l o - t h a - p i d a n a

3 s g f - s c o o p . w a t e r - I N T - S P I L L . W A T E R - F R - R E M . P . R E P

' S h e w a s a b o u t to s c o o p ( w a t e r ) o u t o f t h e p a n spilling it (all o v e r h e r

e n e m i e s ) ( b u t s h e d i d n o t m a n a g e to d o this).'

1 5 . 1 5 6 k a y u - p i d a n a d i - k u d a - s e d i - n u a

t h u s - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - b r e a s t - L O C 3 s g n f - p o u r

h o l o d i - r u k u - i - n i k i

S P I L L . W A T E R 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - C A U S - C O M P L

' S o h e p o u r e d w a t e r o v e r h i s chest.'

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 3 6 0 15 Aspect, Aktionsart and degree

8 . -liphe ' h o l d o n firmly'

T h e enclitic -liphe 'hold o n firmly' is u s e d w i t h a w i d e variety o f v e r b s , e.g. v e r b s o f

m o t i o n s u c h a s 'step', 'walk', a s in 1 5 . 1 5 7 , o r s t a n c e v e r b s , e.g. 'sit', a s in 1 5 . 1 5 8 .

1 5 . 1 5 7 n e p a - k a n i - l i p h e s e d e - w a n i

N E G I M P - w a l k - H O L D . O N . F I R M L Y N E G . E X - C L : N A T . P H E N

d i - w h a d i - s w a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s t a y 3 s g n f - l i e - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e r e lay a p l a c e w h e r e o n e c o u l d n o t w a l k p u t t i n g o n e ' s foot f i r m l y o n t h e

g r o u n d (that is, it w a s a s w a m p y area).'

1 5 . 1 5 8 m a t f a i - w h a - l i p h e

w e l l 2 p l - s i t - H O L D . O N . F l R M L Y

'Sit h o l d i n g firmly (e.g. o n a c a n o e ) . '

W i t h t h e v e r b 'hear', a s in 1 5 . 1 5 9 , -liphe i m p l i e s 'trying hard'.

1 5 . 1 5 9 k w a m e - m a h k a n h u m a - l i p h e

a l m o s t - R E C . P . N O N V I S 1s g + h e a r - H O L D . O N . F I R M L Y

'I a m t r y i n g h a r d to u n d e r s t a n d m o r e o r less.'

9. -kaka ' p e r f o r m a n activity w i t h o u t m a k i n g noise'

T h e enclitic -kaka d e s c r i b e s a n activity o r state p e r f o r m e d w i t h o u t m a k i n g n o i s e , e.g.

t a l k i n g , s l e e p i n g o r w a l k i n g as in 1 5 . 1 6 0 - 1 .

1 5 . 1 6 0 k a y k a p h i m e r i k u p h i a d i h a p u a y a

in. v a i n 3 s g n f + m u t t e r y o u h e different

d i m a - k a k a d i h a d u - a - p i d a n a

3 s g + s l e e p - Q U I E T h e 3 s g f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

d u h u a - n e pheru-tji-ne

s h e - F O C . A / S first.born.daughter-AFF-FOC.A/S

' " Y o u a r e m u t t e r i n g in v a i n (i.e. t a l k i n g r u b b i s h ) , h e is a s l e e p quietly in a

different w a y ( f r o m w h a t y o u t h i n k ) , " said t h e e l d e r sister.'

1 5 . 1 6 1 p h e p a - p u - m h a d i - s w a n u - s a - n i r i

o n e + C L : H U M - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S 3sgnf-stay/lie 1 s g - s p o u s e - M A S C

n a w i k i s e d e - w a n i - s e - n u k u

m a n N E G . E X - C L : N A T . P H E N - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

n u - a - k a k a n u - n u n u - p u n i t a - k a

l s g - g o - Q U I E T l s g - c o m e l s g - f o l l o w - R E C . P . V I S

' M y h u s b a n d is all a l o n e in t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e r e are n o p e o p l e , ( a n d ) I c a m e

q u i e t l y f o l l o w i n g h i m . '

10. -pari ' s w a y falling a s l e e p '

T h e enclitic -pari ' s w a y falling a s l e e p ' is u s e d o n l y w i t h t h e v e r b 'sleep'.

1 5 . 1 6 2 a d a k i d i - n u - p i d a n a ,

f e v e r 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

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 1 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t enclitics 3 6 1

d i m a - p a l i - k h a di-a

3 s g n f + s l e e p - S W A Y . F A L L I N G . A S L E E P - A W A Y 3 s g n f - g o

' F e v e r c a m e o n t o h i m , ( a n d ) h e w a s falling a s l e e p s w a y i n g . '

1 1 . - y a n a ' m a k e fire'

T h e enclitic - y a n a ' m a k e fire' is u s e d w i t h v e r b s d e s c r i b i n g lighting fire.

1 5 . 1 6 3 p a : - k h i - t i k i s a w a l i - k h i

o n e - C L : T H R E A D . L I K E - D I M t h r e a d - C L : T H R E A D . L I K E

n u - d u k u n a - y a n a - d e

1 s g - l i g h t - M A K E . F I R E - F U T . C E R T

'I w i l l light this little p i e c e o f thread.'

12. - l i h a , -liyha 'take o f f s k i n o r insides'

T h e enclitic -liha, -liyha 'take off s k i n or insides' is u s e d o n l y w i t h the v e r b -hita 'take'.

T h i s enclitic is c o g n a t e w i t h B a n i w a o f I $ a n a liha 'his skin'. It is t h e o n l y enclitic o f this

c l a s s w h i c h is e t y m o l o g i c a l l y a n o u n . In 1 5 . 1 6 4 it a p p e a r s as a n enclitic, a n d in 1 5 . 1 6 5

as a n i n d e p e n d e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d .

1 5 . 1 6 4 d i h a k u p h e - n u k u n h u t a - l i h a

A R T fish-TOP.NON.A/S l s g + t a k e - T A K E . O F F . I N S I D E S

n u - m u t h u a n u - p i s a - n a

1 s g - w a s h . o f f 1s g - c u t - R E M . P . V I S

'I t o o k t h e i n s i d e s o u t o f t h e fish, w a s h e d it o f f a n d c u t (it).'

1 5 . 1 6 5 p i - a p h i t a liha

2 s g - g o 2 s g + t a k e T A K E . O F F . S K I N

' G o a n d t a k e off the s k i n a n d t h e i n s i d e s ( o f the g a m e y o u killed).'

13. - n i k u , -ni ' s w a y , a l m o s t falling'

T h e enclitic - n i k u , -ni ' s w a y , a l m o s t falling' is u s e d w i t h t h e v e r b -pha 'fall f r o m a

s t a n d i n g position'. T h e t w o f o r m s - n i k u a n d -ni a p p e a r to b e free variants. T h i s enclitic

is rare.

1 5 . 1 6 6 y a k o l e k a - m a f i a - p i d a n a d i - e m a - p i d a n a y e m a

d o o r w a y - M I D D L E - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s t a n d - R E M . P . R E P t o b a c c o

di-sita d i - p h a - n i k u d i - k a d i - e m a

3 s g n f - s m o k e 3 s g n f - f a l l . s t a n d i n g - S W A Y 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - s t a n d

' H e w a s s t a n d i n g in t h e d o o r w a y , h e w a s s m o k i n g a n d s w a y i n g a l m o s t

falling, h e w a s looking.'

1 4 - 1 5 . - h i s u , -pisi 'stretch'

T h e enclitics - h i s u a n d -pisi (alternatively p r o n o u n c e d a s -pitfi) h a v e v e r y s i m i l a r

m e a n i n g , 'stretch', a n d a r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e for y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s . F o r o l d e r s p e a k e r s ,

- h i s u refers to a n i m a l s a n d h u m a n s s t r e t c h i n g b o d y parts - as in 1 5 . 1 6 7 ; w h i l e -pisi

refers t o s t r e t c h i n g i n a n i m a t e objects, s u c h as b o w s , flattening c a n o e s , or w o r k i n g o n

l o n g o b j e c t s , e.g. s h a r p e n i n g a knife, a s in 1 5 . 1 6 8 - 9 .

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 3 6 2 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

1 5 . 1 6 7 n u - n i h i s u n u - p e - k a

l s g - d o S T R E T C H . B O D Y l s g - t h r o w - R E C . P . V I S

n u - d a k i - n u k u

l s g - b o d y - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I h a v e s t r e t c h e d m y (stiffened) b o d y . '

1 5 . 1 6 8 pi-na-pitfi p i - m a r e-ta

2 s g - h i t - S T R E T C H 2 s g - g o . d o w n s t r e a m + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

i t a - w h y a i - t h a k u - n u k u

c a n o e - C L : C A N O E I N D F - n o s e - T O P . N O N . A / S

'Hit a n d flatten t h e n o s e o f t h e c a n o e a n d l e t it f l o a t d o w n s t r e a m . '

1 5 . 1 6 9 p i - m a n e t a pitfi p i - p e - n i k i

2 s g - s h a r p e n S T R E T C H 2 s g - t h r o w - C O M P L

' S h a r p e n (the knife) i m m e d i a t e l y . '

I n 1 5 . 1 7 0 , -pisi - u s e d a d v e r b i a l l y - o c c u r s t w i c e , to d e s c r i b e a r e p e a t e d m a s s a g i n g

m o v e m e n t a p p l i e d t o t h e m a n ' s b a c k .

1 5 . 1 7 0 d i - a m h u a d i - s w a - p i d a n a , d i - n a

3 s g n f - t u r n . u p s i d e . d o w n 3 s g n f - l i e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J

d i - p h u a pisi-pisi d i h a d i - d a k i - n u k u

3 s g n f - s t e p S T R E T C H - S T R E T C H h e 3 s g n f - b o d y - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e t u r n e d u p s i d e d o w n , a n d (the m a n ) s t e p p e d o n his b o d y m a k i n g it

stretch.'

T h i s enclitic is a l s o u s e d to d e s c r i b e i r o n i n g c l o t h e s , as in 1 5 . 1 7 1 .

1 5 . 1 7 1 n u - k h a k a - k a - p i s i

l s g - r u b - R E C . P . V I S - S T R E T C H

y a r u - m a k a - s i - n u k u

t h i n g - C L : C L O T H E S - N P O S S - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I h a v e i r o n e d t h e clothing.'

T h e enclitic - h i s u s e e m s to b e k n o w n m o s t l y b y o l d e r p e o p l e ; b u t e v e n t h e y

i n t e r c h a n g e it w i t h -pisi. L e o n a r d o B r i t o u s e d p i s i d e s c r i b i n g a cat s t r e t c h i n g its b a c k ;

later o n , h e a d d e d that h i s u c o u l d a l s o b e u s e d h e r e .

1 5 . 1 7 2 d i - a m h u a pisi d i - u k a

3 s g n f - t u r n . u p s i d e . d o w n S T R E T C H 3 s g n f - a r r i v e

d i - s w a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - l i e - R E M . P . R E P

' H e (the cat) t u r n e d o v e r s t r e t c h i n g a n d lay d o w n . '

T h e clitic -pisi is likely t o b e a l o a n f r o m T u c a n o (cf. T u c a n o p i i s i ' e x t e n d e d ,

stretched'), w h i l e - h i s u is p r o b a b l y o f a T a r i a n a origin.

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 1 5 . 2 A k t i o n s a r t e n c l i t i c s 3 6 3

1 6 - 1 7 . - m i n a , -phali 'light'

T h e enclitics - m i n a a n d -phali 'light' are s y n o n y m o u s a n d are u s e d o n l y w i t h t h e v e r b

'see'. T h e enclitic - m i n a is m o s t p r o b a b l y a l o a n f r o m a n E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e ; cf.

D e s a n o m i n a 'little light o r stars o n e s e e s w h e n o n e is d r u n k ' ( D o m i n i q u e B u c h i l l e t ,

p . c . ) ; c f . 1 5 . 1 7 3 .

1 5 . 1 7 3 d h u p a - s a d u - m a t a r a d u - p e - p i d a n a

3 s g f + g r a b - F I R M 3 s g n f - l e t . g o 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P

d i - k a - m i f i a d i - p e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s e e - L I G H T 3 s g n f 4 h r o w - R E M . P . R E P

' S h e g r a b b e d a n d c l o s e d (his e y e s ) a n d t h e n let t h e m g o , h e s u d d e n l y s a w

little lights.'

T h e enclitic -phali is u s e d b y j u s t a f e w s p e a k e r s ; it is said to b e d u e to H o h o d e n e

i n f l u e n c e . S e e 1 5 . 1 7 4 .

1 5 . 1 7 4 t u k i dita d i - s i t a - p i d a n a

a.little 3 s g n f + c l o s e 3 s g n f - f i n i s h - R E M . P . R E P

d i - k a - p h a l i d i - p e

3 s g n f - s e e - L I G H T 3 s g n f - t h r o w

' H e c l o s e d (his e y e s ) for a little w h i l e , ( o p e n e d t h e m ) a n d s a w little lights.'

18. - m i k i r i 'despise, h u m i l i a t e '

T h e enclitic - m i k i r i 'despise, h u m i l i a t e ' o c c u r s o n l y w i t h t h e v e r b -ka 'see', as in 1 5 . 1 7 5 .

1 5 . 1 7 5 d u - n a - k a d u - k a - m i k i r y a w a - n a

3 s g f - w a n t - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g f - s e e - D E S P I S E + E M P H 1 p l - O B J

' S h e really w a n t s to h u m i l i a t e us.'

1 5 . 2 . 3 S e m a n t i c a n d s y n t a c t i c p r o p e r t i e s of A k t i o n s a r t enclitics

A k t i o n s a r t enclitics o f t h e t w o g r o u p s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e fall into five s e m a n t i c sets:

• m a n n e r o f a c t i o n , w h i c h i n v o l v e s b r e a k i n g o r cutting;

• d i r e c t i o n a l s , w h i c h o f t e n c o m b i n e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e t y p e o f action, e.g.

b r u s q u e o r forceful m o v e m e n t ;

• e x t e n t o f a c t i o n o r state;

• a b r o a d c a t e g o r y o f a s s o c i a t e d a c t i o n t o d o s o m e t h i n g w h i l e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g

else, o r w h i l e s o m e t h i n g else t a k e s p l a c e ( t w o e v e n t s t a k i n g p l a c e

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ) , e.g. s t e p o n s o m e t h i n g a n d F E E L A S H A R P P A N G O F P A I N ; d o

s o m e t h i n g E A R L Y , w a g o n e ' s tail w h i l e R U B B I N G O N E S E L F A G A I N S T S O M E O N E IN A

F R I E N D L Y W A Y ( o f a n a n i m a l ) , etc.;

• t y p e o f o b j e c t o r l o c a t i o n , e.g. c l e a n t h e OPEN S P A C E o f a g a r d e n , o r p u t

s o m e t h i n g o n t o a F L A T S U R F A C E .

T a b l e 15.4 s h o w s h o w enclitics w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b ( g r o u p 1) a n d t h o s e

w i t h o u t o n e ( g r o u p 2 ) d i v i d e b e t w e e n these.

T h e r e a r e q u i t e a f e w restrictions o n w h i c h v e r b s c o m b i n e w i t h w h i c h enclitics. T h e

A k t i o n s a r t enclitics w h i c h refer to 'breaking' are u s e d w i t h v e r b s o f affect, m o s t l y o f

b r e a k i n g o r cutting. T h e enclitic h o l o 'spill (water)' is u s e d w i t h v e r b s w h i c h d e s c r i b e

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activities a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w a t e r , e.g. - a m 'take liquid o u t o f a vessel, e.g. c a n o e o r p a n ' ,

o r - n u a 'spill liquid', a n d -yari 'over flat surface' o c c u r s o n l y w i t h -wefa 'spill, scatter' ( a s

in 1 5 . 9 6 ) . T h e enclitic - s e k u 'slip all o f a s u d d e n ' t e n d s t o b e u s e d w i t h m o t i o n v e r b s .

O t h e r enclitics, f o r i n s t a n c e , - k a w h i ' d o early i n t h e m o r n i n g ' , h a v e h a r d l y a n y

restrictions o n v e r b s t h e y o c c u r w i t h .

T A B L E 1 5 . 4 S E M A N T I C S O F A K T I O N S A R T E N C L I T I C S

M A N N E R E X T E N T O F A S S O C I A T E D T Y P E O F O B J E C T S
E N C L I T I C S D I R E C T I O N A L S
O F A C T I O N A C T I O N O R S T A T E A C T I O N O R L O C A T I O N S

G R O U P 1 ( w i t h
- - - + +
c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b )

G R O U P 2 ( w i t h o u t
+ + + + -
c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b )

A c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f s e m a n t i c c h a n g e g o e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f

A k t i o n s a r t enclitics.

E n c l i t i c s w h i c h d o h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b m a y d i s p l a y a slight s e m a n t i c

d i f f e r e n c e w h e n u s e d a s a v e r b rather t h a n w h e n u s e d a s a n enclitic. T h i s d i f f e r e n c e is

b e s t d e s c r i b e d a s s e m a n t i c specification ( i n t h e s e n s e o f T r a u g o t t 1 9 8 8 ) w h e r e b y o n e

c o m p o n e n t o f t h e s o u r c e r e m a i n s u n a f f e c t e d , b u t t h e m e a n i n g b e c o m e s m o r e c o m p l e x .

T h i s s e m a n t i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n is largely u n p r e d i c t a b l e . F o r i n s t a n c e , k a w h i a s a v e r b m e a n s

' w a k e u p early i n t h e m o r n i n g ' a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g enclitic m e a n s ' d o early i n t h e

m o r n i n g ' . T h e s o u r c e v e r b h a l a m e a n s ' b e o p e n ' ; t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g enclitic refers t o

s p r e a d i n g a n d e x t e n d i n g o n t o a n ' o p e n surface' o r 'the entire surface'. I n e x a m p l e s like

1 5 . 9 8 - 9 it is u s e d a l m o s t a s a v e r b a l classifier, similarly t o t h e 'areal' prefix in

A t h a p a s k a n l a n g u a g e s ( s e e T h o m p s o n 1 9 9 3 ) : it r e f e r s t o t h e s h a p e o f t h e c h e s t ( a s a n

' o p e n surface').

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a r o o t w h e n u s e d a s a n a d v e r b i a l a n d a s a n enclitic relates t o

t h e p r a g m a t i c o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e narrative.

C o m p a r e 1 5 . 7 4 - 7 , f o r enclitics w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g active v e r b , a n d 1 5 . 1 1 4 - 1 5 , for

t h o s e w i t h o u t . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e pairs is d e t e r m i n e d b y w h e t h e r t h e

p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f t h e a c t i o n is c o n t r a s t e d t o s o m e t h i n g else o r n o t . T h e direction, o r

t h e m a n n e r o f a c t i o n , h a s t o b e c o n t r a s t i v e f o r t h e r o o t t o b e u s e d a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t

m o d i f i e r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n 1 5 . 1 1 4 t h e direction, 'into water', is c o n t r a s t e d t o t h e

p r e v i o u s l o c a t i o n o f a m a g i c fish o n t h e surface; i n 1 5 . 1 1 5 n o c o n t r a s t is i m p l i e d . I n

1 5 . 7 5 , t h e a c t i o n o f 'unsticking' t h e t h i g h s o f a d e a d b o d y is c o n t r a s t i v e , b e c a u s e o f its

u n u s u a l c h a r a c t e r a n d t h e p h y s i c a l force it i n v o l v e d ( a s e x p l i c a t e d b y t h e narrator,

G r a c i l i a n o B r i t o ) . I n 1 5 . 7 6 , t h e k i n d o f a c t i o n ('unsticking') d o e s n o t i m p l y a n y

p a r t i c u l a r effort: t h e s o n o f t h e a n c e s t o r t u r n e d into a sort o f f i s h w h i c h u s u a l l y c l i n g s t o

t h e b o t t o m o f c a n o e s , a n d 'unsticking' t h e m is w h a t o n e u s u a l l y d o e s . R e l a t i v e l y

i n d e p e n d e n t m o r p h e m e s - i.e., v e r b a l m o d i f i e r s - a r e m o r e c o n t r a s t i v e t h a n d e p e n d e n t

enclitics.

T h i s fits i n w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f ' p r a g m a t i c e n r i c h m e n t ' a n d ' p r a g m a t i c b l e a c h i n g ' i n

g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n ( s e e H o p p e r a n d T r a u g o t t 1 9 9 3 : 8 7 ) . T h e m o r e g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d t h e

e l e m e n t is, t h e less p r a g m a t i c effect - e.g. c o n t r a s t i v e n e s s - it carries. T h i s is w h y

enclitics a r e less p r a g m a t i c a l l y 'marked', that is, less c o n t r a s t i v e , t h a n t h e s a m e

m o r p h e m e s u s e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y .

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T h e enclitics w h i c h h a v e n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b in t h e l a n g u a g e u n d e r g o o p t i o n a l

s e g m e n t a l p h o n o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n in r a p i d s p e e c h ; for e x a m p l e , final -ana r e d u c e s to -a.

T h u s , - k h a n a ' a w a y ' b e c o m e s - k h a , a n d -pana 'all' b e c o m e s -pa. M o s t o f t h e v e r b s listed

in T a b l e 1 5 . 2 , e.g. - s e k u 'slip over' a n d - k u s u 'be shaken', are rarely u s e d a n d are n o t e v e n

f a m i l i a r t o all s p e a k e r s . S p e a k e r s w h o d o n o t k n o w t h e s e v e r b s n e v e r t h e l e s s u s e the

f o r m s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e m a s p r e f i x l e s s m o d i f i e r s a n d enclitics. T h e v e r b -yali 'cover' is

r a r e l y u s e d b y itself; it t e n d s to b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e A k t i o n s a r t enclitic -pana 'all'.

T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t c o r p u s a l s o s h o w s that t h e v e r b a l r o o t s listed in T a b l e 15.2 are

m o r e o f t e n u s e d a s enclitics o r p r e f i x l e s s m o d i f i e r s t h a n a s v e r b s .

T h e fairly i d i o s y n c r a t i c m e a n i n g o f m o s t A k t i o n s a r t enclitics relates to t h e fact that

t h e y m o s t p r o b a b l y a r o s e a s t h e result o f c a l q u i n g T u c a n o v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g structures.

A n o t h e r p r o p e r t y w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s m o s t A k t i o n s a r t enclitics f r o m all o t h e r v e r b a l

m a r k e r s is that t h e y c a n b e u s e d a s a n s w e r s to q u e s t i o n s . A k t i o n s a r t enclitics c a n n o t in

o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s o c c u r a s i n d e p e n d e n t p r e d i c a t e s ; 1 5 . 1 7 6 is u n g r a m m a t i c a l .

1 5 . 1 7 6 * d i h a t h e p i

h e I N T O . W A T E R

7 ? ? ? H e w e n t into t h e water.'

H o w e v e r , t h e s e enclitics c a n b e u s e d a s a o n e - w o r d r e s p o n s e to a 'clarification'

q u e s t i o n . S u c h a q u e s t i o n to clarify 1 5 . 1 1 5 c o u l d b e b e 1 5 . 1 7 7 . T h e o n e - w o r d a n s w e r is

1 5 . 1 7 8 .

1 5 . 1 7 7 k a n i - n i h k a na:

w h e r e - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 3 p l + g o

' W h e r e d i d t h e y (the fish, o r t h e girl) g o ? '

1 5 . 1 7 8 t h e p i

I N T O . W A T E R

' T o water.'

T w o A k t i o n s a r t enclitics c a n o c c u r t o g e t h e r in o n e w o r d . M o s t often, o n e o f t h e m is a

d i r e c t i o n a l enclitic, w h i l e t h e o t h e r o n e refers to a s s o c i a t e d action. In 1 5 . 1 7 9 a n

a s s o c i a t e d a c t i o n enclitic - s u 'suddenly' c o - o c c u r s w i t h a directional -kha 'away', a n d in

1 5 . 1 8 0 it c o - o c c u r s w i t h a d i r e c t i o n a l thepi 'to water'.

1 5 . 1 7 9 d i - w h a - s u - k h a d i - y e n a d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - f a l l - S U D D E N L Y - A W A Y 3 s g n f - p a s s 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' H e s u d d e n l y fell a n d w e n t a w a y '

1 5 . 1 8 0 d i - w h a - s u - t h e p i d i - r u k u

3 s g n f - f a l l - S U D D E N L Y - I N T O . W A T E R 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n

d i - a - n a

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . V I S

' H e s u d d e n l y w e n t d o w n into t h e water.'

T h e o c c u r r e n c e o f t w o enclitics in o n e v e r b a l w o r d m a y b e a n a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t

A k t i o n s a r t enclitics f o r m i n g a single g r a m m a t i c a l s y s t e m . A k t i o n s a r t enclitics are in t h e

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 3 6 6 15 Aspect, Aktionsart and degree

p r o c e s s o f b e i n g g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d . T h i s is t h e result o f t h e r e a n a l y s i s o f c o m p o u n d e d

v e r b a l r o o t s , s p e d u p b y t h e areal p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s . H e n c e their

p r o b l e m a t i c status a n d p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h are u n u s u a l for o t h e r g r a m m a t i c a l m a r k e r s .

1 5 . 3 D e g r e e m a r k e r s

D e g r e e clitics m o s t o f t e n o c c u r in p o s i t i o n 18 in t h e v e r b structure. T h e difficulty o f

e s t a b l i s h i n g their e x a c t p l a c e h a s to d o w i t h their v a r i a b l e p o s i t i o n i n g - s e e d i s c u s s i o n

i n § 1 2 . 2 . D e g r e e clitics i n c l u d e d i m i n u t i v e -tuki/-tiki, a u g m e n t a t i v e -pu, a p p r o x i m a t i v e

-iha, - w h y a a n d e x c e s s i v e -ma. A l l o f t h e s e - e x c e p t for -ma - also a p p e a r o n

a r g u m e n t s ; h o w e v e r , d i m i n u t i v e a n d a u g m e n t a t i v e h a v e different a l l o m o r p h i c v a r i a t i o n

w h e n u s e d w i t h n o u n s t h a n t h e y d o w h e n u s e d w i t h v e r b s (see T a b l e 9.3).

D i m i n u t i v e -tuki/-tiki d e s c r i b e s a n a c t i o n c l o s e to t h e s p e a k e r , or a c c o m p l i s h e d to a

lesser e x t e n t t h a n e x p e c t e d , o r 'attenuated' (see § 2 5 . 5 . 2 , o n t h e a t t e n u a t i v e register in

T a r i a n a ) , a s illustrated in 1 5 . 1 8 1 a n d in 2 2 . 1 1 - 1 2 .

1 5 . 1 8 1 n h a k i d a - t u k i - s i n a

t h e y r e a d y - D I M - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e y m u s t b e a little bit ready.'

A s a f l o a t i n g enclitic, it c a n g o o n t o a n y f o c u s s e d constituent, a s c a n b e s e e n in 15.3

a n d 1 5 . 3 6 . T h e t w o f o r m s -tuki a n d -tiki are in free variation; s p e a k e r s o f t h e P e r i q u i t o s

dialect p r e f e r -tuki. T h i s enclitic c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y b e r e p e a t e d to m e a n 'a little tiny bit'.

T h i s enclitic d i s p l a y s v a r i a b l e m o r p h e m e o r d e r i n g : in 2 2 . 1 1 it p r e c e d e s a s u b o r d i n a t i n g

enclitic, a n d in 2 2 . 1 2 it f o l l o w s o n e .

T h e a u g m e n t a t i v e -pu i n d i c a t e s a n i n t e n s i v e a c t i o n o r state a n d h a s t h e a d d i t i o n a l

m e a n i n g of'really', a s in 1 5 . 1 8 2 - 3 . It is a floating enclitic.

1 5 . 1 8 2 h a p e - p u - m h a n u - n a

c o l d - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S 1 s g - O B J

'I a m v e r y cold.'

1 5 . 1 8 3 p a - k a - k a r u m a h y u n a - p u - p i d a n a p a t h i d a

I M P - s e e - P U R P . V I S h a r d - A U G - R E M . P . R E P e q u a l

h i k u - m a - p e - p i d a n a n e m a

a p p e a r - C L : F E M - P L - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + s t a n d

'It w a s really h a r d to s e e ( w h i c h girl w a s w h i c h ) , t h e y s t o o d l o o k i n g

identical.'

T h e a p p r o x i m a t i v e -iha, w i t h a v a r i a n t -whya p r e f e r r e d b y o l d e r s p e a k e r s , m e a n s

' m o r e o r less, j u s t about', a s in 1 5 . 1 8 4 ( n o t e that t h e a l l o m o r p h -whya d o e s n o t o c c u r

w i t h n o u n s o r w i t h a d j e c t i v e s - s e e §9.5). T h i s is n o t a floating enclitic. It is w i d e l y u s e d

in t h e a t t e n u a t i v e register - s e e § 2 5 . 5 . 2 .

1 5 . 1 8 4 n e - m a - y e k a d e - i h a - m h a n a - n i k i

N E G - N E G - k n o w + N E G - A P P R O X - R E M . P . N O N V I S - C O M P L

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 1 5 . 4 E m p h a t i c m a r k e r s 3 6 7

P o r t u g u e s - n u k u

P o r t u g u e s e - T O P . N O N . A / S

'(I) k n e w j u s t a b o u t n o P o r t u g u e s e at all.'

T h i s m a r k e r a l s o o c c u r s in w h a t l o o k s like a fixed e x p r e s s i o n k a w h i - w y a -ima

( b e . a w a k e - A P P R O X s l e e p ) ' m o r e o r less w a k e u p a n d g o b a c k to sleep' (the m o r p h e m e

- w h y a is p r o n o u n c e d a s -wya b e c a u s e o f a s p i r a t i o n loss a c r o s s a clitic b o u n d a r y - s e e

§2.5). S e e 1 5 . 1 8 5 .

1 5 . 1 8 5 d u h u a - n e n e - k a r a m e - k a d e - p i d a n a d u m a d u - y e n a

s h e - F O C . A / S N E G - m o v e - N E G - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g f + s l e e p 3 s g f - e x c e e d

d u - a - p i d a n a d h u a - n e tfo! phia-sini

3 s g f - g o - R E M . P . R E P s h e - F O C . A / S w o u ! y o u - T O O : A C T . C O N T R

k a w h i - w y a p i m a n u - a - t h a k a n h u a

b e . a w a k e - A P P R O X 2 s g + s l e e p l s g - s a y - F R + R E C . P . V I S I

' S h e (the m a n ' s w i f e ) d i d n o t m o v e , s h e w a s s l e e p i n g t o o m u c h . " W o u , y o u

w a k e u p a bit a n d s l e e p (again), I a m telling y o u (that a j a g u a r is c o m i n g ) "

( s a i d h e r h u s b a n d ) . '

T h e e x c e s s i v e - m a is e m p l o y e d w i t h S 0 a n d Sj 0 v e r b s , a n d m a r k s a n e x c e s s i v e l y h i g h

d e g r e e o f r e a l i s a t i o n o f state, a s in 1 2 . 2 7 - 8 , 1 2 . 3 9 , 1 2 . 7 1 , 16.34, 1 6 . 6 9 , 1 6 . 1 1 6 , 1 7 . 1 5 ,

1 7 . 7 8 - 9 , 1 9 . 2 3 , 1 9 . 3 2 a n d 1 5 . 1 8 6 . It c a n a l s o o c c u r w i t h c o m p l e m e n t - t a k i n g n o n -

c a n o n i c a l a r g u m e n t s e c o n d a r y v e r b s , a s in 1 2 . 6 6 - 7 . It is a floating enclitic. V e r y

o c c a s i o n a l l y , - m a c a n o c c u r w i t h intransitive a c t i v e (S a ) v e r b s , as in 1 5 . 1 8 7 .

1 5 . 1 8 6 n u h a haniri k a r u n a - m a - n a

I p a r e n t - M A S C d a n g e r o u s - E X C - R E M . P . V I S

' M y father is e x t r e m e l y d a n g e r o u s . '

1 5 . 1 8 7 n a - m a y e h a n u p e - m a - k a p i t u - k a n a p e

3pl-lie m a n y - E X C - R E C . P . V I S 2 s g + d a u g h t e r - P L

' Y o u r d a u g h t e r s c h e a t a lot.'

1 5 . 4 E m p h a t i c m a r k e r s

T h e e m p h a t i c m a r k e r s -a/-ya, - w a n i a n d t h e m a r k e r o f e v i d e n c e -so o c c u p y t h e last

p o s i t i o n i n t h e v e r b structure. T h e y a r e floating clitics a n d a l l o w for a certain a m o u n t o f

variability in their p o s i t i o n i n g . T h e y c a n n o t o c c u r t o g e t h e r in o n e g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d .

T h e enclitic -a/-ya is u n u s u a l in that if it a t t a c h e s to a proclitic, it a c q u i r e s p r i m a r y

stress, a n d t h e n h a s t h e f o r m -a, as in n e - d - m h a (then,thus-EMPH-PRES.NONVis) 'this is it

indeed'. I n all o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , it h a s s e c o n d a r y stress a n d s u r f a c e s a s -ya. If

p r e c e d e d b y a n e l e m e n t e n d i n g in /, t h e s e q u e n c e -i+-a/ya t h e n b e c o m e s -ya, a s in

1 5 . 1 7 5 ( a l s o s e e d i s c u s s i o n in §2.5). If t h e c o n n e c t i v e ne 'then, thus' is in c o n t r a s t i v e

f o c u s it g e t s a p r i m a r y stress e v e n if f o l l o w e d b y t h e e m p h a t i c -a/-ya, a s in T 2 . 2 5 (ne-

y a - p i d a n a 'then-EMPH-REM.P.REP'), a n d t h e n t h e s e q u e n c e is ne-ya a n d n o t ne-d, as

w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d .

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 3 6 8 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

Its b a s i c m e a n i n g is 'really, indeed'; it o f t e n i m p l i e s c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s , a s in 9 . 3 4 a n d

1 5 . 1 8 8 - 9 . O t h e r e x a m p l e s are 1 1 . 4 4 , 1 1 . 9 4 , 1 1 . 1 0 5 , 1 3 . 9 5 - 6 a n d 2 5 . 4 2 .

1 5 . 1 8 8 tfari-ya m a t f a - m a - n a n i y a - k a

m a n - E M P H g o o d - E X C - R E M . P . V I S 3 s g n f + s t a y - D E C L

d i - n h a - b a l a

3 s g n f - e a t - E V E R Y W H E R E

' A m a n (as c o n t r a s t e d to a w o m a n ) d o e s i n d e e d eat v e r y w e l l ( w i t h bits o f

f o o d flying) e v e r y w h e r e . '

1 5 . 1 8 9 p h y a - n a n a n u - i t e - y a - t h a - k a i k a s u

y o u - P E J l s g - P O S S + N C L : A N I M - E M P H - F R - R E C . P . V I S n o w

p i - n a n u - h n a - b o h t a - k a - n i k i

2 s g - O B J 1 s g - e a t - C O N D - R E C . P - C O M P L

' Y o u t h e n a u g h t y o n e c o u l d h a v e b e e n really m i n e , a n d I w o u l d h a v e e a t e n

y o u b y n o w . '

T h e e m p h a t i c clitic -a/-ya c a n b e r e p e a t e d , to m a r k ' s a m e n e s s ' , a s in 1 6 . 2 3 a n d

1 5 . 1 9 0 . In a r e p e a t e d s e q u e n c e , t h e first o c c u r r e n c e is a l w a y s -a, a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e is

- j w - s e e 1 5 . 1 9 1 .

1 5 . 1 9 0 n e - a - y a n h u t a n u - r u k u n u - a

t h e n / t h e r e - E M P H - E M P H l s g + t a k e l s g - g o . d o w n l s g - g o

'I w i l l g o a n d t a k e (it) in t h a t v e r y p l a c e ( w h e r e I g o t it from).'

1 5 . 1 9 1 k a t u - a - y a o m a w a r i

p i r a i b a . f i s h - E M P H - E M P H o r s n a k e

d u - m a s i k a - n i p e - p i d a n a

3 s g f - t u r n . i n t o - H A B - R E M . P . R E P

' S h e u s e d to t u r n into that v e r y p i r a i b a fish (that t h e m a n h a d p r e v i o u s l y

s e e n ) o r a snake.'

T h e e m p h a t i c enclitic -warn m e a n s 'indeed, c o m p l e t e l y , to a full extent', as s h o w n in

1 5 . 1 9 2 - 4 .

1 5 . 1 9 2 d i - s w a di-a d i - n a m i - w a n i d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - l i e 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - d i e - E M P H 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' H e lay d o w n a n d really died.'

1 5 . 1 9 3 T a l i a - w a n i p i - s a p e

T a r i a n a - E M P H 2 s g - s p e a k

' Y o u a r e s p e a k i n g like a real Tariana!'

1 5 . 1 9 4 d i - t h u k a - w a n i d i - w e s y a - b a l a

3 s g n f - b r e a k - E M P H 3 s g n f - s p r e a d - E V E R Y W H E R E

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 15.4 Emphatic m arkers 3 6 9

d i - a - n a n a m e d i - a - n i p e k a - n a - w a n i

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . V I S silent 3 s g n f - g o - H A B R E L - w a n t - E M P H

'It (the m o t o r ) fully b r o k e a n d (its p i e c e s ) f l e w e v e r y w h e r e , it w a s really

a b o u t t o g o silent.'

B o t h e m p h a t i c clitics -a/-ya a n d - w a n i c a n m e a n 'that v e r y ; s a m e ' : s e e 1 5 . 1 9 1 a n d

1 5 . 1 9 5 , a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n in § 2 6 . 2 . 1 .

1 5 . 1 9 5 n u - n i - k a r u - w a n i k a y u - k a n u - n i n h u a

l s g - d o - P U R P . V I S - E M P H s o - R E C . P . V I S l s g - d o I

'I m a d e (the d r i n k ) in t h e s a m e w a y as I a l w a y s m a k e it.'

T h e e m p h a t i c enclitic - w a n i a l l o w s v a r i a b l e o r d e r i n g : for i n s t a n c e , in 2 2 . 1 4 (kayu-

w a n i - t i k i ( t h u s - E M P H - D i M ) 'really a bit') it p r e c e d e s t h e d e g r e e clitic, that is t h e

d i m i n u t i v e , a n d in 1 5 . 1 9 6 it f o l l o w s a n o t h e r d e g r e e clitic, t h e a p p r o x i m a t i v e .

1 5 . 1 9 6 p i m a n a y h a - w a n i d u - k u d a d u - d e - p i d a n a

h a r s h + A P P R O X - E M P H 3 s g f - b o d y 3 s g f - h a v e - R E M . P . R E P

' S h e d i d i n d e e d h a v e a m o r e o r less h a r s h b o d y . '

A n a d d i t i o n a l e m p h a t i c m a r k e r -ta - h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h -ta 'repetition' (see 1 5 . 6 3

a n d d i s c u s s i o n t h e r e ) - is s i m i l a r to - w a n i in its m e a n i n g .

W h e n u s e d in a f f i r m a t i v e c l a u s e s t h e m a r k e r -so o c c u p i e s t h e last p o s i t i o n in t h e

string o f clitics a n d is s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r to e m p h a t i c enclitics: it i n d i c a t e s ' o b v i o u s

e v i d e n c e ' , a n d c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d a s s o m e t h i n g like 'obviously', as in 1 5 . 1 9 7 - 8 . A m o r e

a r c h a i c p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f -so is -su.

1 5 . 1 9 7 h i - k a y u - s o

D E M : A N I M - l i k e - O B V I O U S

' T h i s is o b v i o u s l y h o w it is.'

1 5 . 1 9 8 h i p a w a l i - m h a d i - s a p e - s o

D E M : A N I M r i g h t - P R E S . N O N V I S 3 s g n f - t a l k - O B V I O U S

' H e is s a y i n g t h e right t h i n g s indeed.'

T h i s m o r p h e m e c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h a n y t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification, i n c l u d i n g

future, a s s h o w n in 1 5 . 1 9 9 .

1 5 . 1 9 9 m a t f a - m h a d e - s o

g o o d - F U T - O B V I O U S

'It w i l l b e g o o d , o b v i o u s l y . '

In i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s -so i n d i c a t e s s t r o n g d o u b t (see § 1 4 . 3 . 3 a n d e x a m p l e s 1 4 . 9 6 -

1 0 0 a n d 1 4 . 1 0 5 ) . T h e s e m a n t i c s o f -so - o b v i o u s e v i d e n c e in a f f i r m a t i v e c l a u s e s a n d

s t r o n g d o u b t in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s - is strikingly s i m i l a r to that o f T u c a n o baa

( R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 3 4 1 ) . T h e T u c a n o m o r p h e m e is in fact u s e d in T a r i a n a , to r e p l a c e

- s o in a f f i r m a t i v e c l a u s e s ( b u t n o t in i n t e r r o g a t i v e clauses). T h i s u s a g e is c o n s i d e r e d

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 3 7 0 15 A s p e c t , A k t i o n s a r t a n d d e g r e e

i n c o r r e c t b y t h e s p e a k e r s o f t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect, b u t q u i t e a c c e p t a b l e in P e r i q u i t o s -

s e e e x a m p l e 2 5 . 6 0 a n d d i s c u s s i o n there.

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 1 6

M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

T a r i a n a d i s t i n g u i s h e s i n t e r r o g a t i v e a n d i m p e r a t i v e m o o d s . I n t e r r o g a t i v e m o o d is m a r k e d

t h r o u g h a s e p a r a t e set o f e v i d e n t i a l s f u s e d w i t h t e n s e (see § 1 4 . 2 ) . I m p e r a t i v e s are

d i s c u s s e d in § 1 6 . 1 . M o d a l i t i e s i n c l u d e : frustrative ( § 1 6 . 2 ) , intentional ( § 1 6 . 3 ) ,

a p p r e h e n s i v e ( § 1 6 . 4 ) , u n c e r t a i n t y ( § 1 6 . 5 ) , c o n d i t i o n a l ( § 1 6 . 6 ) , p u r p o s i v e ( § 1 6 . 7 ) a n d

c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n ( § 1 6 . 8 ) . D e c l a r a t i v e - a s s e r t i v e - w h i c h c a n c o m b i n e w i t h m o s t

m o d a l i t i e s - is d i s c u s s e d in § 1 6 . 9 . M o d a l i t i e s e x p r e s s e d w i t h c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s are t h e

a d m i r a t i v e a n d t h e e p i s t e m i c c o n s t r u c t i o n - s e e § 1 9 . 6 a n d § 1 9 . 1 .

1 6 . 1 I m p e r a t i v e s

T a r i a n a h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s t i n c t i o n s in t h e p o s i t i v e i m p e r a t i v e :

• s i m p l e ( u n m a r k e d ) - § 1 6 . 1 . 1 ;

• p r o x i m a t e ('do here') - § 1 6 . 1 . 2 ;

• distal ('do t h e r e ' ) - § 1 6 . 1 . 2 ;

• p o s t p o n e d ('do s o m e t i m e later') - § 16.1.2;

• d e t r i m e n t a l ('do to y o u r o w n d e t r i m e n t ' ) - § 16.1.3;

• b y p r o x y ( o r d e r o n s o m e o n e else's b e h a l f ) - § 16.1.4;

• c o n a t i v e p r e c a t i v e ('please try a n d do') - § 1 6 . 1 . 5 ;

• c o h o r t a t i v e ('let's d o ' ) - § 1 6 . 1 . 6 ;

• p o l i t e s u g g e s t i o n ('please do') - § 16.1.7.

T h e r e a r e t w o m o r e i m p e r a t i v e s , p o s s i b l y , b o r r o w e d f r o m T u c a n o - s e e § 1 6 . 1 . 8 . T h e

n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e is d i s c u s s e d in § 1 7 . 3 . It h a s j u s t t h r e e distinctions: a g e n e r a l

p r o h i b i t i v e m a r k e d w i t h m h d i d a , a r e p o r t e d f o r m m a r k e d w i t h -pida, a n d polite

s u g g e s t i o n - n h a . T w o i m p e r a t i v e m a r k e r s are also u s e d in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s - t h e

p o l i t e s u g g e s t i o n - n h a ( § 1 6 . 1 . 7 ) a n d t h e p o s t p o n e d i m p e r a t i v e - w a ( § 1 6 . 1 . 2 ) .

1 6 . 1 . 1 Unmarked i m p e r a t i v e

T h e u n m a r k e d i m p e r a t i v e is u s e d o n l y w i t h s e c o n d p e r s o n a n d first p e r s o n for s i m p l e

c o m m a n d s , a s in 16.1 a n d 16.2.

16.1 n a - i n e - n u k u p i - d i a

3 p l - I N S - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - s t a y

'Stay w i t h t h e m . '

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 3 7 2 16 M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

16.2 m a w i n a - n u k u w a s a w h e t a w a : w h a

p i n e a p p l e - T O P . N O N . A / S let's l p l + t a k e l p l + g o w e

'Let's g o a n d t a k e t h e p i n e a p p l e . '

T h e u n m a r k e d i m p e r a t i v e c a n c o m b i n e w i t h t h e a s p e c t enclitic -daka ' o n g o i n g , yet,

still', a s in 1 6 . 3 , a n d w i t h -niki 'completely', e.g. i-kwa-niki-daka ( 2 p l - h a n g . i n . h a m m o c k -

c o m p l e t e l y - Y E T ) ' y o u lie in a h a m m o c k for t h e t i m e being'.

16.3 w a - y ar u p e w a - w h e - t a - d a k a

1 p l - t h i n g 1p l - s t a y + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - Y E T

'Let's t a k e o u r t h i n g s ( w e h a v e n ' t t a k e n t h e m yet).'

T h e e x p r e s s i o n matfa p i - n i ( b e . a p p r o p r i a t e 2 s g - d o ) 'be careful' o c c u r s o n l y as a n

u n m a r k e d i m p e r a t i v e .

1 6 . 1 . 2 P r o x i m a t e , distal a n d p o s t p o n e d i m p e r a t i v e s

T h e p r o x i m a t e i m p e r a t i v e m a r k e d w i t h -si m e a n s 'do ( s o m e t h i n g ) c l o s e to t h e speaker'.

P r o x i m a t e a n d distal i m p e r a t i v e s are c o n t r a s t e d in 16.4 - a d d r e s s e d to p e o p l e right n e x t

to t h e s p e a k e r , a n d 16.5 - a d d r e s s e d to p e o p l e o u t s i d e t h e h o u s e .

1 6 . 4 h i m a - s i

2 p l + l i s t e n - P R O X . I M P V

'Listen y o u here.'

16.5 h i m a - k a d a

2 p l + l i s t e n - D I S T . I M P V

'Listen y o u o v e r there.'

P r o x i m a t e i m p e r a t i v e is u s e d if t h e a d d r e s s e e is c o m m a n d e d to c o m e c l o s e to t h e

s p e a k e r , a s in 1 6 . 6 w h e r e t h e evil spirits are telling a m a n to c o m e i n s i d e their c a n o e .

16.6 te ui i t a - w h y a - s e phie-si

until p o r t c a n o e - C L : C A N O E - L O C 2 s g + e n t e r - P R O X . I M P V

' C o m e t o t h e port, into t h e c a n o e ( c l o s e to us).'

In 16.7, a p a u s a l f o r m o f -si (-see) is u s e d - s e e § 2 . 7 a n d 2 . 3 3 - b e c a u s e t h e

c o m m a n d t o c o m e a n d eat c l o s e t o t h e s p e a k e r is s h o u t e d f r o m afar.

16.7 p i - n h a - s e e

2 s g - e a t - P R O X . I M P V

' C o m e a n d eat!!!!'

P r o x i m a t e i m p e r a t i v e c a n also m e a n 'right here', a s in 16.8.

1 6 . 8 n u - n a p i - w h a n i p a - s i

1 s g - O B J 2 s g - p u t . d o w n - P R O X . I M P V

'Put m e d o w n right here.'

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 1 6 . 1 I m p e r a t i v e s 3 7 3

I n c o n t r a s t , t h e distal i m p e r a t i v e -kada m a r k s a c t i o n a w a y f r o m the s p e a k e r , as in

16.5 a n d 16.9.

1 6 . 9 i m a - k a d a i h y a a m a k u - p e - s e

2 p l + s l e e p - D I S T . I M P V y o u h a m m o c k - P L - L O C

" ' Y o u s l e e p ( o v e r t h e r e ) i n y o u r h a m m o c k s , " (said t h e evil spirit's w i f e to h e r

c h i l d r e n , s o that t h e y w o u l d b e a w a y f r o m w h e r e s h e w a s g o i n g to eat).'

D i s t a l i m p e r a t i v e is u s e d w h e n t h e a c t i o n is b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t f r o m far a w a y in t h e

d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s p e a k e r . 1 6 . 1 0 w a s u s e d to a s k m e to b r i n g a t h e r m o s w i t h tea f r o m the

k i t c h e n h o u s e i n t o t h e central p l a c e o f t h e village w h e r e t h e s p e a k e r s w e r e sitting ( a b o u t

3 0 0 m e t r e s a w a y ) .

1 6 . 1 0 p h i t a - k a d a

2 s g + t a k e - D I S T . I M P V

' B r i n g it ( f r o m far a w a y ) . '

In 1 6 . 1 1 , t h e w h i t e m a s t e r is o r d e r i n g his w o r k e r s to g o a n d l o o k for a m a n lost far in

t h e j u n g l e .

16.1 l i - a i - u m a - k a d a

2 p l - g o 2 p l - l o o k . f o r - D I S T . I M P V

' G o a n d l o o k for h i m (far a w a y in t h e jungle).'

In 1 6 . 1 2 t h e m o t h e r tells h e r s o n to g o a n d l e a v e a s n a k e - w h i c h h e h a d b r o u g h t for

h e r - far a w a y .

1 6 . 1 2 h i t a i - m u s u i-a i - p e - k a d a - n i k i

2 p l + t a k e 2 p l - g o . o u t 2 p l - g o 2 p l - l e a v e - D I S T . I M P V - C O M P L

' T a k e it a n d l e a v e it f a r a w a y outside.'

B o t h t h e p r o x i m a t e a n d distal i m p e r a t i v e a r e u s e d o n l y w i t h s e c o n d p e r s o n . N e i t h e r is

attested in T u c a n o ; so, to translate p i - h h a - s i (2sg-eat-PROX.iMPV) 'eat (here)' into T u c a n o

s p e a k e r s u s e d a p e r i p h r a s t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n b a i (a)'tia (eat c o m e ) ' c o m e to eat'.

T h e p o s t p o n e d i m p e r a t i v e m a r k e d w i t h - w a 'do s o m e t i m e later' is u s e d w h e n the

a d d r e s s e e is c o m m a n d e d to d o s o m e t h i n g a little later, as in 16.13 - said b y t h e C r e a t o r

t o h i s d a u g h t e r w h e n s h e d e c i d e d to g o d o w n f r o m H e a v e n to E a r t h to create p e o p l e .

1 6 . 1 3 d i w e s e - w y a p i - a - w a n u i t o

t h e n - E X T R A L 2 s g - g o - P O S T P . I M P V 1s g . d a u g h t e r : V O C

' G o a little later, m y d a u g h t e r ! '

In 1 6 . 1 4 , t h e t i n a m o u b i r d e n c o u r a g e s a n ancestral w o m a n to g o to his p l a c e a little

later, after their c o n v e r s a t i o n .

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 3 7 4 1 6 M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

1 6 . 1 4 d i w e s e - w y a d e s u i - a - w a

t h e n - E X T R A L t o m o r r o w 2 p l - g o - P O S T P . I M P V

T h e n g o t h e r e t o m o r r o w . '

I n 1 6 . 1 5 , - w o is u s e d in a r e q u e s t f r o m t h e d a u g h t e r o f T h u n d e r to g i v e s o m e t h u n d e r

to h e r a n d h e r h u s b a n d , t h e t r i c k s t e r - C r e a t o r W a n a r i .

1 6 . 1 5 w e n e t a - k a r u - p e n a p i - a - w a

l p l + t h u n d e r + C A U S - P U R P . V I S - N O M . F U T 2 s g - g i v e - P O S T P . I M P V

' G i v e u s d o w n t h e r e far a w a y w h a t is g o i n g to b e thunder.'

T h e p o s t p o n e d i m p e r a t i v e - w a c a n o c c u r in q u e s t i o n s , as in 1 6 . 1 6 , to refer to

i m m e d i a t e future.

1 6 . 1 6 k a n i - s e - n h a p i - a - w a

w h e r e - L O C - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R 2 s g - g o - P O S T P . I M P V

' W h e r e o n e a r t h are y o u g o i n g ? '

T h e r e is n o t e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to d e c i d e w h e t h e r -wa ' p o s t p o n e d i m p e r a t i v e ' is t h e

s a m e m o r p h e m e a s - w a in 1 6 . 1 6 a n d 1 6 . 1 7 . H o w e v e r , t h e y c o u l d b e different

m o r p h e m e s : t h e p o s t p o n e d i m p e r a t i v e -wa is u s u a l l y e m p l o y e d w i t h s e c o n d p e r s o n ,

w h i l e - w a w h i c h o c c u r s in q u e s t i o n s c a n b e u s e d w i t h third p e r s o n , a s in 1 6 . 1 7 .

1 6 . 1 7 k a n i - n h a p i p i r i - w h i d i - a - w a

w h e r e - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R p e a c h . p a l m - C L . S E E D 3 g n f - g o - P O S T P . I M P V

' " W h e r e o n e a r t h h a s t h e p e a c h p a l m s e e d g o n e ? " ( a s k e d t h e m a n ' s wife).'

1 6 . 1 . 3 D e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e

T h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e m a r k e d w i t h a n enclitic -tupe m e a n s 'let s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n

to t h e p e r s o n ' s d e t r i m e n t ' , e.g. p i - a - t u p e (2sg-go-iMPV.DETR) 'go to y o u r o w n d e t r i m e n t (I

t o l d y o u n o t to, b u t y o u didn't g i v e a d a m n ) ' , cf. e x a m p l e s in 1 6 . 1 8 - 1 9 .

1 6 . 1 8 ahT d i - s w a - t u p e

h e r e 3 s g n f - l i e ( S a ) - I M P V . D E T R

'Let h i m lie h e r e (to h i s o w n d e t r i m e n t ) . '

1 6 . 1 9 t a r a d a - t u p e

l i v e ( S 0 ) - I M P V . D E T R

'Let ( y o u o r h i m / h e r ) live (to y o u r , h e r o r his d e t r i m e n t , s i n c e their m o t h e r is

d e a d ) . '

T h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e carries o v e r t o n e s o f a n n o y a n c e . O l i v i a said 1 6 . 2 0 after

w e h a d b e e n w a i t i n g for h e r b r o t h e r s to t u r n u p for l u n c h .

1 6 . 2 0 n a - s i w a n a - y e k a - t u p e

3 p l - b e . t o g e t h e r 3 p l - k n o w - I M P V . D E T R

'Let t h e m k n o w for t h e m s e l v e s ( w h e r e t h e y are g o i n g to eat) to their d e t r i m e n t . '

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 16.1 Imperatives 375

It is o f t e n u s e d w i t h v e r b l i k e -ydmi ' d i e ' o r -pa 'rot', a s in 1 6 . 2 1 .

1 6 . 2 1 d i - v a m i - t u p e d i h a - y a n a

3 s g n f - d i e - I M P V . D E T R h e - P E J

'Let t h e b a d o n e (evil spirit) die!'

T h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e o f t e n i n d i c a t e s that t h e s p e a k e r is p l e a s e d b e c a u s e

s o m e t h i n g n a s t y h a d h a p p e n e d to s o m e o n e else. A m a n said 1 6 . 2 2 , a b o u t his

m a r r i a g e a b l e c o u s i n w h o d i d n o t w a n t t o m a r r y h i m , w h e n h e l e a r n e d t h a t s h e h a d b e e n

d e v o u r e d b y a s n a k e .

1 6 . 2 2 n e - n u k u d h u m e t a - t u p e d u h a - y a n a

t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g f + f e e l - I M P V . D E T R s h e - P E J

' S o let her, a b a d o n e , feel ( w h a t it is l i k e ) t o h e r o w n detriment.'

T h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e o f t e n a p p e a r s w i t h third p e r s o n ; b u t it c a n also b e u s e d

w i t h t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n , a s in 1 6 . 2 3 . C r i s t i a n o B r i t o said this to a tapir w h o m a n a g e d to

e s c a p e h i m :

1 6 . 2 3 n e - a - y a p i - p a - t u p e p h i a - y a n a

t h e n - E M P H - E M P H 2 s g - d i e - I M P V . D E T R y o u - P E J

' M a y y o u d i e t h e r e , y o u b a d one.'

T h e d e t r i m e n t i m p l i e d b y t h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e c o u l d b e that o f t h e A / S a , a s in

m o s t e x a m p l e s a b o v e , a n d o f S 0 , a s in 1 6 . 1 9 ( w h e r e tarada 'live' is a stative v e r b ) . It c a n

a l s o b e t h a t o f t h e object, a s in 1 6 . 2 4 a n d 1 6 . 2 5 .

1 6 . 2 4 i y a p u t f a - t u p e d i - n a

r a i n b e . w e t - I M P V . D E T R 3 s g n f - O B J

'Let t h e r a i n m a k e h i m w e t ! ( s i n c e h e w e n t w h e n h e k n e w it w a s g o i n g to rain).'

1 6 . 2 5 is a u s u a l w a y o f s a y i n g : 'serves s o m e o n e right!'

1 6 . 2 5 d i - n a m a t f a - t u p e

3 s g n f - O B J g o o d - I M P V . D E T R

' S e r v e s h i m right.'

T h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e is n e v e r u s e d w i t h first p e r s o n , s i n g u l a r o r plural s u b j e c t

( * w a - p a - t u p e (Ipl-rot-iMPV.DETR) 'let u s rot!' is u n g r a m m a t i c a l ) . S e n t e n c e s w i t h first

p e r s o n s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l o b j e c t a n d d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e i m p l y d e t r i m e n t to t h e

o b j e c t , a n d n o t t o t h e subject, a s in 16.26. A m a n n o t l o v e d b y w o m e n h a s lost all his

h o p e s ; h e d e c i d e s to g o a n d drift o n a d a n g e r o u s l a k e - w h e r e a s n a k e is k n o w n to live.

H e s a y s :

1 6 . 2 6 m a w a r i n u - n a d i - n h a - t u p e

s n a k e l s g - O B J 3 s g n f - e a t - I M P V . D E T R

'Let t h e s n a k e eat m e (to m y d e t r i m e n t ) . '

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 3 7 6 16 Mood and modality

W i t h a transitive v e r b , o n l y c o n t e x t c a n h e l p to d e c i d e w h e t h e r t h e d e t r i m e n t is

i n t e n d e d for t h e s u b j e c t o r for t h e object. A f o r m du-kwisa-tupe (3sgf-scold-iMPV.DETR)

is a m b i g i o u s : it m a y m e a n 'let h e r s c o l d t h e m (to their detriment)', o r 'let h e r s c o l d t h e m

(to h e r o w n d e t r i m e n t : for i n s t a n c e , s o that s h e m a y lose h e r v o i c e b e c a u s e o f shouting)'.

T o n e g a t e t h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e , p r o h i b i t i v e mhdida a n d s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e

-pida a r e u s e d . 1 6 . 2 8 is t h e n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t o f 1 6 . 2 7 ; h o w e v e r , it d o e s n o t c a r r y t h e

s a m e d e t r i m e n t a l o v e r t o n e s .

1 6 . 2 7 a w a k a d a - s e d u - a - t u p e

j u n g l e - L O C 3 s g f - g o - I M P V . D E T R

'Let h e r g o into t h e j u n g l e ( a n d d i e there).'

1 6 . 2 8 a w a k a d a - s e m h a l d a - p i d a d u - a

j u n g l e - L O C P R O H - I M P V . S E C 3 s g n f - g o

'Let h e r n o t g o t o t h e j u n g l e (or else s h e m i g h t p e r i s h there).'

T h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e c a n also b e n e g a t e d w i t h the prefix m a - a n d t h e suffix

- k a d e , a s in m a - n u - k a d e - t u p e ( N E G - c o m e - N E G - i M P V . D E T R ) 'let h i m n o t c o m e (to his

d e t r i m e n t ) ' . N e g a t i v e f o r m s a r e rare in texts a n d in c o n v e r s a t i o n s . U n l i k e o t h e r

i m p e r a t i v e s , it c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h e v i d e n t i a l (see e x a m p l e 14.48).

1 6 . 1 . 4 I m p e r a t i v e by p r o x y

I m p e r a t i v e b y p r o x y , o r s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e , is m a r k e d w i t h the clitic -pida also

f o u n d in o t h e r r e p o r t e d t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specifications. S a y i n g p i - n i - p i d a ( 2 s g - d o -

I M P V . S E C ) m e a n s 'do this b e c a u s e s o m e b o d y else told y o u to'. W h e n w e w e r e d i s c u s s i n g

e d i b l e a n d n o n - e d i b l e p l a n t s , I w a s told to s a y o n C a n d i d o ' s behalf:

1 6 . 2 9 m h a l d a - p i d a p i - n h a - k a r u

P R O H - I M P V . S E C 2 s g - e a t - V I S . P U R P

'Don't eat (a t h o r n ; C a n d i d o told u s n o t to).'

A f t e r O l i v i a c a l l e d m e to g o a n d eat, J o v i n o r e p e a t e d h e r invitation u s i n g the

s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e :

1 6 . 3 0 p i - a p i - n h a - p i d a

2 s g - g o 2 s g - e a t - I M P V . S E C

' G o a n d eat ( o n Olivia's order).'

It is a l s o o f t e n u s e d w i t h third p e r s o n subject, as in 1 6 . 3 1 . H e r e -pida is f o l l o w e d b y

a n a s p e c t m a r k e r -daka 'still, yet; o n g o i n g ' ( n o t e that e x a m p l e s o f this sort are rare).

1 6 . 3 2 d i h a d i - s i w a n h u a niri d i - k a - p i d a - d a k a

h e 3 s g n f - b e . t o g e t h e r I father 3 s g n f - s e e - I M P V . S E C - Y E T

'Let m y father s e e for h i m s e l f ( o n m y order).'

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 16.1 Imperatives 3 7 7

T h e s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e o f t e n o c c u r s in a c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h the v e r b 'to say', as a

direct s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t . It is o f t e n u s e d in instructions; 1 6 . 3 2 is a n i n s t r u c t i o n o n h o w

to b e s u c c e s s f u l in fishing.

1 6 . 3 2 p h e t a - k a m a t f a p a - t a f i e - m h a

I M P + g e t - S U B g o o d I M P - f a s t - P R E S . N O N V I S

m e p u k u - n u k u n h e - p i d a p a : - k a

w e i r - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l + e n t e r - I M P V . S E C I M P + s a y - S U B

' G e t t i n g (fish), o n e fasts w e l l , s o that fish enters the w e i r (lit. s a y i n g : let t h e fish

e n t e r t h e w e i r , o n m y order).'

T h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e -tupe a n d t h e s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e -pida c a n o c c u r

t o g e t h e r . E x a m p l e 1 6 . 3 3 e x p r e s s e s a n n o y a n c e w i t h t h o s e w h o w e r e a l l e g e d l y g o i n g to

s p r e a d n a s t y g o s s i p a b o u t t h e B r i t o f a m i l y b e c a u s e a certain a n t h r o p o l o g i s t 'told t h e m

to'.

1 6 . 3 3 n a - s a p e - t u p e - p i d a

3 p l - t a l k - I M P V . D E T R - I M P V . S E C

'Let t h e m t a l k (to their d e t r i m e n t o n h e r b e h a l f ) ( s i n c e t h e y are n o t g o i n g to get

a n y w h e r e a n y w a y ) . '

T h e s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e c a n o c c u r w i t h t h e p r o x i m a t e i m p e r a t i v e a n d w i t h t h e

distal i m p e r a t i v e , f o l l o w i n g either m a r k e r , e.g. h i - n u k u p i - t h e t a - k a d a - p i d a ( D E M . A N I M -

T O P . N O N . A / S 2sg-correct-DlST.lMPV-iMPV.SEC) 'correct this ( o v e r there)' a n d h i - n u k u p i -

t h e t a - s i - p i d a ( D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S 2sg-correct-PROX.iMPV-iMPV.SEC) 'correct this

( h e r e , n e x t t o t h e s p e a k e r ) ' (a s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is at 2 1 . 1 0 1 ) .

T h e s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e is a c a i q u e f r o m T u c a n o . H o w e v e r , u n l i k e T a r i a n a , t h e

T u c a n o s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e m a r k e r - a t o h a s n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a n y o f the

e v i d e n t i a l i t y - t e n s e p a r a d i g m s (cf. R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 146), w h i l e the s e c o n d h a n d

i m p e r a t i v e m a r k e r -pida in T a r i a n a is f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t the r e p o r t e d e v i d e n t i a l m a r k e r s

( s e e § 1 4 . 2 . 5 ) . T h e s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e -pida is u s e d in a g r e e t i n g f o r m u l a matfa-pida

( g o o d - i M P V . S E C ) ' g o o d b y e ' (lit. let it b e g o o d o n (our) behalf), a c a i q u e o f T u c a n o a h u -

a t o ( g o o d - i M P V . S E C ) .

S i m i l a r l y to t h e d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e , t h e s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e d o e s n o t o c c u r

w i t h first p e r s o n , s i n g u l a r o r plural.

1 6 . 1 . 5 C o n a t i v e p r e c a t i v e

T h e c o n a t i v e p r e c a t i v e - m e a n i n g 'please try a n d do' - is m a r k e d w i t h the enclitic -thara,

e.g. p i - k a - t h a r a ( 2 s g - s e e - P R E C ) 'please try a n d see'; see 16.34.

1 6 . 3 4 i - k a - t h a r a i h y a n u h u a k u p h e n u - i n u - k a

2 p l - s e e - P R E C y o u I fish l s g - k i l l - S U B

h u i s i - m a - m h a n a n u h u a

l u c k y . h u n t e r - E X C - R E M . P . N O N V I S I

' P l e a s e try a n d h a v e a l o o k , s i n c e I h a v e killed fish, I w a s a s u c c e s s f u l hunter.'

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 3 7 8 16 M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

P r e c a t i v e o c c u r s o n l y w i t h s e c o n d p e r s o n a n d is often u s e d w i t h a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n i n g t h e v e r b - w a 'try':

1 6 . 3 5 p i - a - t h a r a p i - w a

2 s g - g i v e - P R E C 2 s g - t r y

' T r y a n d g i v e m e please.' ( A turtle a s k i n g m o n k e y for s o m e fruit).

It c a n n o t o c c u r w i t h a n y o t h e r v e r b a l enclitics e x c e p t for t h e enclitic -pada 'counter-

e x p e c t a t i o n ' ( s e e § 1 6 . 8 ) , a s in 16.36.

1 6 . 3 6 p i - k a - t h a r a - p a d a h a - m a - n a k a

2 s g - s e e - P R E C - C O U N T E R E X D E M : I N A N - C L : F E M - P R E S . V I S

' B u t d o try a n d h a v e a l o o k ( a g a i n s t y o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s ) , h e r e is that ( w o m a n w h o is

beautiful).'

P r e c a t i v e c a n n o t o c c u r w i t h t h e p r o h i b i t i v e m h a i d a .

1 6 . 1 . 6 C o h o r t a t i v e

T h e c o h o r t a t i v e 'let's' m a r k e d w i t h -da is rather rare; it o c c u r s o n l y w i t h first p e r s o n

p l u r a l to s t r e n g t h e n t h e i n s t i g a t i o n to p e r f o r m a n a c t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y , as in 1 6 . 3 7 . In all

t h e e x a m p l e s a c o h o r t a t i v e f o r m o f t h e v e r b o c c u r s w i t h wasd 'let's*. C o h o r t a t i v e is n o t

u s e d w i t h stative v e r b s .

1 6 . 3 7 w a s a w a - s i t a - d a

let's 1 p l - s h o o t - C O H O R T

'Let's s h o o t (the d e e r ) (straight a w a y ) ! '

C o h o r t a t i v e is n o t u s e d in n e g a t i v e c o m m a n d s ; t h e n e g a t i o n o f 1 6 . 3 7 is 1 6 . 3 8 .

1 6 . 3 8 m h a i d a w a - s i t a

P R O H l p l - s h o o t

'Let's n o t s h o o t , w e s h o u l d n o t shoot.'

C o h o r t a t i v e a p p e a r s to b e v e r y s i m i l a r - b o t h in its f o r m a n d in its f u n c t i o n - to t h e

T u c a n o c o h o r t a t i v e -ra/da ( R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 145), restricted to first p e r s o n plural,

j u s t a s in T a r i a n a ; a n d it is p o s s i b l y a b o r r o w i n g f r o m T u c a n o .

1 6 . 1 . 7 P o l i t e s u g g e s t i o n

T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e - n h a c a n b e u s e d in c o m m a n d s , to m a r k polite s u g g e s t i o n s . T h i s

m a r k e r is h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h - n h a 'present v i s u a l interrogative' - s e e § 1 4 . 3 . J u s t a s in

t h e c a s e o f t h e p o s t p o n e d i m p e r a t i v e - w a w h i c h c a n o c c u r in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s , it is

h a r d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e t w o i n s t a n c e s o f - n h a are i n d e e d the s a m e m o r p h e m e o r

not. O t h e r i n t e r r o g a t i v e m a r k e r s d i s c u s s e d in § 1 4 . 3 are n o t u s e d as c o m m a n d s .

C o m m a n d s m a r k e d w i t h - n h a are u n u s u a l in that t h e y d o n o t h a v e a rising i n t o n a t i o n

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s . 1 6 . 3 9 is a u s u a l w a y o f offering a drink.

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 16.1 I m p e r a t i v e s 3 7 9

1 6 . 3 9 p i f a - n h a

2 s g + d r i n k - P 0 L . S U G

' W o u l d y o u like t o d r i n k ? '

1 6 . 4 0 c o m e s f r o m t h e story a b o u t t h e o r i g i n o f t o b a c c o ; t h e C r e a t o r is s u g g e s t i n g to

h i s s o n - i n - l a w w h a t h e s h o u l d d o .

1 6 . 4 0 m a r i s i p i - n a p i - s w e - t a p i - w a p a - n h a

g r a s s 2 s g - h i t / u p r o o t 2 s g - s t a y + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 2 s g - w a i t - P O L . S U G

' G e t s o m e o n e to u p r o o t t h e g r a s s a n d wait, please.'

T h i s m a r k i n g c a n b e u s e d w i t h first p e r s o n , as in 1 6 . 4 1 . It is n o t u s e d w i t h third

p e r s o n .

1 6 . 4 1 d i w e s e - w y a - n u k u k u p h e w a - n h a - n h a

t h e n - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S fish l p l - e a t - P O L . S U G

' T h e n ( s i n c e t h e r e is a lot o f g o o d fish) w h y don't w e eat fish.'

P o l i t e s u g g e s t i o n s m a y h a v e sarcastic o v e r t o n e s , as in 1 6 . 4 2 , f r o m a story a b o u t a

s m a r t c a t t h a t m a n a g e d to s w i n d l e a s t u p i d j a g u a r . 1 6 . 4 2 is t h e cat's ironic r e a c t i o n to the

j a g u a r ' s s u g g e s t i o n that h e c o u l d s h o w t h e cat h o w to kill a m o u s e p r o p e r l y ( w h i c h h e

c o u l d n o t d o ) .

1 6 . 4 2 p i - s i w a p i - y e k a - n h a

2 s g - b e . t o g e t h e r 2 s g - k n o w - P O L . S U G

' D o a s y o u t h i n k fit, p l e a s e (lit. p l e a s e , d o k n o w for yourself).'

T h e m a r k e r - n h a c a n b e u s e d in p r o h i b i t i v e c l a u s e s . 1 6 . 4 3 c o m e s f r o m a H a n s e l - a n d -

G r e t e l - t y p e story, a b o u t t w o c h i l d r e n a b a n d o n e d b y their father; t h e b o y u r g e s his sister

n o t t o l a u g h at t h e w i t c h lest s h e n o t i c e s t h e m .

1 6 . 4 3 m h a l d a p i k a - n h a d i - a - t h a - p i d a n a

P R O B 2 s g + l a u g h - P O L . S U G 3 s g n f - s a y - F R - R E M . P . R E P

' " P l e a s e , d o n o t l a u g h " , h e said (in vain).'

1 6 . 1 . 8 A d d i t i o n a l i m p e r a t i v e s

O n e a d d i t i o n a l i m p e r a t i v e - restricted to s e c o n d p e r s o n - is p r o b a b l y b o r r o w e d f r o m

T u c a n o . It a p p e a r s m o s t l y in t h e e v e r y d a y s p e e c h o f y o u n g e r p e o p l e , a n d is c o n s i d e r e d

b y o l d e r p e o p l e t o b e ' w r o n g ' T a r i a n a . M a r k e d w i t h -ya, it is r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e T u c a n o

i m p e r a t i v e - y a , e.g. T u c a n o ape-ya (play-lMPV) 'play!' T h i s i m p e r a t i v e -ya is

h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h t h e e m p h a t i c -ya (see § 1 5 . 4 ) . It h a s o v e r t o n e s o f ' d o it i m m e d i a t e l y ' ,

cf. 1 6 . 4 4 . I n 1 6 . 4 5 ( f r o m a story t o l d b y I s m a e l B r i t o ) -ya g o e s o n t o t h e o b j e c t w h i c h is

in f o c u s .

1 6 . 4 4 h i t a - y a

2 p l + t a k e - I M P V

T a k e (it) a w a y ! '

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 3 8 0 16 Mood and modality

1 6 . 4 5 h e m a - y a i-nu

t a p i r - I M P V 2pl-kill

'Kill a c o w (lit. a t a p i r ) ( i m m e d i a t e l y ; for a feast).'

N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s m a r k e d w i t h -ri - s e e C h a p t e r 2 0 - o c c a s i o n a l l y a p p e a r in the

f u n c t i o n o f c o m m a n d s , e.g. p i - n a r e - r i ! (2sg-finish-REL) 'finish!', p e h p a n i - n i p e pi-ni-ri!

( i M P + w o r k - N O M 2 s g - d o - R E L ) 'do t h e w o r k ! ' T h i s u s a g e - restricted to c a s u a l s p e e c h b y

y o u n g e r p e o p l e - c o u l d b e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e -ri m a r k e d i m p e r a t i v e in T u c a n o , as a n

i n s t a n c e o f ' g r a m m a t i c a l a c c o m m o d a t i o n ' (see §26.1.3). N e i t h e r o f t h e s e i m p e r a t i v e s h a s

b e e n attested in p r o h i b i t i v e c l a u s e s .

1 6 . 2 F r u s t r a t i v e

T h e frustrative m a r k e d w i t h t h e clitic -tha i n d i c a t e s that t h e a c t i o n w a s 'frustrated', that

it h a s failed a l r e a d y o r is b o u n d to fail; o r that t h e s u c c e s s o f a n a t t e m p t e d a c t i o n is n o t

y e t certain. F r u s t r a t i v e c a n o c c u r w i t h t h e intentional m a r k e r a n d w i t h t h e u n c e r t a i n t y

m a r k e r -da. It n e v e r o c c u r s w i t h future t e n s e m a r k i n g .

T h e m a r k e r - t h a u s u a l l y g o e s o n t h e m a i n v e r b in a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e ; in

a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s it g o e s o n t o t h e last c o m p o n e n t , as in 1 6 . 4 6 , a n d

in s y m m e t r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s it g o e s o n t o t h e first c o m p o n e n t , a s in 1 6 . 4 8 . In 1 6 . 4 6 -tha

is u s e d in a m o d a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n - in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s - w i t h t h e m e a n i n g 'I

w a n t e d t o g o , b u t d i d not'.

1 6 . 4 6 n h u a - s i n i n e s e - n u k u [ n u - n a - k a

I - A L S O : A C T . C O N T R t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S l s g - w a n t - S U B

n u - a - t h a - k a ] n u - d a l i p a p i - a p i m a

l s g - g o - F R - R E C . P . V I S l s g - n e a r 2 s g - g o 2 s g + s l e e p

' S i n c e I, t o o , w a n t e d to g o t h e n ( b u t couldn't), y o u g o a n d s l e e p at m y place.'

T h e frustrative m o d a l i t y is o f t e n u s e d in narratives, d e s c r i b i n g failed a c t i o n s , as in

1 6 . 4 7 , w h e r e it o c c u r s w i t h t h e r e m o t e p a s t r e p o r t e d , a n d in 1 6 . 4 8 , w h e r e it i s u s e d w i t h

r e m o t e p a s t v i s u a l .

1 6 . 4 7 n e s e - n u k u d i h a tfari n a w i k i d i - a - k a

t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S A R T m a n p e r s o n 3 s g n f - g o - S U B

itfiri d i - u m a - t h a - p i d a n a

g a m e 3 s g n f - l o o k . f o r - F R - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e n this m a n , a p e r s o n ( n o t a n evil spirit) w e n t o n , l o o k i n g for g a m e in vain.'

1 6 . 4 8 n u h a [ n u - s a t a - t h a - n a n h u m a ]

I 1s g - a s k - F R - R E M . P . V I S 1 s g + h e a r

'I d i d try in v a i n t o a s k (the pilot a b o u t w h y h e d i d n o t let u s go).'

In 1 6 . 4 9 frustrative is u s e d to refer to t h e fact that s o m e t h i n g u s e l e s s w a s t a k i n g

p l a c e , to t h e frustration o f t h e m a i n character. T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a

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 1 6 . 2 F r u s t r a t i v e 3 8 1

b o y w h o w e n t fishing; b u t i n s t e a d o f a fish h e c a u g h t a c r a b w h o w a s e a t i n g his bait, to

h i s total frustration.

1 6 . 4 9 k u h e n i - t h a - p i d a n a d i - n h a - k a

c r a b - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - e a t - D E C L

'It w a s a c r a b w h o w a s e a t i n g ( f r o m t h e fishing line).'

F r u s t r a t i v e c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification, e x c e p t for the p r e s e n t

v i s u a l - n a k a . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n - t h a - k a (frustrative-recent.past.visual) is often u s e d in t h e

s e n s e o f r e p r o a c h , a s in 1 6 . 5 0 ('didn't I tell y o u (in vain)').

1 6 . 5 0 i - w a p a n u - a - t h a - k a n u h u a i-na

2 p l - w a i t 1s g - s a y - F R - R E C . P . V I S I 2 p l - O B J

k w e - n h a n u - n a i-pe-niki

h o w - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R 1s g - O B J 2 p l - l e a v e - C O M P L

'Didn't I tell y o u (in v a i n ) , " W a i t ! " H o w c o m e y o u are a b a n d o n i n g m e ? '

In c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h r e m o t e past, - t h a m a y refer to a n a c t i o n o r state that is n o t there

a n y m o r e , a s in 1 6 . 5 1 , f r o m a l a m e n t a t i o n a b o u t a d e a d son.

1 6 . 5 1 p h i a m a t f l : t e - t h a - n a p h i a

y o u g o o d + N C L : A N I M - F R - R E M . PP .. VV I ISS y o u

k i a k u - i t e - t h a - n a p h i a k u p h e p h i t a

s t r o n g - N C L : A N I M - F R - R E M . P . V I S y o u fish 2 s g + t a k e

p i - n u - t h a - n a p h i a h e k u - d a

2 s g - c o m e - F R - R E M . P . V I S y o u t r e e - C L : R O U N D

p h i t a p i - n u - t h a - n a

2 s g + t a k e 2 s g - c o m e - F R - R E M . P . V I S

' Y o u u s e d to b e g o o d , y o u u s e d to b e strong, y o u u s e d to b r i n g fish, y o u u s e d to

b r i n g fruit ( a n d this is n o t t h e c a s e a n y m o r e ) . '

F r u s t r a t i v e c a n h a v e t h e m e a n i n g o f a desire w h i c h is n o t to c o m e true, as in 1 6 . 5 2

w h e r e - t h a o c c u r s w i t h t h e p r e s e n t n o n - v i s u a l - m h a ( n o t e that the s e q u e n c e o f t w o

a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t s in a d j o i n i n g enclitics results in a d i s s i m i l a t i o n , w h e r e b y - t h a - m h a

g i v e s - t h a m a ) . T h e s e q u e n c e o f floating enclitics - t h a m a g o e s o n t o the object, 'seed',

w h i c h is in c o n t r a s t i v e f o c u s (see §2.6).

1 6 . 5 2 n u h u a d i - w h i - p u - t h a m a n u - n a n u - k a

I 3 s g n f - s e e d - A U G - F R + P R E S . N O N V I S 1s g - O B J 1 s g - s e e

'"I w o u l d really like t o s e e t h e true s e e d ( o f a p e a c h p a l m ) , " (said t h e m a n ,

i m p l y i n g h e will n e v e r get a c h a n c e to s e e it).'

T h e frustrative, in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s a n d t h e a d v e r b tuki 'a

little', o r k w a m e - t i k i 'little b y little-diminutive', m e a n s 'just a b o u t , almost', as in 1 6 . 5 3 - 4 .

T h u s , it r e v e r s e s its m e a n i n g : f r o m m a r k i n g a 'failed' a c t i o n to m a r k i n g a n a c t i o n w h i c h

w a s o n t h e v e r g e o f h a p p e n i n g b u t didn't (this c o n s t r u c t i o n is s e m a n t i c a l l y s i m i l a r to t h e

clitic -mafia ' a l m o s t h a p p e n ' d e s c r i b e d in § 1 5 . 1 . 1 1 ) .

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 3 8 2 1 6 M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

1 6 . 5 3 t u k i - t h a m a n a w a - y a m i

l i t t l e - F R + R E M . P . N O N V I S 1 pl-die
1
' W e a l m o s t died.

1 6 . 5 4 k w a m e - t i k i n u - w h a - t h a - m a h k a n u - a

little.by.little-DIM 1s g - f a l l - F R - R E C . P . N O N V I S 1 s g - g o

'I h a v e a l m o s t fallen d o w n ( b u t m a n a g e d n o t to).'

T h e frustrative c a n b e u s e d w i t h inferred e v i d e n t i a l s to e x p r e s s a n n o y a n c e . In 1 6 . 5 5 ,
1
t h e g r a n d m o t h e r o f t h e T a r i a n a s e n e m y tells t h e T a r i a n a - d i s g u i s e d as w o m e n - that

t h e y m a y c o m e in, n o w that t h e y h a v e a p p a r e n t l y a r r i v e d in v a i n - m u c h to h e r

a n n o y a n c e s i n c e s h e w a s n o t e x p e c t i n g a n y o n e .

1 6 . 5 5 h a w h e i-nu n u - d a k i - r i d a l i p a

y e s 2 p l + e n t e r 2 p l - c o m e 1s g - g r a n d c h i l d - M A S C n e a r

i - n u - k a - t h a - s i k a h y a

2 p l - c o m e - D E C L - F R - R E C . P . I N F R y o u : P L

' Y e s , c o m e to m y g r a n d s o n ' s p l a c e , n o w that y o u h a v e a p p a r e n t l y c o m e ( m u c h to

m y frustration).'

T h e frustrative c a n a l s o b e u s e d in q u e s t i o n s w i t h a n inferred evidential, as in 1 6 . 5 6 ;

it is n o t u s e d in q u e s t i o n s w i t h o t h e r evidentiality specifications.

1 6 . 5 6 k w a n a - p u - t h a - s i k a n h e t a

w h o - A U G - F R - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R 3 p l + t a k e

' W h o ( o n e a r t h ) c o u l d h a v e t a k e n it ( t h e fire)?'

T h e frustrative c a n n o t c o m b i n e w i t h future; b u t it c a n c o m b i n e w i t h the intentional

- k a s u , a s in 1 6 . 5 7 , w h e r e t h e c o m b i n a t i o n i n d i c a t e s a failed intention: t h e m a n w a s

g o i n g t o kill a g i g a n t i c fish; h o w e v e r , t h e fish t u r n e d into a w o m a n .

1 6 . 5 7 h e k u - p a d a - n e d i w h i d a d i - n a - k a s u - t h a - p i d a n a

w o o d - C L : P I E C E - I N S 3 s g n f + h e a d 3 s g n f - h i t - I N T - F R - R E M . P . R E P

' H e w a s a b o u t to hit its h e a d w i t h a p i e c e o f w o o d (but didn't b e c a u s e t h e fish

t u r n e d into a beautiful w o m a n ) . '

F r u s t r a t i v e c a n a l s o o c c u r w i t h t h e m a r k e r o f u n c e r t a i n t y -da m e a n i n g ' m a y b e a n d for

a w r o n g p u r p o s e / i n vain', a s in 1 6 . 5 8 . ( T h e s e q u e n c e o f enclitics - t h a - d a - n i k i g o e s o n

t h e f o c u s s e d c o n s t i t u e n t ' m y late h u s b a n d ' . )

1 6 . 5 8 n u - s a - n i f i - m i k i - f i - t h a - d a - n i k i n a m u

l s g - s p o u s e - M A S C - N O M . P A S T - M A S C - F R - U N C E R T - C O M P L evil.spirit

n i n h a - n i t e d i - d i a - k a - m h a

3 s g n f + e a t - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N I M 3 s g n f - r e t u r n - D E C L - P R E S . N O N V I S

' M y late h u s b a n d w h o h a s b e e n e a t e n b y t h e evil spirit is p r o b a b l y c o m i n g b a c k

( m u c h to m y frustration).'

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 1 6 . 3 I n t e n t i o n a l 3 8 3

T h e frustrative c a n o c c u r w i t h t h e c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n m a r k e r -pada (see § 1 6 . 8 ) . In

1 6 . 5 9 , t h e e a g l e , w h o s e d o w n h a s b e e n t a k e n a w a y , d i s c o v e r s it l y i n g o n a plate in t h e

village. H e u s e s t h e frustrative in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h -pada to refer to t h e b a d

c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e p e o p l e ' s a c t i o n s ( h e is n o w g o i n g to d e s t r o y their village). In the

t h i r d line, h e u s e s t h e s e q u e n c e 'frustrative-recent.past.inferred' a n d 'uncertainty'. T h e

frustrative h a s t h e s a m e m e a n i n g a s in t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h -pada.

1 6 . 5 9 d i h a k a r a p i - s e - p i d a n a d i - k e t a d i - m a r e - n u k u

A R T p l a t e - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - f i n d 3 s g n f - d o w n - T O P . N O N . A / S

h l - t h a - p a d a d i - a - p i d a n a

D E M : A N I M - F R - C O U N T E R E X 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

a i - t h a - s i k a n a - y a k e t a - d a

h e r e - F R - R E C . P . I N F R 3 p l - j o i n + C A U S - U N C E R T

' H e f o u n d h i s d o w n o n t h e plate. H e said, " H e r e it is (to m y frustration; I didn't

e x p e c t it). T h e y p r o b a b l y j o i n e d it h e r e (to m y frustration; t h e y will p a y for it)".'

1 6 . 3 I n t e n t i o n a l

T h e i n t e n t i o n a l is m a r k e d w i t h t h e clitic - k a s u . It c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y g r o u p o f v e r b s ,

m a r k i n g i m m i n e n t a c t i o n , a s in 1 6 . 6 0 a n d intention, a s in 1 6 . 6 1 .

1 6 . 6 0 d h i n u r u d i - t h u k a - k a s u di-a

3 s g n f + n e c k 3 s g n f - b r e a k - I N T 3 s g n f - g o

' H i s n e c k is a b o u t t o break.' ( S a i d o f a d r u n k e n m a n , lying o n a b e n c h w i t h his

h e a d d a n g l i n g . )

1 6 . 6 1 k w e - n h a p i - n i - k a s u

h o w - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R 3 s g - d o - I N T

' W h a t a r e y o u g o i n g to d o ? '

T h e i n t e n t i o n a l c a n o c c u r o n p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s , a s in 16.62.

1 6 . 6 2 i n a r u k a - s a - n i r i - k a s u p a i t a

w o m a n R E L - s p o u s e - M A S C - I N T o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M

n a w i k i - n u k u

p e r s o n - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h i s w o m a n is g o i n g t o m a r r y s o m e o n e . '

It c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y evidentiality specification (see § 1 4 . 4 , e s p e c i a l l y e x a m p l e

1 4 . 1 1 4 ) , a n d w i t h t h e frustrative (see 1 6 . 5 7 a b o v e ) ; b u t it d o e s n o t o c c u r w i t h

u n c e r t a i n t y , a p p r e h e n s i v e o r c o n d i t i o n a l m a r k e r s . C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e intentional

a n d t h e f u t u r e a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 17.1 a n d illustrated in C h a p t e r 17.

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 3 8 4 16 M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

1 6 . 4 A p p r e h e n s i v e

T a r i a n a h a s t w o w a y s o f e x p r e s s i n g a n a p p r e h e n s i v e m e a n i n g 'lest, b e w a r e ; or else': w i t h

a clitic o r w i t h a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e . In this c h a p t e r w e d e a l w i t h t h e clitics; the c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n - c a l q u e d f r o m T u c a n o - is d i s c u s s e d in § 1 9 . 5 .

T h e r e a r e t w o a p p r e h e n s i v e enclitics, -da 'visual a p p r e h e n s i v e ' a n d - h h i n a ' n o n - v i s u a l

a p p r e h e n s i v e ' . T h e n o n - v i s u a l a p p r e h e n s i v e is u s e d m o s t l y w i t h s e c o n d p e r s o n a n d o n l y

rarely w i t h third p e r s o n , a n d i m p l i e s that, a c c o r d i n g to the s p e a k e r , t h e a d d r e s s e e c a n n o t

s e e w h a t h e o r s h e is d o i n g , o r t h e s p e a k e r c a n n o t see w h a t t h e a d d r e s s e e is d o i n g .

C r o s s - l i n g u i s t i c a l l y , a v i s u a l v e r s u s n o n - v i s u a l o p p o s i t i o n in a p p r e h e n s i v e s a p p e a r s to

b e rare. A s i m i l a r d i s t i n c t i o n is attested in N i v k h (isolate) ( G r u z d e v a 1 9 9 2 : 6 0 ) .

S o m e o n e w h o is w a l k i n g in front c a n s a y to a p e r s o n b e h i n d t h e m w h o m i g h t b e n o t

c a u t i o u s e n o u g h :

1 6 . 6 3 n u - p u m i pi-pinita m e d a p i - w h a - n h i n a

l s g - a f t e r 2 s g - f o l l o w h o w e v e r 2 s g - f a l l - A P P R . N O N V I S

' D o f o l l o w m e , o r else y o u m i g h t fall d o w n ( y o u are n o t looking).'

In 1 6 . 6 4 , t h e T a r i a n a a n c e s t o r is telling a w o m a n w h o is u p in a tree to b e careful

w i t h t h e h o n e y s h e h a s collected.

1 6 . 6 4 h a n e p i - w h a - s e k u phia, p h i t a - m h a d e phia,

t h a t 2 s g - f a l l - S L I P y o u 2 s g + t a k e - F U T y o u

p i - w e s y e t a - n h i n a h i m a p a - n u k u

2 s g - s m a s h + C A U S - A P P R . N O N V I S D E M : A N I M h o n e y - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h e r e y o u will fall b y s l i p p i n g (inside t h e h o l l o w tree), y o u m u s t g r a b (a b r a n c h ) ,

o r e l s e y o u m i g h t s m a s h this h o n e y . '

T h e e x p l a n a t o r y p a r t m a y b e o m i t t e d , a n d t h e n t h e a p p r e h e n s i v e c l a u s e a p p e a r s b y

itself, a s in 1 6 . 6 5 . T h e h u m m i n g b i r d is w a r n i n g t h e w h i t e h e r o n o n w h o s e b a c k h e is

flying.

1 6 . 6 5 n u - n a p i - p e - n h i n a p h i a

l s g - O B J 2 s g - d r o p - A P P R . N O N V I S y o u

' Y o u m i g h t d r o p m e ( y o u ' d better not)!'

In 1 6 . 6 6 t h e n o n - v i s u a l a p p r e h e n s i v e is u s e d w i t h t h e third p e r s o n . O n e o f the

s p e a k e r s s a i d this w i t h r e f e r e n c e to E m i l i o B r i t o w h o w a s c l i m b i n g a b a s k e t b a l l p o l e

o u t s i d e t h e h o u s e w e w e r e in: t h e s p e a k e r h a d t h e i m p r e s s i o n E m i l i o w a s n o t l o o k i n g at

w h a t h e w a s d o i n g .

1 6 . 6 6 d h i n u r u d i - t h u k a - n h i n a

3 s g n f + n e c k 3 s g n f - b r e a k - A P P R . N O N V I S

' H e m i g h t b r e a k h i s neck.'

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 16.4 Apprehensive 385

V i s u a l a p p r e h e n s i v e -da is w i d e l y u s e d in w a r n i n g s :

1 6 . 6 7 m h a l d a p i - a iya p u t f a - d a p h i a - s e

P R O H 2 s g - g o rain w e t - V I S . A P P R y o u - L O C

' D o n ' t g o , lest t h e r a i n m i g h t m a k e y o u wet.'

1 6 . 6 8 p i - k a - n h a k a - k o l o - k a - w h y a d i - n u - k a

2 s g - s e e - P O L . S U G R E L - r o l l - T H - C L : C A N O E 3 s g n f - c o m e - S U B

w a - n a d i - p a s y a - d a

l p l - O B J 3 s g n f - s m a s h - V I S . A P P R

' P l e a s e l o o k , w h e n t h e c a r c o m e s , l e s t it m i g h t s q u a s h us.'

A p p r e h e n s i v e c l a u s e s c o n t a i n i n g -da c a n b e u s e d a s s e m a n t i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t clauses,

a n d a s m a i n c l a u s e s . T h e a p p r e h e n s i v e c l a u s e in 1 6 . 6 9 c a n b e translated as a s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e o f 'reason'. It d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a n y o v e r t m a r k e r o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n , u n l i k e

s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2 2 ; for this r e a s o n , a p p r e h e n s i v e c l a u s e s

c a n n o t b e t r e a t e d o n a p a r w i t h s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s .

1 6 . 6 9 k a r u n a - m a - m h a w a - n a d i - n h a - d a

b e . d a n g e r o u s - E X C - P R E S . N O N V I S l p l - O B J 3 s g n f - e a t - V I S . A P P R

h a - d a p a n i t e

D E M : I N A N - C L : H O U S E + N C L : A N I M

T h e r e is d a n g e r h e r e s i n c e (lest) t h e m a s t e r o f t h e h o u s e (lit. t h e o n e o f the h o u s e )

m i g h t eat us.'

In 1 6 . 7 0 a p p r e h e n s i v e is u s e d in t h e m a i n c l a u s e w h i c h f o l l o w s a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e

w i t h a s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka.

1 6 . 7 0 w a h a y a l a n a t a - n u k u n a m u d i - n h a - k a - n i k i

w e b o s s - T O P . N O N . A / S evil.spirit 3 s g n f - e a t - S U B - C O M P L

w a - n a d i - n h a - d a d i h a - s e

l p l - O B J 3 s g n f - e a t - V I S . A P P R h e - C O N T R

' S i n c e t h e evil spirit h a s e a t e n o u r b o s s , ( b e w a r e that) h e m i g h t eat us.'

A n a d d i t i o n a l a p p r e h e n s i v e is a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e V E R B - d a s a y - s U B , u s e d if t h e

s p e a k e r d o e s n o t h a v e firsthand i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s is s h o w n in 1 6 . 7 1 - 2 w h e r e t h e

w a r n i n g is a t t r i b u t e d to s o m e o n e else.

1 6 . 7 1 n e s u - d a n a - s w e [di-a-ka

3 p l + s h i t - V I S . A P P R 3 p l - s t a y + C A U S 3 s g n f - s a y - S U B

d i - p i t i - n a k a ]

3 s g n f - d r i v e . a w a y - P R E S . V I S

' H e is d r i v i n g (the h e n s ) a w a y for fear t h e y m i g h t shit (lit. s a y i n g lest t h e y m i g h t

shit).'

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 3 8 6 16 M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

1 6 . 7 2 y a r u m a k a s i d u - t a l e d u - a [ h a m u - d a d u - a - k a ]

c l o t h i n g 3 s g f - c o v e r 3 s g f - g o h o t - V I S . A P P R 3 s g f - s a y - S U B

' S h e c o v e r e d (herself) w i t h c l o t h i n g , for fear it m i g h t b e h o t (lit. s a y i n g lest it

m i g h t b e hot).'

A w a r n i n g e x p r e s s e d w i t h a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e a p p r e h e n s i v e m a y i m p l y r e f e r e n c e to

c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e , a s in 1 6 . 7 3 .

1 6 . 7 3 n e s e - n u k u p i - s w e - t a a : m e

t h e r e - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - s t a y + C A U S 1- C A U S 2 fire.ants

f n a - h n a - d a p a : - k a ]

3 p l - e a t - A P P R I M P + s a y - S U B

'Put (the f o o d ) t h e r e , o r else fire a n t s m i g h t eat it.'

W h e n t h e a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e o c c u r s w i t h t h e first p e r s o n s p e a k e r , t h e

c o n s e q u e n c e a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e h e a r e r is b e i n g w a r n e d is a s s u m e d to o c c u r in future, a n d

n o t i m m e d i a t e l y , a s in 1 6 . 7 4 . N o t e that p a r t s o f t h e a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e d o

n o t h a v e to b e c o n t i g u o u s . T h i s is o n e o f t h e features w h i c h differentiates c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e s f r o m serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s (see § 1 9 . 1 2 ) .

1 6 . 7 4 p i - i i h a [ m e r i - d a ] p h i a - s e [ n u - a - k a ]

2 s g - e a t N E G + b l o o d - A P P R y o u - C O N T R l s g - s a y - S U B

'Eat, o r e l s e y o u m i g h t b e c o m e w e a k (in future), I a m saying.'

T h e f o l l o w i n g p a i r o f e x a m p l e s illustrates t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e v i s u a l

a p p r e h e n s i v e a n d t h e a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e .

1 6 . 7 5 m a t f a pi-ni p i - w h a - d a

g o o d 2 s g - d o 2 s g - f a l l - A P P R

' B e careful, lest y o u fall ( n o w ) . '

1 6 . 7 6 m a t f a pi-ni [ p i - w h a - d a n u - a - k a ]

g o o d 2 s g - d o 2 s g - f a l l - A P P R l s g - s a y - S U B

' B e careful, lest y o u fall, I a m s a y i n g (later, o r always).'

T h e a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e is often u s e d in n a r r a t i v e s in r e p o r t e d evidential.

T h e u s e o f s i m p l e v i s u a l a p p r e h e n s i v e h e r e w o u l d h a v e b e e n i n a p p r o p r i a t e s i n c e t h e

n a r r a t o r c o u l d n o t h a v e h a d direct a c c e s s to t h e e v i d e n c e :

1 6 . 7 7 m a t f a d i t a d i - e m e [ n a - m u s u - d a

g o o d 3 s g n f + l o c k 3 s g n f - s t a n d + C A U S 3 p l - g o . o u t - A P P R . V I S

d i - a - k a ] h a - n e n a - p i d a n a k h a n i - n i p e

3 s g n f - s a y - S U B t h e y - F O C . A / S 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P O F F - N O M

' H e l o c k e d t h e m (the spirits) w e l l , for fear that t h e y m i g h t g o o u t (lit. s a y i n g lest

t h e y m i g h t g o o u t ) , (but) t h e y k e p t g o i n g out.'

S i n c e B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a d o e s n o t h a v e a n a p p r e h e n s i v e , a n d t h e E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s

d o , it is r e a s o n a b l e to h y p o t h e s i s e that t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a p p r e h e n s i v e in T a r i a n a is

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 1 6 . 5 U n c e r t a i n t y 3 8 7

likely t o b e d u e to l a n g u a g e c o n t a c t . U n l i k e T a r i a n a , T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s d o n o t h a v e t w o

a p p r e h e n s i v e suffixes. T h e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e a p p r e h e n s i v e in T a r i a n a is a m o r p h e m e -

f o r - m o r p h e m e c a i q u e f r o m T u c a n o a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e (see R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 ,

vol. 1: 149). H o w e v e r , T a r i a n a a p p e a r s to b e q u i t e u n l i k e the T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s in that it

p o s s e s s e s a t h r e e f o l d s e m a n t i c d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e n o n - v i s u a l a p p r e h e n s i v e (-nhina),

t h e v i s u a l a p p r e h e n s i v e (-da) a n d t h e r e m o t e o r indirect e v i d e n c e a p p r e h e n s i v e

( c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e ) . A p p r e h e n s i v e s c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d in either T a r i a n a o r T u c a n o .

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n mhaida-pida ( P R O H I B I T I V E - I M P V . S E C ) w i t h a v e r b o f s a y i n g - the

o n l y w a y o f n e g a t i n g a p u r p o s i v e ( § 1 6 . 7 ) - is s e m a n t i c a l l y c l o s e to the a p p r e h e n s i v e -

cf. 1 6 . 7 8 ( t h e n e g a t i v e p u r p o s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n is in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) :

1 6 . 7 8 h t - m h a w h a n a w i k i m a t f a

D E M r A N I M - P R E S . N O N V I S w e p e o p l e g o o d

p a - n i - n i p e pa:tfi y a p h i n i [ m h a i d a - p i d a

I M P - d o - N O M other.of.different.kind t h i n g P R O H - R E P . I M P V

d i - a p a : - k a ]

3 s g n f - g o I M P + s a y - S U B

T h i s is h o w w e p e o p l e h a v e to b e careful, s o that s o m e t h i n g different (i.e.

s o m e t h i n g u n d e s i r a b l e ) s h o u l d n ' t h a p p e n . '

N e i t h e r o f t h e a p p r e h e n s i v e enclitics c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y tense-evidentiality, a s p e c t o r

m o d a l i t y m a r k e r s .

1 6 . 5 U n c e r t a i n t y

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r -da is h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h t h e v i s u a l a p p r e h e n s i v e -da. H o w e v e r ,

u n l i k e t h e a p p r e h e n s i v e , t h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r -da d o e s c o m b i n e w i t h frustrative, a n d

w i t h t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , it c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d as p a r t o f t h e t e n s e -

e v i d e n t i a l i t y s y s t e m . A l s o , its m e a n i n g h a s to d o w i t h certainty, a n d n o t w i t h t h e s o u r c e

o f i n f o r m a t i o n .

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r i n d i c a t e s s o m e t h i n g p r o b a b l e or u n c e r t a i n , a s in 1 6 . 7 9 - 8 0 .

1 6 . 7 9 n h u a n u - k a m a - k a n u - n a n a - i n u - d a

I l s g - g e t . d r u n k - S U B l s g - O B J 3 p l - k i l l - U N C E R T

'If I g e t d r u n k , t h e y m i g h t kill m e . '

1 6 . 8 0 n h a n a - s a p e - k a d h i m a - d a d i h a

t h e y 3 p l - s p e a k - S U B 3 s g n f + h e a r - U N C E R T h e

' W h e n t h e y ( a n i m a l s ) s p e a k , h e p r o b a b l y u n d e r s t a n d s . '

In 1 6 . 8 1 t h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r a p p e a r s in a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e .

1 6 . 8 1 k a y d i - n i - k a d i - k a d i - n a m i - d a

t h u s 3 s g n f - d o - S U B 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - d i e - U N C E R T

d i h a di-a: d i - r u k u d i - n u - p i d a n a

h e 3 s g n f - s a y 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e m a n s a w that a n d said, " h e is p r o b a b l y d e a d " , a n d w e n t d o w n ( f r o m the tree).'

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 3 8 8 16 M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

U n c e r t a i n t y c a n h a v e o v e r t o n e s o f c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n (similar to -pada: see § 1 6 . 8 ) .

In 1 6 . 8 2 t h e m a n - w h o h a d b e e n b l i n d e d t h r o u g h t r e a s o n - h e a r s t h e b i r d s sing b u t

c a n n o t s e e t h e m ; t h e m a r k e r -da i m p l i e s that a part o f the n i g h t m i g h t still b e left, in

spite o f t h e fact t h a t b i r d s a r e s i n g i n g ( i n d i c a t i n g that t h e n i g h t is o v e r ) .

1 6 . 8 2 k w e - m h a d e d i - a - s o di-a de:pi

h o w - F U T 3 s g n f - g o - I N T E R . D O U B T 3 s g n f - s a y n i g h t

k e t e m i - d a di-a, d i - p h a d i - s w a

r e m a i n - U N C E R T 3 s g n f - s a y 3 s g n f - f a l l . d o w n 3sgnf-lie

d i - a d i m a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f + s l e e p - R E M . P . R E P

' " H o w is it g o i n g to b e " , h e said, "there is p r o b a b l y still n i g h t left", h e said, h e fell

d o w n a n d slept.'

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r c a n o c c u r w i t h visual, n o n - v i s u a l a n d inferred evidentiality

specification. It d o e s n o t o c c u r w i t h t h e r e p o r t e d or the p r e s e n t v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l . In

1 6 . 8 3 , -da o c c u r s w i t h r e c e n t p a s t v i s u a l a n d t h e frustrative; -da is u s e d to i n d i c a t e

L e o n a r d o Brito's u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e c o r r e c t u s e o f t h e P o r t u g u e s e w o r d 'paleto'

( o v e r c o a t ) , w i t h o v e r t o n e s o f frustration o v e r t h e fact that h e is n o t sure o f his

P o r t u g u e s e .

1 6 . 8 3 m a t f a - p e r i y a r u m a k a s i d u - r a d u - f i a - p i d a n a

g o o d - C O L L c l o t h i n g 3 s g f - o r d e r 3 s g f - w e a r - R E M . P . R E P

m a t f a - p e r i n h a y a l a n a n a - n a - m i - m a k a - p e

g o o d - C O L L t h e y w h i t e 3 p l - w e a r - N O M - C L : C L O T H - P L

n h a p a l e t o n a : - t h a - k a - d a

t h e y 'paleto' 3 p l + s a y - F R - R E C . P . V I S - U N C E R T

' S h e o r d e r e d ( h i m ) to w e a r g o o d c l o t h i n g , g o o d ( o n e ) , w h a t w h i t e p e o p l e w e a r ,

t h e y are p r o b a b l y t h e o n e s called "paleto".'

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r c a n h a v e o v e r t o n e s o f d o u b t . 1 6 . 8 4 w a s p r o d u c e d w h e n o n e

o f t h e s p e a k e r s q u e r i e d w h a t h e h a d j u s t h e a r d o n tape. H e r e -da o c c u r s w i t h p r e s e n t

n o n - v i s u a l a n d frustrative.

1 6 . 8 4 w e p e r i - p u a - s e d i - a - t h a m a - d a

p o i s o n - C L : R I V E R - L O C 3 s g n f - s a y - F R + P R E S . N O N V I S - U N C E R T

' H e m u s t h a v e said " w e p e r i - p u a - s e " (but I d o u b t it, s i n c e I h e a r d s o m e t h i n g else).'

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r c a n o c c u r w i t h t h e inferred evidential, as in 1 6 . 8 5 . T h e

p r o t a g o n i s t - t h e g r a n d m o t h e r o f t h e e n e m i e s o f the T a r i a n a - infers that t h e u n u s u a l

g u e s t s m u s t h a v e c o m e to visit her; s i n c e s h e d i d n o t e x p e c t t h e m , s h e e x p r e s s e s d o u b t

a s t o t h e v a l i d i t y o f this i n f e r e n c e .

1 6 . 8 5 n u - d a l i p a i - n u - k a - t h a - s i k a - d a ihie i-nu

l s g - n e a r 2 p l - c o m e - D E C L - F R - R E C . P . I N F R - U N C E R T 2 p l + e n t e r 2 p l - c o m e

' Y o u p r o b a b l y c a m e to visit m e , to m y frustration, (but is this s o ? ) , c o m e in.'

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 16.5 U n c e r t a i n t y 3 8 9

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r m a y b e e m p l o y e d a s a rhetorical d e v i c e . In 16.86, f r o m the

O r i g i n m y t h t o l d b y C a n d i d o B r i t o , t h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r f o l l o w s t h e r e m o t e p a s t

i n f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l , a s if q u e s t i o n i n g t h e validity o f the i n f e r e n c e m a d e o n the basis o f

w h a t t h e T a r i a n a a n c e s t o r s left b e h i n d . T h e n t h e validity o f i n f e r e n c e is r e i n s t a t e d b y the

u s e o f v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l .

1 6 . 8 6 n a h a n a - d a k i - n i - s e n a - k a - n a k a

t h e y 3 p l - g r a n d c h i l d - P L - C O N T R 3 p l - s e e - P R E S . V I S

k a s i n a - n u k u k a y a - s i n a - d a

n o w + A D V - R E M . P . R E P l i k e . t h i s - R E M . P . I N F R - U N C E R T

p a w a r i - n a k a n a : n a - s a p e - n a k a

t r u e - P R E S . V I S 3 p l + s a y 3 p l - s p e a k - P R E S . V I S

T h e i r ( t h e T a r i a n a s ' ) g r a n d c h i l d r e n s e e n o w (the r a p i d s a n d the s t o n e s left b e h i n d

b y their a n c e s t o r s ) . T h e story m u s t h a v e b e e n like that. It is t r u e , t h e y tell it (thus).'

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r is o f t e n u s e d in s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h r e q u i r e c o n f i r m a t i o n , as in

1 6 . 8 7 . W h e n I a s k e d O l i v i a to retell a story a b o u t h o w to m a k e m a n i o c beer, so that I

c o u l d r e c o r d it, s h e a g r e e d to d o so, b u t a d d e d 1 6 . 8 7 at t h e e n d .

1 6 . 8 7 n u - k a l i t e - t h a - k a - s i t a - d a d i h a - m i s i n i

1 s g - t e l l - F R - R E C . P . V I S - A L R E A D Y - U N C E R T h e - T O O

n u - k a l i t e - k a - s i t a p i - n a h e k u

1 s g - t e l l - R E C . P . V I S - A L R E A D Y 2 s g - O B J y e s t e r d a y

'I p r o b a b l y d i d tell this a l r e a d y (didn't I?), I d i d tell y o u this yesterday.'

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r c a n o c c u r w i t h future, as in 1 6 . 8 8 , a n d w i t h n e g a t i o n , a s in

1 6 . 8 9 .

1 6 . 8 8 p i - k a - m h a d e - d a

2 s g - s e e - F U T - U N C E R T

' Y o u s h o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e a l o o k ( w e m i g h t still find y o u r s o n safe a n d s o u n d ) . '

1 6 . 8 9 i-na y a p i r i k u r i d i - n a m i - n i - k a d a - n u k u

2 p l - O B J G o d 3 p l - d i e - T O P . A D V - C L : D A Y - T O P . N O N . A / S

m h e s i k i k a i - k a d e - d a

h u n g e r h u r t - N E G - U N C E R T

' Y o u p r o b a b l y don't feel h u n g r y o n G o o d Friday.'

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in q u e s t i o n s i n d i c a t i n g s t r o n g d o u b t . It

t h e n o c c u r s w i t h o u t a n y e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification, as in 1 6 . 9 0 ( r e p e a t e d f r o m 3.18).

1 6 . 9 0 n u - e n i p e k w a k a - d a n a - n h a

l s g - c h i l d r e n w h a t - U N C E R T 3pl-eat

k a w h i d e s u - n u k u

w a k e . u p t o m o r r o w - T O P . N O N . A / S

' W h a t will m y c h i l d r e n eat w h e n t h e y w a k e u p t o m o r r o w ? ( T h e r e is n o f o o d in the

h o u s e , a n d I d o u b t t h e y will h a v e a n y t h i n g at all to eat.)'

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 3 9 0 16 Mood and modality

U n c e r t a i n t y i n q u e s t i o n s m a y b e u s e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e -so w h i c h a l s o

m a r k s s t r o n g d o u b t m i x e d w i t h s u r p r i s e (see § 1 4 . 3 ) . E x a m p l e 16.91 is a q u e s t i o n

p r o t a g o n i s t s o f t h e story a s k e d t h e m s e l v e s after t h e y h a d realised - to their a m a z e m e n t -

that t h e y a r e still p e o p l e a n d h a v e n o t b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d into evil spirits.

1 6 . 9 1 w h a n a w i k i - m i a - d a - s o

w e p e o p l e - O N L Y - U N C E R T - D O U B T . I N T E R

'Is it p o s s i b l e t h a t w e c o u l d b e j u s t p e o p l e ? '

O c c a s i o n a l l y -da o c c u r s w i t h a n evidentiality specification in q u e s t i o n s . T h e

p r o t a g o n i s t s a d d r e s s t h e q u e s t i o n in 1 6 . 9 2 to t h e m s e l v e s : t h e y a s k w h e r e the f u n n y m a n

- in fact, a n evil spirit in d i s g u i s e - c o u l d h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d w h i l e t h e y w e r e w a t c h i n g

h i m .

1 6 . 9 2 i y a d i - n a w a - k a w a - k a k a n i - n h a - d a

r a i n 3 s g n f - s t o p - S U B l p l - s e e w h e r e - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R - U N C E R T

d i h a tfari w a w a - s a p e - n a

A R T m a n l p l + s a y l p l - s a y - R E M . P . V I S

' W e s a w t h a t t h e r a i n s t o p p e d , a n d w e said: " w h e r e o n e a r t h is that m a n ? ' "

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r c a n o c c u r in c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s :

1 6 . 9 3 h a i d a k a n a p a d a - p i keri-pi

I . d o n ' t . k n o w h o w . m a n y - C L : L O N G m o o n - C L : L O N G

d h u t a d u - a - d a k e w e d o n i t e

3 s g f + t a k e 3 s g f - g o - U N C E R T R E L + p r e g n a n t + N C L : A N I M

'I d o n ' t k n o w h o w l o n g it m i g h t t a k e h e r (a d o g ) to b e p r e g n a n t . '

T h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r c a n b e r e p e a t e d t o i n d i c a t e a really s t r o n g d o u b t , h o w e v e r , it

is c o n s i d e r e d stylistically b a d ; e.g. in 1 6 . 8 2 , ketemi-da-da 'rest-UNCERT-UNCERT' w a s

u s e d , a n d t h e n it w a s r e p l a c e d w i t h k e t e m i - d a . N o o t h e r m o d a l i t y m a r k e r c a n b e

r e p e a t e d ; this m a k e s -da r a t h e r u n u s u a l . S e m a n t i c a l l y , t h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r is s i m i l a r

t o e p i s t e m i c c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w i t h r e p e t i t i o n m e a n i n g 'possibly, m a y b e ' ( § 1 9 . 1 ) a n d

to c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w i t h p a : p e ' m a y b e ' ( § 1 9 . 1 1 ) .

1 6 . 6 C o n d i t i o n a l

T h e c o n d i t i o n a l is m a r k e d w i t h t h e clitic - b u h t a ( s o m e t i m e s realised as - b o h t a , -botha:

s e e a s p i r a t i o n floating r u l e s in C h a p t e r 2). T e n s e s d i s t i n g u i s h e d are n o n - p a s t {-buhta),

r e c e n t p a s t (-buhtaka) a n d r e m o t e p a s t (-buhtana). It c o v e r s t h e m e a n i n g s o f c o n d i t i o n ,

o b l i g a t i o n a n d possibility. U n l i k e T u c a n o , t h e c o n d i t i o n a l d o e s n o t o c c u r w i t h a n y

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification. T h e c o n d i t i o n a l is u s e d o n l y in m a i n c l a u s e s .

N o n - p a s t c o n d i t i o n a l refers t o s o m e t h i n g that m i g h t h a p p e n in t h e future o r in t h e

p r e s e n t . T h e r e c e n t p a s t c o n d i t i o n a l refers t o t h e r e c e n t p a s t ( f r o m a f e w m i n u t e s a g o to

a f e w d a y s a g o ) , a n d t h e r e m o t e p a s t c o n d i t i o n a l to t h e r e m o t e past. T h e s e are c o n t r a s t e d

in 1 6 . 9 4 - 6 .

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 16.6 Conditional 391

1 6 . 9 4 i y a d i - w h a - k a a m a k u p u t f a - b u h t a

r a i n 3 s g n f - f a l l - S U B h a m m o c k b e . w e t - C O N D . N O N . P A S T

'If r a i n falls, t h e h a m m o c k m i g h t get w e t (in future, o r right n o w ) . '

1 6 . 9 5 h e k u i y a d i - w h a - k a a m a k u p u t f a - b u h t a k a

y e s t e r d a y r a i n 3 s g n f - f a l l - S U B h a m m o c k b e . w e t - C O N D . R E C . P

'If r a i n h a d fallen y e s t e r d a y , t h e h a m m o c k w o u l d h a v e b e e n wet.'

1 6 . 9 6 p a l i p a - n i p e s e d e - k a iya w a - n a p u t f a - b u h t a n a

I M P + c o v e r - N O M N E G . E X - S U B rain l p l - O B J b e . w e t - C O N D . R E M . P

'If w e h a d n o t h a d t h e c o v e r , rain w o u l d h a v e m a d e u s w e t (a w e e k or so ago).'

T h e n o n p a s t c o n d i t i o n a l o f t e n refers to future, w h e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e , a s i n 1 6 . 9 7 .

1 6 . 9 7 n u h u a k w a k a - n e - b o t h a itfiri

I w h a t - I N S - C O N D . N O N . P A S T a n i m a l

n u - k e t a - k a n u - s i t a n h u a

l s g - m e e t - S U B l s g - s h o o t I

"'If I e n c o u n t e r a n a n i m a l , w h a t w o u l d I s h o o t it w i t h ? " (said a l a z y m a n w h o

p r e t e n d e d h e d o e s n o t h a v e a m m u n i t i o n to g o h u n t i n g ) . '

T h e n o n - p a s t c o n d i t i o n a l - b o h t a o f t e n h a s a p o t e n t i a l m e a n i n g , e.g. d i h a - b o h t a ( h e -

POT) ' m u s t b e h i m ' a n d 1 6 . 9 8 :

1 6 . 9 8 p a : p e n u - n i - k a n h u a n u h p a n i - n i p e

m a y b e l s g - d o - S U B I 1 s g + w o r k - N O M

n u - k e t a - b o h t a n h u a

1 s g - e n c o u n t e r - P O T . N O N . P A S T I

' M a y b e I c o u l d e n c o u n t e r w o r k . '

P a s t c o n d i t i o n a l s ( a n d t h e n e g a t i v e ) in i n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s that are n o t a c c o m p a n i e d

b y s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s o f t e n h a v e t h e m e a n i n g o f ' s h o u l d (not) have'. T h e f o l l o w i n g

m i n i m a l p a i r f r o m a c o n v e r s a t i o n illustrates t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n - b u h t a k a a n d

- b u h t a n a : 1 6 . 9 9 w a s u s e d to b e r a t e a p e r s o n w h o h a d d o n e a w r o n g t h i n g a f e w m i n u t e s

a g o . 1 6 . 1 0 0 w a s u s e d to refer t o a w r o n g d o i n g in t h e past.

16.5> 9 h i k a y u p h i a m a - n i - k a d e - b u h t a k a

D E M : A N I M + t h u s y o u N E G - d o - N E G - C O N D . R E C . P

d i h a - n u k u

h e - T O P . N O N . A / S
»
' Y o u s h o u l d n o t h a v e d o n e it.

1 6 . 1 0 0 h i k a y u m a - n i - k a d e - b u h t a n a

D E M : A N I M + t h u s N E G - d o - N E G - C O N D . R E M . P

d i h a - n u k u

A R T - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e (or y o u ) s h o u l d n o t h a v e d o n e this (a l o n g t i m e ago).'

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 3 9 2 16 M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

In 1 6 . 1 0 1 t h e f o r m - b o t h a - k a refers to s o m e t h i n g that c o u l d h a v e h a p p e n e d in t h e

r e c e n t past.

1 6 . 1 0 1 n h u a s e d e - k a - n u k u p h i a

I N E G . E X - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S y o u

a l - s e - b u h t a k a p i - n a l e

h e r e - L O C - C O N D . R E C . P 2 s g - d i s a p p e a r

'If I h a d n o t b e e n h e r e (a f e w d a y s a g o ) , y o u w o u l d h a v e perished.'

R e c e n t p a s t c o n d i t i o n a l c a n refer to p a s t c o n t i n u i n g in the present. In 1 6 . 1 0 2 , t h e o l d

c o u p l e s a y s t o a girl w i t h w h i t e h a i r w h o is s t a n d i n g in front o f t h e m .

1 6 . 1 0 2 p h i a w a - i t u - k a pi-tfima

y o u l p l - d a u g h t e r - S U B 2 s g - h a i r

h a l e - k a d e - b o t h a k a p h i a

w h i t e - N E G - C O N D . R E C . P y o u

'If y o u w e r e o u r d a u g h t e r , y o u hair w o u l d n o t b e w h i t e (but it is white).'

If a c o n d i t i o n a l refers to w h a t c o u l d h a v e h a p p e n e d (but d i d not) in t h e r e m o t e past,

- b o h t a - n a is u s e d , a s in 1 6 . 1 0 3 . T h e s p e a k e r ' s g r a n d f a t h e r is b o a s t i n g a b o u t w h a t h e

w o u l d h a v e d o n e in t h e p a s t if h e h a d b e e n in p l a c e o f s o m e o n e w h o h a d s e e n a j a g u a r

( h e h i m s e l f h a d n o t s e e n a n y j a g u a r at that stage).

1 6 . 1 0 3 n u h a - k a di-sipe-se n h u p a w h e u w h e u w h e u

I - S U B 3 s g n f - t a i l - L O C 1s g + g r a b I N T E R J E C T I O N

ta! p u a !

I N T E R J E C T I O N I N T E R J E C T I O N

n u - n i - b u h t a n a d i - n a

1 s g - d o - C O N D . R E M . P 3 s g n f - O B J

'If it h a d b e e n m e , I w o u l d h a v e t a k e n h i m (the j a g u a r ) b y his tail, ( t w i s t e d ) it

w h e u , w h e u , w h e u , ta! p u a ! I w o u l d h a v e d o n e this to h i m . '

T h e f o r m - b o h t a c a n b e u s e d to refer to s o m e t h i n g u n r e a l i s e d in t h e p a s t w h i c h h a s

t i m e l e s s c o n s e q u e n c e s . In 1 6 . 1 0 4 , if t h e t o a d left in c h a r g e o f the g r o w i n g p e a c h p a l m

h a d n o t fallen a s l e e p , p e a c h p a l m s w o u l d h a v e b e e n as s m o o t h as a n agai p a l m a n d

c o u l d h a v e b e e n e a s y to c l i m b at all t i m e s .

1 6 . 1 0 4 h i p a r u d i m a d i - y e n a d i h a n e m a - k a d e - k a

t o a d 3 s g + s l e e p 3 s g n f - p a s s h e N E G + s l e e p - N E G - S U B

d i - y e n a m a n a k a - p i k a y - b o t h a

3 s g n f - p a s s a g a i - C L i P A L M l i k e - C O N D . N O N . P A S T

k e s i - p i d i h a - p i pupiri-pi

s m o o t h - C L : P A L M A R T - C L : P A L M p e a c h . p a l m - C L : P A L M

' T h e t o a d slept t o o m u c h . If h e h a d n ' t slept t o o m u c h , the p e a c h p a l m w o u l d

h a v e b e e n s m o o t h like t h e a$ai p a l m . '

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 16.7 Purposive 3 9 3

T h e m o r p h e m e - b o h t a , - b u h t a , in its p o t e n t i a l m e a n i n g , c a n s o m e t i m e s o c c u r w i t h

o t h e r m o d a l i t y m a r k e r s , e.g. d o u b t , a s in 1 6 . 1 2 4 , a n d c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n -pada, as in

1 6 . 1 2 5 ; h o w e v e r , t h e s e e x a m p l e s are q u i t e rare.

T h e m o r p h e m e - b o t h a p r o b a b l y c o n s i s t s o f t w o m o r p h e m e s : - b o ( m o s t likely, a

b o r r o w i n g f r o m T u c a n o b o o ' c o n d i t i o n a l a n d potential' (cf. R a m i r e z 1 9 9 7 , V o l . I: 1 9 1 -

2; a n d § 2 6 . 1 . 3 ) a n d t h e v e r b a l i s e r -ta. T h i s v e r b a l i s e r o c c u r s in all the v e r b a l r o o t s likely

to b e T u c a n o b o r r o w i n g s in T a r i a n a . T h e m o r p h e m e -ka in - b o t h a k a is r e m i n i s c e n t o f

t w o o t h e r o c c u r r e n c e s o f -ka - as a m a r k e r o f t h e r e c e n t p a s t visual, a n d as a m a r k e r o f

r e c e n t p a s t in all r e c e n t p a s t e v i d e n t i a l in a f f i r m a t i v e c l a u s e s (see § 1 4 . 2 ) ; similarly, -na

(as in 1 6 . 1 0 3 ) is r e m i n i s c e n t o f t w o o t h e r -na: a s a m a r k e r o f t h e r e m o t e p a s t visual, a n d

1
a s a m a r k e r o f r e m o t e p a s t in all t h e r e m o t e p a s t e v i d e n t i a l s in a f f i r m a t i v e clauses.

1 6 . 7 P u r p o s i v e

T a r i a n a h a s t w o m a r k e r s for p u r p o s i v e : -karu 'visual o r i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s i v e ' a n d -hyu

' n o n - v i s u a l o r d i s t a n t p u r p o s i v e ' . P u r p o s i v e is n o r m a l l y u s e d to m a r k t h e p r e d i c a t e o f

c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s ; f o r m s m a r k e d w i t h p u r p o s i v e c a n also a p p e a r in t h e p r e d i c a t e slot.

T h e p u r p o s i v e f o r m s a g r e e in classifier w i t h their o b j e c t i f it h a s a n i n a n i m a t e referent.

1 6 . 1 0 5 a n d 1 6 . 1 0 6 c o n t r a s t -karu 'visual o r i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s i v e ' a n d -hyu 'non-

v i s u a l o r d i s t a n t p u r p o s i v e ' .

1 6 . 1 0 5 w a s a t a r a d a - p e n i w e h t a - k a r u w a

let's.go a l i v e - P L : A N I M l p l + t a k e - P U R P . V I S l p l + g o

'Let's g o a n d g e t t h e l i v i n g o n e s (fish) (right n o w ) . '

1 6 . 1 0 6 t a r a d a - p e n i d u h t a - h y u d u - a - p i d a n a

a l i v e - P L : A N I M 3 s g f + t a k e - P U R P . N O N V I S 3 s g f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' S h e w e n t t o get t h e living o n e s ( s h e m i g h t n o t see t h e m ) . '

T h e a c t i o n o f t h e p r e d i c a t e m a r k e d w i t h -karu m a y b e c o n c e i v e d either as

s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a s in 1 6 . 1 0 7 , o r a s o c c u r r i n g

i m m e d i a t e l y after, a s in 1 6 . 1 0 8 . T h i s p u r p o s i v e w a s d e s c r i b e d b y s p e a k e r s a s referring

to t h e a c t i o n w h i c h c a n b e o b s e r v e d at t h e m o m e n t o f s p e e c h ; this is w h y it is t e r m e d

'visual'.

1 6 . 1 0 7 k a n i - n h a h e m a r i - n a

w h e r e - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R a b i u . f r u i t - C L : V E R T

w a - n h a - k a r u - n a

l p l - e a t - P U R P . V I S - C L : V E R T

' W h e r e is t h e a b i u tree for u s to eat ( n o w ) ? '

1
Interestingly, T a r i a n a displays significant differences from T u c a n o (and from Barasano; w e have n o data

o n other T u c a n o languages) as to h o w evidentiality is m a r k e d . In T u c a n o , the conditional boo can occur

with non-visual a n d inferred evidentials only.

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 3 9 4 1 6 M o o d a n d m o d a l i t y

1 6 . 1 0 8 n a > p i d a n a te w y a k a - p i d a n a k e t e m i k a s i n a

3 p l + g o - R E M . P . R E P until f a r - R E M . P . R E P r e m a i n n o w

n h a n a - p a t u - k a r u p e : m e - d a l a - s e

t h e y 3 p l - a r r i v e - P U R P . V I S o n e + C L : S I D E - S I D E - L O C

' T h e y w e n t until it w a s far for t h e m t o get to t h e o t h e r s i d e ( o f t h e j u n g l e ) . '

T h e a c t i o n o f t h e p r e d i c a t e m a r k e d w i t h t h e o t h e r p u r p o s i v e , -hyu (also p r o n o u n c e d

a s -yhu), is distant f r o m t h e a c t i o n o f t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a s in 1 6 . 1 0 9 ; o r it

c a n refer to a s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n to b e carried o u t in a different p l a c e a s in 1 6 . 1 1 0 . T h i s

p u r p o s i v e w a s d e s c r i b e d b y t h e s p e a k e r s a s referring to t h e a c t i o n w h i c h c a n n o t b e

o b s e r v e d at t h e m o m e n t o f s p e e c h ; this is w h y it is t e r m e d 'non-visual.'

1 6 . 1 0 9 h a - p u a a d a r u - p u a

D E M : I N A N - C L : R I V E R p a r r o t - C L : R I V E R

y e - p u a - s e n u - a n u - k a - k a

u p s t r e a m - C L : R I V E R - L O C 1s g - g o 1s g - s e e - R E C . P . V I S

k u i t a - p e n i m a n a p i w a - m a - h y u

I N T + C L : A N I M - P L : A N I M little.fish l p l - p o i s o n - P U R P . N O N V I S

'I a m g o i n g to that P a r r o t river u p s t r e a m to s e e h o w m a n y little fish w e will

b e p o i s o n i n g ( o v e r there).'

1 6 . 1 1 0 h a n u p e - p i d a n a d i - n u - n h a n e h t a - y h u

m a n y - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - k i l l - P A U S 3 p l + b r i n g - P U R P . N O N V I S

n a - d i a n a - n u - k a s u - p i d a n a n h a - n h a

3 p l - r e t u r n 3 p l - c o m e - I N T - R E M . P . R E P t h e y - P A U S

' H e killed a lot ( o f fish). T h e y w e n t b a c k to t a k e (the fish) o v e r (to their

place).'

B o t h p u r p o s i v e s c a n t a k e c a s e m a r k e r s , a n d t h u s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s ,

cf. 1 6 . 1 1 1 w h e r e t h e n o n - v i s u a l p u r p o s i v e t a k e s t h e locative c a s e m a r k e r -se.

1 6 . 1 1 1 d e p i h a d i r i - n h e d i - n a n h a

n i g h t + A P P R 3 s g n f + s o n - F O C . A / S 3 s g n f - O B J t h e y

n a - m a - y h u - s e di-ra

3 p l - p o i s o n - P U R P . N O N V I S - L O C 3 s g n f - o r d e r

d i - k a - n h i n a

3 s g n f - s e e - A N T + R E M . P . V I S

'In t h e e a r l y e v e n i n g h i s s o n o r d e r e d h i m to h a v e a l o o k far a w a y in t h e p l a c e

w h e r e t h e y w e r e g o i n g to p o i s o n (fish).'

P u r p o s i v e s o f t e n o c c u r w i t h t h e n o m i n a l future - p e n a , to indicate that t h e a c t i o n will

t a k e p l a c e in future. In 1 6 . 1 1 2 , f r o m a letter w r i t t e n to m e b y O l i v i a B r i t o , -pena o c c u r s

w i t h t h e v i s u a l p u r p o s i v e - k a r u . T h e h o u s e is r e q u i r e d for the B r i t o f a m i l y to b e a b l e to

stay t h e r e in t h e n e a r future.

1 6 . 1 1 2 n u h a p a n i s i n u - n a - m h a n u - w a n a

I h o u s e l s g - w a n t - P R E S . N O N V I S l s g - b u y

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 16.7 Purposive 395

S a o G a b r i e l - s e w a h a w a k a - k a r u - d a p a n a - p e n a

S a o G a b r i e l - L O C w e l p l + a r r i v e - P U R P . V I S - C L : H A B - N O M . F U T

'I w a n t to b u y a h o u s e in S a o G a b r i e l for u s to arrive at.'

I n 1 6 . 1 1 3 - p e n a refers to s o m e t h i n g h a p p e n i n g a l o n g t i m e after t h e t i m e r e f e r e n c e o f

t h e story; it is a l s o s o m e t h i n g w h i c h p e o p l e are n o t s u p p o s e d to 'see', w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e

u s e o f -hyu.

1 6 . 1 1 3 w h a n a w i k i p e d a l i e p a : p a - y e n a

w e p e o p e o l d I M P + g o I M P - e x c e e d

w h a m e s a l a - k a - h v u - p e n a

w e N E G + h a i r - T H - P U R P . N O N V I S - N O M . F U T

n a - n i - k a - t h a - s i n a

3 p l - d o - D E C L - F R - R E M . P . I N F R

' W e , p e o p l e , get o l d a n d t h e y m a d e it s o that w e lose o u r hair (for u s to lose

o u r hair).'

A f o r m c o n t a i n i n g t h e p u r p o s i v e a n d t h e n o m i n a l future c a n a c q u i r e further c a s e

m a r k i n g , a s in 1 6 . 1 1 4 , from t h e O r i g i n story told b y C a n d i d o Brito. T h e p u r p o s i v e f o r m

is t o p i c a l b e c a u s e this stretch o f t h e story e x p l a i n s w h y I n d i a n s h a v e n o m o n e y a n d are

t h e w a y t h e y a r e n o w .

1 6 . 1 1 4 d i h a m a - y e k a d e - s i n a h i k u

h e N E G - k n o w + N E G - R E M . P . I N F R t h u s

w a : - k a r u - p e n a - n u k u w h a y e p o s a n a d i n h e i r o

p l + g o - P U R P . V I S - N O M . F U T - T O P . N O N . A / S w e I n d i a n s m o n e y

s e d e - k a r u - p e n a - n u k u , alia-sina

N E G - P U R P . V I S - N O M . F U T - T O P . N O N . A / S E X I S T - R E M . P . I N F R

' H e (the a n c e s t o r o f I n d i a n s ) d i d n o t k n o w ( h o w m u c h t h e m o n e y that t h e

W o m a n C r e a t o r s h o w e d h i m w a s w o r t h ) . T h i s is h o w it w a s g o i n g to b e for

u s , u s I n d i a n s , w e w e r e g o i n g to b e m o n e y l e s s . '

P u r p o s i v e f o r m s c a n b e u s e d a s n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s b y t h e m s e l v e s , e.g. p a r u - k a r u - t a r e

( l M P + s c o o p . w a t e r . o u t . o f . c a n o e - P U R P . v i s - C L : C U P ) 'a c u p u s e d to s c o o p w a t e r o u t o f a

c a n o e ' .

T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o p u r p o s i v e s is n e u t r a l i s e d u n d e r n e g a t i o n ; n e i t h e r o f

t h e p u r p o s i v e s c a n n o r m a l l y o c c u r w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e -hade. T o n e g a t e a p u r p o s i v e ,

m h a i d a 'prohibitive' is n o r m a l l y u s e d , a c c o m p a n i e d b y -pida ' s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e ' ,

a n d t h e v e r b 'say', f o l l o w e d b y t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka, a s in 1 6 . 1 1 5 .

1 6 . 1 1 5 h i - m h a w h a nawiki matfa

D E M : A N I M - P R E S . N O N V I S w e people correct

p a - n i - n i p e pa:tjl yaphini

I M P - d o - N O M other.of.differentk
. ki inndd thing

m h a l d a - p i d a d i - a p a : - k a

P R O H - I M P V . S E C 3 s g n f - g o I M P + s a y - S U B

' T h i s is w h a t t h e c o r r e c t a c t i o n s are for u s p e o p l e , for s o m e t h i n g a d v e r s e n o t

to h a p p e n . '

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 3 9 6 16 Mood and modality

B o t h p u r p o s i v e s are u s e d in a variety o f a d d i t i o n a l functions. T h e y m a r k t h e

c o m p l e m e n t o f s e c o n d a r y p r e d i c a t e s m a h y u n a a n d m a n h i n a ( § 1 2 . 1 . 4 , 1 2 . 6 6 - 7 a n d

1 9 . 3 2 ) , cf. 1 6 . 1 1 6 .

1 6 . 1 1 6 k w e p a - i n u - h y u m a : n h i n a - m a - k a

h o w I M P - k i l l - P U R P . N O N V I S h a r d - E X C - R E C . P . V I S

'It i s h a r d to kill (the thief).'

T h e y a r e a l s o u s e d in s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s w i t h t h e p o s t p o s i t i o n -peya 'before' (see

§ 2 4 . 2 ) , e.g. d e : p i - k a r u i-peya (night-PURP.vis iNDF-before) 'before it is night', a n d

1 6 . 1 1 7 .

1 6 . 1 1 7 h i k a y u - t u k i - n i h n a w a - t a w i n a - k a r u

t h u s + h o w - D I M - A N T + R E M . P . V I S 1p l - g r o w - P U R P . V I S

i - p e y a - t u k i - n h i n a

I N D F - b e f o r e - D I M - A N T + R E M . P . V I S

'This is h o w it w a s b e f o r e w e g r e w u p , j u s t a little bit.'

P u r p o s i v e s a l s o m a r k t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f t h e v e r b 'ask', a s in 1 6 . 1 1 8 , a n d 'remain', a s

i n 1 6 . 1 1 9 .

1 6 . 1 1 8 d i - n a n u - s a t a n h u m a - d e kalisi d i - k a l i t e - k a r u

3 s g n f - O B J l s g - g r e e t l s g + h e a r - F U T . C E R T story 3 s g n f - t e l l - P U R P . V I S

'I w i l l a s k h i m t o tell a story.'

1 6 . 1 1 9 t u k i k e t e m i h e k w a d h i p a - k a r u

little r e m a i n m i d d a y 3 s g n f + g e t - P U R P . V I S

'It i s a l m o s t m i d d a y (lit. a little r e m a i n s till it g e t s m i d d a y ) . '

T h e v i s u a l p u r p o s i v e -karu ( n o t -hyu) is e m p l o y e d in c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h d o u b l e

e v i d e n t i a l specification, a s in 1 4 . 2 0 - 3 . T h e s e w e r e c a l q u e d f r o m T u c a n o (cf. R a m i r e z

1 9 9 7 , vol. 1: 1 4 3 , a n d A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) .

1 6 . 8 C o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n

T h e m a r k e r o f c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n , t h e clitic -pada, is u s e d to m a r k u n e x p e c t e d a c t i o n

w h i c h g o e s a g a i n s t t h e s p e a k e r ' s o r the hearer's e x p e c t a t i o n s . In 1 6 . 1 2 0 , a w o m a n is

r e b u k i n g h e r h u s b a n d for hitting h e r s i n c e h e h a d - u n e x p e c t e d l y for a m a n w h o hits his

w i f e - s u f f e r e d f r o m o t h e r m e n b e a t i n g h i m ; -pada is u s e d to m a r k t h e u n e x p e c t e d n e s s

o f a m a n 'like that' b e i n g b e a t e n b y his e q u a l s .

1 6 . 1 2 0 n u - n a - k a p i - n a p i - n a - k a p h i a

l s g - O B J - S U B 2 s g - h i t 2 s g - h i t - S U B y o u

k a n i - n h a p i - k w i d a - p a d a p h i a

s o m e o n e - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R 2 s g - s u f f e r - C O U N T E R E X y o u

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 1 6 . 8 C o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n 3 9 7

p a t h i d i t e - n u k u

e q u a l + N C L : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

' W h i l e y o u w e r e hitting m e , w a s n ' t it t h e c a s e that y o u suffered ( b e a t i n g )

f r o m y o u r e q u a l s ? '

C o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n is o f t e n u s e d in q u e s t i o n s , e.g. 1 6 . 1 2 1 .

1 6 . 1 2 1 a i - n i h k a p a i t a d h e

h e r e - A N T + R E C . P . V I S o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M 3 s g n f + e n t e r

d i - n u - n h i k w a n a y a p h i n i - d a k a - p a d a

3 s g n f - c o m e - A N T w h o t h i n g - Y E T - C O U N T E R E X

' S o m e o n e c a m e in h e r e , w h o o n e a r t h c o u l d it yet h a v e b e e n ? (I d i d not

1
e x p e c t a n y o n e . )

T h e c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n m a r k e r often o c c u r s w i t h frustrative -tha, as in 1 6 . 1 2 2 . T h e

frustrative m a r k e r - t h a g o e s o n t o t h e first p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d o f the c l a u s e , a n d -pada

g o e s o n t o t h e p r e d i c a t e . T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a m a n a n d a n evil spirit;

t h e spirit a s k s t h e m a n t o get t h e m a n i o c b r e a d f r o m t h e b u s h . T h e m a n c a n n o t s e e t h e

b r e a d t h e r e - w h a t is b r e a d for t h e spirit is g r a s s for h i m , so t h e spirit says:

1 6 . 1 2 2 h t - t h a d i - e m a - p a d a k a o k u t h e

D E M : A N I M - F R 3 s g n f - s t a n d - C O U N T E R E X m a n i o c , b r e a d

' T h e m a n i o c b r e a d d o e s s t a n d right h e r e ( c o n t r a r y to w h a t y o u think).'

W h e n t h e spirit - w h o h a d b e e n d i s g u i s e d as a n eagle, c a p t u r e d b y p e o p l e a n d

d e f e a t h e r e d - finally f o u n d his feathers a n d his d o w n sitting in a h o u s e , h e said hT-tha-

p a d a ( D E M : A N I M - F R - C O U N T E R E X ) ' H e r e it is (in v a i n ; I didn't e x p e c t it)' (see 1 6 . 5 9

a b o v e ) . In 1 6 . 1 2 3 t h e c o m b i n a t i o n 'frustrative-counter-expectation' o c c u r s t o g e t h e r w i t h

t h e i n f e r r e d e v i d e n t i a l . T h i s is w h a t W a n a l i , o n e o f t h e C r e a t o r s , w h o h a s n o t o b a c c o ,

s a y s to h i s w i f e :

1 6 . 1 2 3 d i w e s e w y a - n u k u p h i a ha-nifi-tha-sika

n o w - T O P . N O N . A / S y o u p a r e n t - M A S C - F R - R E C . P . I N F R

d i - d e - p a d a

3 s g n f - h a v e - C O U N T E R E X

'Isn't it t h e c a s e that y o u r father h a s it ( t o b a c c o ) c o n t r a r y to w h a t w e e x p e c t

a n d to m y frustration ( s i n c e h e h a s n o u s e for it).'

T h e m a r k e r -pada c a n o c c u r w i t h t h e future tense. In 1 6 . 1 2 4 , t h e w i f e o f a p o w e r f u l

s h a m a n d o u b t s h i s abilities to kill p e o p l e ; h e replies saying: 'you will see ( w h a t I c a n

d o ) , c o n t r a r y to w h a t y o u think'.

1 6 . 1 2 4 p h i a p i - y e k a - k a - n u k u k a - b o t h a - d a

y o u 2 s g - k n o w - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S t h u s - C O N D - U N C E R T

d i - a d u - a d h u e p a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o 3 s g f - s a y 3 s g f + a n s w e r - R E M . P . R E P

d i - s a - d o h a w p i - k a - m h a d e - p a d a

3 s g f - s p o u s e - F E M O K 2 s g - s e e - F U T - C O U N T R E R E X P

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 3 9 8 16 Mood and modality

d i - a - p i d a n a d h e p a

3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + a n s w e r

" T o y o u r k n o w l e d g e this is h o w is m i g h t h a p p e n (but 1 don't b e l i e v e y o u , "

s h e a n s w e r e d . " O K , y o u will s e e ( c o n t r a r y to w h a t y o u t h i n k ) , " h e a n s w e r e d . '

T h e c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n m a r k e r -pada c a n o c c u r w i t h potential - b o h t a , a s in 1 6 . 1 2 5 .

1 6 . 1 2 5 p h i a p i - n a - k a - n u k u n h u a

y o u 2 s g - w a n t - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S I

n h u t a - b o h t a n u - a - p a d a

1 s g + t a k e - C O N D . N O N . P A S T 1 s g - g o - C O U N T E R E X

'If y o u w a n t , I c o u l d t a k e ( y o u ) ( c o n t r a r y to w h a t y o u expect).'

T h e c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n m a r k e r c a n o c c u r t o g e t h e r w i t h - t h a r a 'precative', as in

1 6 . 3 6 , a n d w i t h t h e u n c e r t a i n t y m a r k e r - d a , as in 1 6 . 1 2 6 .

1 6 . 1 2 6 k w e - d a n u - a - k a - p a d a n h u a

w h a t - U N C E R T l s g - s a y - D E C L - C O U N T E R E X I

' " W h a t is it t h a t I p r o b a b l y said (to y o u ) , " (said the evil spirit to a m a n w h o

d i d n o t f o l l o w h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d suffered b e c a u s e o f that).'

I n 1 6 . 1 2 7 -pada o c c u r s t o g e t h e r w i t h a repetition c o n s t r u c t i o n u s e d to e x p r e s s d o u b t

a n d p r o b a b i l i t y ( s e e § 1 9 . 1 ) . T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m a story a b o u t a m a n o n his w a y to

l o o k for w o m e n , a n d still in d o u b t a s to w h e t h e r t h e r e are a n y for h i m .

1 6 . 1 2 7 h a w , n u - m a n u - w a n h u a alia

O K l s g - s e e k l s g - t r y I E X I S T

a l i a - d a - p a d a i n a r u

E X I S T - U N C E R T - C O U N T E R E X w o m a n

' O K , I will g o a n d l o o k (for a w o m a n ) , m a y b e t h e r e c o u l d b e a w o m a n

( c o n t r a r y to w h a t I expect).'

1 6 . 9 D e c l a r a t i v e - a s s e r t i v e

D e c l a r a t i v e - a s s e r t i v e - k a is e m p l o y e d w h e n t h e a c t i o n o c c u r s right in front o f t h e

s p e a k e r , a s in 1 6 . 1 2 8 , s a i d b y a w o m a n w h o c o u l d n o t s e e h e r h u s b a n d , b u t t h o u g h t s h e

h e a r d h i m sing.

1 6 . 1 2 8 tfa! n u - s a - n i r i d i - d i a - k a

tfa! 1s g - s p o u s e - M A S C 3 s g n f - r e t u r n - D E C L

d i - n u - m h a

3 s g n f - c o m e - P R E S . N O N V I S

'tfa! H e r e is m y h u s b a n d c o m i n g . '

T h e f o l l o w i n g p a i r o f e x a m p l e s illustrates t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n a s e n t e n c e w i t h a n d

w i t h o u t -ka. 1 6 . 1 2 9 is a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e w e a t h e r ; it c a n also b e u n d e r s t o o d

a s a ' g e n e r a l truth' s t a t e m e n t ( e . g . 'it a l w a y s r a i n s d u r i n g t h e rainy season').

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 1 6 . 9 D e c l a r a t i v e - a s s e r t i v e 3 9 9

1 6 . 1 2 9 iya d i - w h a - n a k a

r a i n 3 s g n f - f a l l - P R E S . V I S

'It i s r a i n i n g ( n o w , o r in g e n e r a l d u r i n g a r a i n y season).'

In c o n t r a s t , 1 6 . 1 3 0 d e s c r i b e s t h e state o f affairs right n o w , in front o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s

e y e s .

1 6 . 1 3 0 iya d i - w h a - k a - n a k a

r a i n 3 s g n f - f a l l - D E C L - P R E S . V I S

'It i s r a i n i n g (right n o w ) . '

T h e d e c l a r a t i v e - a s s e r t i v e o f t e n a p p e a r s at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a narrative, to state w h a t

t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e d o i n g at that particular m o m e n t , as in 1 6 . 1 3 1 - 2 .

1 6 . 1 3 1 s a l u k e h u r i n i - n h a - k a - p i d a n a a w a k a d a - s e

a r m a d i l l o a n t 3 s g n f - e a t - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P j u n g l e - L O C

' T h e a r m a d i l l o w a s e a t i n g a n t s right in t h e jungle.'

1 6 . 1 3 2 d u k u r i p h e - n a - s e d i - h e - h a l a

t y p e . o f . p l a n t - C L : V E R T - L O C 3 s g n f - e n t e r - O P E N . S P A C E

d i - u k a d i - e m a d i - e m a - k a - p i d a n a d i h a

3 sgnf-arri v e 3 s g n f - s t a n d 3 s g n f - s t a n d - D E C L - R E M . P. R E P h e

' H e e n t e r e d into [a h o l e in a n ] i m b a u b a - t r e e a n d s t a y e d right there.'

T h e u s e o f d e c l a r a t i v e - a s s e r t i v e m a y i m p l y contrast, as in 1 6 . 1 3 3 . T h e w i f e o f t h e

C r e a t o r w h o d o e s n o t p o s s e s s fire is r e b u k i n g h i m . S h e u s e s t h e d e c l a r a t i v e - a s s e r t i v e to

stress t h e fact that h e r h u s b a n d is t h e C r e a t o r , a n d yet h e suffers w i t h o u t fire.

1 6 . 1 3 3 p h i a y a p i r i k u r i - k a - n a k a k a y p i - r e n a - n a k a

y o u C r e a t o r - D E C L - P R E S . V I S s o 2 s g - f e e l - P R E S . V I S

' Y o u are t h e C r e a t o r , y o u feel ( b a d ) like this (all t h e time).'

T h e d e c l a r a t i v e - a s s e r t i v e c a n c o m b i n e w i t h a n y m o d a l i t y specification, e x c e p t for

a p p r e h e n s i v e - e.g. 1 6 . 5 5 , 1 6 . 5 8 o r 1 6 . 8 5 . A d e c l a r a t i v e - a s s e r t i v e m a r k e d w i t h -ka is

f o u n d in n u m e r o u s A m a z o n i a n l a n g u a g e s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e f r o m t h e A r a w a k f a m i l y ;

h o w e v e r , t h e m e a n i n g a n d u s a g e s o f t h e d e c l a r a t i v e -ka in T a r i a n a are strikingly s i m i l a r

t o t h o s e o f t h e a s s e r t i v e -ka' in T u c a n o a n d o t h e r E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s (cf. R a m i r e z

1 9 9 7 , v o l . 1: 155). T h i s c o u l d b e a l o n g - s t a n d i n g diffusional feature in t h e area.

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 17

N e g a t i o n

1 7 . 1 G e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f T a r i a n a n e g a t i o n

T a r i a n a h a s a n u m b e r o f strategies for n e g a t i n g t h e p r e d i c a t e a n d clausal c o n s t i t u e n t s .

T h e s e a r e a s f o l l o w s :

1. G e n e r a l c l a u s e a n d p r e d i c a t e n e g a t o r u s e d for n e g a t i n g a f f i r m a t i v e a n d

i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r e d i c a t e s . N o n - f u t u r e n e g a t i o n is m a - . . . - k a d e for p r e f i x e d v e r b s

a n d -kade for p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s a n d o t h e r p r e d i c a t e s . T h i s n e g a t i o n is u s e d for t h e

p r e s e n t t e n s e a n d for t h e t w o p a s t t e n s e s . F u t u r e n e g a t i o n is m a - . . . - k a s u . C l a u s a l

n e g a t i o n a n d its s c o p e are d i s c u s s e d in § 1 7 . 2 .

2. N e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e mhdida d i s c u s s e d in § 17.3.

3. N e g a t i v e p r e f i x m a - u s e d for d e r i v a t i o n a l a n d n o m i n a l n e g a t i o n - s e e § 17.4.

4. I n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e v e r b s t e m s - e.g. t h e n e g a t i v e e x i s t e n t i a l / p o s s e s s i v e sede (the

n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t o f alia; s e e a l s o C h a p t e r 12), kuripua 'there is n o t h i n g ' ,

h a i d a 'I d o n ' t k n o w ' , hyukade 'no; n o t appear', m a k w a ' w i t h o u t talking, quietly',

m a k u y a 'shut up', m a s a k a d e 'not b e e n o u g h ' , p u k a s u 'not at all' - s e e § 17.5.

5. N e g a t i v e ne u s e d in v a r i o u s c o n t e x t s - s e e § 17.6.

N e g a t i o n c a n b e m a r k e d t w i c e in a c l a u s e to m a k e it stronger. In rare c a s e s d o u b l e

n e g a t i o n results in a p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t - s e e § 1 7 . 7 .

1 7 . 2 C l a u s a l n e g a t i o n i n n o n - p r o h i b i t i v e c l a u s e s

N e g a t i o n i n T a r i a n a is m a r k e d o n c e in a c l a u s e ( w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f c a s e s d i s c u s s e d in

§ 1 7 . 7 ) o n its p r e d i c a t e . In n o n - f u t u r e a c t i v e c l a u s e s , if n e g a t i o n is m a r k e d o n a p r e f i x e d

v e r b , t h e n t h e n e g a t i v e p r e f i x m a - r e p l a c e s o t h e r prefixes, a n d a suffix -kade is a d d e d .

T h i s results in n e u t r a l i s a t i o n o f p e r s o n , g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r distinctions, e.g:

n u - n u 'I c o m e ' ^1 7 7
, , I m a - n u - k a d e IT , ^ , ,
p i - n u y o u c o m e > ^ I, y o u , he, etc. d o n o t c o m e
J
j . ff , N E G - m e e t - N E G
d i - n u h e c o m e s J

A p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n c a n b e a d d e d , for d i s a m b i g u a t i o n , a s in 1 7 . 1 , t h e n e g a t i v e

c o u n t e r p a r t o f 17.2.

17.1 y a n a k i m a - i r a - k a d e - m h a ( n u h a )

w h i s k y N E G - d r i n k - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S (I)

'I d i d n ' t d r i n k w h i s k y . '

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 1 7 . 2 C l a u s a l n e g a t i o n in n o n - p r o h i b i t i v e c l a u s e s 4 0 1

17.2 y a n a k i n u - i r a - k a ( n u h a )

w h i s k y l s g - d r i n k - R E C . P . V I S (I)

'I h a v e d r u n k w h i s k y . '

T h e n e g a t i v e suffix -kade o c c u p i e s p o s i t i o n 5 in t h e v e r b (see S c h e m e 1 2 . 1 ; it c a n b e

p r o n o u n c e d a s -de in r a p i d s p e e c h - s e e §2.5.3). S o m e i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s (e.g. I s m a e l

B r i t o ) t e n d t o p r o n o u n c e -kade a s -kede ( a p p l y i n g v o w e l a s s i m i l a t i o n ) . Prefixless v e r b s

d o n o t t a k e a n y c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r s , o r a n y o t h e r prefixes, a s s h o w n in 17.3 a n d

its n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t , 17.4.

17.3 n u h a k e r u - m h a

I a n g r y - P R E S . N O N V I S

'I a m angry.'

1 7 . 4 n u h a k e r u - k a d e - m h a

I a n g r y - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

'I a m n o t angry.'

In t h e S a n t a T e r e z i n h a v a r i e t y o f T a r i a n a , the suffix -kade is the o n l y m e a n s o f

m a r k i n g n e g a t i o n o n v e r b s o f all t y p e s , e.g. S a n t a T e r e z i n h a l i - n u - k a d e ( 3 s g n f - c o m e -

NEG), S a n t a R o s a m a - n u - k a d e ( N E G - c o m e - N E G ) 'he d o e s n o t c o m e ' . T h i s is also t h e c a s e

in t h e v e r y a r c h a i c v a r i e t y o f T a r i a n a s p o k e n b y M a r i a S a n c h e z , t h e P i r a t a p u y a w i f e o f

C a n d i d o B r i t o ( h e r m o t h e r w a s a S a n t a R o s a T a r i a n a ) , e.g. d i - m u s u - k a d e ( 3 s g n f - g o . o u t -

N E G ) 'he d o e s n o t g o out', i n s t e a d o f m a - m u s u - k a d e (NEG-go.out-NEG). In t h e P e r i q u i t o s

dialect -kade s o m e t i m e s b e h a v e s a s a floating clitic: for i n s t a n c e , in c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s

o f a 'quasi-serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ' t y p e (see § 1 9 . 9 ) t h e n e g a t i o n g o e s o n t o t h e

s u b o r d i n a t o r , e.g. n e - k w e - k e d e di-ni di-yeka ( N E G - h o w - N E G 3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - c a n / b e . a b l e )

'he d i d n o t k n o w w h a t t o do'. E x a m p l e 17.9 s h o w s t h e n e g a t i o n o f a s i m i l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n

in t h e S a n t a R o s a d i a l e c t (there t h e n e g a t i v e suffix -kade o r -kede g o e s o n t h e v e r b 'do',

a n d n o t o n k w e ' h o w ' ) .

A serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n s j u s t o n e n e g a t i o n m a r k e r . T h i s m a r k e r a p p e a r s o n

t h e first c o m p o n e n t o f s y m m e t r i c a l a n d a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d o n

t h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t o f a n a m b i e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n (see § 1 8 . 3 ) . S i n c e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g

p r e f i x e s c a n n o t o c c u r w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e prefix m a - , a n d t h e prefix m a - a p p e a r s o n the

first v e r b in a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n , this v e r b 'loses' its c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefixes. T h u s ,

t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a n e g a t e d serial v e r b d o n o t get identical c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g , u n l i k e

p o s i t i v e serial v e r b s ( s e e C h a p t e r 18). T h i s is illustrated w i t h 17.5 a n d 17.6.

17.5 hi t a l i a - s e r i - n u k u

D E M : A N I M T a r i a n a - S I N G L - T O P . N O N . A / S

[ m a - i n u - k a d e - p i d a n a n a - y a - n h i ]

N E G - k i l l - N E G - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - s t a y - A N T

' T h e y ( e n e m i e s ) w e r e n o t killing T a r i a n a s . '

1 7 . 6 w a - y a r u p e - n u k u [ m a - s a p e - k a d e d u - p a l a - p i d a n a ]

l p l - t h i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S N E G - s p e a k - N E G 3 s g f - p u t - R E M . P . R E P

' S h e d i d n o t t r a n s m i t (lit. s p e a k p u t ) o u r l a n g u a g e (to h e r children).'

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 4 0 2 17 Negation

S i n c e t h e c o m p o n e n t s c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d separately, t h e r e m a y b e s o m e a m b i g u i t y .

E x a m p l e 1 7 . 7 c o n t a i n s a n e g a t e d c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ('order-kill'). It c a n

m e a n e i t h e r 'he d i d n o t o r d e r ( t h e m ) to kill m a n y (fish)', o r 'he o r d e r e d ( t h e m ) n o t to kill

m a n y fish (i.e. t o kill o n l y a few)'. In t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e story, t h e s e c o n d r e a d i n g t u r n s

o u t t o b e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e : t h e r e w a s a n explicit o r d e r to kill s o m e fish, b u t n o t to kill

t o o m a n y . O u t s i d e this c o n t e x t either r e a d i n g w o u l d b e a c c e p t a b l e .

1 7 . 7 h a n u p e - s e [ m a r a - k a d e - k a d i n u ]

m a n y - C O N T R A S T N E G + o r d e r - N E G - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f + k i l l

' H e d i d n o t o r d e r ( t h e m ) to kill m a n y (fish)' o r ' H e o r d e r e d n o t to kill m a n y (just a

few).'

1 7 . 8 illustrates a n e g a t e d n o m i n a l i s e d serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s y m m e t r i c a l t y p e ;

b o t h t h e n e g a t i o n a n d t h e n o m i n a l i s e r -ite ( N C L : A N I M A T E ) a p p e a r o n the first c o m p o n e n t

o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; t h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n is w i t h i n their s c o p e .

1 7 . 8 n e a w a k a d a [ m a k a - k a d i t e d i - y e k a ]

t h e n j u n g l e N E G + a r r i v e - N E G + N C L : A N I M 3 s g n f - k n o w

d i - e m h a n i d i - p a - t u p e

3 s g n f - w a l k 3 s g n f - r o t - I M P V . D E T R

'Let t h e o n e - w h o d i d n o t m a n a g e t o l e a r n h o w to w a l k in t h e j u n g l e - rot!'

Q u a s i - s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s u s e d w i t h s e c o n d a r y v e r b s s u c h as -yeka 'can, b e a b l e

to, k n o w ' a r e a l s o n e g a t e d o n l y o n c e . T h e n e g a t o r g o e s o n t o t h e first v e r b , as illustrated

i n 17.9.

1 7 . 9 n e [ k w e m a - n i - k a d e n u - y e k a ] m a r i e - n e

t h e n w h a t N E G - d o - N E G l s g - k n o w k n i f e - I N S

k a y n u - n i n u - m a t a r a - m h a n a h e m a - p a s i - n u k u

t h u s l s g - d o l s g - l e a v e - R E M . P . N O N V I S t a p i r - A U G - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n I d i d n o t k n o w w h a t to d o w i t h m y knife, s o I left t h e b i g tapir.'

T h e o n l y k i n d s o f a s y m m e t r i c a l serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s w h e r e t h e n e g a t i o n g o e s o n t o t h e

last c o m p o n e n t a r e t h e o n e s c o n t a i n i n g t h e v e r b -ni 'do' in final p o s i t i o n (see C h a p t e r

18); t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n 'VERB-do' m e a n s 'be d o i n g for a l o n g time'. N e g a t i o n o f t h e s e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s is illustrated in 1 7 . 1 0 a n d 1 7 . 1 1 .

1 7 . 1 0 i n a [ n u - k e t a - k a m a - n i - k a d e - k a ] n h u a

w o m a m P L l s g - m e e t - S U B N E G - d o - N E G - R E C . P . V I S I

' S i n c e I w a s n o t l o o k i n g for w o m e n . '

I n 1 7 . 1 1 t h e v e r b -ni is u s e d t w i c e in t h e s a m e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n : first a s the

m a i n v e r b , a n d t h e n a s a p r o l o n g e d a c t i o n m a r k e r .

1 7 . 1 1 n h a m e d a - p u [ n a - n i - k a m a - n i - k a d e - m h a ]

t h e y i n . v a i n - A U G 3 p l - d o - S U B N E G - d o - N E G - P R E S . V I S

' S i n c e t h e y w e r e n o t d o i n g (this) in v a i n for a l o n g time...'

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 17.2 Clausal negation in non-prohibitive clauses 4 0 3

W h e n t h e v e r b -ni is u s e d a s a k i n d o f s u m m a r y , in 'recapitulating' serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , it c o m e s at t h e e n d o f a series o f v e r b s s e p a r a t e d b y a p a u s e a n d b y o t h e r

c o n s t i t u e n t s , a s a k i n d o f ' n e g a t i v e s u m m a r y ' , a s in 1 8 . 4 3 . A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is 1 7 . 1 2 ,

f r o m a n o s t a l g i c s t o r y a b o u t t h e g o o d o l d d a y s b e f o r e t h e w h i t e p e o p l e t o o k c h a r g e in

t h e V a u p e s area. T h e s c o p e o f ni is s h o w n w i t h s q u a r e b r a c k e t s . T h e s e q u e n c e o f

u n d e r l i n e d v e r b s , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t qualify a s a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e

f o r m s a r e s e p a r a t e d b y p a u s e s - i n d i c a t e d w i t h c o m m a s - a n d b e c a u s e a n o t h e r

c o n s t i t u e n t , n a - n a 'them', i n t e r v e n e s b e t w e e n t h e m .

1 7 . 1 2 [ d i - r a , d i - k a m a , n a - n a d i - k w i s a

3 s g n f - d r i n k 3 s g n f - b e . d r u n k 3 p l - O B J 3 s g n f - s c o l d

d i - w e ] m a - n i - k a d e - n a

3 s g n f - b e c o m e + C A U S N E G - d o - N E G - R E M . P . V I S

' H e d i d n o t d r i n k , g e t d r u n k , start s c o l d i n g t h e m (lit. h e d r a n k , g o t d r u n k , started

s c o l d i n g p e o p l e - this w a s N O T t h e case).'

I n 1 7 . 1 3 , f r o m t h e s a m e story, A m e r i c o u s e d ' r e s u m i n g ' n e g a t i o n - t h e v e r b -ni 'do' -

t o n e g a t e t h e fact t h a t p e o p l e s c o l d e d e a c h o t h e r a n d d i d n o t g i v e f o o d to e a c h other.

H e r e d o u b l e n e g a t i o n - 'it w a s n o t t h e c a s e that t h e y d i d n o t g i v e f o o d to e a c h other' -

results i n a 'positive' v a l u e ( s e e § 1 7 . 7 ) . T h e s c o p e o f t h e n e g a t e d s e q u e n c e o f p r e d i c a t e s

- w h i c h d o n o t q u a l i f y a s serial v e r b s s i n c e t h e y are s e p a r a t e d b y p a u s e s ( i n d i c a t e d b y

c o m m a s ) a n d s i n c e t h e y h a v e a r g u m e n t s o f their o w n - is s h o w n w i t h s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

T h i s e x a m p l e a l s o c o n t a i n s a n e m p h a t i c n e g a t o r ne (see § 1 7 . 7 ) , to m a k e t h e n e g a t i v e

v a l u e e v e n s t r o n g e r . T h i s a s s e r t i o n is g i v e n a d d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h b y t h e u s e o f t h e v i s u a l

e v i d e n t i a l , f o l l o w e d b y a n e x p l a n a t i o n 'I s a w it m y s e l f . ( T h i s 'lexical r e i n f o r c e m e n t ' o f

e v i d e n t i a l i t y w a s d i s c u s s e d u n d e r § 1 4 . 2 . 6 ; s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s are u n d e r 14.57-9.)

1 7 . 1 3 n e [ n a - s i w a - k a k a n a - k w i s a - k a k a

N E G 3 p l - b e . t o g e t h e r - R E C 3 p l - s c o l d - R E C

n a - s i w a - k a k a n h a k a s i m a : - k a d e ]

3 p l - b e . t o g e t h e r - R E C f o o d N E G + g i v e - N E G

m a - n i - k a d e - n h i n a m a - n i - k a d e - n a

N E G - d o - N E G - A N T + R E M . P . V I S N E G - d o - N E G - R E M . P . V I S

n h u a n u - k a - n a

I l s g - s e e - R E M . P . V I S

'It w a s really N O T t h e c a s e that p e o p l e s c o l d e d e a c h other, that p e o p l e d i d n o t g i v e

f o o d t o e a c h other, (this w a s ) N O T t h e c a s e , I s a w it.'

I n a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s - w h i c h c o n s i s t o f t h e m a i n v e r b a n d a stative

v e r b a c t i n g a s a m o d i f i e r t o t h e m a i n v e r b - n e g a t i o n u s u a l l y g o e s o n t o t h e s e c o n d

c o m p o n e n t , a s in 1 7 . 1 4 , n e g a t i n g t h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n :

1 7 . 1 4 m a : t f i m a - r e n a - k a d e - p i d a n a d i h a - m i s i n i

b a d N E G - f e e l - N E G - R E M . P . R E P h e - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R

' H e a l s o d i d n o t feel ( p h y s i c a l l y ) bad.'

T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial v e r b c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d separately. 1 7 . 1 5 , f r o m a story

t o l d b y L e o n a r d o B r i t o , is a rare e x a m p l e to t h e contrary. T h e n e g a t i v e existential v e r b

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 4 0 4 / 7 N e g a t i o n

sede n e g a t e s t h e v e r b - s a t a 'ask', a n d this n e g a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is a part o f a

l a r g e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , ' w a l k i n g w i t h o u t asking'.

1 7 . 1 5 n h u a h a - n i r i k e r u - m a - k a n i y a - k a

I p a r e n t - M A S C b e . a n g r y - E X C - S U B 3 s g n f + s t a y - R E C . P . V I S

a l - n u k u [[pa-sata-ri s e d e ]

h e r e - T O P . N O N . A / S I M P - a s k - R E L N E G . E X

p e m h a n i - k a - n a k u ]

I M P + w a l k - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S

' M y father gets a n g r y , w h e n t h e r e are ( p e o p l e ) w a l k i n g a r o u n d w i t h o u t a s k i n g for

p e r m i s s i o n (lit. w h e n o n e w a l k s t h e r e is n o asking).'

T h e first c o m p o n e n t o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s s e p a r a t e n e g a t i o n , a s in 1 7 . 1 6

w h e r e t h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) m e a n s ' w e w a l k e d a r o u n d [but]

n o t w e l l ( s o w e d i d n o t get t h e results w e w a n t e d ) ' .

1 7 . 1 6 [ m a t f a - k a d e w e m h a n i ] w h a , m a - k e t a - d e - y h a

g o o d - N E G l p l + w a l k w e N E G - e n c o u n t e r - N E G - A P P R O X

w a : - m h a w h a h e k u - d a - n u k u

l p l + g o - P R E S . N O N V I S w e t r e e - C L : R O U N D - T O P . N O N . A / S

' W e w a l k a r o u n d w i t h little s u c c e s s , w e d o n o t e n c o u n t e r fruit.'

If a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n s a n i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e v e r b , t h e w h o l e

c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s a n e g a t i v e m e a n i n g , a n d t h e n o n - n e g a t i v e c o m p o n e n t c a n n o t b e

n e g a t e d . 1 7 . 1 7 c o n t a i n s t h e n e g a t i v e c o p u l a v e r b sede; a n d 1 7 . 1 8 c o n t a i n s t h e n e g a t i v e

p r e d i c a t e kuripua 'be n o t h i n g , d o nothing'.

1 7 . 1 7 n e k a w a l i k u p e d a s e d e - p i d a n a d i - n a

t h e n b e . s o r r y N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J

' T h e n h e w a s n o t e v e n sorry.'

1 7 . 1 8 k u r i p u a - n a d h u m a - n i k i

b e / d o . n o t h i n g - R E M . P . V I S 3 s g n f + l i s t e n - C O M P L

' S h e n e v e r listens at all.'

A n e g a t i v e n o n - f u t u r e v e r b c a n b e n o m i n a l i s e d w i t h n o u n class m a r k e r s , as in 17.19.

1 7 . 1 9 hi n u - s a - d o - n e k a y u - y a k a r e

D E M : A N I M l s g - s p o u s e - F E M - F O C . A / S like.this-CL: V I L L A G E

m i a n h i - k a d i t e - k a d h u a

n o t . u s e d . t o - N E G + N C L : A N I M - R E C . P . V I S s h e

' T h i s s p o u s e o f m i n e is n e w ( n o t u s e d ) to this k i n d o f village.'

If a n o u n o c c u r s in t h e p r e d i c a t e slot, it also t a k e s t h e n e g a t i v e suffix - k a d e , as in

1 7 . 2 0 . In 1 7 . 2 1 , t h e n o u n p h r a s e 'like in t h e o l d d a y s ' is t h e p r e d i c a t e ; a n d the suffix

-kade g o e s o n t o t h e last w o r d o f it.

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 1 7 . 2 C l a u s a l n e g a t i o n in n o n - p r o h i b i t i v e c l a u s e s 4 0 5

1 7 . 2 0 h a - d a p a - f i h a - n i - d a - k a d e - n a k a

D E M : I N A N - C L : R O U N D I M P - e a t - T O P . A D V - C L : R O U N D - N E G - P R E S . V I S

' T h i s ( r o u n d o n e ) is n o t t h e o n e to b e eaten.'

1 7 . 2 1 k a s i n a - n u k u [ p a y a p e - s e k a y u ] - k a d e - n a k a ] ]

n o w a d a y s - T O P . N O N . A / S o l d . d a y s - L O C l i k e - N E G - P R E S . V I S

' N o w a d a y s it is n o t like t h e o l d days.'

If a p r e f i x e d p a s s i v e v e r b is n e g a t e d , t h e n e g a t i v e suffix -kade f o l l o w s the p a s s i v e

m a r k e r - k a n a a n d t h e p r e f i x k a - o n t h e v e r b is u s u a l l y r e p l a c e d w i t h m a - , e.g. m a - k a m a -

k a n a - d e - n a ( N E G . g e t . d r u n k - P A S S - N E G - R E M . P . v i s ) 'one d o e s n o t get d r u n k ' (cf. ka-kama

'drunk') a n d a l s o 1 3 . 1 0 in C h a p t e r 1 3 . If a prefixless p a s s i v e is n e g a t e d , t h e suffix -kade

f o l l o w s t h e p a s s i v e - k a n a , a s in 13.9. In y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h , j u s t the suffix -kade

m a y b e u s e d t o n e g a t e a p a s s i v e , a s in 1 7 . 2 2 .

1 7 . 2 2 t f o ! w h a k a - n h a - k a n a - k a d e - t h a - s i k a

W o u ! w e R E L - e a t - P A S S - N E G - F R - R E C . P . I N F R

' W o u ! W e ( a p p a r e n t l y ) h a v e n ' t b e e n e a t e n ( b y t h e evil spirit).'

W h e n a p a s s i v e v e r b is n o m i n a l i s e d , n e g a t i o n is m a r k e d w i t h t h e prefix m a - a s the

o n l y n e g a t i v e m a r k e r , a s in 1 3 . 1 3 (nha n a w i k i m a : - k a n a - w a n i - s e - p i d a n a ( t h e y p e o p l e

N E G + g o - P A S S - C L : A B S T R - L O C - R E M . P . R E P ) 'it w a s in a p l a c e w h e r e p e o p l e d o n o t go'),

1 3 . 1 6 a n d 1 7 . 2 3 b e l o w .

1 7 . 2 3 t j ! n u m a - t u t u - k a n i t e - k a - n a k a

d o g N E G - t i e - P A S S + N C L : A N I M - D E C L - P R E S . V I S

T h e d o g is n o t tied.'

W h e n a future c l a u s e is n e g a t e d , t h e n e g a t i v e -kade is r e p l a c e d w i t h intentional -kasu

(see § 1 6 . 3 ) . N e g a t i v e c l a u s e s s h o w n e u t r a l i s a t i o n for t h e t w o futures a n d intentional;

that is, t h e f o r m (nuha) m a - n u - k d s u ( b u t n o t *ma-nu-kade-kasu) 'I w o n ' t c o m e , a m n o t

a b o u t to c o m e , a m n o t c o m i n g ' is t h e n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t o f the f o l l o w i n g t h r e e f o r m s

n u - n u - k a s u ( l s g - c o m e - i N T ) 'I a m a b o u t t o c o m e , I i n t e n d to c o m e ' , n u - n u - d e ( l s g - c o m e -

F U T . C E R T ) 'I will c o m e ( s o o n , definitely)' a n d n u - n u - m h a d e ( l s g - c o m e - F U T . U N C E R T ) 'I

w i l l c o m e (in r e m o t e future, m a y b e ) ' . T h e p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n n e g a t i o n ,

future a n d i n t e n t i o n a l m o o d is s h o w n in T a b l e 1 7 . 1 .

In 1 7 . 2 4 , t h e n e g a t i v e future m a r k e d w i t h -kasu c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e 'uncertain future'

- m h a d e in a p o s i t i v e c l a u s e ( u s e d w i t h first p e r s o n : §14.4). T h e n e g a t i v e c l a u s e c o n t a i n s

a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n -ka - a n h i 'recognise' (lit. 'see k n o w ' ) . A s is u s u a l in serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e n e g a t i o n g o e s j u s t o n t h e first c o m p o n e n t .

1 7 . 2 4 n h u a n u - k a - m h a d e n u - a n h i - s i t a [ m a - k a - k a s u

I l s g - s e e - F U T . U N C E R T 1s g - k n o w - P E R F N E G - s e e - I N T

p i - a n h i ] p h i a p a t h i d a - p e n i h i k u - k a - n a k a

2 s g - k n o w y o u a l i k e - P L : A N I M a p p e a r - D E C L - P R E S . V I S

'I w o u l d h a v e r e c o g n i s e d ( t h e m : m y sisters), y o u w o n ' t r e c o g n i s e t h e m , t h e y l o o k

alike.'

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 4 0 6 / 7 Negation

T A B L E 1 7 . 1 F U T U R E A N D I N T E N T I O N A L I N N E G A T I V E C L A U S E S

M A R K I N G I N P O S I T I V E C L A U S E S M E A N I N G M A R K I N G I N N E G A T I V E C L A U S E S

-de definite future ( 1 s t p e r s o n )

u n c e r t a i n future ( 1 s t p e r s o n )
- m h a d e m a - . . . - k a s u
a n y future ( n o n - l s t p e r s o n )

- k a s u i n t e n t i o n a l

In 1 7 . 2 5 , t h e n e g a t i v e future m a r k e d w i t h - k a s u c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e 'certain future' -de

a n d t o t h e ' u n c e r t a i n future' -mhade i n a p o s i t i v e clause.

1 7 . 2 5 k a : - d e n u - p a - n i k i n h u a d i - a - p i d a n a

i n . v a i n - F U T . C E R T l s g - r o t - C O M P L I 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

m a - p a - k a s u p h i a , a l i a - m h a d e w a - n a

N E G - r o t - I N T y o u E X I S T - F U T . U N C E R T 1p l - O B J

'"I w i l l p e r i s h (lit. r o t ) i n v a i n , " h e said. " Y o u w o n ' t perish, it w i l l b e O K for u s , "

( s h e said).'

I n 1 7 . 2 6 , t h e n e g a t i v e future m a r k e d w i t h - k a s u c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e g e n e r a l future in a

p o s i t i v e c l a u s e w i t h third p e r s o n .

1 7 . 2 6 w a - n a i k a s u n e - m a : - k a s u d i h a

1 p l - O B J t o d a y N E G - N E G + g o - I N T h e

p u a y a - m h a d e d i - a w a - n a

d i f f e r e n t - F U T 3 s g n f - g o 1p l - O B J

'It w o n ' t c o m e o u t f o r u s t o d a y , it will c o m e o u t i n a n a d v e r s e w a y . '

T h e n e g a t i o n o f i n t e n t i o n a l - k a s u is illustrated i n 1 7 . 2 7 . W e s a w i n § 1 6 . 3 that t h e

i n t e n t i o n a l m o o d o c c u r s w i t h a n y evidentiality specification ( u n l i k e o t h e r m o o d s a n d

m o d a l i t i e s , e.g. t h e a p p r e h e n s i v e a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n a l ) . I n 1 7 . 2 7 t h e n e g a t e d f o r m o f t h e

i n t e n t i o n a l m o o d o c c u r s w i t h t h e n o n - v i s u a l p r e s e n t evidential.

1 7 . 2 7 n u - n a d i h a m a - k u i d a - k a s u - m h a

1 s g - O B J h e N E G - o v e r c o m e - I N T - P R E S . N O N V I S

' H e is n o t a b o u t t o o v e r c o m e m e (I feel it).'

W h e n a f u t u r e f o r m o f a p r e f i x l e s s v e r b is n e g a t e d it t a k e s t h e suffix - k a s u , distinct

f r o m t h e i n t e n t i o n a l m a r k e r -kasu. T h e n e g a t i v e future is illustrated w i t h 1 7 . 2 8 ; t h e

s e c o n d , n o n - n e g a t i v e , c l a u s e c o n t a i n s a future m a r k e r -mhade:

1 7 . 2 8 h i p i - n a - k a h i k u - k a s u

D E M : A N I M 2 s g - p u t . o n - S U B a p p e a r - N E G . F U T

p h i a p i - n a l e - m h a d e p i - a

y o u 2 s g - d i s a p p e a r - F U T 2 s g - g o

' W h e n y o u p u t ( t h e m a g i c shirt) o n , y o u w o n ' t a p p e a r y o u will disappear.'

I n 1 7 . 2 9 , t h e n e g a t i o n g o e s o n t o t h e prefixless v e r b - t h e first c o m p o n e n t o f a n

a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ; t h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n is i n t h e future.

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 1 7 . 2 C l a u s a l n e g a t i o n in n o n - p r o h i b i t i v e c l a u s e s 4 0 7

1 7 . 2 9 m a t f a - k a s u di-a w a - n a

g o o d - N E G . F U T 3 s g n f - g o l p l - O B J

'It w o n ' t g o w e l l for us.'

T h e i n t e n t i o n a l f o r m o f p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s is d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m their n e g a t i v e future b y

t h e p l a c e o f a c c e n t , e.g. n h u a k a w h i - k d s u (I w a k e . u p - N E G . F U T ) 'I w o n ' t w a k e up', n h u a

k a w h i ' k a s u (I w a k e . u p - i N T ) 'I a m g o i n g to w a k e up'. U n l i k e n e g a t i v e future f o r m s , t h e

i n t e n t i o n a l f o r m s c a n o c c u r w i t h v a r i o u s evidentiality a n d m o o d specification, a s in

1 7 . 3 0 w h e r e a n i n t e n t i o n a l f o r m o f k a w h i 'be a w a k e ' o c c u r s w i t h t h e r e m o t e p a s t

r e p o r t e d a n d w i t h t h e frustrative. 1 7 . 3 1 is u n g r a m m a t i c a l .

1 7 . 3 0 d i h a k a w h i - k a s u - t h a - p i d a n a

h e w a k e . u p - I N T - F R - R E M . P . R E P

' H e w o k e u p (in vain).'

1 7 . 3 1 * d i h a k a w h i - k a s u - t h a - p i d a n a

h e w a k e . u p - N E G . F U T - F R - R E M . P . R E P

N e g a t i o n o f f u t u r e c l a u s e s s h o w s further c o m p l e x i t y . T h e future m a r k e r -mhade -

d i s t a n t future w i t h first p e r s o n a n d t h e o n l y future w i t h non-first p e r s o n (see § 1 4 . 4 ) -

c a n o c c u r w i t h a v e r b n e g a t e d w i t h a n o n - f u t u r e n e g a t i v e suffix -kade to i n d i c a t e d e o n t i c

m o d a l i t y ('obligation') in future. T h i s u s e a g r e e s w i t h t h e 'deontic' m e a n i n g for -mhade

d i s c u s s e d in § 1 4 . 4 . T h i s is illustrated in 1 7 . 3 2 .

1 7 . 3 2 k a r u n a - k a d e - m h a d e n h u m e t a

b e . d a n g e r o u s - N E G - F U T . U N C E R T 1 s g + f e e l

'I s h o u l d n o t feel ( a n y ) d a n g e r ( w i t h this p e r s o n g u a r d i n g m e ) . '

I n c o n t r a s t , k a r u n a - k d s u n h u m e t a ( b e . d a n g e r o u s - N E G . F U T 1s g + f e e l ) 'I will feel

d a n g e r ' , w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e future - k d s u , as in 1 7 . 2 9 , h a s a future m e a n i n g . In 1 7 . 3 3

- k a d e - m h a d e a p p e a r s o n a p r e f i x e d v e r b , w i t h a d e o n t i c m e a n i n g 'you s h o u l d n o t b e

going'.

1 7 . 3 3 p h i a i k a s u - n u k u m a : - k a d e - m h a d e p i - e m h a n i

y o u t o d a y - T O P . N O N . A / S N E G + g o - N E G - F U T 2 s g - w a l k

' Y o u s h o u l d n o t b e g o i n g to w a l k t o d a y (since y o u are sick).'

T h e s e q u e n c e - k a d e - m h a d e ( n e g a t i v e - f u t u r e ) is also u s e d in q u e s t i o n s i n d i c a t i n g

d o u b t , a s i n 1 7 . 3 4 .

1 7 . 3 4 w h a itfa iya p u t j a - k a d e - m h a d e

w e h a i r r a i n w e t - N E G - F U T

' C o u l d t h e r a i n m a k e o u r hair w e t ? '

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 4 0 8 17 Negation

If a definite n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e is g i v e n , it c o n t a i n s j u s t -kdsu:

1 7 . 3 5 p u t f a - k a s u

w e t - N E G . F U T

'It w o n ' t m a k e t h e m wet.'

I w a s t o l d t o a s k 1 7 . 3 6 , w o n d e r i n g w h e t h e r a n e w p a n m i g h t b r e a k if o n e p o u r s h o t

w a t e r into it.

1 7 . 3 6 e p i s i - a p h i l e k a - k a d e - m h a d e

m e t a l - C L : P A N b r e a k - N E G - F U T

' C o u l d n ' t t h e p a n b r e a k ? '

T h e a n s w e r w a s 'definitely not':

1 7 . 3 6 1 e k a - k a s u

b r e a k - N E G . F U T

'It w o n ' t break.'

In t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect t h e r e is yet a n o t h e r , n o n - f u t u r e , d e c l a r a t i v e n e g a t i v e

s t r u c t u r e u s e d for e m p h a t i c n e g a t i o n 'really not': it c o n s i s t s in a d d i n g t h e suffix - m a k a

'negative' to t h e v e r b a l root, a s in 1 7 . 3 7 a ( w i t h a prefixless v e r b , in a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n ) a n d in 1 7 . 3 7 b ( w i t h a p r e f i x e d v e r b ) . T h e p e r s o n - n u m b e r - g e n d e r c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c i n g is n o t neutralised. T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s n o t b e e n attested in the S a n t a R o s a

dialect; t h o u g h s o m e traditional s p e a k e r s r e c o g n i s e d it a s archaic.

1 7 . 3 7 a t s u m e - p u n u h m e t a k i a k u - m a k a

m u c h - A U G l s g + t h i n k s t r o n g - N E G . E M P H

'I a m really n o t t h i n k i n g t o o m u c h . '

1 7 . 3 7 b p h i a - n u k u w a - k w i s a - k a - m a k a

y o u - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - s c o l d - D E C L - N E G . E M P H

' W e really are n o t s c o l d i n g you.'

T h i s f o r m is o f t e n u s e d w i t h a m e a n i n g c l o s e to c o n c e s s i v e 'although', a s in 1 7 . 3 7 c .

1 7 . 3 7 c t h e p e n u - w a - k a - m a k a n u - n a

g e t a n n o y e d 1s g - e n t e r - D E C L - N E G . E M P H 1s g - O B J

k a y p i - a - m h a

t h u s 2 s g - s a y - P R E S . V I S

'I really d i d n o t get a n n o y e d , a n d (yet) y o u are s a y i n g (this) to m e ' , o r

' T h o u g h I d i d n o t get a n n o y e d , y o u are s a y i n g (this) to m e . '

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 1 7 . 3 N e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e 4 0 9

1 7 . 3 N e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e

N e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e (or p r o h i b i t i v e ) is m a r k e d w i t h t h e particle mhaida ( o c c a s i o n a l l y

p r o n o u n c e d a s m h e d a b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s ) u s e d w i t h i m p e r a t i v e v e r b s , as illustrated in

1 7 . 3 8 , w i t h s e c o n d p e r s o n , a n d 1 7 . 3 9 , w i t h first p e r s o n plural.

1 7 . 3 8 m h a i d a i-a n u - n a h i - k a y u

P R O H 2 p l - s a y l s g - O B J D E M : A N I M - t h u s

' D o n ' t talk to m e like this.'

1 7 . 3 9 m h a i d a w a w a - i n u i k a s u - n u k u

P R O H l p l + g o lpl-kill n o w - T O P . N O N . A / S

'Let's n o t g o hunt.'

1 7 . 4 0 illustrates p r o h i b i t i v e w i t h a p r e f i x l e s s v e r b 'be afraid'.

1 7 . 4 0 m h e d a k a r u

P R O H be.afraid

' D o n ' t b e afraid.'

T h e f o r m m h a i d a c a n a l s o b e u s e d w i t h t h e future -mhade in d e o n t i c m e a n i n g 'one

s h o u l d n ' t d o s o a n d so', a s in 1 7 . 4 1 - 2 a n d in 1 4 . 1 1 3 . T h e f o r m m h a i d a p r e c e d e s t h e v e r b

it n e g a t e s ; h o w e v e r , o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e m . S i n c e the

p r o h i b i t i v e particle is in f o c u s in 1 7 . 4 1 , it h o s t s the future enclitic.

17.41 m h e d a - m h a d e p h i a h i k u n u - n i - n i p e - n u k u

P R O H - F U T y o u b e . t h u s 1s g - d o - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

p i - k a l i t e - m h a d e p h i a p i - k e t f i - p e - s e - n u k u

2 s g - t e l l - F U T y o u 2 s g - r e l a t i v e - P L - C O N T R - T O P . N O N . A / S

' Y o u s h o u l d n o t tell y o u r relatives a b o u t m e a c t i n g this w a y . '

T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect; the p r o h i b i t i v e is mhene

( s e e A p p e n d i x ) .

1 7 . 4 2 m h e n e k a y u pi-ni

P R O H t h u s 2 s g - d o

' D o n o t act like this.'

T h e f o r m m h a i d a c a n o c c u r w i t h s e c o n d h a n d i m p e r a t i v e -pida (see § 1 6 . 1 . 4 ) . All

o t h e r i m p e r a t i v e d i s t i n c t i o n s are n e u t r a l i s e d in n e g a t i v e c l a u s e s . 17.43 is a n e x a m p l e o f

r e p o r t e d n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e .

1 7 . 4 3 m h a l d a - p i d a p i - n h a - k a r u

P R O H - I M P V . S E C 2 s g - e a t - P U R P . V I S

T h i s is n o t for y o u t o eat ( C a n d i d o t o l d u s so).'

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n mhaida-pida is a l s o u s e d in the m e a n i n g o f n e g a t i v e third p e r s o n , as

in 1 7 . 4 4 - 5 .

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 4 1 0 17 N e g a t i o n

1 7 . 4 4 t j i n u m h a i d a - p i d a n i n h a

d o g P R O H - I M P V . S E C 3 s g n f + e a t

' T h e d o g m i g h t n o t bite y o u ! '

1 7 . 4 5 m h a i d a - p i d a d u - k a l i t e

P R O H - I M P V . S E C 3sgf-tell

' S h e m i g h t n o t tell (the secret story)!'

Mhaida-pida is a l s o u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f n e g a t i v e p u r p o s i v e 'so that s o m e t h i n g

1
d o e s n o t h a p p e n , a s in 1 7 . 4 6 ( f r o m a translation o f S u n d a y c h u r c h s e r v i c e ) a n d 1 7 . 4 7 ,

f r o m a traditional story.

1 7 . 4 6 n e k a w h i n e p e t h e

N E G m a n i o c . f l o u r N E G m a n i o c . b r e a d

m h a i d a - p i d a n h a k a s i di-sisa

P R O H - I M P V . S E C f o o d 3 s g n f - e n d

' M a n i o c flour a n d m a n i o c b r e a d s h o u l d n o t c o m e to a n end.'

1 7 . 4 7 d i h a - d a - n u k u d h i t a - p i d a d h i n u r u - s e

A R T - C L : R O U N D - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + t a k e - R E P 3 s g n f + n e c k - L O C

m h e d a - p i d a n i w h a - n i k i a d a i t a tfuniri-pida

P R O H - R E P 3 s g n f + b i t e - C O M P L s n a k e r e a l - R E P

' H e p u t t h e (finger) into his throat, in s u c h a w a y that h e c o u l d n ' t bite it off, (since)

it w a s a real s n a k e . '

Mhdida is t h e o n l y p r o h i b i t i v e f o r m in T a r i a n a ; s o m e y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y

u s e t h e T u c a n o - i n f l u e n c e d i m p e r a t i v e -ya w i t h a n o n - f u t u r e n e g a t i v e f o r m to m a r k

p r o h i b i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e o b l i g a t i o n . 1 7 . 4 8 c o n t a i n s s u c h a f o r m ; this e x a m p l e c o m e s f r o m

a story t o l d b y E m i l i o Brito.

1 7 . 4 8 k a r u - k a d e - y a k a m - k a d e - y a

b e . a f r a i d - N E G - I M P V b e . a f r a i d - N E G - I M P V

' Y o u m u s t n ' t b e afraid.'

1 7 . 4 N e g a t i v e p r e f i x m a -

T h e n e g a t i v e p r e f i x m a - is a w i d e s p r e a d d e r i v a t i o n a l n e g a t o r . E t y m o l o g i c a l l y , it g o e s

b a c k t o P r o t o - A r a w a k *ma-, t h e n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t o f the P r o t o - A r a w a k relative-

attributive * k a - ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 b ) .

M o s t p r e f i x e d - that is, obligatorily p o s s e s s e d - n o u n s d e n o t i n g b o d y parts, a n d a

f e w k i n s h i p n o u n s c a n t a k e ka- 'relative, attributive' a n d m a - 'negative' to e x p r e s s

p o s s e s s i o n o f a b o d y p a r t o r o f a k i n s h i p relation, o r t h e l a c k o f it. T h e y are n o m i n a l i s e d

w i t h a n o u n c l a s s m a r k e r , e.g. d u - s a - n i r i ( 3 s g f - s p o u s e - M A S C ) 'her h u s b a n d ' ; ka-sa-nirite

( R E L - s p o u s e - M A S C + N C L : A N l M ) 'a m a r r i e d ( w o m a n ) ' ; m a - s a - n i r i t e ( N E G - s p o u s e -

M A S C + N C L : A N I M ) 'an u n m a r r i e d ( w o m a n ) ' ; di-sa-do ( w i t h a v a r i a n t di-sa-du) (3sgnf-

s p o u s e - F E M ) 'his wife'; a n d k a - s a - d u - i t e (REL-spouse-FEM-NCL:ANiM) 'a m a r r i e d ( m a n ) ' ;

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 17.5 Inherently negative lexemes 411

m a - s a - d u - i t e ( N E G - s p o u s e - F E M - N C L : A N i M ) 'an u n m a r r i e d ( m a n ) ' . S i m i l a r e x a m p l e s w i t h

b o d y p a r t n o u n s i n c l u d e : n e : h k a - s a w i t e ( d e e r R E L - h o r n + N C L : A N i M ) ' h o r n y deer'; ne:ri

m a - s a w i t e ( d e e r N E G - h o r n + N C L : A N i M ) 'deer w i t h o u t h o r n s ' ; kepite

( R E L + f l e s h + N C L : A M M ) 'fat, full'; a n d mepite ( N E G + f l e s h + N C L : A N i M ) 'thin, e m a c i a t e d ' ,

a n d ka-pisite (REL-dirt+NCL:ANlM) 'dirty'; m a - p i s i t e (NEG-dirt+NCL:ANiM) 'clean'.

N u m e r o u s stative v e r b s w h i c h d o n o t t a k e p r e f i x e s h a v e c o u n t e r p a r t s w i t h

d e r i v a t i o n a l p r e f i x e s k a - a n d m a - , e.g. hapu k h e w a k a - p u n a ( s p r i n g R E L + d e e p - C L : R i V E R )

'a d e e p spring' a n d napu m h e w a k a - p u n a ( s p r i n g N E G + d e e p - C L : R l V E R ) 'a s h a l l o w spring';

k h a m e a k u ' m a k e n o i s e ' a n d m h a m e r i k u 'be quiet', m e a k u 'be w e a k ' a n d m e a k u - i t e

( b e . w e a k - N C L i A N l M ) 'weak'; k i a k u 'be s t r o n g , strongly' a n d kiaku-ite ( b e . s t r o n g -

NCL.'ANIM) 'strong'; k a - w e n i (REL-price) 'be e x p e n s i v e ' a n d m a - w e n i 'be c h e a p ' . In j u s t

o n e c a s e , m a - in t h e n e g a t i v e f o r m c o r r e s p o n d s to p a - ' i m p e r s o n a l ' in t h e p o s i t i v e :

mariye p e m a n i t a (knife l M P + s h a r p e n + C L : i N A N ) 'a s h a r p knife' a n d mariye m e m a n i t a

(knife N E G + s h a r p e n + C L : i N A N ) 'a b l u n t knife'.

T h e p r e f i x m a - is u s e d t o n e g a t e participles ( d i s c u s s e d in § 2 0 . 1 ) d e r i v e d w i t h the

p r e f i x k a - , a s illustrated in 1 7 . 4 9 w h e r e t h e n e g a t o r m a - g o e s o n t o the participle

n e g a t i n g t h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n .

1 7 . 4 9 i t j i d a [ m a - h y a - k a r i d i - y e k a ]

turtle N E G - s w i m - P A S T . R E L . M A S C 3 s g n f - c a n / b e . a b l e

'the turtle w h o c o u l d n ' t s w i m '

I n j u s t o n e c a s e t h e d e r i v a t i o n a l n e g a t o r m a - a n d its p o s i t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t ka- h a v e

effectively f u s e d w i t h t h e root, a n d t h e r o o t c o n t a i n i n g t h e s e p r e f i x e s t a k e s c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s b e f o r e t h e m . T h i s root, - w i t a , likely to h a v e b e e n b o r r o w e d f r o m

P o r t u g u e s e v e n d e r 'sell', a p p e a r s in t w o p r e f i x e d transitive v e r b s - - k a - w i t a 'pay' a n d

- m a - w i t a ' b o r r o w ' .

T h e d e r i v a t i o n a l n e g a t o r m a - a p p e a r s w i t h a f e w r o o t s w h i c h d o n o t o c c u r w i t h the

attributive k a - , e.g. m e n ( N E G + b l o o d ) 'get thin, e m a c i a t e d ' , ma-kare ( N E G - b r e a t h )

'breathless, tired'. It a l s o d e r i v e s a n u m b e r o f i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e p r e d i c a t e s w h e r e the

r o o t d o e s n o t o c c u r i n a n y o t h e r c o n t e x t , e.g. m a h y u n a , m a n h i n a 'be difficult', ma:pi

'(physically) tired, e x h a u s t e d ' - s e e § 1 7 . 5 .

1 7 . 5 I n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e l e x e m e s

I n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e l e x e m e s in T a r i a n a are m o s t l y p r e d i c a t e s ; j u s t o n e , haida 'I don't

k n o w ' , c a n b e u s e d a s a c l a u s e o n its o w n . I n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e l e x e m e s fall into t h r e e

g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g t o their m o r p h o l o g i c a l structure. G r o u p ( A ) c o n t a i n s i n h e r e n t l y

n e g a t i v e l e x e m e s w i t h n o n e g a t o r , w h i l e g r o u p ( B ) c o n t a i n s n e g a t i v e l e x e m e s that,

e t y m o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , d o c o n t a i n a n e g a t i v e m o r p h e m e ( h o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o p o s i t i v e

c o u n t e r p a r t to t h e m ) . I n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e l e x e m e s o f g r o u p s ( A ) a n d ( B ) c a n n o t b e

n e g a t e d . G r o u p ( C ) c o n t a i n s l e x e m e s w h i c h c o n t a i n a n e t y m o l o g i c a l n e g a t o r (but, in

m o s t c a s e s , d o n o t h a v e a n y p o s i t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t in t h e l a n g u a g e ) a n d c a n b e n e g a t e d ;

their m e a n i n g is n e g a t i v e .

A . I N H E R E N T L Y N E G A T I V E L E X E M E S W H I C H D O N O T C O N T A I N A N Y O V E R T N E G A T I V E

M A R K E R A N D C A N N O T BE N E G A T E D . T h e s e i n c l u d e : t h e n e g a t i v e e x i s t e n t i a l / p o s s e s s i v e

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 4 1 2 17 Negation

s e d e , t h e n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h e existential alia\ kuripua 'there is n o t h i n g ' ; a n d

h a i d a 'I d o n ' t k n o w ' . T h e n e g a t i v e existential sede is illustrated in 1 7 . 1 7 a n d 1 7 . 5 0 (see

§ 2 1 . 4 . 1 ) .

1 7 . 5 0 e h k w a p i d i - k e n a - f i - s e de:pi s e d e - p i d a n a

d a y , w o r l d 3 s g n f - s t a r t - R E L - L O C n i g h t N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

n i y a - n h i k e r i - m i a - p i d a n a alia d i - n a - n h i

3 s g n f + s t a y - A N T s u n / m o o n - J U S T - R E M . P . R E P E X I S T 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T

'At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e w o r l d t h e n i g h t d i d n o t exist, t h e r e w a s o n l y sun.'

In 1 7 . 5 1 s e d e is u s e d to n e g a t e a d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n .

17.51 n e - p a i t a p a - w a - r i s e d e - p i d a n a

N E G - o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M I M P - e n t e r - R E L N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

' N o o n e u s e d to e n t e r (the little river) (lit. t h e e n t r a n c e for a n y o n e d i d n o t exist).'

Sede c a n a l s o m e a n 'to n o avail, n o t h i n g ( h a p p e n e d ) ' :

1 7 . 5 2 d i h a n a k i - t i k i - n e d i - n a - t h a - p i d a n a d y - e k u

A R T e v i l . s p i r i t - D I M - F O C . A / S 3 s g n f - w a n t - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - r u n

n e - s e d e - p i d a n a d a r k i d a - p i d a n a

N E G - N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P a l l . t h e . t i m e - R E M . P . R E P

d i - n a d i - d a n e t a - n i k i

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f - p r e v e n t - C O M P L

' T h e little evil spirit tried to r u n a w a y (in v a i n ) , n o t h i n g ( h a p p e n e d ) , (the m a n )

p r e v e n t e d ( h i m f r o m d o i n g this) all t h e time.'

In 1 4 . 7 7 a n d 1 7 . 5 3 sede is u s e d a s a n e g a t i v e p o s s e s s i v e . T h e p r o n o m i n a l p o s s e s s o r

a p p e a r s in o b j e c t c a s e .

1 7 . 5 3 a l - n u k u k u p h e s e d e - n a k a w a - n a

h e r e - T O P . N O N . A / S fish N E G . E X - P R E S . V I S l p l - O B J

' H e r e w e h a v e n o fish (lit. t h e r e is n o fish to us).'

S e d e c a n o f t e n b e n o m i n a l i s e d , a s in 1 7 . 5 4 ; h e r e kwaka y a p h i n i sede ('what t h i n g

n o t . e x i s f ) , n o m i n a l i s e d w i t h t h e a n i m a t e n o u n class suffix - i t e , is in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

1 7 . 5 4 [ k w a k a y a p h i n i s e d ] i t e - n u k u

w h a t t h i n g N E G . E X + N C L : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

d u - n a - k a - p i d a d u h a

3 s g f - w a n t - S U B - R E P s h e

' B e c a u s e s h e w a n t e d s o m e o n e w h o d i d n o t h a v e anything.'

In 1 7 . 5 5 t h e classifier - w a n i n o m i n a l i s e s t h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n p a - k a n i - l i p h e

s e d e ( i M P - w a l k - F i R M L Y N E G . E X ) 'there is n o firm w a l k i n g ' .

1 7 . 5 5 [ne p a - k a n i - l i p h e s e d e ] - w a n i d i - w h a

N E G I M P - w a l k - F I R M L Y N E G . E X - C L : A B S T R 3sgnf-fall

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 17.5 Inherently negative lexemes 4 1 3

d i - s w a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - l i e - R E M . P . R E P

' H e fell d o w n a n d lay in t h e p l a c e w h e r e o n e c a n n o t w a l k firmly (i.e. w i t h n o t h i n g

t o h o l d o n to).'

T h e u s e o$ kuripua 'there is a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g ' is illustrated in 1 7 . 1 8 a n d 1 7 . 5 6 - 7 (the

v a r i a n t kurupua w a s u s e d j u s t b y o n e p e r s o n - J o v i n o Brito, a h i g h l y i n n o v a t i v e

s p e a k e r ) . Kuripua a l w a y s a p p e a r s n e x t to a v e r b , f o r m i n g a n e g a t i v e serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n ; w h e n it o c c u r s it is t h e o n l y n e g a t i o n in the serial v e r b . Serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

1 7 . 5 6 k u r i p u a [ p a w a l i n a - s a p e - k a ]

b e . n o t h i n g right 3 p l - s a y - R E C . P . V I S

' T h e y s a y it all a b s o l u t e l y w r o n g . '

1 7 . 5 7 k u r i p u a - s i k a m a t h i a alia-niki

b e . n o t h i n g - R E C . P . I N F R c a l m E X I S T - C O M P L

' T h e r e is ( a p p a r e n t l y ) a b s o l u t e l y n o rest (for her).'

Kuripua c a n m e a n 'not at all', a s in 1 7 . 5 8 .

1 7 . 5 8 k e t f a k u r i p u a d i - d a l a d i - m k u di-a

a n t s b e . n o t h i n g 3 s g n f - u n s t i c k 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - g o

T h e a n t s d i d n o t u n s t i c k at all (off his p o s s e s s i o n s ) . '

M o r p h o l o g i c a l l y , kuripua is a v e r b ; it c a n n o t b e u s e d as a n a r g u m e n t ( a n d c a n n o t

t a k e c a s e m a r k i n g ) . It c a n b e u s e d a s a o n e - w o r d r e s p o n s e , as in 17.59. S a y i n g *kuripua-

n u k u ( b e . n o t h i n g - T O P . N O N . A / s ) w o u l d b e u n g r a m m a t i c a l .

1 7 . 5 9 k u p h e p h i t a - n i h k a p h i a ? k u r i p u a !

fish 2 s g + g e t - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R y o u ? b e . n o t h i n g !

' H a v e y o u g o t fish? N o t h i n g ! '

Kuripua c a n b e u s e d a s t h e o n l y p r e d i c a t e in a c l a u s e :

1 7 . 6 0 k u p h e k u r i p u a n a - y a m i - n a

fish b e . n o t h i n g 3 p l - d i e - R E M . P . V I S

' T h e r e a r e n o fish at all, t h e y all died.'

E t y m o l o g i c a l l y , kuripua m a y b e c o g n a t e w i t h t h e n e g a t i o n m a r k e r kuri, f o u n d in

B a n i w a a n d in K u r r i p a k o ( w h e r e it is r e a l i s e d as kuri or as kuji).

Haida 'I d o n ' t k n o w ' is f u n c t i o n a l l y s i m i l a r to T u c a n o uba 'I don't k n o w ' , a n d is

n o r m a l l y u s e d a s a r e s p o n s e - cf. 17.61 a n d 3.22. It b e l o n g s to a c l o s e d class o f

p r o c l a u s e s - w h i c h c a n c o n s t i t u t e c l a u s e s o n their o w n - a n d d o e s n o t c o m b i n e w i t h a n y

e v i d e n t i a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . It c a n refer to t h e first p e r s o n only.

1 7 . 6 1 n a m i k a n i - s e - n i h k a d i - a ?

f a t h e r ' s . y o u n g e r . b r o t h e r w h e r e - L O C - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 3 s g n f - g o ?

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 4 1 4 17 Negation

h a i d a

I . d o n ' t . k n o w

' W h e r e is t h e u n c l e ? I don't k n o w . '

B . I N H E R E N T L Y N E G A T I V E L E X E M E S W I T H A N O V E R T N E G A T O R . T h e s e i n c l u d e : hyukade

'not b e ; n o t a p p e a r ' ( c o n t a i n i n g t h e n e g a t i v e suffix -kade d i s c u s s e d in § 1 7 . 2 ) ; m a . k w a

' w i t h o u t t a l k i n g , quietly' a n d m a . k u y a 'shut u p ' ( c o n t a i n i n g t h e n e g a t i v e p r e f i x m a -

d i s c u s s e d in § § 1 7 . 2 a n d 17.5); m a s a k a d e 'not b e e n o u g h ' ( c o n t a i n i n g t h e n e g a t i v e prefix

m a - a n d t h e n e g a t i v e suffix -kade; s e e § 1 7 . 2 ) ; a n d p u k a s u 'not at all' ( c o n t a i n i n g t h e

n e g a t i v e suffix - k a s u d i s c u s s e d in § 1 7 . 2 ) .

Hyukade 'not b e , n o t a p p e a r ' ( s o m e t i m e s p r o n o u n c e d as hyakade b y i n n o v a t i v e

s p e a k e r s ) is a stative v e r b . E t y m o l o g i c a l l y , it is p r o b a b l y a n irregular n e g a t i v e f o r m o f

h i k u 'appear'. It is u s e d a s a s i n g l e p r e d i c a t e in a c l a u s e a n d c a n n o t b e serialised. In s o m e

o f t h e e x a m p l e s b e l o w it o c c u r s w i t h t h e e m p h a t i c n e g a t o r ne d i s c u s s e d in § 1 7 . 7 .

1 7 . 6 2 halite n a - m a - t h a - p i d a n a , n e - h y u k a d e - p i d a n a

e a r l y 3 p l - s e a r c h - F R - R E M . P . R E P N E G - n o t . a p p e a r - R E M . P . R E P

' E a r l y in t h e m o r n i n g t h e y l o o k e d (for h i m ) , h e d i d n o t appear.'

1 7 . 6 3 n a - p i p i n a n e m h a n i h y u k a d e - n a n h a - y a n a - p e

N E G - g e t . l o s t 3 p l + w a l k n o t . a p p e a r - R E M . P . V I S t h e y - P E J - P L

' T h e y g o t lost w a l k i n g , they, t h e n a u g h t y o n e s , d i d n o t appear.'

1 7 . 6 4 n h a - n e m a - k a - k a d e - p i d a n a

t h e y - F O C . A / S N E G - s e e - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

h v u k a d e - p i d a n a n h a - n e - n u k u

n o t . a p p e a r - R E M . P . R E P t h e y - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h e y d i d n o t s e e h i m , h e d i d n o t a p p e a r for t h e m (looking).'

Its future f o r m is hyu-kdsu (see § 1 7 . 2 ) , a s in 1 7 . 6 5 . T h i s f o r m p r o v i d e s a d d i t i o n a l

e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f -kade as a m o r p h e m e in h y u - k a d e .

. 6 5 h a - y a m i - n e p h i t a p i - s w a - k a

D E M : I N A N - C L : C L O T H - I N S 2 s g + t a k e 2 s g - l i e - S U B

p i - n a l e - m h a d e - k h a p i - a p h i a n e

2 s g - d i s a p p e a r - F U T - A W A Y 2 s g - g o y o u N E G

h y u k a s u n a w i k i n a - k a - k a - n u k u

n o t . a p p e a r : F U T p e o p l e 3 p l - s e e - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S

'If y o u t a k e this p i e c e o f cloth, y o u will d i s a p p e a r , y o u w o n ' t a p p e a r to p e o p l e

l o o k i n g (at y o u ) . '

Hyukade w i t h t h e future m a r k e r -mhade i n d i c a t e s d o u b t (also cf. e x a m p l e s 1 7 . 3 2 - 4 ) ;

in 1 7 . 6 6 it is u s e d w i t h a repetitive c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e (see § 1 9 . 1 ) .

1 7 . 6 6 p a : p e n a - n i - k a h y u k a d e h y u k a d e - m h a d e

m a y b e 3 p l - d o - S U B n o t . a p p e a r n o t . a p p e a r - F U T

' M a y b e t h e y m i g h t n o t appear.'

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 1 7 . 5 I n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e l e x e m e s 4 1 5

Hyukade c a n a l s o b e u s e d a s a o n e - w o r d r e s p o n s e 'no', a s in 1 7 . 6 7 .

1 7 . 6 7 p h i a p i - a p i - p e y a , d i - a - p i d a n a d i - n a

y o u 2 s g - g o 2sg-be.in.front, 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J

m a : r i - n h e h y u k a d e d i - a - p i d a n a

h e r o n - F O C . A / S n o 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

" ' Y o u g o first," t h e h e r o n said to h i m . " N o , " h e ( h u m m i n g b i r d ) said.'

T h r e e i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e l e x e m e s c o n t a i n t h e n e g a t i v e prefix ma-. A n i n h e r e n t l y

n e g a t i v e a d v e r b m a . k w a ' w i t h o u t t a l k i n g , quietly' c o n t a i n s t h e r o o t -aku 'speak, speech'.

It o c c u r s w i t h i n a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d c a n n o t b e u s e d a s a n a r g u m e n t ; see 1 7 . 6 8 -

9. W h e n n o m i n a l i s e d w i t h t h e a n i m a t e n o u n class suffix - i t e , it y i e l d s m a . k u i t e 'the o n e

w h o d o e s n o t s p e a k , t h e o n e w h o is d u m b ' .

1 7 . 6 8 m a : k w a d i - m u s u d i - a - p i d a n a

N E G + s p e e c h 3 s g n f - g o . o u t 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' H e w e n t o u t quietly.'

1 7 . 6 9 k a k a - k a r i k a - p e y a m a k w a - p i d a n a

R E L + a r r i v e - P A S T . P A R T R E L - b e . i n . f r o n t N E G + s p e e c h - R E M . P . R E P

n i y u - k h a d i - n u

3 s g n f + g o . u p - A W A Y 3 s g n f - c o m e

T h e o n e w h o a r r i v e d first c a m e w i t h o u t talking.'

M a . k u y a 'shut up', a d e f e c t i v e v e r b , is u s e d as a short c o m m a n d , a s in 17.70.

1 7 . 7 0 m a : k u y a p h i a

s h u t . u p y o u

' S h u t u p ! '

M a . k u y a is e t y m o l o g i c a l l y c o g n a t e to B a n i w a o f I $ a n a ma:ku-dza ( N E G + s p e a k - i M P v )

'do n o t talk' ( n o t e that dz in s o m e B a n i w a dialects, s u c h a s H o h o d e n e , r e g u l a r l y

c o r r e s p o n d s t o T a r i a n a y, e.g. B a n i w a d z a w i , T a r i a n a y a w l 'jaguar'). T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f

a p r e f i x m a - a n d a suffix -dza is a n o r m a l w a y o f f o r m i n g p r o h i b i t i v e s in B a n i w a ;

m a . k u y a in T a r i a n a c o u l d b e either a l o a n f r o m a dialect o f B a n i w a in w h i c h T a r i a n a y

c o r r e s p o n d s t o y , for i n s t a n c e , K u m a n d e n e K u r r i p a k o , o r a n a r c h a i c e x p r e s s i o n .

T h e i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e v e r b m a - s a - k a d e (NEG-7-NEG) 'be g r e e d y , n e v e r b e satisfied'

d o e s n o t h a v e a p o s i t i v e f o r m , o r a future f o r m ; in all o t h e r w a y s it b e h a v e s as a n o r m a l

v e r b . I n 1 7 . 7 1 it is u s e d as t h e s i n g l e p r e d i c a t e , a n d in 1 7 . 7 2 it a p p e a r s in a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n .

1 7 . 7 1 d u h u a i n a r u d i - s a - d o d i h a

s h e w o m a n 3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M h e

k a y - d i - n i - k a m a : - s a - k a d e - p i d a n a

t h u s - 3 s g n f - d o - S U B N E G - 7 - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

T h e w o m a n , h i s w i f e , w h e n h e d i d like this, w a s n o t satisfied.'

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 4 1 6 17 Negation

1 7 . 7 2 d i - n h a m a - s a - k a d e - k a

3 s g n f - e a t N E G - 7 - N E G - R E C . P . V I S

' H e e a t s a n d d o e s n o t g e t full.'

P u k d s u 'not at all' is t h e o n l y n e g a t o r in the c l a u s e , a n d is o f t e n u s e d a s a n enclitic o n

t h e first p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d o f t h e c l a u s e , a s in 1 7 . 7 3 - 5 ; it d o e s n o t o c c u r w i t h

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specifications. T h i s is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the fact that p u k a s u refers to t h e

future; this f o r m c o n t a i n s a n e g a t i v e future m a r k e r -kdsu.

17.73 m e d a - p u k a s u d i - n a l e w a - k e s i - n i

i n . v a i n - N O T . A T . A L L 3 s g n f - d i s a p p e a r l p l - r e l a t i v e - M A S C

'It i s n o t at all t h e c a s e that o u r relative m i g h t die in vain!'

1 7 . 7 4 d i h a - p u k a s u t a r a d i - k a r e m u k i d e - m h a

h e - N O T . A T . A L L h a r d 3 s g n f - h e a r t s o f t - P R E S . N O N V I S

d i - k a r e diha-sini

3 s g n f - h e a r t h e - T O O : A C T . C O N T R

'His h e a r t will n o t at all b e h a r d , it is soft.' ( T h a t is, h e w o n ' t s u r v i v e if shot.)

1 7 . 7 5 k u i t e - p u k a s u d i - n h a n u - n a

I N T E R + N C L : A N I M - N O T . A T . A L L 3 s g n f - e a t 1 s g - O B J

' N o o n e (i.e. a n i m a l ) m i g h t eat m e . '

P u k a s u c a n f o r m a p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d b y itself:

1 7 . 7 6 p u k a s u n a - y e n a h a - e h k w a p i - n u k u

N O T . A T . A L L 3 p l - p a s s D E M : I N A N - C L : W O R L D - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e y w o n ' t e s c a p e in this w o r l d . '

C . N E G A T I V E L E X E M E S W H I C H C O N T A I N A N O V E R T N E G A T O R A N D C A N B E N E G A T E D .

T h e s e i n c l u d e : m a . h y u n a , m a . n h i n a 'be difficult'; ma-kare 'be o u t o f breath'; a n d ma:pi

'be tired'. A l l o f t h e m c o n t a i n t h e n e g a t i v e m a - . M a . h y u n a a n d m a . n h i n a 'be difficult' are

s y n o n y m o u s ( o n l y m a . h y u n a is u s e d in t h e P e r i q u i t o s variety, w h i l e S a n t a R o s a variety

u s e s b o t h ) . M a . h y u n a m a y e t y m o l o g i c a l l y c o n s i s t o f m a - 'negative', -a 'go, say, do' a n d

- y u n a 'habitual'); w h e n m a h y u n a is n e g a t e d , t h e n e g a t i v e suffix -kade is p l a c e d after

- y u n a (it is p l a c e d b e f o r e - h y u n a w h e n t h e latter is u s e d a s a n a s p e c t m a r k e r - s e e

S c h e m e s 12.1 a n d 12.2).

B o t h m a . h y u n a a n d m a . n h i n a are s e c o n d a r y v e r b s w h i c h t a k e a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e

m a r k e d w i t h a p u r p o s i v e - s e e u n d e r D 2 in § 1 2 . 1 . 4 , a n d 1 7 . 7 7 - 8 . A p r o n o m i n a l s u b j e c t

is m a r k e d w i t h t h e - n a c a s e ; a n d a n y s u b j e c t c a n t a k e t h e - n u k u c a s e if topical.

1 7 . 7 7 m a t f a - m a - p e - m i a - p i d a n a p a - k a - k a r u

g o o d - C L : F E M - P L - J U S T - R E M . P . R E P I M P - s e e - V I S . P U R P

m a h y u n a - p u - p i d a n a p a t h i d a

d i f f i c u l t - A U G - R E M . P . R E P e q u a l

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 17.5 Inherently negative lexemes 4 1 7

h i k u - m a - p e - p i d a n a n e m a

a p p e a r - C L : F E M - P L - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + s t a n d

' T h e y (girls) w e r e beautiful, it w a s h a r d to s e e ( w h i c h o n e w a s w h i c h ) , t h e y l o o k e d

t h e s a m e . '

1 7 . 7 8 d u - h a - n i r i-ne p a - s a p e - h y u

3 s g f - p a r e n t - M A S C - I N S I M P - s p e a k - P U R P . N O N V I S

m a n h i n a - m a - n a n a k u - n u k u

h a r d - E X C - R E M . P . V I S 3 p l + s p e e c h - T O P . N O N . A / S

m h e m a - k a d e - m h a n a

N E G + h e a r - N E G - R E M . P . N O N V I S

'It w a s difficult to talk t o h e r father, (I) d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d their l a n g u a g e . '

U n l i k e m a h y u n a , m a n h i n a d o e s n o t a l w a y s t a k e a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e ; in 1 7 . 7 9 this

v e r b t a k e s a n o u n 'their l a n g u a g e ' as a c o m p l e m e n t .

1 7 . 7 9 n h u a - n e m a n h i n a - m a - n a n a k u - m i s i n i

I - F O C . A / S h a r d - E X C - R E M . P . V I S 3 p l + s p e e c h - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R

y e p o s a n a - t h a - k a n h a

C u b e o - F R - R E C . P . V I S t h e y

' A s for m e , their l a n g u a g e is a l s o v e r y difficult, t h e y are C u b e o . '

U n l i k e m a h y u n a , m a n h i n a h a s a p o s i t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t k a n h i n a 'easy, n o t hard', also a

s e c o n d a r y v e r b w h i c h t a k e s a c o m p l e m e n t in t h e p u r p o s i v e , a s illustrated in 1 2 . 6 8 - 9 ,

1 9 . 3 2 a n d i n 1 7 . 8 0 .

1 7 . 8 0 p a - k a - k a r u k a n h i n a - m h a d e p i m a h i p e w a r i k u - s e

I M P - s e e - V I S . P U R P e a s y - F U T s o u n d earth i n s i d e - L O C

'It w i l l b e e a s y to r e c o g n i s e ( w h e n ) there is a s o u n d inside the earth.'

B o t h m a h y u n a a n d m a n h i n a c a n b e n e g a t e d w i t h the suffix -kade; t h e result is a

p o s i t i v e m e a n i n g .

1 7 . 8 1 m a h v u n a - k a d e - n a k a p h i a k a y u

d i f f i c u l t - N E G - P R E S . V I S y o u t h u s

p i - n a - k a - m i s i n i - n u k u

2 s g - w a n t - S U B - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R - T O P . N O N . A / S

'It is n o t difficult, if y o u w a n t it t h i s w a y , too.'

1 7 . 8 2 n u - n a y a l a n a y a r u p e m a n h i n a - k a d e - m h a

l s g - O B J w h i t e . m a n t h i n g h a r d - N E G - P R E S . V I S

' W h i t e m a n ' s l a n g u a g e is n o t h a r d for m e . '

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n k a n h i n a 'easy' a n d m a n h i n a - k a d e 'not difficult' is v e r y subtle;

in m o s t c a s e s t h e t w o c a n b e treated as s y n o n y m s .

T h e l e x e m e m a - k a r e ( N E G - h e a r t / b r e a t h ) 'out o f breath' is illustrated in 1 7 . 8 3 , a n d

m a . p i 'be tired' in 1 7 . 8 4 . B o t h c a n b e n e g a t e d - s e e 1 7 . 8 5 a n d 17.86.

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 4 1 8 17 Negation

1 7 . 8 3 d i h a m a - k a r e - k a d u - k a d u h a w a : k i

h e N E G - b r e a t h - S U B 3 s g f - s e e s h e evil.spirit

i - s a - d o d u - k a - p i d a n a

I N D F - s p o u s e - F E M 3 s g f - l a u g h - R E M . P . R E P

T h e w i f e o f a n evil spirit s a w that h e w a s o u t o f b r e a t h a n d l a u g h e d . '

1 7 . 8 4 m a : p i d i - y e n a d i - a - p i d a n a

tired 3 s g n f - e x c e e d 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' H e ( t h e d e e r ) w a s v e r y tired.'

1 7 . 8 5 m a - k a r e - k a d e - m h a n h u a

N E G - b r e a t h - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S I

'I a m n o t o u t o f breath.'

1 7 . 8 6 m a : p i - k a d e - m h a n h u a

t i r e d - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S I

'I a m n o t tired.'

P o s s i b l y , m a t h i a ( m a - ? ) ' h a v e c a l m , b e c a l m , h a v e n o n o i s e o r w o r r i e s ' (see 1 7 . 5 7 )

a l s o c o n t a i n s t h e n e g a t i v e p r e f i x m a - ; it c a n b e n e g a t e d (ma:thia-kade ' h a v e n o calm').

T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s o t h e r l e x e m e s w i t h n e g a t i v e o r d e p r e c a t o r y m e a n i n g , e.g. kaika

'in vain', m e d a 'useless, w i t h o u t a n y i m p o r t a n c e ' (e.g. waliwada-pe meda-peri 'stars o f

n o i m p o r t a n c e ' ) . S o m e p r e d i c a t e s c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d . A m o n g t h e s e are ira 'need, m u s t '

( s e e e x a m p l e s i n C h a p t e r 12), a n d a n u m b e r o f p r e d i c a t e s w i t h d e p r e c a t o r y m e a n i n g ,

e.g. p u t h e p u 'badly, i n vain', a s in 1 7 . 8 7 .

1 7 . 8 7 a m a k u p a - w a s a - k a p a - r u k u p a

h a m m o c k I M P - u n t i e - S U B I M P - g o . d o w n I M P + g o

p u t h e p u - m h a n u - a - n i k i

b a d l y - P R E S . V I S 1 s g - g o - C O M P L

'I f e l t s i c k w h e n I u n t i e d m y h a m m o c k a n d c a m e d o w n . '

C o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t h e A k t i o n s a r t enclitic -mikici ' D E S P I S E ' (see § 1 5 . 2 a n d 1 5 . 1 7 5 )

c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d ; cf. 1 7 . 8 8 .

1 7 . 8 8 d i h a p i : m i - y a n a d i - n a k w a k a

A R T h u m m i n g . b i r d - P E J 3 s g n f - O B J w h a t ' s . i t s . n a m e

d i h a i n a s u a - p e r i d i - a r a - n u k u d i - k a - m i k i r i

h e l a z y - C O L L 3 s g n f - f l y - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s e e - D E S P I S E

d i h a m a : r i - n u k u

A R T h e r o n - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n a u g h t y h u m m i n g b i r d l o o k e d d o w n u p o n h i m , w h a t ' s its n a m e , t h e o n e w h o

w a s t o o l a z y t o fly, t h e heron.'

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 1 7 . 6 N e g a t i v e n e a n d n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e 4 1 9

1 7 . 6 N e g a t i v e n e a n d n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e

T h e n e g a t i v e ne is u s e d in a n u m b e r o f c o n t e x t s . It is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d as a n e m p h a t i c

n e g a t i o n in e m p h a t i c d o u b l e n e g a t i o n c o n s t r u c t i o n s - s e e § 1 7 . 7 . T h i s n e g a t i v e particle is

a proclitic ( s e e § 2 . 6 ) ; s i m i l a r l y to o t h e r proclitics in T a r i a n a , it is o n l y o p t i o n a l l y

p r o c l i t i c i s e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d .

If ne is r e p e a t e d b e f o r e t w o o r m o r e c o n s t i t u e n t s in a n e g a t i v e c l a u s e , it i m p l i e s

n e i t h e r . . . n o r , a s in 1 7 . 4 6 a n d 1 7 . 8 9 .

1 7 . 8 9 n e d i - n a s e d e - p i d a n a n e iwi, n e

t h e n 3 s g n f - O B J N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P N E G salt N E G

p a y u m a , n e k o l e y u s e d e - p i d a n a d i - n a

s o a p N E G h o o k N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J

' T h e n h e h a d n e i t h e r salt, n o r s o a p , n o r h o o k s , h e d i d n o t h a v e (all this).'

T h e particle ne i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g p r o n o u n s s u c h as k w a n a ' w h o ' a n d kwaka

'what' ( s e e e x a m p l e s 1 1 . 2 0 a n d 1 1 . 2 8 ) a n d p a i t a 'one' ( 1 1 . 6 ) is a w a y o f f o r m i n g

n e g a t i v e p r o n o u n s ; h o w e v e r , t h e p r e d i c a t e in t h e c l a u s e also h a s to b e n e g a t i v e .

E x a m p l e s like 1 7 . 5 1 - w h e r e ne is u s e d to n e g a t e a n o m i n a l p a i t a 'one' - p r o v i d e s o m e

e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f ne b e i n g u s e d to n e g a t e a n o n - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t i t u e n t s e p a r a t e l y

f r o m t h e p r e d i c a t e itself. A c o n s t i t u e n t like ne-paita c a n b e u s e d o n its o w n as a

r e s p o n s e t o a q u e s t i o n : K w a n a - n i h k a d i - n u ? (who-PAST.VIS.INTER) ' W h o h a s c o m e ? ' c a n

b e a n s w e r e d w i t h n e - k w a n a ( N E G - w h o ) ' N o one.' T h i s p r o v i d e s a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e in

f a v o u r o f ne a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t n e g a t o r for n o n - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t i t u e n t s .

Ne is u s e d a s t h e o n l y p r e d i c a t e n e g a t o r in j u s t o n e c a s e : if f o l l o w e d b y a n i m p e r s o n a l

v e r b ; t h e m e a n i n g is ' i m p o s s i b l e to V E R B ' , e.g. ne p a - k a - n i k i (NEG iMP-see-COMPL)

' i m p o s s i b l e to see', ne p h e p a - n i k i (NEG i M P + a n s w e r - C O M P L ) ' i m p o s s i b l e to a n s w e r ' ; also

s e e 1 7 . 9 0 - 1 .

1 7 . 9 0 n e - p i d a n a p a - p a t u - n i k i

N E G - R E M . P . R E P I M P - c o m e . c l o s e - C O M P L

i : - p u - p i d a n a - n i k i

s t i n k i n g - A U G - R E M . P . R E P - C O M P L

'It w a s i m p o s s i b l e to c o m e n e a r ( b e c a u s e ) it w a s stinking.'

1 7 . 9 1 n e - k a p a - k u i d a d i h a - p a s i - n u k u

N E G - R E C . P . V I S I M P - o v e r c o m e h e - A U G - T O P . N O N . A / S

'It i s i m p o s s i b l e t o o v e r c o m e this b i g one.'

T h e o r i g i n o f ne is n o t clear. It is s h a r e d w i t h T u c a n o ; it is h o w e v e r h a r d to d e c i d e

w h e t h e r it is a b o r r o w i n g o r n o t (see d i s c u s s i o n in § 5 . 4 a n d in C h a p t e r 10 o f A i k h e n v a l d

f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) .

T h e r e is n o o t h e r w o r d for 'no' in t h e l a n g u a g e . T h e i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e hyukade c a n

b e u s e d a s a g e n e r a l n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n o r r e s p o n s e , as in 1 7 . 9 2 - 3 .

1 7 . 9 2 i - r a p a i - k a p u k u d u - a d u - a - p i d a n a - n a

2 p l - d a n c e 2 p l - t u r n 3 s g f - s a y 3 s g f - s a y - R E P 3 p l - O B J

' Y o u t u r n a n d d a n c e , s h e s a i d to t h e m . '

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 4 2 0 17 Negation

1 7 . 9 3 h y u k a d e - n a k a p h i a - n e p i - k e n a n a - p i d a

n o t . a p p e a r - P R E S . V I S y o u - F O C . A / S 2sg-start 3 p l + s a y - R E P

' N o , y o u start, t h e y said.'

O c c a s i o n a l l y , y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s u s e t h e suffix -kade o n its o w n as a n e g a t i v e reply;

b u t t h e y u s u a l l y c o r r e c t t h e m s e l v e s : k a d e - n a k a ( N E G - P R E S . V I S ) w a s u s e d b y E m i i i o Brito

in 1 7 . 9 3 i n s t e a d of h y u k a d e - n a k a a n d t h e n c o n d e m n e d as w r o n g . In fact, E m i i i o t e n d s to

u s e kade a s a n existential n e g a t i v e : in 1 7 . 9 4 h e u s e d kade i n s t e a d o f sede a n d g o t

c o r r e c t e d b y o t h e r s p e a k e r s . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n m a y b e indicative o f a n a d v a n c e d s t a g e

o f l a n g u a g e o b s o l e s c e n c e : in spite o f b e i n g a n e l a b o r a t e a n d witty story-teller in T a r i a n a ,

E m i i i o u s e s m o s t l y T u c a n o in his d a y - t o - d a y c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

1 7 . 9 4 d e : k i n a d i - d i a n a - n a k a d e - p i d a

a f t e r n o o n 3 s g n f - r e t u r n 3 p l - O B J N E G - R E P

' H e r e t u r n e d in t h e a f t e r n o o n , t h e y w e r e n o t there.'

T h e r e is y e t a n o t h e r strategy for n e g a t i v e a n s w e r s to q u e s t i o n s . T o s a y s o m e t h i n g like

'I a m n o t really d o i n g w h a t y o u are a s k i n g m e about', the n e g a t i v e f o r m o f t h e v e r b 'do' is

o f t e n u s e d , a s in 1 7 . 9 5 ('not d o i n g ' ) a n d 1 7 . 9 6 , o r o f t h e v e r b u s e d in t h e q u e s t i o n -

1 7 . 9 7 - 8 . T h i s t e c h n i q u e is also f o u n d in T u c a n o - see d i s c u s s i o n in A i k h e n v a l d

( f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) .

1 7 . 9 5 k w e - n h a p i - n i - k a p h i a ? m a - n i - k a d e - n a k a

w h a t - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R 2 s g - d o - D E C L y o u N E G - d o - N E G - P R E S . V I S

' " W h a t a r e y o u d o i n g ( h e r e ) ? " " N o t h i n g (lit. n o t doing).'"

1 7 . 9 6 is a q u e s t i o n : a n evil spirit in d i s g u i s e a s k e d a m a n w h o w a s floating in a

d a n g e r o u s l a k e w h y h e w a s d o i n g so. T h e m a n a n s w e r e d 1 7 . 9 7 .

1 7 . 9 6 k w e pi-ni p i - r a h t a - n h a

h o w 2 s g - d o 2 s g - f l o a t - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

' W h y a r e y o u floating?'

1 7 . 9 7 m a - n i - k a d e - n a k a m a w a r i d i - n h a - t u p e - p i d a

N E G - d o - N E G - P R E S . V I S s n a k e 3 s g n f - e a t - I M P V . D E T R - I M P V . S E C

'For n o t h i n g , j u s t like that (lit. I d o n o t d o ) , let the s n a k e eat ( m e ) ( h e said).'

In 1 7 , 9 8 , t h e q u e s t i o n a n d t h e a n s w e r c o n t a i n t h e s a m e v e r b .

1 7 . 9 8 k w a k a - n u k u d u - s a p e - n i h k a d u h a

w h a t - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g f - s p e a k - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R s h e

m a - s a p e - k a d e - k a

N E G - s p e a k - N E G - R E C . P . V I S

' " W h a t d i d s h e s a y ? " " N o t h i n g (lit. s h e d i d n o t say)."'

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 1 7 . 7 D o u b l e n e g a t i o n 4 2 1

If a q u e s t i o n is a s k e d in a n e g a t i v e f o r m , a n e g a t i v e a n s w e r will b e g i v e n to c o n f i r m

t h e n e g a t i o n , a s in 1 7 . 9 9 ( r e p e a t e d f r o m 2.16). H e r e , ne is also u s e d as a n e m p h a t i c

n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e 'no! n o t at all'.

1 7 . 9 9 S a n t a T e r e z i n h a - p e n i m a - n u - k a d e - n i h k a n e

S a n t a T e r e z i n h a - P L : A N I M 3 p l - c o m e - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R N E G

" ' H a v e t h e p e o p l e f r o m S a n t a T e r e z i n h a n o t a r r i v e d ? " " N o t at all!"'

A p o s i t i v e a n s w e r w o u l d b e :

1 7 . 1 0 0 n a - n u - k a - s i t a m e d a

3 p l - c o m e - R E C . P . V I S - C O M P L C O U N T E R E X P

' T h e y h a v e a r r i v e d indeed.'

1 7 . 7 D o u b l e n e g a t i o n

N e g a t i o n c a n b e m a r k e d t w i c e in t h e s a m e p r e d i c a t e , to m a k e it stronger. T h e n the

n e g a t i v e proclitic ne is u s e d in front o f t h e u s u a l n e g a t i o n o n t h e p r e d i c a t e - see

e x a m p l e s 1 7 . 2 6 , 1 7 . 5 2 a n d 1 7 . 1 0 1 - or o n t h e first c o m p o n e n t o f a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s in 1 7 . 5 5 .

1 7 . 1 0 1 d i - n a d u - k a n i k h u l i - k h u l i - t h a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g f - r u b R U B - R U B - F R - R E M . P . R E P

n e - m a - s i s a - k a d e - p i d a n a d i - n a - n h i i:-peri

N E G - N E G - e n d - N E G - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T s t i n k - C O L L

' S h e r u b b e d h i m a lot, t h e s t e n c h j u s t d i d n o t stop.'

T h e e m p h a t i c n e g a t o r ne is n o t u s e d w i t h p r o h i b i t i v e ( n o t e that in 1 7 . 4 6 the n e g a t i v e

n e m e a n s 'neither.. .nor'), n o r is it u s e d w i t h h a i d a 'I d o n ' t k n o w ' , n o r w i i h p u k a s u 'not at

all', w i t h m a : k w a 'quiet', m a i k u y a 'shut up', m a n h i n a o r m a h y u n a 'be difficult'. If ne is

e m p l o y e d a s a c l a u s e n e g a t o r , t h e e m p h a t i c ne is n o t u s e d . E m p h a t i c d o u b l e n e g a t i o n

w i t h t h e i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e hyukade is illustrated in 17.62. T h e e m p h a t i c d o u b l e

n e g a t i o n w i t h t h e i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e sede ' n e g a t i v e existential' is illustrated in 1 7 . 1 0 2 ,

a n d w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e m a s a k a d e 'not satisfied' in 1 7 . 1 0 3 .

1 7 . 1 0 2 d i - k a - t h a - p i d a n a d i - u m a n e - s e d e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - s e e - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-try N E G - N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

' H e tried to s e e ( w h e r e t h e m a n i o c b r e a d w a s s u p p o s e d to b e ) , it w a s j u s t n o t

t h e r e at all.'

1 7 . 1 0 3 k a y di-ni k a y a n e - m a - s a - k a d e - p i d a n a

t h u s 3 s g n f - d o a l l . t h e . s a m e N E G - N E G - 7 - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

'After h e d i d this, s h e w a s still n o t at all satisfied.'

1 7 . 1 3 is t h e o n l y e x a m p l e in t h e c o r p u s o f t h e S a n t a R o s a v a r i e t y w h e r e d o u b l e

n e g a t i o n results in a p o s i t i v e m e a n i n g o f the w h o l e clause. S i m i l a r e x a m p l e s are f o u n d

in t h e P e r i q u i t o s variety, e.g. 1 7 . 1 0 4 .

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 4 2 2 / 7 Negation

1 7 . 1 0 4 k a - s a p e - m i a - n a k a w a - s a - d o - n i p e

R E L - s p e a k - O N L Y - P R E S . V I S l p l - s p o u s e - F E M - P L

n h e m a - m i a - n a k a m e d a m h e m a - k a d e - p e n i

3 p l + h e a r - O N L Y - P R E S . V I S C O U N T E R E X P N E G + h e a r - N E G - P L : A N I M

m a - n i - k a d e - m h a w a - s a - d o - n i p e k h e m a - m i a

N E G - d o - N E G - P R E S . V I S l p l - s p o u s e - F E M - P L R E L + h e a r - O N L Y

' O u r w i v e s a r e o n l y t h o s e w h o s p e a k ( T a r i a n a ) , t h e y u n d e r s t a n d it, t h o s e

w h o d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d d o n o t exist (i.e. e v e r y o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e l a n g u a g e ) ,

o u r w i v e s are t h e o n e s w h o u n d e r s t a n d it.'

W h e n t h e i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e l e x e m e s o f g r o u p ( C ) - w h i c h e a c h c o n t a i n t h e o v e r t

n e g a t o r m a — t a k e t h e n e g a t o r -kade t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e resulting f o r m is p o s i t i v e , e.g.

1 7 . 1 0 5 .

1 7 . 1 0 5 m a h y u n a - k a d e - n a k a m e d a p a - i r a - n i p e

b e . d i f f i c u l t - N E G - P R E S . V I S C O U N T E R E X P I M P - d r i n k - N O M

' D r i n k i n g is n o t difficult.'

S i m i l a r e x a m p l e s are u n d e r 1 7 . 8 1 - 2 a n d 1 7 . 8 5 - 6 .

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 18

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g

W e start w i t h a w o r k i n g d e f i n i t i o n o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in § 1 8 . 1 . In § 1 8 . 2 w e

d i s c u s s t h e d e f i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a . A s y m m e t r i c a l ,

s y m m e t r i c a l a n d a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( S V C s ) are c o n s i d e r e d in § 1 8 . 3 - 6 . In

§ 1 8 . 7 w e a n a l y s e v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g patterns.

1 8 . 1 W o r k i n g d e f i n i t i o n o f a s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n

T a r i a n a h a s a c o m p l e x s y s t e m o f serial v e r b s a n d a certain a m o u n t o f v e r b

c o m p o u n d i n g . Serial v e r b s in T a r i a n a p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f c r o s s - l i n g u i s t i c a l l y v a l i d d e f i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s for serial v e r b s . V e r b

serialisation a n d v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g are i n d e p e n d e n t g r a m m a t i c a l p r o c e s s e s , e a c h w i t h a

g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n a n d l e x i c a l i s a t i o n p a t h o f its o w n , a n d w i t h distinct functions. T h e i r

c o - e x i s t e n c e i n o n e l a n g u a g e is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f i c o n i c m o t i v a t i o n : t h e

c l o s e r t h e e l e m e n t s are in s u r f a c e structure, t h e m o r e t h e y are g r a m m a t i c a l ised or

l e x i c a l i s e d ( s e e A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 e ) .

A serial c o n s t r u c t i o n is d e f i n e d a s a s e q u e n c e o f s e v e r a l v e r b s w h i c h act t o g e t h e r as a

s i n g l e p r e d i c a t e ; it h a s all o r s o m e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s (see D u r i e 1 9 9 7 , a n d t h e

s u m m a r y in A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 e ) :

(I) A serial c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f a single p r e d i c a t e : (a) it refers to a

s i n g l e e v e n t ; (b) it f u n c t i o n s o n a p a r w i t h m o n o v e r b a l c l a u s e s in d i s c o u r s e ; (c)

it h a s a s i n g l e subject; (d) it h a s s h a r e d t e n s e / a s p e c t , m o d a l i t y a n d , often,

p o l a r i t y v a l u e ; (e) v e r b s in a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t e n s h a r e o t h e r a r g u m e n t s .

(II) A serial c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s t h e i n t o n a t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f a m o n o v e r b a l c l a u s e ,

a n d n o t o f a s e q u e n c e o f c l a u s e s .

(III) E a c h o f t h e v e r b s w h i c h f o r m a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is a n i n d e p e n d e n t

g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d , a n d its c o m p o n e n t s act t o g e t h e r a s a syntactic w h o l e . A

serial c o n s t r u c t i o n o c c u p i e s o n e c o r e f u n c t i o n a l slot in a s e n t e n c e o r c l a u s e

structure.

( I V ) Serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e m o n o c l a u s a l a n d a l l o w n o m a r k e r s o f syntactic

d e p e n d e n c y b e t w e e n their c o m p o n e n t s . T h i s d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e m f r o m

s u b o r d i n a t e o r c o o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s . ( T h i s is o n l y valid for l a n g u a g e s - s u c h a s

T a r i a n a - w h i c h h a v e explicit m a r k e r s o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n o r c o o r d i n a t i o n . )

( V ) Serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s a n d o t h e r

V e r b + V e r b s e q u e n c e s that are syntactically c o m b i n e d , b u t w h i c h c a n n o t b e

p r e d i c a t e s o n their o w n . F o r this r e a s o n , c o m p l e x v e r b f o r m s like perfect or

c o n t i n u o u s in E n g l i s h a r e n o t serial v e r b s , a n d n e i t h e r are c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s in

T a r i a n a ( s e e C h a p t e r 19).

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 4 2 4 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are o f t h r e e k i n d s .

( A ) A S Y M M E T R I C A L S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S c o n s i s t o f o n e v e r b c h o s e n f r o m a

l a r g e o p e n class, a n d t h e o t h e r s e l e c t e d f r o m a s m a l l , c l o s e d set, s u c h as m o t i o n or

p o s t u r e v e r b s , e.g. f l y - c o m e = fly t o w a r d s ( s o m e t h i n g ) . A s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s u s u a l l y c o r r e s p o n d to a single e v e n t d e s c r i b e d b y the v e r b f r o m a large

class, a n d t h e v e r b f r o m a c l o s e d class p r o v i d e s a n a d d i t i o n a l directional o r a s p e c t u a l

specification. Serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f this t y p e m a y h a v e a s p e c t u a l , directional or m o d a l

m e a n i n g s , a n d c a n a l s o b e e m p l o y e d a s v a l e n c y - c h a n g i n g m e c h a n i s m s . T h e transitivity

v a l u e o f a n a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a w h o l e is u s u a l l y t h e s a m e as that

o f t h e v e r b f r o m a n o p e n class. T h u s , this v e r b c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e 'main' v e r b , or 'the

h e a d ' o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , o n s e m a n t i c a n d syntactic g r o u n d s . T h e o r d e r o f c o n s t i t u e n t s

d o e s n o t h a v e to b e iconic.

( B ) S Y M M E T R I C A L S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S are t h e o n e s in w h i c h all the v e r b s

c o m e f r o m a l a r g e o p e n class. U n l i k e a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s , t h e c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r is

i c o n i c , a n d it reflects t h e o r d e r o f e v e n t s . S y m m e t r i c a l serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s are n o t

' h e a d e d ' in t h e w a y t h e a s y m m e t r i c a l o n e s are; this m e a n s that all their c o m p o n e n t s are

'equal' in t h a t n o n e o f t h e m d e t e r m i n e s t h e s e m a n t i c o r syntactic p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a w h o l e . S y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s are u s e d for s e q u e n t i a l l i n k i n g (cf.

serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h 'verb co-lexicalisation' d i s c u s s e d in G i v o n 1 9 9 1 : 138), a n d to

e x p r e s s c a u s e - e f f e c t - a n d g o a l - b e n e f a c t i v e - t y p e relations b e t w e e n t h e c o m p o n e n t s . T h e y

o f t e n refer t o s e v e r a l e v e n t s c l o s e l y k n i t together. T h e y are c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y h e a v y

l e x i c a l i s a t i o n a n d t e n d to b e c o m e i d i o m - l i k e , e.g. ' O r o N a o ( C h a p a c u r a n , B r a z i l )

( E v e r e t t a n d K e r n 1 9 9 7 ) x i r a m p a ' ( p r e s s . d o w n kill) 'feel sorry for s o m e o n e ' . T h i s

h a p p e n s b e c a u s e t h e 'typing' o f certain e v e n t s is m a t c h e d b y s t e r e o t y p i n g o f v e r b

c o m b i n a t i o n s u s e d to r e p r e s e n t t h e m (see D u r i e 1 9 9 7 : 3 2 2 ) .

( c ) A M B I E N T S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S are v e r b s e q u e n c e s in w h i c h o n e o f the v e r b s

is u s e d a s a k i n d o f m o d i f i e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e other, e.g. T a m a m b o ( O c e a n i c : J a u n c e y

1 9 9 7 ) loli ( d o ) m a h e r e (be.right) 'do in the right way'. W h e r e a s at least o n e v e r b in

a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s is g e n e r a l l y d r a w n f r o m a s m a l l s u b c l a s s , t h o s e

in a m b i e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n s m a y c o m e f r o m a large s u b c l a s s o f v e r b s . A m b i e n t

c o n s t r u c t i o n s o c c u p y a n i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n a s y m m e t r i c a l a n d s y m m e t r i c a l

serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s a s far a s t h e o b l i g a t o r y iconicity o f c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r a n d a r g u m e n t

s h a r i n g are c o n c e r n e d . S i m i l a r l y to a s y m m e t r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s , the transitivity o f the

w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d b y that o f the 'main' v e r b ( a n d n o t the 'modifier' verb).

C o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h a m b i e n t serialisation c a n t h u s b e c o n s i d e r e d 'headed' structures.

T h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y iconic. T h e 'modifier' v e r b is s i m i l a r to a

m a n n e r a d v e r b .

1 8 . 2 D e f i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a

V e r b serialisation is p e r v a s i v e in T a r i a n a . M o r e t h a n 7 0 p e r c e n t o f c l a u s e s in texts a n d

c o n v e r s a t i o n c o n t a i n serial v e r b s . Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in t h e c o r p u s c o l l e c t e d c a n

i n c l u d e u p t o s e v e n s i m p l e v e r b s . T h e y are strictly c o n t i g u o u s , i.e. n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t

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 18.2 Defining properties of serial verb constructions in Tariana 4 2 5

c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n their c o m p o n e n t s . T h e r e is j u s t o n e g e n e r a l restriction: a serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n n o t c o n s i s t o f stative (S 0 ) v e r b s only.

E a c h c o m p o n e n t o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is a n i n d e p e n d e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d : it

h a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t stress a n d enclitics c a n a t t a c h to it. E a c h c o m p o n e n t is also a n

i n d e p e n d e n t g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d a n d c o u l d f u n c t i o n a s a p r e d i c a t e o n its o w n . B e s i d e s

p r e f i x e s , e a c h c o m p o n e n t c a n t a k e suffixes in p o s i t i o n s 3 a n d 4 (see S c h e m e 12.1).

O t h e r s u f f i x e s a n d enclitics a p p e a r o n c e p e r c o n s t r u c t i o n - s e e b e l o w o n affix-sharing.

E a c h c o m p o n e n t o f a serial v e r b r e q u i r e s t h e s a m e s u b j e c t c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g if it is a

t r a n s i t i v e o r a n a c t i v e intransitive p r e f i x e d v e r b . T h i s m e a n s identical c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g

for p e r s o n , n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r o f s u b j e c t ( A / S a ) . 18.1 h a s a n e x a m p l e o f a l o n g i s h serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) .

18.1 a w a d u [di-ara d i - m u s u d i - n u

b a c u r a u . b i r d 3sgnf-fly 3 s g n f - g o o u t 3 s g n f - c o m e

d i - u k a d i - w h a - p i d a n a ]

3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3 s g n f - s i t - R E M . P . R E P

T h e b u c u r a - b i r d a r r i v e d h e r e ( f r o m t h e r e ) (lit. h e f l e w - h e w e n t - h e c a m e - h e

a r r i v e d - h e sat).'

If a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a relative c l a u s e , all its c o m p o n e n t s are

m a r k e d w i t h t h e relativising p r e f i x ka-, a s in 18.2.

18.2 k u p h e [ k a - n a - k a r i k a - n h a ]

fish R E L - w a n t - P A S T . R E L R E L - e a t

'the o n e w h o h a d w a n t e d t o eat fish.'

S t r o n g e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f s a m e s u b j e c t c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g as a d e f i n i n g p r o p e r t y o f

serial v e r b s in T a r i a n a c o m e s f r o m c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s (see § 1 3 . 3 . 2 ) . T h e

c a u s a t i v i s e d v e r b a n d t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n h a v e different u n d e r l y i n g subjects.

S e m a n t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , c a u s a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s in serialising l a n g u a g e s often r e q u i r e

'that t h e o b j e c t o f o n e v e r b a n d t h e s u b j e c t o f a n o t h e r b e p r e f e r e n t i a l ' ( F o l e y a n d O l s o n

1 9 8 5 : 2 5 ) . T a r i a n a e m p l o y s a n o t h e r , m u c h rarer t e c h n i q u e , labelled ' c o n c o r d a n t

d e p e n d e n t inflection' ( D u r i e 1 9 9 7 ) . It i n v o l v e s c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e v e r b

o f c a u s a t i o n o n all t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n , e v e n t h o u g h the t w o v e r b s

h a v e different u n d e r l y i n g subjects. T h e u n d e r l y i n g s u b j e c t o f t h e c a u s a t i v i s e d v e r b , that

is, t h e c a u s e e , is m a r k e d w i t h t h e - n a c a s e if e x p r e s s e d w i t h a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n , a s in

1 3 . 6 3 a n d 1 3 . 6 5 , o r w i t h t h e - n u k u c a s e , as in 1 3 . 6 4 a n d 1 8 . 3 . 9 . 2 0 c o n t a i n s b o t h c a s e

m a r k e r s . T h e c a u s e e c a n b e o m i t t e d a l t o g e t h e r if clear f r o m the c o n t e x t .

In 18.3 it is c l e a r f r o m t h e c o n t e x t that t h e s p e a k e r d i d n o t eat t h e s o n h i m s e l f ; h e let

t h e traira fish eat h i m .

18.3 k a : m - k a n u h a [ n u - a - m a h k a n u - n h a - n i k i ]

f e a r - S U B I l s g - g i v e / l e t - R E C . P . N O N V I S 1 s g - e a t - C O M P L

p i r i - n u k u i n i r i - n u k u

2 s g + s o n - T O P . N O N . A / S t r a i r a . f i s h - T O P . N O N . A / S

' B e i n g afraid, I let the traira-fish eat (lit. I let-I e a t ) y o u r son.'

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 4 2 6 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

S e v e r a l different s u b t y p e s o f c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d in

§ 1 8 . 3 .

O t h e r d e f i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n c l u d e s h a r e d t e n s e -

evidentiality, a s p e c t , m o d a l i t y a n d polarity v a l u e , s h a r e d m a r k e r s o f syntactic function,

s h a r e d n o m i n a l i s e r s a n d p r o s o d i c a n d o t h e r characteristics o f a m o n o v e r b a l c l a u s e .

I n d i v i d u a l v e r b s in a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a c a n n o t h a v e a n i n d e p e n d e n t

c h o i c e for t e n s e , a s p e c t , evidentiality, m o o d or m o d a l i t y . Enclitics c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a w h o l e a n d u s u a l l y a p p e a r o n c e in a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n (see

C h a p t e r 2 5 for m o r e details). In 18.1 t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y enclitic ' r e m o t e p a s t

r e p o r t e d ' is a t t a c h e d to t h e e n d o f t h e serial c o n s t r u c t i o n ; in 18.3 the t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y

enclitic g o e s o n t h e first c o m p o n e n t a n d t h e c o m p l e t i v e a s p e c t m a r k e r g o e s o n t h e

s e c o n d o n e . W e d i s c u s s t h e rules for t h e p l a c e m e n t o f enclitics in different serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n t y p e s in § 1 8 . 3 - 5 .

S i m i l a r l y , t h e r e is j u s t o n e polarity m a r k e r in a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . It c o n s i s t s o f

t h e p r e f i x m a - ( o n a p r e f i x e d v e r b ) a n d suffix - k a d e , a n d u s u a l l y a p p e a r s o n the first

c o m p o n e n t o f a serial v e r b b u t n e g a t i n g t h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n (see § 1 7 . 2 ) . T h e

c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial v e r b c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d separately. T h e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p r e f i x e s

c a n n o t o c c u r w i t h t h e n e g a t i v e p r e f i x m a - , d u e to restrictions o n t h e n u m b e r o f prefix

p o s i t i o n s i n T a r i a n a v e r b s . S i n c e t h e p r e f i x m a - a p p e a r s o n t h e first v e r b in a serial

c o n s t r u c t i o n , this v e r b d o e s n o t also s h o w its c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefixes. T h u s , the

c o m p o n e n t s o f a n e g a t e d serial v e r b d o n o t g e t t h e s a m e s u r f a c e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g ,

a l t h o u g h p o s i t i v e serial v e r b s d o . T h i s is s h o w n in 17.7 w h i c h c o n t a i n s a n e g a t e d

c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ('order-kill'); s e e d i s c u s s i o n there. O t h e r e x a m p l e s are

17.5 a n d 17.6. If a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n s a n i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e p r e d i c a t e t h e

w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s a n e g a t i v e m e a n i n g , a s in 1 7 . 1 7 a n d 1 7 . 1 8 .

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a k e j u s t o n e m a r k e r o f syntactic d e p e n d e n c y w h i c h g o e s

o n t o t h e last c o m p o n e n t o f a serial v e r b , a s d o e s - n i s a w a ' W H I L E . D S ' in 18.4.

1 8 . 4 [ d h e d i - a - n i s a w a ] , [ d u - h e d u - n u - p i d a n a ]

3 s g n f + e n t e r 3 s g n f - g o - W H I L E : D S 3 s g f - e n t e r 3 s g f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

' W h i l e h e w a s c o m i n g in, s h e entered.'

If a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s t o b e c a s e - m a r k e d , it r e c e i v e s j u s t o n e c a s e m a r k e r -

this c o n f i r m s t h e status o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a single constituent. In 18.5 a

serial v e r b w h i c h f u n c t i o n s a s t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a relative c l a u s e a n d is m a r k e d w i t h ka-

'relativiser' t a k e s o n e c a s e - m a r k e r p l a c e d o n its final c o m p o n e n t .

18.5 d i h a ifie di-thi-sedite n a h a n a w i k i

A R T d e v i l 3 s g n f - e y e - N E G + N C L : A N I M t h e y p e o p l e

[ k e m a k a - k w a - n u k u ] p u a y a - p i d a n a di-ni-pita

R E L + s t a n d R E L - h a n g - T O P . N O N . A / S d i f f e r e n t - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - d o - R E P

T h e e y e l e s s d e v i l d i d s o m e t h i n g different (i.e. a d v e r s e ) to the p e o p l e w h o w e r e

l y i n g in their h a m m o c k s for a l o n g t i m e (lit. s t a n d - h a n g ) . '

A s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e w i t h a t e m p o r a l m e a n i n g a n d a s e q u e n c i n g enclitic c a n t a k e t h e

t o p i c a l n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e m a r k e r - n u k u (see § 2 2 . 1 ) w h i c h g o e s o n t o t h e last c o m p o n e n t

o f a serial v e r b f o l l o w i n g t h e m a r k e r o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n ; - n i s a w a ' W H I L E . D S ' is s h o w n in

18.6. T h e s u b j e c t o f t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e is n o t e x p r e s s e d w i t h a n o u n p h r a s e .

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 1 8 . 2 Defining p r o p e r t i e s of s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a 4 2 7

1 8 . 6 s o m e [ n a - s i m e t a n a - n i - n i s a w a - n u k u ]

m u c h 3pl-do.ritual.talking 3 p l - d o - W H I L E : D S - T O P . N O N . A / S

h i k u - s i n a w a - w h e - r i - h a

a p p e a r - R E M . P A S T . I N F R l p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - P A U S

'At t h a t m o m e n t , w h e n t h e y w e r e e n g a g e d in ritual talking, o u r g r a n d f a t h e r

a p p e a r e d . '

M o d a l w o r d s like m a 'let's ( d o s o m e t h i n g ) ' a n d w a s a 'let's go' c a n n o t h a v e a n

i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t o f a serial v e r b as their s c o p e - t h e y refer to t h e w h o l e

c o n s t r u c t i o n . T e m p o r a l a n d m a n n e r a d v e r b s b e h a v e in t h e s a m e w a y ; for i n s t a n c e ,

w a l i k a s u 'in t h e b e g i n n i n g ' in 1 8 . 2 2 refers to t h e serial c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a w h o l e .

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e s o m e p r o s o d i c p r o p e r t i e s o f a m o n o v e r b a l c l a u s e (cf.

G i v o n 1 9 9 1 ) . I h a v e m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n are s e p a r a t e

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s , s i n c e t h e y h a v e i n d e p e n d e n t stress. T h e y differ f r o m o t h e r

p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s in t h a t n o s e g m e n t a l p a u s e m a r k e r c a n b e inserted b e t w e e n the

c o m p o n e n t s . In 2 . 3 8 t h e n a s a l p a u s e m a r k e r is inserted after t h e last c o m p o n e n t o f a

serial v e r b . In 1 8 . 7 t h e final v o w e l o f t h e last c o m p o n e n t is l e n g t h e n e d , to m a r k a p a u s e

b e t w e e n t w o a d j a c e n t c l a u s e s . A p a u s e o f a n y sort b e t w e e n t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial

c o n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d b e u n g r a m m a t i c a l ( * h a l i a d i - s w a : di-a ( d a w n 3 s g n f - s t a y - P A U S

3 s g n f - g o ) , a n d s e e 2 . 3 9 ) .

1 8 . 7 n e - p i d a n a [halia d i - s w a di-a:]

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P d a w n 3 s g n f - s t a y 3 s g n f - g o : P A U S

h a l i a - k a d i - s w a

d a w n - S U B 3 s g n f - s t a y

' T h e n it w a s d a w n i n g (lit. d a w n - s t a y - g o ) ( P A U S E ) . W h e n it h a d d a w n e d ( s h e g o t

o f f a tree)...'

W h e n p r e d i c a t e s o r c l a u s e s a r e c o o r d i n a t e d , t h e r e is a characteristic ' e n u m e r a t i n g '

i n t o n a t i o n . ( T h e p h r a s e - f i n a l syllable is l e n g t h e n e d a n d t h e p i t c h o f t h e p h r a s e final

syllable falls - s e e §2.9.) T h i s i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n is n o t u s e d w i t h c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial

c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a f u n c t i o n o n a p a r w i t h m o n o v e r b a l c l a u s e s in

d i s c o u r s e . A test for a m o n o p r e d i c a t i v e r e a d i n g o f serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s is p r o v i d e d b y

r e p e t i t i o n a s a n a n s w e r to a y e s - n o q u e s t i o n , a f r e q u e n t p h e n o m e n o n in T a r i a n a

n a r r a t i v e s . I n 1 8 . 9 j u s t t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f a t h r e e - c o m p o n e n t serial c o n s t r u c t i o n are

r e p e a t e d i n a n a n s w e r t o a q u e s t i o n i n 18.8.

18.8 p h i a - n i h k a [phita p i - t h a k e - t a

y o u - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 2 s g + t a k e 2 s g - c r o s s + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

p i - e m e ] h a - n e - n a

2 s g - s t a n d + C A U S D E M - D I S T A L - C L : V E R T

h y a p a - n a - n u k u h a - n e - r i k u - m a - s e

h i l l - C L : V E R T - T O P . N O N . A / S D E M - D I S T A L - C L : L O C - C L : P A I R - L O C

' W a s it y o u w h o b r o u g h t that m o u n t a i n a c r o s s (lit. t a k e - c r o s s - p u t . u p r i g h t ) (the

river) t o t h e o t h e r s i d e ? ( a s k e d t h e king).'

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 4 2 8 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

1 8 . 9 n u h u a - k a [ n h u t a n u - t h a k e t a ]

1 s g - R E C . P . V I S 1s g + t a k e 1s g - c r o s s + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

' " ( Y e s ) , it w a s m e w h o b r o u g h t (it) a c r o s s (lit. t a k e - c r o s s ) , " (said t h e y o u n g m a n ) . '

If t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a c l a u s e h a s to b e r e p e a t e d for clarification, at least t w o

c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n h a v e to b e r e p e a t e d , b u t n e v e r j u s t o n e

c o m p o n e n t , a s in 1 8 . 1 0 (serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) .

1 8 . 1 0 [ n a - m u s u n a - n u n e m a ] d i h a - p u a - n a k u

3 p l - g o . o u t 3 p l - c o m e 3 p l + s t a n d A R T - C L : R I V E R - T O P . N O N . A / S

[ n a - m u s u - s i n a n a - n u ] d a r u - d a p a n a - n u k u

3 p l - g o . o u t - R E M . P . I N F R 3 p l - c o m e p a r a k e e t - C L : H A B - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h e y ( t h e a n c e s t o r s o f T a r i a n a s ) w e n t o u t to stay in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f that river (lit.

g o . o u t - c o m e - s t a n d ) , t h e y w e n t o u t in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e H o u s e o f P a r a k e e t ( a n

i s l a n d o n t h e U p p e r V a u p e s ) . '

T h e m o n o p r e d i c a t i v e r e a d i n g o f serial v e r b s is c o r r o b o r a t e d b y intuitions o f n a t i v e

s p e a k e r s . A serial c o n s t r u c t i o n is b e s t translated w i t h a m o n o v e r b a l c l a u s e into a n o n -

serialising l a n g u a g e , s u c h a s E n g l i s h o r P o r t u g u e s e . D u r i n g early f i e l d w o r k s e s s i o n s ,

o n e o f t h e c o n s u l t a n t s r e m a r k e d , 'It i s n o t like P o r t u g u e s e , w e j u s t c a n n o t s a y it w i t h o n e

verb.'

C o m p o n e n t s o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e a fixed w o r d order. W e will s e e in

C h a p t e r 2 5 that t h e c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r in T a r i a n a is syntactically free, w h i l e t h e o r d e r o f

w o r d s w i t h i n a c o n s t i t u e n t d i s p l a y s different d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m d e p e n d i n g o n its type.

If t w o serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in a d j a c e n t c l a u s e s c o n t a i n t h e s a m e v e r b , this v e r b

c a n n o t u n d e r g o E q u i - d e l e t i o n - that is, t w o c o n s t r u c t i o n s [nenu na:] [na-musu na:]

( [ 3 p l + g o . u p 3 p l + g o ] [ 3 p l - g o . o u t 3 p l + g o ] ) 'they started g o i n g u p , t h e y started g o i n g out'

c a n n o t b e c o n j o i n e d a s * n e n u n a - m u s u na:.

A l l t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n m u s t b e different v e r b s . In this

r e s p e c t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s differ f r o m c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w i t h repetition (see

§ § 1 9 . 1 - 3 ) .

I d i o m a t i c s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are treated a s o n e l e x e m e b y n a t i v e

s p e a k e r s . D u r i n g t h e d i c t i o n a r y w o r k , s p e a k e r s insisted that c o m b i n a t i o n s like -halite

-pala (tell-put) 'boast, c o m p l a i n ' a n d -yena - e m a ( p a s s - s t a n d ) 'be arrogant' s h o u l d b e

i n c l u d e d a s s e p a r a t e entries. S p e a k e r s h a d difficulties in p r o v i d i n g a s e p a r a t e translation

for m o t i o n v e r b s in d i r e c t i o n a l a n d a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e.g. -uka 'reach,

t h r o w , m a n a g e ' w h i c h h a s t h e m e a n i n g o f a resultative in a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b s (as in

e x a m p l e s 7 . 5 1 , 1 5 . 7 9 , 1 5 . 1 1 2 a n d 1 8 . 1 9 ) a n d - w a 'enter t h e j u n g l e , a little s t r e a m , or a

h o u s e ' , e x p l a i n i n g that t h e s e v e r b s h a v e 'no m e a n i n g ' o u t s i d e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

A n a d d i t i o n a l p r o p e r t y o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a w h i c h p r o v i d e s

i n t e r e s t i n g e v i d e n c e in f a v o u r o f their m o n o p r e d i c a t i v e c h a r a c t e r is 'affix sharing'.

N o m i n a i i s i n g d e r i v a t i o n a l suffixes a p p e a r o n c e p e r serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , n o r m a l l y o n

its first c o m p o n e n t , c h a r a c t e r i s i n g it as a w h o l e . F o r instance, p a - h a - n i t e p a - k w a ( I M P -

w e a r - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N i M i M P - h a n g ) literally 'the o n e o n e w e a r s a n d lies in a h a m m o c k

(on)' is a s t a n d a r d t e r m for a b l a n k e t , p a - r u k u - r i p a : ( i M P - g o . d o w n - R E L i M P + g o ) , literally

' g o i n g d o w n go', m e a n s 'descent', a n d p h e - r i p a : (iMP+enter-REL I M P + g o ) , literally

'entering go', m e a n s 'entrance'. T h e t e r m for d o m e s t i c a t e d c o w c o n t a i n s a n o m i n a l i s e d

c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n : it is h e m a na:-nite n a - h h a (tapir 3 p l + g i v e -

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 18.2 Defining properties of serial verb constructions in Tariana 4 2 9

T O P . A D V + N C L i A N l M 3pl-eat), literally, 'a t a p i r to w h o m f o o d is given'. Similarly, in 18.2

t h e suffix -kari 'past relative' g o e s o n t h e first c o m p o n e n t o f the serial v e r b b u t refers to

t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a w h o l e . 1 8 . 1 1 c o n t a i n s a n e x a m p l e o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s n o m i n a l i s e d w i t h -nipe 'action a n d o b j e c t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' ( o n its first

c o m p o n e n t ) . H e r e , t h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is in t h e p r e d i c a t e slot, a n d this is w h y it

t a k e s t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k e r . F u r t h e r e x a m p l e s are g i v e n in C h a p t e r 2 0 .

1 8 . 1 1 [ p i n u - n i p e p i - d i a p i - n u ] - n a k a

2 s g + k i l l - N O M 2 s g - r e t u r n 2 s g - c o m e - P R E S . V I S

' T h i s is w h a t y o u killed o n y o u r r e t u r n (lit. kill-return-come).'

A n o m i n a l i s e d serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n t a k e s o n e o b l i q u e c a s e suffix w h i c h t h e n g o e s

o n t h e last c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n . 1 8 . 1 2 illustrates the u s e o f the n o m i n a l i s i n g

affix - m i 'locative a n d o b j e c t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' w i t h -se 'locative case'. T h i s is f o l l o w e d b y

t h e e m p h a t i c enclitic -a.

1 8 . 1 2 p i - n a [ n u - a n u - s u e - t a - d e ]

2 s g - O B J 1s g - g o 1s g - s t a y + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - F U T . C E R T

u p i m i - y a - s e - a p i - n a [ n u h t a - m i

o l d - E M P H - L O C - E M P H 2 s g - O B J 1 s g + t a k e - L O C . N O M

n u - n u ] - s e - y a

l s g - c o m e - L O C - E M P H

'I w i l l p u t y o u o n t o t h e s a m e p l a c e , right w h e r e I b r o u g h t y o u f r o m (lit. f r o m the

p l a c e I t a k e I c o m e (you)).'

A f f i x s h a r i n g i m p l i e s a h i g h d e g r e e o f c o h e s i o n b e t w e e n the c o m p o n e n t s o f a serial

v e r b ( w h i c h a r e i n d e p e n d e n t g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d s - s e e § 1 2 . 4 ) .

V e r b s w h i c h f o r m a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n n o t t a k e s e p a r a t e m a r k e r s o f syntactic

d e p e n d e n c y , e.g. c o m p l e m e n t i s e r s (cf. D u r i e 1 9 9 7 , N o o n a n 1 9 8 5 ) . T h i s p r o p e r t y o f

serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s h e l p s t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m f r o m c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s a n d o t h e r

s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , c o n v e r b a l c l a u s e s (e.g. Mary came in l a u g h i n g ) , a n d p r e d i c a t e

c o o r d i n a t i o n . 1 8 . 1 3 s h o w s a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) ; its p r e d i c a t e ,

p h i m a k a 'dry, c o o k e d ' , t a k e s a s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka. T h i s is n o t a serial v e r b - s e e C h a p t e r

2 4 .

1 8 . 1 3 [ p h i m a k a - k a ] d u - k a

[ c o o k e d - S U B ] 3 sgf-see

' S h e s a w that (it) w a s c o o k e d . '

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s , s u c h as p a s s i v e , a d m i r a t i v e o r a p p r e h e n s i v e , c a n b e easily

d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ; see § 1 9 . 1 2 .

T h e T a r i a n a s p o k e n b y y o u n g e r p e o p l e s h o w s a n u m b e r o f i n n o v a t i o n s . S o m e

s p e a k e r s c o n s t a n t l y v i o l a t e t h e restriction o n t h e c o n t i g u i t y o f serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s :

a l o n g s i d e r e g u l a r a w a k a d a - s e n u - a n u - e m h a n i (jungle-LOC 1s g - g o l s g - w a l k ) Til g o for a

w a l k in t h e j u n g l e ' o n e h e a r s n u - a a w a k a d a - s e n u - e m h a n i . A serial c o n s t r u c t i o n

c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o disyllabic w o r d s c a n b e p r o n o u n c e d as o n e w o r d in r a p i d s p e e c h . T h i s

is illustrated w i t h 1 8 . 1 4 a ( n o r m a l s p e e c h ) a n d 1 8 . 1 4 b (rapid s p e e c h ) .

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 4 3 0 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

1 8 . 1 4 a i-he i-nu

2 p l - e n t e r 2 p l - c o m e

' C o m e in!'

1 8 . 1 4 b h i n u

2 p l - e n t e r + 2 p l - c o m e

' C o m e in!'

T a r i a n a d i s t i n g u i s h e s a s y m m e t r i c a l , s y m m e t r i c a l a n d a m b i e n t serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , d i s c u s s e d in § 1 8 . 3 - 5 . In § 1 8 . 6 w e c o m p a r e t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

1 8 . 3 A s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

B y their s e m a n t i c s , a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a fall into ( A )

a s p e c t u a l , ( B ) d i r e c t i o n a l , ( c ) m o d a l , (D) c a u s a t i v e , (E) b e n e f a c t i v e , ( F ) sociative, (G)

r e c a p i t u l a t i n g , (H) anticipatory, (I) s u p e r l a t i v e a n d (J) abilitative types. A d d i t i o n a l

a s y m m e t r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d u n d e r ( K ) .

( A ) A S P E C T U A L S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S . A s p e c t u a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

p r o v i d e a n a d d i t i o n a l a s p e c t u a l a n d / o r A k t i o n s a r t specification. T h e y c o n s i s t o f a v e r b

f r o m a n o p e n c l a s s ( w h i c h c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e s e m a n t i c h e a d o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n )

f o l l o w e d b y a v e r b f r o m a c l o s e d class. T h i s s e c o n d v e r b c a n b e a m o t i o n v e r b (e.g. -uka

'arrive', -pe 'throw'), a p o s t u r e v e r b (e.g. -ema 'stand, stay'), a p h a s e v e r b (e.g. - k e n a

'start', -sita 'finish'), o r t h e v e r b -ni 'do'. In T a r i a n a , m o t i o n v e r b s a n d p o s t u r e v e r b s are

c l o s e d c l a s s e s . M e a n i n g s e x p r e s s e d w i t h a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n c l u d e

d u r a t i o n , c o m p l e t i o n , different p h a s e s o f t h e a c t i o n (e.g. b e g i n n i n g or finishing) a n d t h e

m a n n e r in w h i c h it is p e r f o r m e d .

A n a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f a stative v e r b a n d t h e v e r b 'go'

m e a n s ' b e c o m e ' , a s in 1 8 . 1 5 . S e e ( B ) b e l o w o n serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t i n g o f the

v e r b 'go' a n d a n a c t i v e v e r b .

1 8 . 1 5 i y a [ser e m i d i - a - p i d a n a ]

r a i n d r i z z l e 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e r a i n b e c a m e a drizzle.'

T h e p o s t u r e v e r b s 'stand', 'lie' a n d 'sit' e x p r e s s d u r a t i o n ; t h e y differ as to w h a t o t h e r

m e a n i n g s r e l a t e d t o t h e internal structure o f t h e e v e n t t h e y carry. T a b l e 18.1 features a n

o v e r v i e w o f t h e v e r b s w h i c h i m p a r t a s p e c t u a l m e a n i n g s w h e n e m p l o y e d in serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s . N o t e v e r y p o s t u r e v e r b is u s e d w i t h a n a s p e c t u a l m e a n i n g w i t h i n a serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e v e r b -kwa ' h a n g , lie in h a m m o c k ' is n o t u s e d this w a y . H o w e v e r ,

a s w a s n o t e d in § 1 1 . 1 1 , this r o o t w a s g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d a s a p o s t p o s i t i o n . T h e p o s t u r e

v e r b s u s e d in a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , w h e n e m p l o y e d as i n d e p e n d e n t

p r e d i c a t e s o r a s 'lexical' v e r b s in a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s , s h o w s o m e c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h

t h e s h a p e a n d size o f their S a r g u m e n t . S e e § 2 6 . 2 . 3 for further d i s c u s s i o n o f p o s i t i o n a l

v e r b s .

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 1 8 . 3 A s y m m e t r i c a l s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s 4 3 1

T h e p o s t u r e v e r b - e m a 'stand' is u s e d t o i n d i c a t e a p r o l o n g e d c o m p l e t e d action, a s in

1 8 . 1 6 . S i m i l a r e x a m p l e s are 1 5 . 2 7 a n d 1 5 . 5 3 . If n o t in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a n o t h e r m o t i o n

o r p o s t u r e v e r b it m a y c o m b i n e r e f e r e n c e to t h e 'standing' p o s i t i o n o f t h e subject, a s in

1 5 . 1 2 7 a n d 1 4 . 9 4 .

1 8 . 1 6 m a s i p i r u - t a k u [ n a - w h a n e m a - n h i n a ]

b u t t e r f l y - C L : P O I N T 3pl-sit 3 p l + s t a n d - A N T + R E M . P . V I S

' T h e y s t a y e d at t h e B u t t e r f l y p o i n t (for a l o n g t i m e a n d t h e n w e n t o n to a n o t h e r

place).'

T h e p o s t u r e v e r b - s w a 'lie' s i m p l y refers to a p r o l o n g e d action. T h i s v e r b often o c c u r s

w i t h 'fall', a s i n 1 8 . 1 7 , 1 5 . 1 3 9 a n d 1 7 . 5 5 . E x a m p l e s 7.5, 15.4, 1 5 . 1 7 2 a n d 1 7 . 6 5 illustrate

its u s e w i t h v e r b s o f o t h e r s e m a n t i c g r o u p s .

1 8 . 1 7 k a d a w a [ d i - w h a d i - s w a ]

d a r k n e s s 3sgnf-fall 3sgnf-lie

'It g e t s d a r k ( a r o u n d 7 o'clock).'

T h e p o s t u r e v e r b - w h a 'sit' refers to a p r o l o n g e d a c t i o n o n g o i n g at t h e m o m e n t o f

s p e e c h o r w i t h i n t h e t i m e - f r a m e o f t h e text, as in 1 8 . 1 8 ( h e r e t h e a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n a l s o c o n t a i n s a m o d a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n - see b e l o w ) , 1 5 . 1 4 6 a n d

T 3 . 8 .

1 8 . 1 8 k a y n a - n i - n i s a w a [ [ d i m a d i - m a y a n a ]

t h u s 3 p l - d o - W H I L E : D S 3 s g n f + s l e e p 3 s g n f - c h e a t

d i - w h a ] - p i d a n a d i h a

3 s g n f - s i t - R E M . P . R E P h e

' W h i l e t h e y d i d t h u s , h e w a s p r e t e n d i n g to b e a s l e e p (for a l o n g time).'

C o m p l e t i o n is e x p r e s s e d w i t h t h e v e r b -sita 'finish; m a n a g e ' , illustrated in 12.50,

1 5 . 3 6 a n d 1 5 . 5 8 . In t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect, this v e r b h a s b e e n g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d a s a

p e r f e c t i v e m a r k e r ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n in § 1 5 . 1 . 8 , a n d A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 b ) . T h i s

g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n h a s n o t t a k e n p l a c e in t h e P e r i q u i t o s variety.

T h e v e r b - u k a 'arrive' is u s e d to m a r k t h e e n d p o i n t o f a n action, a s in 7 . 2 0 , 1 5 . 6 3 ,

1 5 . 7 9 a n d 1 8 . 1 9 .

1 8 . 1 9 [ d i - d i a - k a d i - u k a ] d i - s a - d o

3 s g n f - r e t u r n - S U B 3 sgnf-arri v e 3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M

d u - k w i s a - p i d a n a

3 s g f - s c o l d - R E M . P . R E P

' W h e n h e h a d c o m e b a c k , his w i f e s c o l d e d h i m . '

T h e v e r b -pe 'throw' is u s e d to m a r k telic action. T h e v e r b di-ka m e a n s 'he sees', a n d a

serial v e r b d i - k a di-pe (lit. s e e t h r o w ) m e a n s 'he l o o k s a n d s e e s it all1. Pi-kalite m e a n s

'tell', a n d p i - k a l i t e p i - p e m e a n s 'tell t o t h e e n d , tell a n d b e d o n e w i t h it'. O t h e r e x a m p l e s

a r e 1 5 . 8 0 , 1 5 . 8 6 , 1 5 . 1 4 1 a n d T 1 . 2 6 (na-inu na-pe (3pl-kill 3 p l - t h r o w ) 'they kill').

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 4 3 2 1 8 S e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g

T A B L E 18.1 V E R B S W H I C H I M P A R T A S P E C T U A L M E A N I N G S T O A S Y M M E T R I C A L S E R I A L

V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S

P R I M A R Y O R
S E M A N T I C A S P E C T U A L M E A N I N G IN S E R I A L
V E R B S E C O N D A R Y
G R O U P V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N
(SEE § 1 2 . 1 )

-a 'go' m o t i o n P w i t h stative v e r b : ' b e c o m e '

- e m a 'stand' p o s t u r e P p r o l o n g e d c o m p l e t e d a c t i o n

prolonged action (no additional information

- s w a 'lie' p o s t u r e P
about the action) (duration)

- w h a 'sit' p o s t u r e P p r o l o n g e d o n g o i n g a c t i o n

-sita 'finish, m a n a g e ' c o m p l e t i o n s perfective; resultative

- u k a 'arrive' m o t i o n P e n d p o i n t o f a c t i o n

-pe 'throw' m o t i o n P telic a c t i o n

- k e t a 'meet' m e e t i n g P resultative

- k e n a , - k e n u a 'start,
b e g i n n i n g s b e g i n n i n g
b e g i n '

- t h a k a 'go a c r o s s ' m o t i o n P s t o p for a w h i l e

- m a t a r a 'stop' s t o p p i n g P c e s s a t i v e

- w a 'try' t r y i n g s c o n a t i v e

-yd 'stay, live' p o s t u r e P h a b i t u a l

- e k u 'run' m o t i o n P m a n n e r : s u d d e n a c t i o n

-ni 'do' d o i n g P p r o l o n g e d a c t i o n

T h e v e r b -ke(-ta) 'meet, find' is u s e d to e x p r e s s result, a s in 1 8 . 2 0 - 1 .

1 8 . 2 0 n e s e - p i d a [ d h i p a di-keta] d i h a m a l i e - t i k i - n u k u

t h e n - R E P 3 s g n f + g r a b 3 s g n f - m e e t A R T k n i f e - D I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n h e m a n a g e d to g r a b t h e little knife.'

18.21 n u h u a A m e r i c o d i - s a p e - n i p e - n u k u

I A m e r i c o 3 s g n f - s p e a k - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

[ m h e m a - k a d e - k a n u - k e t a ]

N E G + h e a r - N E G - R E C . P . V I S 1 s g - m e e t

'I c a n ' t m a n a g e to u n d e r s t a n d A m e r i c o ' s speech.'

T h e v e r b -sita 'finish; m a n a g e ' c a n b e also u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f 'arrive at

s o m e t h i n g , m a n a g e to d o s o m e t h i n g ' , as in 1 2 . 5 2 . It is the o n l y v e r b w h i c h c a n a p p e a r

t w i c e in a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ; h o w e v e r , t h e t w o o c c u r r e n c e s in 1 2 . 5 2 h a v e different

m e a n i n g s : t h e first o n e is 'finish' a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e is ' m a n a g e ' .

I n c h o a t i v e m e a n i n g is e x p r e s s e d w i t h t h e v e r b -kena (old s p e a k e r s o f S a n t a R o s a a n d

all t h e s p e a k e r s f r o m P e r i q u i t o s h a v e it a s -kenua) 'begin', as in 1 2 . 4 9 a n d 1 8 . 2 2 w h i c h

c o n t a i n s a t o p i c a l n o m i n a l i s e d serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n in t h e o b j e c t function. H e r e , the

n o m i n a l i s e r - m i g o e s o n t o t h e first c o m p o n e n t a n d the topical n o n - s u b j e c t m a r k e r -nuku

o n t o t h e last o n e .

1 8 . 2 2 p i - n a h i - n u k u n u - k a l i t e - d e

2 s g - O B J D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S 1 s g - t e l l - F U T . C E R T

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 18.3 Asymmetrical serial verb constructions 4 3 3

w a l i k a s u - p u [ n a - n i - m i n a - k e n a - n u k u ]

b e g i n n i n g - A U G 3 p l - d o - N O M 3 p l - s t a r t - T 0 P . N 0 N . A / S

'I w i l l tell y o u this, h o w t h e y started their d o i n g s at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g . '

T h e v e r b - t h a k a 'go across' a n d its transitivised c o u n t e r p a r t - t h a k e t a ' m a k e g o across'

w h e n u s e d in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s m e a n 'stop d o i n g s o m e t h i n g for a while'. T h e

intransitive - t h a k a is u s e d w i t h intransitive v e r b s , a s in 1 8 . 2 3 , a n d t h e transitivised

- t h a k e t a w i t h transitive o n e s . T h i s is r e m i n i s c e n t o f directional a n d s y m m e t r i c a l serial

v e r b s .

1 8 . 2 3 [ w a - r a p a w a - t h a k a ] w h a

l p l - d a n c e l p l - s t o p w e

' W e s t o p p e d d a n c i n g for a while.'

18.24iiii, iii, w i i [ w a - w i n a w a - t h a k e - t a - n a ]

iiii, iii, w i i , l p l - w h i s t l e l p l - s t o p + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . V I S

' W e s t o p p e d w h i s t l i n g m i , iii, w i i for a while.'

T h e v e r b - m a t a r a 'leave, let go' w h e n u s e d in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s m e a n s 'stop all

together', a s in 1 8 . 2 5 .

1 8 . 2 5 [ d i - n i d i - m a t a r a - p i d a n a ] d i h a

3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - l e a v e - R E M . P . R E P h e

' H e s t o p p e d d o i n g (this).'

C o n a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are f o r m e d w i t h t h e v e r b -wa 'try' a n d a n active

v e r b a s in 1 8 . 2 6 .

1 8 . 2 6 d i h a n a p i - n u k u [dhita d i - p h y a d i - w a - p i d a n a ]

h e b o n e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + d r a w 3 s g n f - b l o w 3 s g n f - t r y - R E M . P . R E P

' H e t o o k o u t his b o n e a n d tried to b l o w it ( a s a flute).'

W h e n this s a m e v e r b f o r m s a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a stative v e r b , it m e a n s

' b e c o m e ( a n d stay); c o n t i n u e b e i n g in t h e state', as in 7.15, 15.55 a n d 1 8 . 2 7 ( f r o m the

P e r i q u i t o s variety).

1 8 . 2 7 h a n i p a - m h a d e [pui n u - w a ]

b i g + C L : B I G . O P E N . S P A C E - F U T . U N C E R T h a p p y 1 s g - b e c o m e

'I w i l l b e v e r y h a p p y . '

T h e v e r b -yd 'stay, live' is u s e d for h a b i t u a l a c t i o n s o r states, as in 7.4, 14.7, 1 4 . 2 5 ,

1 5 . 8 3 a n d 1 8 . 2 8 .

1 8 . 2 8 d i - s a - d o - n u k u [di-na

3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - h i t

d i - y a - n h i ] d i - k e r y a - k a

3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T 3 s g n f - b e . j e a l o u s - S U B

' H e u s e d t o hit h i s w i f e p r e v i o u s l y , s i n c e h e w a s jealous.'

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 4 3 4 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

T h e v e r b - e k u 'run' w h e n serialised m a r k s s u d d e n action, as in 1 8 . 2 9 . T h i s v e r b is

t h e n p o s t p o s e d t o t h e m a i n v e r b (in a different p o s i t i o n it m e a n s 'run', as is t h e c a s e in

2 1 . 1 3 2 ) .

1 8 . 2 9 [ [ d i - n u p e r i - p i d a n a d i - e k u ] di-a] d i - d a k i

3 s g n f - m o v e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - r u n 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - b o d y

' S u d d e n l y h i s b o d y w e n t o n m o v i n g . '

( B ) D I R E C T I O N A L S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S . D i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

i n v o l v e p r i m a r y m o t i o n v e r b s w h i c h i m p a r t directional v a l u e s to v e r b s w i t h w h i c h t h e y

f o r m a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n (deictic-directional m a r k i n g in G i v o n 1 9 9 1 ) . S i m i l a r l y to

a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e v e r b f r o m a c l o s e d class f o l l o w s the v e r b f r o m

a n o p e n class.

T A B L E 1 8 . 2 V E R B S W H I C H I M P A R T D I R E C T I O N A L M E A N I N G S T O S E R I A L V E R B

C O N S T R U C T I O N S

I N T R A N S I T I V E T R A N S I T I V E M E A N I N G A S I N D E P E N D E N T
M E A N I N G IN A D I R E C T I O N A L S V C
V E R B V E R B P R E D I C A T E

- a - 'go' ' a w a y f r o m t h e s p e a k e r '

- m u s u -musu-i(ta) 'go out' 'out o f

-he -he(ta) 'enter, c o m e in' 'inside'

- n u — ' c o m e ' ' t o w a r d s t h e s p e a k e r '

- r u k u - m k u - i ( t a ) 'go d o w n ' ' d o w n w a r d s '

-(h)isa, isa -(h)ise(ta) 'go u p (in o p e n space)' ' u p w a r d s ( o p e n s p a c e ) '

'go u p s t r e a m o r u p w a r d s ' u p s t r e a m , u p w a r d s
- n u -Tta
( e n c l o s e d space)' ( e n c l o s e d space)'

- m a r a -mare(ta) 'go d o w n s t r e a m ' ' d o w n s t r e a m '

- t h a k a -thake(ta) 'go across' 'across'

- d i a - d i e t a 'return, stay' 'back'

'be t u r n e d t h e o t h e r w a y ' u p s i d e d o w n ; t u r n e d t h e
- a m h u a -amhue(ta)
r o u n d ' w r o n g w a y '

- y o t a -yote(ta) 'be right w a y u p ' 'right w a y u p '

- w a -we(ta) 'enter j u n g l e or s t r e a m ' 'into j u n g l e o r into s t r e a m '

- y e n a - y e n e t a 'pass, g o a c r o s s , g o over' 'over'

- s e r i k a - 'spread, b e all over' 'all over'

- k o r o t a (-koroteta) ' e n c o u n t e r , m e e t , b e in front' 'straight a h e a d '

A list o f d i r e c t i o n a l v e r b s s h o w i n g their m e a n i n g s as i n d e p e n d e n t v e r b s a n d the

d i r e c t i o n a l m e a n i n g s t h e y i m p a r t in a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is g i v e n in T a b l e 18.2.

M o s t v e r b s o p t i o n a l l y t a k e t h e a d d i t i o n a l c a u s a t i v e m a r k e r -ta\ o t h e r s a l w a y s h a v e -ta

( s e e § 1 3 . 4 ) . O n l y a s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s e v e r b s are e x e m p l i f i e d in the text.

T h e v e r b -a 'go' in a d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h c o n t a i n s a n a c t i v e v e r b

m a r k s t h e d i r e c t i o n a w a y f r o m t h e s p e a k e r o r t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , as in 18.30. S i m i l a r

e x a m p l e s a r e 1 4 . 1 1 0 , w i t h a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w a - m a r a w a : ( l p l - g o . d o w n s t r e a m

l p l - g o ) ' w e g o d o w n s t r e a m ( a w a y f r o m w h e r e w e are at t h e m o m e n t o f s p e e c h ) ' a n d

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 1 8 . 3 A s y m m e t r i c a l s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s 4 3 5

1 4 . 7 2 a , w i t h a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n d i - w a di-a ( 3 s g n f - e n t e r 3 s g n f - g o ) 'he e n t e r e d (the

j u n g l e ) ( g o i n g a w a y f r o m w h e r e h e w a s ) ' .

1 8 . 3 0 k a y di-ni [ d i - t h a k a d i - a - p i d a n a ]

t h u s 3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - g o . a c r o s s 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

d i - n a d i - k o r o t a y a l a n a - p u - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f - m e e t n o n . I n d i a n - A U G - R E M . P . R E P

d i - e m a d i h a - w h y a - s e

3 s g n f - s t a n d A R T - C L : C A N O E - L O C

'After that h e w e n t a c r o s s t h e river, h e m e t h i m , a h u g e n o n - I n d i a n w a s s t a n d i n g in

t h e c a n o e . '

S i n c e T a r i a n a h a s o n l y o n e l o c a t i v e suffix -se for b o t h 'from' a n d 'into' (see C h a p t e r

7), d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are crucial for d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e s e t w o

m e a n i n g s . I n 7 . 3 7 -se translates a s 'from', a n d in 7.38 as 'into'; t h e directional v a l u e is

s p e c i f i e d w i t h different v e r b s in a serial c o n s t r u c t i o n : 'go out' in 7 . 3 7 a n d 'enter, c o m e in'

in 7 . 3 8 .

If t h e m a i n v e r b i n a d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n i n v o l v e s m o t i o n the

intransitive d i r e c t i o n a l v e r b is u s e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , in 1 4 . 5 9 - w h e r e the serial

c o n s t r u c t i o n d i - w h a - k a d i - r u k u d i - a (3sgnf-fall-SUB 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - g o ) 'falls

d o w n ' c o n t a i n s t h e intransitive v e r b - w h a 'fall' a s t h e m a i n v e r b - t h e intransitive f o r m s

o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l s - r u k u 'go d o w n ' a n d -a 'go' are u s e d . S i m i l a r e x a m p l e s are 15.7 a n d

1 5 . 4 4 . I n 7 . 3 7 a n d 7 . 3 8 d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s n a - d o r e t a n a - m u s u (3pl-

c a r r y 3 p l - g o . o u t ) 'carry o u t o f a n d n a - d o r e t a nhe na: (3pl-carry 3 p l + c o m e . i n 3 p l + g o )

c o n t a i n t h e v e r b 'carry' a s their m a i n v e r b . T h i s v e r b i m p l i e s m o t i o n , a n d so t h e

intransitive f o r m o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l v e r b s - m u s u 'go out' a n d -he 'enter, c o m e in' are

e m p l o y e d .

In c o n t r a s t , if t h e m a i n v e r b d o e s n o t i n v o l v e m o t i o n a n d is transitive, t h e directional

v e r b a l s o h a s t o b e transitivised, as in 1 8 . 3 2 . T h e transitive v e r b 'see' r e q u i r e s the

c a u s a t i v i s e d f o r m o f t h e d i r e c t i o n a l 'go d o w n ' .

1 8 . 3 2 n e s e [ d i - k a d i - r u k u - i - p i d a n a ]

t h e n 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f ~ g o . d o w n - C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e n h e l o o k e d d o w n . '

A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, d i - k a d i - m a r e - t a ( 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n s t r e a m + C A U S l -

C A U S 2 ) m e a n s 'he l o o k s d o w n s t r e a m ' , di-ka di-ita ( 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - g o . u p w a r d s

( e n c l o s e d s p a c e ) ) m e a n s 'he l o o k s u p w a r d s (for i n s t a n c e , i n s i d e a h o u s e ) o r u p s t r e a m ' ,

a n d d i - k a d i - s e t a ( 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - g o . u p w a r d s ( o p e n s p a c e ) ) m e a n s 'he l o o k s u p w a r d s

( b e i n g outside)'. T h e transitive v e r b -panoa 'send, pass' also r e q u i r e s t h e c a u s a t i v i s e d

d i r e c t i o n a l - d i - p a n o a d i - m a r e - t a ( 3 s g n f - s e n d 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n s t r e a m + C A U S l - C A U s 2 )

m e a n s 'he s e n d s (it) d o w n s t r e a m ' . S i m i l a r l y , in 1 5 . 1 2 0 t h e m a i n v e r b -api 'pull' is

transitive, a n d 'pull u p w a r d s ' is di-api di-Tta ( 3 s g n f - p u l l 3 s g n f - g o . u p w a r d s ( e n c l o s e d

s p a c e ) + C A U S ) .

T h i s transitivity m a t c h i n g is r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t for t h e s a m e transitivity

v a l u e i n s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s - s e e § 1 8 . 4 . T h e v e r b s -a 'go' a n d -nu

' c o m e ' c a n n o t b e c a u s a t i v i s e d (see C h a p t e r 13) a n d are n o t u s e d w i t h n o n - m o t i o n v e r b s

in d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b s . T h e v e r b -serika 'spread, b e all over' c a n n o t b e transitivised,

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 4 3 6 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

b u t u n l i k e t h e o t h e r t w o , it c a n b e u s e d w i t h transitive v e r b s in a directional serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s in 1 8 . 3 3 . T h e directional serial v e r b di-ka di-serika ( 3 s g n f - s e e 3sgnf-

s p r e a d ) 'look e v e r y w h e r e ' is a p a r t o f a larger s y m m e t r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n (see § 1 8 . 5 ) .

1 8 . 3 3 h i keri f[di-ka di-serika]

D E M : A N I M m o o n 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - s p r e a d

d i - e r u - p i d a n a ]

3 s g n f - g e t . s t u c k - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e m o o n l o o k s e v e r y w h e r e s t a y i n g (in t h e sky).'

T h e transitivised f o r m o f t h e v e r b -korota 'meet, b e in front', - k o r o t e t a , is n o t u s e d

o u t s i d e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s (this is w h y it is in p a r e n t h e s e s in T a b l e 18.2). In

d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g n o n - m o t i o n v e r b s b o t h -korota a n d

- k o r o t e t a a r e a c c e p t a b l e , e.g. di-ka d i - k o r o t a ( 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - m e e t ) o r di-ka d i - k o w t e t a

( 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - m e e t + C A U S ) 'he l o o k s straight a h e a d ( m e e t i n g his interlocutor's gaze)'.

T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h - k o r o t e t a h a s a n o t h e r m e a n i n g , that o f ' c o m p a r e ' ; h e r e it m a y b e

b e t t e r i n t e r p r e t e d a s a lexicalised serial v e r b o f a s y m m e t r i c a l type.

( c ) M O D A L S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S . M o d a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are f o r m e d

w i t h S e c o n d a r y - B v e r b s (see § 1 2 . 1 . 4 ) -a 'intend to' a n d -na 'want' - see 18.34, 12.13 a n d

1 2 . 4 8 . T h e m o d a l v e r b p r e c e d e s t h e m a i n v e r b . 1 8 . 3 4 c o n t a i n s a directional serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h i n a m o d a l o n e .

1 8 . 3 4 p a t h i n a [ d u - n a [ d u - e k u d u - a - p i d a n a ] ] p a n i s i - s e

s u d d e n l y 3 s g f - w a n t 3 s g f - r u n 3 s g f - g o - R E M . P . R E P h o u s e - L O C

'All o f a s u d d e n s h e w a n t e d to r u n o u t o f the h o u s e . '

T h e p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s ira 'need, m u s t ' a n d inu, inuna 'be lazy, u n w i l l i n g ' also

p a r t i c i p a t e in m o d a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s ; t h e y r e q u i r e i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g

m a r k e r ; ? # - o n all o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s , as illustrated in 1 2 . 6 3 - 5 .

( D ) C A U S A T I V E S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S . C a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s fall

into t w o t y p e s .

(i) C a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h v e r b s o f c a u s a t i o n -a 'say, give, let, go'

a n d -ira 'order' p r e p o s e d to t h e m a i n v e r b are b y far t h e m o s t w i d e s p r e a d

strategy. T h i s is h o w transitive v e r b s c a n b e c a u s a t i v i s e d ( a l o n g s i d e p e r i p h r a s t i c

c a u s a t i v e s ) . T h e y are illustrated in 1 3 . 6 4 - 5 , 9 . 2 0 a n d 18.3, a n d d i s c u s s e d in

§ 1 3 . 3 . 2 .

(ii) C a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t h e v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n -pala 'put, p a s s on'

p o s t p o s e d to t h e m a i n v e r b o c c u r w i t h a f e w v e r b s : -sape 'speak', as in 13.63 a n d

1 8 . 3 5 a n d k a r u 'be afraid', as in 18.36. B o t h a r g u m e n t s - the t h i n g p a s s e d o n a n d

t h e a d d r e s s e e - in 1 8 . 3 5 are m a r k e d w i t h t h e o b j e c t case.

1 8 . 3 5 d u - y a r u p e - n u k u n a - n a [ d u - s a p e - n a d u - p a l a ]

3 s g f - l a n g u a g e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - O B J 3 s g f - s p e a k - R E M . P . V I S 3 s g f - p u t

' S h e p a s s e d h e r l a n g u a g e o n to h e r children.'

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 J 8.3 A s y m m e t r i c a l s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s 4 3 7

1 8 . 3 6 p h i a n u - n a [ k a r u p i - p a l a - k a ]

y o u l s g - O B J be.afraid 2 s g - p u t - R E C . P . V I S

' Y o u m a d e m e s c a r e d (lit. p u t fear o n m e ) . '

( E ) B E N E F A C T I V E S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S . B e n e f a c t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

a r e f o r m e d w i t h v e r b s - u m a 'seek; find' a n d -ni 'do' as their first c o m p o n e n t s . In 1 8 . 3 7

a n d 8.32, a b e n e f a c t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n 'seek eat' m e a n s 'look for food' (for o t h e r

p e o p l e ) , a n d in 1 8 . 3 8 'do eat' m e a n s ' m a k e food' (for others). E x a m p l e s 1 8 . 3 7 a n d 8.32

s h o w t h a t t h e b e n e f i c i a r y ( ' w o m e n ' in 1 8 . 3 7 ) a n d t h e o b j e c t ('this little food' in 8.32) are

b o t h m a r k e d in t h e s a m e w a y a s a n y o t h e r n o n - s u b j e c t . Similarly, in 1 8 . 3 8 , b o t h

b e n e f i c i a r y ('they') a n d t h e f o o d ('manioc') h a v e o b j e c t m a r k i n g {kaini is u n m a r k e d in

1 8 . 3 8 b u t it c o u l d h a v e b e e n m a r k e d w i t h t h e - n u k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t case' i f it w e r e

topical).

1 8 . 3 7 n h u a k a y u i n a - m a - p e - n u k u [ n u m a n u - n h a ]

I t h u s w o m a n : P L - C L : F E M - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S l s g + s e e k l s g - e a t

n a : p i - t u p e [ [ p u w h i n u - w a ] n u - n i - d e ] n h u a

3 p l + w i t h - D I M : P L b e . g l a d l s g - e n t e r / t r y l s g - d o - F U T . C E R T I

'In this w a y I l o o k for f o o d for w o m e n , w i t h t h e m I b e c o m e h a p p y , this is w h a t I

do.'

1 8 . 3 8 p h i a k a i n i [pi-ni p i - n h a ] n a - n a

y o u m a n i o c 2 s g - d o 2 s g - e a t 3 p l - O B J

' P r e p a r e m a n i o c for t h e m to eat.'

(F) S O C I A T I V E SERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS. S o c i a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are

f o r m e d w i t h t h e v e r b - s i w a 'do t o g e t h e r , b e together, d o w i t h t h e h e l p o f f o l l o w e d b y the

m a i n v e r b . T h e i r m a i n m e a n i n g is 'do t o g e t h e r with', as in 1 8 . 3 9 - 4 0 . T h e y often a c q u i r e

r e c i p r o c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d c a n a l s o b e e m p l o y e d w i t h reflexive a n d e m p h a t i c

m e a n i n g s - s e e e x a m p l e s 1 3 . 2 8 - 9 , 1 3 . 3 5 a n d 1 8 . 4 1 .

1 8 . 3 9 w h a - n a k a [ w a - s i w a - n a k a w a - n a l e t a - n i k i ]

w e - P R E S . V I S l p l - b e . t o g e t h e r - P R E S . V I S l p l - d i s a p p e a r + C A U S - C O M P L

' W e a r e d y i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h e a c h other.'

1 8 . 4 0 [ n a - s i w a n e k a - p i d a n a ]

3 p l - b e . t o g e t h e r 3 p l + l a u g h - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y l a u g h e d all together.'

18.41 p i - n a m a - i n u - k a d e - n a k a ,

2 s g - O B J N E G - k i l l - N E G - P R E S . V I S

[ p i - s i w a - y a p i - y a m i - n a k a ]

2 s g - d o . t o g e t h e r - E M P H 2 s g - d i e - P R E S . V I S

'I a m n o t killing y o u , y o u are d y i n g t h r o u g h y o u r o w n fault (lit. w i t h the h e l p o f

yourself).'

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 4 3 8 1 8 S e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g

A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f a s o c i a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a reflexive m e a n i n g is t h e n e w l y

c o i n e d t e r m for 'suicide', d u - s i w a du-yami ( 3 s g f - b e . t o g e t h e r 3sgf-die) 'she c o m m i t t e d

suicide', lit. 'died t h r o u g h h e r s e l f ( s u i c i d e s w e r e u n h e a r d o f in the traditional V a u p e s

society; 1 8 . 4 1 d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e a suicide).

( G ) R E C A P I T U L A T I N G S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S . R e c a p i t u l a t i n g serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n t a i n t h e v e r b -ni 'do' after t h e m a i n v e r b . R e c a p i t u l a t i n g serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s differ f r o m serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f all o t h e r t y p e s in that t h e r e c a n b e

a v e r y slight p a u s e b e f o r e -ni. T h e m e a n i n g o f r e c a p i t u l a t i n g serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s is

' s u m m a r i s i n g ' t h e a c t i o n d e s c r i b e d b y t h e p r e c e d i n g v e r b . T h i s is illustrated in 1 8 . 4 2 ;

h e r e t h e r e c a p i t u l a t i n g serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e

m a r k e d w i t h t h e different s u b j e c t s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e enclitic - n i s a w a a n d t h e t o p i c a l n o n -

s u b j e c t c a s e - n u k u . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e is 1 8 . 3 7 w h e r e a r e c a p i t u l a t i n g serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n s a c o n a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ( m a r k e d w i t h - w a 'try; enter').

1 8 . 4 2 s o m e n a h a [ n a - s i m e t a n a - n i - n i s a w a - n u k u ]

m u c h t h e y 3 p l - b e . e l o q u e n t 3 p l - d o - W H I L E : D S - T O P . N O N . A / S

h i k u - s i n a w a - w h e - r i

a p p e a r - R E M . P A S T . I N F R 1 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C

' W h i l e t h e y w e r e t a l k i n g a lot, o u r g r a n d f a t h e r a p p e a r e d . '

W h e n a r e c a p i t u l a t i n g serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is n e g a t e d , t h e n e g a t i o n m a r k e r g o e s

o n t o t h e v e r b -ni, a s in 1 8 . 4 3 , a n d 1 7 . 1 2 . E x a m p l e 1 7 . 1 3 c o n t a i n s a n e g a t i v e p r e d i c a t e

u s e d w i t h i n a n e g a t e d r e c a p i t u l a t i n g serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n - this d o u b l e n e g a t i v e h a s a

p o s i t i v e m e a n i n g .

1 8 . 4 3 p i - n a [ n u - m a y e - n a k a m a - n i - k a d e ] n u h u a

2 s g - O B J l s g - l i e - P R E S . V I S N E G - d o - N E G I

'I a m n o t l y i n g to y o u (lit. I lie t o y o u I d o n o t do).'

(H) A N T I C I P A T O R Y S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S . A n t i c i p a t o r y serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

a r e a m i r r o r - i m a g e o f r e c a p i t u l a t i n g serial v e r b s . T h e y c o n s i s t o f t h e v e r b -ni f o l l o w e d

b y t h e o t h e r c o m p o n e n t o f t h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ; t h e m e a n i n g is 'this is w h a t X

w a s d o i n g ' - s e e 1 8 . 4 4 .

1 8 . 4 4 h a l e m i [ d i - n i - d h a l a d i - r u k u - i - n i p e ] d i - n a

a l w a y s 3 s g n f - d o - C O M E . U N S T U C K 3 s g n f - f a l l - C A U S - H A B I T 3 s g n f - O B J

' H e ( t h e forefather) a l w a y s d i d like this: h e let h i m (the s o n w h o t u r n e d into a fish)

u n s t i c k a n d fall (off t h e c a n o e ) . '

A n a n t i c i p a t o r y serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in q u e s t i o n s (see § 2 1 . 4 . 3 ) ,

a s s h o w n in 1 8 . 4 5 .

1 8 . 4 5 k w e - s i k a [di-ni d i - n a m i ] ?

h o w - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R 3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - d i e

' W h y d i d h e ( m o u s e ) d i e (lit. h o w d i d it d o (to) die)?'

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 18.3 Asymmetrical serial verb constructions 4 3 9

(i) S U P E R L A T I V E S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S . S u p e r l a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are

f o r m e d w i t h t h e v e r b -yena 'pass' p r e c e d e d b y t h e m a i n v e r b , as s h o w n in 18.46. S i m i l a r

e x a m p l e s are 1 5 . 1 1 2 a n d 1 5 . 1 8 5 .

1 8 . 4 6 [ h a m a - p i d a n a d i - y e n a ]

b e . f e d . u p - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - p a s s

' H e b e c a m e e x c e e d i n g l y tired.'

C o m p a r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s d o n o t i n v o l v e serial v e r b s - s e e d i s c u s s i o n o f

c o m p a r a t i v e p o s t p o s i t i o n s in § 1 1 . 1 1 a n d o f c o m p a r a t i v e c l a u s e s in § 2 1 . 5 .

(j) A B I L I T A T I V E CONSTRUCTIONS. A b i l i t a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s are f o r m e d w i t h the v e r b

-yeka 'be a b l e to, b e a l l o w e d to, k n o w h o w to' f o l l o w i n g t h e m a i n v e r b , a s illustrated in

1 8 . 4 7 a n d 1 2 . 5 8 . W h e n a n abilitative c o n s t r u c t i o n is n e g a t e d , t h e first c o m p o n e n t t a k e s

t h e n e g a t i v e m a r k e r , as in 1 8 . 4 8 , i f -yeka m e a n s 'be a l l o w e d , b e a b l e t o ' . I f -yeka h a s t h e

m e a n i n g o f ' k n o w h o w to', a serial-like c o n s t r u c t i o n is u s e d ( m a r k e d w i t h t h e

s u b o r d i n a t o r k w e 'how': s e e § 1 9 . 9 , a n d e x a m p l e s 1 9 . 3 2 - 3 ) .

1 8 . 4 7 J u s e J u l i a i n i p e - n e [ k a - s a - d o - m h a d i - y e k a ]

J o s e J u l i a c h i l d - I N S R E L - s p o u s e - F E M - P R E S . N O N V I S 3 s g n f - c a n / b e . a b l e

'Jose c a n m a r r y Julia's children.'

1 8 . 4 8 w a - d a l i p a k i - p e [ m a - d e - k a d e - m h a w a - y e k a ]

l p l - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - P L N E G - h a v e - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S l p l - c a n / b e . a b l e

' W e c a n n o t h a v e o u r b l o o d relatives (as m a r r i a g e partners).'

( K ) O T H E R K I N D S O F A S Y M M E T R I C A L S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S . A s y m m e t r i c a l serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a n c o n t a i n o t h e r serialised s e c o n d a r y v e r b s listed in § 1 2 . 1 . T h e s e

v e r b s f o l l o w t h e o t h e r c o m p o n e n t . E x a m p l e 1 2 . 5 4 illustrates t h e v e r b -maye 'do w r o n g ,

p r e t e n d ' u s e d in a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e m e a n i n g o f 'pretend (to b e asleep)'.

T h e v e r b - a d e t a ' p r e v e n t f r o m d o i n g s o m e t h i n g ' is illustrated in 1 8 . 4 9 . H e r e , similarly to

c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e t w o different u n d e r l y i n g a c t o r s are c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c e d in t h e s a m e w a y .

1 8 . 4 9 e m i t e - t i k i n u - n a [ d i h p a n i d i - a d e t a - n a k a ]

c h i l d - D I M l s g - O B J 3 s g n f + w o r k 3 s g n f - p r e v e n t - P R E S . V I S

' T h e little b o y is p r e v e n t i n g m e f r o m w o r k i n g . '

T h e v e r b - m a n i k a 'play at d o i n g s o m e t h i n g , d o j o k i n g l y ' is s h o w n in 18.50.

1 8 . 5 0 t a l i w a [i-a [ i - p h y a i - m a n i k a ] ]

flute 2 p l - g o 2 p l - w h i s t l e 2 p l - p l a y

' G o a n d p l a y a flute for a j o k e . '

A s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s differ in their s e m a n t i c s a n d o r d e r o f

c o m p o n e n t s . T h e o r d e r i n g is n o t i c o n i c b u t d e p e n d s o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n type. T h e o r d e r

o f c o m p o n e n t s in a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s is s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 18.3.

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 4 4 0 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

T h e o r d e r o f c o m p o n e n t s in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s h e l p s to d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

different u s e s o f t h e p o l y s e m o u s v e r b - a 'go'. If p r e p o s e d to a n o t h e r c o m p o n e n t , it h a s

i n t e n t i o n a l m o d a l m e a n i n g , a s in 1 2 . 4 8 a n d 1 8 . 1 2 , o r c a u s a t i v e m e a n i n g , a s in 18.3. If

p o s t p o s e d , it a c q u i r e s t h e m e a n i n g o f ' b e c o m e ' if u s e d w i t h a stative v e r b , or it i m p a r t s a

d i r e c t i o n a l m e a n i n g , 'away', to t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , as in 1 8 . 2 9 . W h e n n e g a t e d a n d p r e p o s e d

to t h e o t h e r c o m p o n e n t , t h e v e r b - a h a s t h e m e a n i n g o f ' n o t w o r k out', as in 1 2 . 5 3 .

T A B L E 18.3 O R D E R O F C O M P O N E N T S I N A S Y M M E T R I C A L S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S

1 S T V E R B 2 N D V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N T Y P E

a s p e c t u a l ( A )

directional ( B )

c a u s a t i v e ( w i t h v e r b o f c a u s a t i o n 'put') ( D )

o p e n c l a s s c l o s e d class r e c a p i t u l a t i n g ( G )

s u p e r l a t i v e (i)

abilitative (J)

v e r b s 'pretend', 'prevent', 'play at d o i n g s o m e t h i n g ' ( K )

m o d a l ( c )

s o c i a t i v e ( F )

c l o s e d c l a s s o p e n class b e n e f a c t i v e ( E )

c a u s a t i v e ( w i t h v e r b s o f c a u s a t i o n ' m a k e ' , 'order') ( D )

a n t i c i p a t o r y ( H )

1 8 . 4 S y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s all c o m e f r o m o p e n v e r b

c l a s s e s . S y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s c a n b e o f a s e q u e n t i a l type, as in 1 8 . 5 1 , or o f a c a u s e -

effect t y p e , a s in 1 8 . 5 2 , o r o f a g o a l - b e n e f a c t i v e t y p e , a s in 1 8 . 5 3 . G o a l / b e n e f a c t i v e a n d

effect v e r b s u s u a l l y c o m e s e c o n d (in a g r e e m e n t w i t h p r e d i c t i o n s in D u r i e 1 9 9 7 ) .

1 8 . 5 1 [nhalitu n a - i n u - p i d a n a ] n a n a

3 p l + f i s h 3 p l - k i l l - R E M . P . R E P m a d i . f i s h

' T h e y c a u g h t (fish-kill) madi-fish.'

1 8 . 5 2 n e - m h a p a w a r i [ d i - w h a d e : r u ]

t h e n - P R E S . N O N V I S right 3sgnf-fall 3 s g n f + b e . s t u c k

'It i s w r i t t e n t h e r e in a right w a y (lit. fall-be.stuck).'

1 8 . 5 3 h i n i p u k u - p e [ n u - n i n u - w a p a ] d i - a - p i d a n a

g a r d e n - P L l s g - d o l s g - a t t e n d 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

hi k u p h e i-na [ n u - i n u n u - w a p a - d e ]

D E M . A N I M fish 2 p l - O B J lsg-kill l s g - a t t e n d - F U T . C E R T

"'I shall b e l o o k i n g after m a k i n g ( m a k e - a t t e n d ) y o u r g a r d e n s , " h e said, "I shall

l o o k after f i s h i n g (kill-attend) for you".'

S y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s f r e q u e n t l y b e c o m e lexicalised - this results in

t h e c r e a t i o n o f a s e m a n t i c c o m p l e x w h o s e m e a n i n g is n o t the s u m o f the m e a n i n g s o f its

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 1 8 . 4 S y m m e t r i c a l s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s 4 4 1

c o m p o n e n t s (cf. D u r i e 1 9 9 7 : 3 2 3 ) . T h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n in 1 8 . 5 4 c o n s i s t s o f

t h r e e v e r b s ('sleep, eat, w a l k ' ) ; h o w e v e r its m e a n i n g as a w h o l e d o e s n o t directly reflect

t h e s e q u e n c e o f t h e s e a c t i o n s : it d e s c r i b e s a typical activity o f g o i n g fishing (or h u n t i n g )

for s e v e r a l d a y s w i t h o u t r e t u r n i n g b a c k to t h e village (cf. E n g l i s h sleep over).

1 8 . 5 4 [ d i m a d i - n h a d i - e m h a n i - p i d a n a ] k u p h e - n u k u

3 s g n f + s l e e p 3 s g n f - e a t 3 s g n f + w a l k - R E M . P . R E P fish-TOP.NON.A/S

' H e w e n t f i s h i n g for s e v e r a l d a y s (lit. h e slept, ate, w a l k e d w i t h r e s p e c t to fish).'

S y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a n c o n s i s t o f t w o p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s : o n e o f S 0

t y p e a n d o n e o f Sj 0 t y p e , as in 1 8 . 5 5 . T h i s is a n e x a m p l e o f a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a c a u s e - e f f e c t type.

1 8 . 5 5 [ m h a l s i k i tara-tha] p i - k a r e p h i a

b e . h u n g r y ( S j 0 ) b e . h a r d ( S 0 ) - F R 2 s g - h e a r t y o u

' Y o u r h e a r t is h u n g e r - h a r d (i.e. y o u don't feel m u c h h u n g e r ) . '

V e r b s o f p e r c e p t i o n , m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s a n d s p e e c h are h a r d l y e v e r u s e d o u t s i d e

l e x i c a l i s e d s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e.g. -sata - h e m a 'ask' (lit: greet-hear),

- a - h i m e t a 'think' (say-feel), -kaiite -pala ' c o m p l a i n , relate' (tell-put), -kalite -sue 'send a

m e s s a g e , tell' (tell-lay), -ka - a n h i ' r e c o g n i s e b y sight' ( s e e - r e c o g n i s e ) , or -ka - k w i s a 'hate'

( s e e - s c o l d ) . S y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a n b e lexicalised as n a m e s d e n o t i n g

a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c activity, e.g. k a - w a n a k a - n h a (REL-call REL-eat) 'a c a n n i b a l evil spirit

k n o w n for h i s h o r r i b l e c r i e s ' , lit. ' t h e o n e w h o calls a n d eats'.

V e r b s o f all t y p e s o c c u r in s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e x c e p t for the v e r b s

- a 'go' a n d - n u ' c o m e ' , e.g:

• [di-sita di-mare-ta] ( 3 s g n f - s m o k e 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n s t r e a m + C A U S l - C A U S 2 ) 'he

s e n d s t h e s m o k e o r t h e cigarette d o w n (to o t h e r people)', lit. 'he s e n d s h e m a k e s

g o d o w n ' ;

• [du-whe-ta du-matfike-ta] ( 3 s g f - s i t + C A U S l - C A U s 2 3 s g f - b a d + T H + C A U S l - C A U S 2 )

'she f e r m e n t s ( b e e r ) ' , lit. ' s h e m a k e s sit s h e spoils';

• [di-dana di-erita] ( 3 s g n f - w r i t e 3 s g n f - s t i c k + C A U S ) 'he w r i t e s up', lit. 'he w r i t e s h e

m a k e s stick';

• [di-yena di-ema] ( 3 s g n f - p a s s 3 s g n f - s t a n d ) 'he is arrogant', lit. 'he p a s s e s h e

stands';

• [di-ni di-wake-ta] ( 3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - j o i n + C A U S l - C A U S 2 ) 'he helps', lit. 'he d o e s h e

j o i n s ' ( s e e 1 2 . 5 6 ) .

P o s t u r e v e r b s - w h o s e u s e s h o w s c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h the s h a p e a n d o t h e r p h y s i c a l

p r o p e r t i e s o f their S o r O a r g u m e n t - often f o r m lexicalised s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e.g. uni [ n u - n u a n u - s u e - t a ] ( w a t e r l s g - p o u r l s g - l i e + C A U S l - C A U s 2 ) 'I

p o u r w a t e r i n t o a c u p f r o m a bottle', n u i [ n u - n u a nu-pala] ( w a t e r 1s g - p o u r 1s g - p u t ) 'I

p o u r w a t e r ( f r o m o n e p a n to another)', uni [ n h u s a nu-pala] ( w a t e r l s g + d r a g . u p w a r d s

1 s g - p u t ) 'I s c o o p w a t e r f r o m a p a n ( w i t h a cup)', k a w h i [ n u - k u n a nu-pala] ( m a n i o c . f l o u r

l s g - t a k e . h a n d f u l 1s g - p u t ) 'I s c o o p m a n i o c flour ( w i t h t h e h a n d , or w i t h a s p o o n ) ' (further

e x a m p l e s a r e d i s c u s s e d in § 2 6 . 2 . 3 ) .

A n u m b e r o f v e r b s a p p e a r o n l y in a lexicalised serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , e.g. m h e a in

m h e a d i - a (? 3 s g n f - g i v e ) 'give for n o t h i n g , as a u s e l e s s present', a n d -whe 'die d o i n g

s o m e t h i n g , d o a lot', a s in n e k a n a - w h e ( 3 p l + l a u g h 3pl-do.a.lot) 'die o f laughter'.

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 4 4 2 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

In all t h e s e c a s e s serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s u l t i m a t e l y d e s c r i b e o n e e v e n t w h i c h often

arises f r o m a c o h e s i v e interpretation o f several e v e n t s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y l i n k e d t o g e t h e r

w i t h e a c h o t h e r ; this r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n results typically in lexicalisation a n d

' i d i o m a t i c i s a t i o n ' o f s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s .

1 8 . 5 A m b i e n t s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

I n a m b i e n t serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s o n e o f t h e v e r b s is u s e d to m o d i f y t h e other. T h e

'modifier' v e r b in a m b i e n t serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a is a l w a y s intransitive; a stative

v e r b c a n o n l y b e u s e d in a n a m b i e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e v e r b 'appear' in 1 8 . 5 6 is

s e m a n t i c a l l y s i m i l a r to a m a n n e r a d v e r b ('openly'). T h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n m e a n s 'give

o p e n l y ' .

1 8 . 5 6 d i h a h i p a t u [ h i k u - p a n a d i - a - p i d a n a ]

h e s n u f f a p p e a r - A L L 3 s g n f - g i v e - R E M . P . R E P

' H e (the traditional G o d ) g a v e all ( p e o p l e ) (the snuff) openly.'

O t h e r e x a m p l e s o f a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are 11.18, w i t h t h e stative v e r b

k a i k a 'be in vain', a n d 1 8 . 6 3 , w i t h t h e stative v e r b khida 'ready'.

T h e o r d e r o f c o m p o n e n t s in a m b i e n t serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s d e p e n d s o n the

m o r p h o l o g i c a l c l a s s o f t h e 'modifier' v e r b . A stative (S 0 ) m o d i f i e r v e r b a l w a y s p r e c e d e s

t h e m a i n v e r b , a s in 1 8 . 5 6 . A n a c t i v e (S a ) 'modifier' v e r b f o l l o w s it, a s in 1 8 . 5 7 .

1 8 . 5 7 t h u y a h a - e h k w a p i - n e - n u k u n a w i k i - n u k u

a l l . O N E . K I N D D E M - w o r l d - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S p e o p l e - T O P . N O N . A / S

[di-kalite d i - p e y a - k a - p i d a n a ]

3sgnf-tell 3 s g n f - b e first-DECL-REM.P.REP

' H e w a s t h e first to tell (lit. tell-be.first) all t h e p e o p l e in t h e w o r l d ( a b o u t t h e

d i s c o v e r y o f t h e fire).'

T w o p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s f o l l o w t h e v e r b t h e y m o d i f y : k e w h a n i 'be g r e e d y , g l u t t o n o u s ' ,

illustrated in 1 8 . 5 8 , a n d litena 'be m o r e ' in 18.59. If t h e v e r b k e w h a n i w e r e c o n s i d e r e d to

b e a s e c o n d a r y v e r b , it c o u l d t h e n h a v e a c q u i r e d its u n u s u a l p o s i t i o n b y a n a l o g y w i t h

o t h e r s e c o n d a r y v e r b s . If this is so, k e w h a n i f o r m s a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e k i n d d i s c u s s e d u n d e r ( K ) in § 1 8 . 3 , a n d this e x p l a i n s its p l a c e m e n t

h e r e .

1 8 . 5 8 p a y a r u [dir a k e w h a n i ] - k a

m a n i o c . w h i s k y 3 s g n f + d r i n k b e . g l u t t o n o u s - R E C . P . V I S

' H e i n d u l g e s h i m s e l f in d r i n k i n g m a n i o c w h i s k y . '

T h e p r e f i x l e s s v e r b litena 'be m o r e ' c o n t a i n s a fossilised third p e r s o n s i n g u l a r n o n -

f e m i n i n e p r e f i x //- ( f o u n d in B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a a n d in a n u m b e r o f a r c h a i c T a r i a n a

d i a l e c t s - s e e C h a p t e r 1) w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to di~ o f S a n t a R o s a . S o m e s p e a k e r s

p r o n o u n c e it a s di-tena. T h i s e x p l a i n s w h y it a l w a y s f o l l o w s t h e o t h e r v e r b in a n

a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , b e h a v i n g a s i f it w e r e a p r e f i x e d S a v e r b .

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 1 8 . 6 A c o m p a r i s o n of t h r e e types of s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s 4 4 3

1 8 . 5 9 [ p i - n a - n h a litena]

2 s g - w a n t - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R b e . m o r e

' D o y o u w a n t m o r e ? '

1 8 . 6 A c o m p a r i s o n o f t h r e e t y p e s o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

T h e t h r e e t y p e s o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a differ in (I) s e m a n t i c s , (II)

c o n s t r a i n t s o n c o m b i n a t i o n s in o n e p r e d i c a t e , (III) o r d e r o f c o m p o n e n t s , ( I V ) s c o p e o f

A k t i o n s a r t enclitics, ( V ) transitivity v a l u e a n d a r g u m e n t s h a r i n g , ( V I ) s o m e p r o s o d i c

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , ( V I I ) p a t t e r n s o f g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n a n d lexicalisation a n d (VIII)

s e m a n t i c g r o u p s o f v e r b s e m p l o y e d . T a b l e 18.4 s u m m a r i s e s the p r o p e r t i e s o f

a s y m m e t r i c a l , a m b i e n t a n d s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in T a r i a n a .

(i) S E M A N T I C S . A s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e a s p e c t u a l , directional,

m o d a l , s o c i a t i v e a n d c a u s a t i v e s e m a n t i c s , w h i l e a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e a

m o d i f i e r — m o d i f i e d r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e c o m p o n e n t s . S y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s refer to s e q u e n c e s o f e v e n t s a n d c a u s e - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the

c o m p o n e n t s .

(n) C O N S T R A I N T S O N C O M B I N A T I O N S O F S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S O F D I F F E R E N T

T Y P E S . T h e m a i n v e r b in a n a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n c o n s i s t o f serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f a n y k i n d . A n e x a m p l e o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a n a s p e c t u a l a n d

d i r e c t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n is f o u n d in 1 8 . 2 9 , w h i l e 1 8 . 1 8 illustrates a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a

serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n i n g a s e c o n d a r y v e r b 'pretend' a n d a s p e c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n

w i t h t h e p o s t u r e v e r b 'sit'. In 1 8 . 3 4 t h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t o f a m o d a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n is a d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . In 1 8 . 5 0 t h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t o f

a m o d a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is a n a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h the

s e c o n d a r y v e r b 'play at d o i n g s o m e t h i n g , d o j o k i n g l y ' , w h i l e in 1 8 . 3 7 a r e c a p i t u l a t i n g

serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n o c c u r s w i t h a n a s p e c t u a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n ( ' b e c o m e

h a p p y ' ) .

A s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n c o n t a i n a n a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n , b u t n o t a s y m m e t r i c a l o n e . T h e first c o m p o n e n t o f a s y m m e t r i c a l serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n in 1 8 . 3 3 is a directional serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . 1 8 . 6 0 is a l o n g i s h

s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f six c o m p o n e n t s , f o u r o f w h i c h

a r e o r g a n i s e d i n t o d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( t u r n - g o u p s t r e a m a n d g o d o w n -

g o ) .

1 8 . 6 0 [ [ d i - k a p u k u disa] di-r a h t a

3 s g n f - t u r n 3 s g n f + g o . u p s t r e a m 3sgnf-float

d i - a m i a - b i l i [ d i - r u k u di-a]]

3 s g n f - p l u n g e - I N S I D E 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - g o

' H e t u r n e d u p s t r e a m floating p l u n g i n g g o i n g d o w n . '

In a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s t h e m o d i f y i n g v e r b c a n n o t c o n s i s t o f a serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n .

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 4 4 4 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

(ill) O R D E R O F C O M P O N E N T S : I C O N I C C O N S T I T U E N T O R D E R . I n a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s ,

c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e t y p e o f serial v e r b rather t h a n b y t h e 'logical'

s e q u e n c e o f its c o m p o n e n t s . T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a r e s u m m a r i s e d i n T a b l e 1 8 . 3 . T h e s e

results p a r t l y g o a g a i n s t t h e p r e d i c t i o n m a d e b y F o l e y a n d O l s o n ( 1 9 8 5 : 4 0 ) , a c c o r d i n g

t o w h i c h t h e m e m b e r o f a c l o s e d class i n a n a s y m m e t r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n u s u a l l y f o l l o w s

t h e m e m b e r o f t h e o p e n class.

T A B L E 1 8 . 4 . A S Y M M E T R I C A L , S Y M M E T R I C A L A N D A M B I E N T S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S

P R O P E R T I E S O F S E R I A L C O N S T R U C T I O N S A S Y M M E T R I C A L A M B I E N T S Y M M E T R I C A L

aspectual,
sequence o f events,
1. S E M A N T I C S directional, m o d a l , modifier-modified
cause-effect
sociative, causative

II. C O N S T R A I N T S O N C O M B I N A T I O N S modifying verb cannot consist o f

none
O F S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S cannot b e an S V C symmetrical S V C s

no: d e p e n d s o n the
III. O R D E R O F C O M P O N E N T S : I C O N I C no: d e p e n d s o n
class o f modifier yes
C O N S T I T U E N T O R D E R construction type
verb

individual
I V . S C O P E O F A K T I O N S A R T E N C L I T I C S construction as a whole
c o m p o n e n t s

V . T R A N S I T I V I T Y V A L U E A N D

A R G U M E N T S H A R I N G : S A M E n o yes

T R A N S I T I V I T Y O F A L L C O M P O N E N T S

phrase accent o n
V I . P R O S O D I C P R O P E R T I E S phrase accent o n the open class verb
the last verb

G: verbs to
V I I . G R A M M A T I C A L I S A T I O N ( G ) O R G: verbs to L: b e c o m e lexical
auxiliaries or
L E X I C A L I S A T I O N ( L ) adverbs idioms
postpositions

V I I I . T Y P I C A L S E M A N T I C G R O U P S O F motion, posture, verbs o f speech a n d

stative verbs
V E R B S 'begin', 'do' mental processes

T h e o r d e r o f c o m p o n e n t s i n a m b i e n t serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s d e p e n d s o n t h e

m o r p h o l o g i c a l class o f t h e 'modifier' v e r b - s e e § 1 8 . 5 . A stative ( S 0 ) m o d i f i e r v e r b

a l w a y s p r e c e d e s t h e m a i n v e r b , a n d a n a c t i v e ( S a ) 'modifier' v e r b f o l l o w s it ( t w o

p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n s t o that w e r e d i s c u s s e d a b o v e - s e e 1 8 . 5 8 a n d 18.59).

T h e o r d e r o f c o m p o n e n t s o f a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b is iconic: it reflects t h e

t e m p o r a l o r d e r o f a c t u a l e v e n t s l i n k e d together, e.g. fish-kill in 1 8 . 5 1 . T h e r e is often a

c a u s e - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p , a n d t h e effect v e r b t h e n c o m e s s e c o n d in t h e serial

c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h D u r i e ' s ( 1 9 9 7 : 3 3 1 ) p r e d i c t i o n s .

( i v ) S C O P E O F A K T I O N S A R T E N C L I T I C S . I n a s y m m e t r i c a l a n d a m b i e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n s ,

A k t i o n s a r t enclitics d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 15 c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e serial c o n s t r u c t i o n a s a

w h o l e , a s d o e s t h e enclitic -thepi 'into.water' i n 1 8 . 6 1 .

1 8 . 6 1 d u - w h a - t h e p i d u - a

3 s g f - f a l l - I N T O . W A T E R 3 s g f - g o . a w a y

' S h e ( t h e girl t r a n s f o r m e d into a s n a k e - w o m a n ) w a s falling into w a t e r ( a w a y f r o m

h e r father) (lit. fall-go a w a y ) . '

I n c o n t r a s t , i n s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n enclitic h a s a s its s c o p e j u s t

o n e c o m p o n e n t . I n 1 8 . 6 0 t h e A k t i o n s a r t enclitic -bili d e s c r i b e s t h e a c t i o n o f j u s t o n e

v e r b , 'plunge'. I n 1 8 . 6 2 t h e enclitic -thepi 'into water' is u s e d i n a s y m m e t r i c a l

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 1 8 . 6 A c o m p a r i s o n of t h r e e types of s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s 4 4 5

c o n s t r u c t i o n ; it refers to j u s t o n e c o m p o n e n t , - w h a 'fall'. A n o t h e r enclitic, -khd 'away',

refers t o t h e o t h e r c o m p o n e n t ('dive').

1 8 . 6 2 d i - w h a - t h e p i d i - a p h u a - k h a

3 s g n f - f a l l - I N T O . W A T E R 3 s g n f - d i v e - A W A Y

'It ( o t t e r ) fell into w a t e r d i v i n g a w a y . '

( v ) T R A N S I T I V I T Y V A L U E A N D A R G U M E N T S H A R I N G : S A M E T R A N S I T I V I T Y O F A L L T H E

C O M P O N E N T S . T h e transitivity o f a n a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b is d e t e r m i n e d b y the 'main'

v e r b ; t h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n 'inherits' its a r g u m e n t structure. In 7.38 ' m a n i o c flour' is the

d i r e c t o b j e c t o f t h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f a transitive v e r b 'carry' a n d

intransitive 'go out'. S i m i l a r l y , a m b i e n t serial v e r b s inherit t h e a r g u m e n t structure o f the

m a i n v e r b : b o t h 1 8 . 5 6 a n d 1 8 . 5 7 are transitive b e c a u s e their m a i n v e r b is transitive

( t h o u g h o n e v e r b in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n is transitive, a n d t h e o t h e r is intransitive). O b l i q u e

a r g u m e n t s a r e s h a r e d in a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s , e.g. b e n e f a c t i v e 'for w o m e n ' in 1 8 . 3 7

o r c o m i t a t i v e ' w i t h children' in 1 8 . 4 7 , a n d in a m b i e n t serial v e r b s , e.g. a d d r e s s e e 'people'

in 1 8 . 5 7 .

S y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n f o r m to t h e p r i n c i p l e that t h e serial v e r b

c o m p l e x a s a w h o l e d o e s n o t h a v e d u p l i c a t e r o l e s (there c a n n o t b e t w o direct objects, or

t w o i n s t r u m e n t s ) . In T a r i a n a , this i m p l i e s a r e q u i r e m e n t that all t h e c o m p o n e n t s m u s t

h a v e t h e s a m e transitivity v a l u e : either all are intransitive, as in 1 8 . 5 2 , or all are

transitive, a s in 1 8 . 5 3 . H o w e v e r , o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t s d o n o t h a v e to b e s h a r e d : the

c o n s t i t u e n t 'to t h e o t h e r side' in 18.8 c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a n a r g u m e n t o f ' m a k e stay', a n d

n o t o f o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s .

(vi) P R O S O D I C P R O P E R T I E S . In a s y m m e t r i c a l serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e p h r a s e a c c e n t falls

o n t h e v e r b f r o m a n o p e n class. In s y m m e t r i c a l a n d a m b i e n t serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s , it falls

o n t h e last v e r b . A l l t h e o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s h a v e a w e a k e r stress.

( V I I ) G R A M M A T I C A L I S A T I O N A N D L E X I C A L I S A T I O N I N S E R I A L V E R B C O N S T R U C T I O N S .

A s y m m e t r i c a l a n d a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s t e n d to u n d e r g o

g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n , w h i l e s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s t e n d to lexicalise.

C o m p o n e n t s o f a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s w h i c h c o m e f r o m c l o s e d c l a s s e s t e n d to b e

g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d a s (a) auxiliaries in a s p e c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d (b) p o s t p o s i t i o n s in

d i r e c t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

M o t i o n v e r b s , v e r b s o f b e g i n n i n g a n d finishing a n d t h e v e r b 'do' t e n d to b e c o m e

a u x i l i a r y - l i k e in a s p e c t u a l serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s . T h e g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f s t a n c e a n d

m o t i o n v e r b s a s a s p e c t m a r k e r s is w e l l attested b o t h in serialising a n d n o n - s e r i a l i s i n g

l a n g u a g e s (cf. L o r d 1 9 9 3 , B y b e e , P e r k i n s a n d P a g l i u c a 1 9 9 4 ) .

T h e s a m e r o o t o f t e n h a s different m e a n i n g s w h e n u s e d as a n auxiliary-like v e r b

w i t h i n a n a s y m m e t r i c a l serial c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d w h e n u s e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h i s t e n d e n c y

h a s o f t e n b e e n o b s e r v e d in t h e literature o n v e r b serialisation; cf. D u r i e ( 1 9 9 7 : 3 2 3 ) , o n

h o w 'give' is 'serialised t o a d d a b e n e f a c t i v e o r g o a l role w i t h o u t t h e r e n e c e s s a r i l y b e i n g

a n y a c t u a l " g i v i n g " i n v o l v e d ' , in serialising l a n g u a g e s . In T a r i a n a , t h e v e r b -a u s u a l l y

m e a n s 'say', o r 'give' w h e n u s e d a s t h e m a i n p r e d i c a t e ; a typical w a y to attract a listener's

a t t e n t i o n is b y i n s e r t i n g n u - a - k a n h u a ( l s g - s a y - R E C . P . v i s l s g ) 'I a m s a y i n g , I h a v e said'

(see § 2 5 . 4 . 3 ) . In d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b s , t h e s a m e v e r b m e a n s 'go a w a y ' , in m o d a l serial

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 4 4 6 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

v e r b s it m e a n s 'be g o i n g to d o s o m e t h i n g ' , a n d in c a u s a t i v e serial v e r b s it is the v e r b o f

c a u s a t i o n ( ' m a k e , let') ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n at t h e e n d o f § 1 8 . 3 ) .

A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, -sita 'finish' m a r k s p e r f e c t i v e a s p e c t in serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s , as in

1 2 . 5 2 . W h e n u s e d a s a m a i n v e r b , -sita m e a n s ' m a n a g e to'.

M o t i o n v e r b s g r a m m a t i c a l i s e a s p o s t p o s i t i o n s ; t h e y o c c u r w i t h a fixed set o f affixes

a n d enclitics, e.g. - r u k u - i - t a - k a ( - g o . d o w n - C A U S l - C A U S 2 - D E C L ) 'at', - k w a - k a ( - h a n g -

DECL) 'in t h e m i d d l e ' ( s e e § 1 1 . 1 1 ) . T h e i r m e a n i n g is n o t p r e d i c t a b l e f r o m t h e m e a n i n g o f

t h e o r i g i n a l v e r b a l root, s i n c e t h e y s h o w a rather a d v a n c e d d e g r e e o f g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n .

T h e p a s s a g e f r o m d i r e c t i o n a l serial v e r b s to a d p o s i t i o n s is also t y p o l o g i c a l l y w e l l

attested; it i s s o m e t i m e s referred to as 'locative v e r b s w i t h p r e p o s i t i o n a l functions' ( L o r d

1 9 9 3 : 9 ) o r 'verbal p r e p o s i t i o n s ' ( D u r i e 1 9 8 8 ) .

G r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n in a m b i e n t serial v e r b s g o e s a l o n g different lines. It i n v o l v e s a

p a s s a g e f r o m a n o p e n c l a s s o f stative v e r b s into a s m a l l i s h s e m i - o p e n class o f a d v e r b s .

T h e stative v e r b khida 'be ready' is o f t e n u s e d in a m b i e n t serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s , as in

1 8 . 6 3 .

1 8 . 6 3 k h i d a - n a k a di-sisa

r e a d y - P R E S . V I S 3 s g n f - e n d

'It ( t h e story) e n d s (lit. b e r e a d y - e n d ) here.'

T h e s a m e v e r b k h i d a c a n also b e u s e d as a n a d v e r b , as in 18.64. It is n o t a part o f a

serial v e r b s i n c e k h i d a a n d n u - k a l i t e - d e 'I will tell' a r e n o t c o n t i g u o u s , a n d t h e r e is a

p a u s e after k h i d a .

1 8 . 6 4 k h i d a kali-si n u - k a l i t e - d e

r e a d y ( p a u s e ) t e l l - N O M 1 s g - t e l l - F U T . C E R T

'I'll t e l l a s t o r y in a p r e p a r e d w a y . '

L e x i c a l i s a t i o n o f s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b s often results in the c r e a t i o n o f a

s e m a n t i c a l l y u n a n a l y s a b l e c o m p l e x w h i c h is better treated as o n e lexical e n t r y - s e e the

e x a m p l e s i n § 1 8 . 4 .

( v i n ) S E M A N T I C G R O U P S O F V E R B S . D i f f e r e n t v e r b c l a s s e s a p p e a r in serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s

o f different t y p e s . M o t i o n a n d p o s t u r e v e r b s , transitive v e r b s o f t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d

finishing t y p e ( p h a s e v e r b s ) , m o d a l v e r b s ('want') a n d t h e v e r b -ni 'do' are u s e d in

a s y m m e t r i c a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s . V e r b s o f s p e e c h , p e r c e p t i o n a n d m e n t a l

p r o c e s s e s a p p e a r in s y m m e t r i c a l serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s . Stative v e r b s , w h e n serialised, c a n

o n l y b e u s e d in a m b i e n t serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

1 8 . 7 V e r b c o m p o u n d i n g

A n u n u s u a l p r o p e r t y o f T a r i a n a is that, in a d d i t i o n to e x t r e m e l y p r o d u c t i v e c o n t i g u o u s

v e r b serialisation, it a l s o h a s t w o k i n d s o f v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g (i.e. v e r b r o o t s e q u e n c i n g

o f t h e c o n t i g u o u s i n c o r p o r a t i n g t y p e : D u r i e 1 9 9 7 a n d A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 9 e ) w h i c h is

f u n c t i o n a l l y a n d s e m a n t i c a l l y distinct f r o m v e r b serialisation.

A n y stative p r e f i x l e s s (S 0 ) v e r b r o o t c a n f o r m a c o m p o u n d w i t h the stative v e r b matfa

'be p r o p e r , b e g o o d ' a s t h e first c o m p o n e n t . N o enclitics o r suffixes c a n g o b e t w e e n the

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 1 8 . 7 Verb c o m p o u n d i n g AA1

p a r t s o f t h e c o m p o u n d v e r b ; t h e s e q u e n c e matfa + stative v e r b b e h a v e s as a single root.

T h e c o m p o u n d v e r b h a s a s i n g l e stress w h i c h falls o n t h e a n t e p e n u l t i m a t e syllable o f t h e

c o m p o u n d e d root, e.g. matfd-hui ( b e . p r o p e r - b e . t a s t y ) 'be really tasty ones', matfd-puwhi

( b e . p r o p e r - b e . h a p p y ) 'be really h a p p y ' , matfd-nhesiri (be.proper-like) 'really like'. S e e

1 8 . 6 5 .

1 8 . 6 5 m a t f a - m a k a r a d i h m i t a - k a s u - p i d a n a

b e . p r o p e r - d r y 3 s g n f + b u m - I N T - R E M . P . R E P

' H e w a s g o i n g to b u r n (the l a n d ) really d r y (lit. g o o d - d r y , cf. E n g l i s h g o o d and

dry) (after t h e flood).'

S i n c e in t h e s e c o m p o u n d s matfa 'properly, really' m o d i f i e s t h e s e c o n d stative v e r b

root, this c o m p o u n d i n g strategy m i g h t a p p e a r t o b e superficially s i m i l a r to a m b i e n t

serialisation. B u t u n l i k e a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( w h i c h h a v e n o restrictions o n

t h e v e r b t o b e e m p l o y e d in t h e 'modifier' slot, p r o v i d e d it is intransitive) matfa-

c o m p o u n d s c a n n o t c o n t a i n a n y o t h e r v e r b a s t h e ' m o d i f y i n g ' c o m p o n e n t . T h e y are also

t h e o n l y i n s t a n c e in t h e l a n g u a g e o f t w o stative v e r b s in a v e r b s e q u e n c i n g structure

( a m b i e n t serial v e r b s c a n n o t c o n s i s t o n l y o f stative v e r b s ) .

T h e o t h e r k i n d o f c o m p o u n d i n g i n v o l v e s a s m a l l n u m b e r o f v e r b a l r o o t s (transitive or

intransitive) w h i c h a r e encliticised to inflected v e r b s a n d w h i c h h a v e b e c o m e

g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e s m a r k i n g a s s o c i a t e d action, a s p e c t a n d syntactic d e p e n d e n c y .

T h e s e enclitics f o r m a s i n g l e p h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d w i t h t h e v e r b , a c q u i r i n g a s e c o n d a r y

stress. T h e largest c l a s s ( o f a b o u t t w e n t y ) are 'associated action' enclitics u s e d to specify

m o d e o f a c t i o n . M o s t o f t h e m c o m e f r o m intransitive v e r b s , e.g. -dhala ' a w a y , c o m e

u n s t u c k ' (cf. S a v e r b - d h a l a 'peel (intransitive), unstick'); - h a l a 'open' (cf. S 0 v e r b h a l a

'be w i d e o p e n ' ) , - k a w h i 'early' (cf. S 0 v e r b k a w h i 'get u p early') - s e e e x a m p l e s in

§ 1 5 . 2 . 1 . T h r e e v e r b s b e c o m e a s p e c t m a r k e r s w h e n their r o o t s are cliticised to t h e m a i n

v e r b (cf. A n a 'do little b y little', f r o m -yena 'pass', e x e m p l i f i e d in § 1 5 . 1 . 1 ; -sita

1
'perfective , f r o m -sita 'finish' d i s c u s s e d in § 1 5 . 1 . 8 ; a n d - m a h a 'almost', f r o m -mafia

'cheat, d o w r o n g l y ' - s e e § 1 5 . 1 . 1 1 ) . O n e v e r b , w h y u m e 'be last', is g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d as a

s e q u e n c i n g enclitic - h y u m e ' a f t e n S S ' ( § 2 2 . 1 ) .

A s s o c i a t e d a c t i o n enclitics, a s p e c t enclitics a n d t h e s e q u e n c i n g enclitic are

g r a m m a t i c a l m o r p h e m e s . U n l i k e g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d c o m p o n e n t s o f serial v e r b s a n d in

matfa- c o m p o u n d s , t h e y u n d e r g o p h o n o l o g i c a l d e p l e t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , the enclitic -sita

u n d e r g o e s m e t a t h e s i s a n d b e c o m e s -i\ta a n d -\ta in r a p i d s p e e c h register. -Hyume is in

free v a r i a t i o n w i t h - y u h m e in a r a p i d s p e e c h . T h i s p h o n o l o g i c a l d e p l e t i o n , w h i c h

i n v o l v e s m e t a t h e s i s a n d v o w e l r e d u c t i o n , is characteristic o f b o u n d m o r p h e m e s (cf.

- h y u , - y h u ' p u r p o s i v e ' a n d - h y u n a , - y u n h a 'habitual-prescribed'), a n d is a n o t h e r

i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e r a t h e r a d v a n c e d g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f this t y p e o f r o o t c o m p o u n d i n g

in T a r i a n a ( w h i c h a l s o c o n f i r m s t h e Parallel R e d u c t i o n H y p o t h e s i s w h i c h s u g g e s t s that

' f o r m a n d m e a n i n g c o v a r y ' in g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n - B y b e e , P e r k i n s a n d P a g l i u c a 1 9 9 4 :

1 9 - 2 1 ) .

T h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e t w o t y p e s o f v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g are s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 18.5.

W h i l e matfa- c o m p o u n d s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a 'lexical' strategy, 'cliticised' c o m p o u n d i n g

is a g r a m m a t i c a l m e c h a n i s m w h i c h results in e n r i c h i n g t h e v e r b a l m o r p h o l o g y o f t h e

l a n g u a g e .

T a b l e 1 8 . 6 c o n t r a s t s g r a m m a t i c a l a n d s e m a n t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f cliticised v e r b r o o t

c o m p o u n d i n g a n d a s y m m e t r i c a l serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

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 4 4 8 18 Serial verb constructions and verb compounding

T A B L E 1 8 . 5 . P R O P E R T I E S O F T H E T W O T Y P E S O F V E R B R O O T C O M P O U N D I N G

C L I T 1 C I S E D
P R O P E R T I E S m a ^ - C O M P O U N D S
C O M P O U N D S

1. O N E C O M P O U N D E D R O O T C O M E S F R O M A C L O S E D C L A S S yes yes

2 . P O S I T I O N O F T H E R O O T F R O M A C L O S E D C L A S S preposed postposed

3 . T H E R O O T F R O M A C L O S E D C L A S S IS A N E N C L I T I C no yes

4 . T H E R O O T F R O M A C L O S E D C L A S S IS G R A M M A T I C A L I S E D no yes

5 . T H E R O O T F R O M A C L O S E D C L A S S U N D E R G O E S D E P L E T I O N no yes

T A B L E 18.6. C L I T I C I S E D V E R B C O M P O U N D I N G A N D A S Y M M E T R I C A L S E R I A L

C O N S T R U C T I O N S

A S Y M M E T R I C A L S E R I A L
P R O P E R T I E S C L I T I C I S E D V E R B R O O T C O M P O U N D I N G
C O N S T R U C T I O N S

1. G R A M M A T I C A L M E A N I N G S associated action, sequencing aspectual, directional,

E X P R E S S E D d e p e n d e n c y markers m o d a l m e a n i n g s

2 . E V E R Y V E R B IS A S E P A R A T E

P H O N O L O G I C A L A N D n o yes

G R A M M A T I C A L W O R D

3 . N U M B E R O F V E R B S P E R
not m o r e than t w o t w o or m o r e
C O N S T R U C T I O N

4 . P H O N O L O G I C A L D E P L E T I O N possible no

W h i l e v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g results in the c r e a t i o n o f o n e p h o n o l o g i c a l a n d o n e

g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d , serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n t a i n several ( t w o o r m o r e ) i n d e p e n d e n t

p h o n o l o g i c a l a n d g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d s . In T a r i a n a , v e r b serialisation is h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e

- u n l i k e in o t h e r serialising l a n g u a g e s , s u c h a s K a l a m ( P a w l e y 1 9 9 3 ; D u r i e 1 9 9 7 : 3 2 5 -

6), w h e r e serialisation is c o n s t r a i n e d b y s t e r e o t y p e d e v e n t s c h e m e s . In contrast, t h e t w o

t e c h n i q u e s o f v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g are l i m i t e d to a f e w v e r b roots.

Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d v e r b c o m p o u n d i n g in T a r i a n a are t h u s g r a m m a t i c a l l y

different p h e n o m e n a , in spite o f a certain d e g r e e o f functional a n d s e m a n t i c similarity

b e t w e e n t h e m .

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 19

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s

T a r i a n a h a s s e v e r a l distinct t y p e s o f c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w h i c h c o - e x i s t w i t h serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s . S i m i l a r l y to serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s are

m o n o c l a u s a l , a n d c o n s i s t o f t w o v e r b s in o n e p r e d i c a t e slot. U n l i k e serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e y m a y c o n t a i n a n o v e r t m a r k e r o f syntactic d e p e n d e n c y b e t w e e n t h e

t w o v e r b s - for i n s t a n c e , a s u b o r d i n a t o r a n d / o r a v e r b a l suffix. T h e t w o v e r b s o f a

c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c a n b e identical - t h e s e are c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s i n v o l v i n g repetition.

U s u a l l y , n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e v e r b s w h i c h f o r m a c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e . T h e o r d e r o f v e r b s is fixed a n d d e p e n d s o n t h e p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n type. If

a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c a n b e n e g a t e d , t h e r e is o n e n e g a t i v e m a r k e r p e r p r e d i c a t e . T h e

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g o n t h e v e r b s is identical in m o s t cases. C o m p o n e n t s o f a c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e c a n n o t a c q u i r e different v a l u e s for a n y o f t h e v e r b a l categories. T h i s i m p l i e s

t h a t e v e r y c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c a n h a v e j u s t o n e tense-evidentiality, aspect, A k t i o n s a r t ,

m o o d a n d m o d a l i t y m a r k e r . H o w e v e r , t h e s e m a r k e r s c a n b e distributed in different

w a y s : w e w i l l s e e b e l o w that in p a s s i v e s t h e y g o o n t o t h e last v e r b , w h i l e in c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e s w i t h r e p e t i t i o n t h e y g e t d i s t r i b u t e d b e t w e e n t h e v e r b s . M o s t c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e s c a n n o t b e n o m i n a l i s e d o r relativised, u n l i k e serial v e r b s (see § 1 9 . 4 ) .

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s e x p r e s s a v a r i e t y o f m o d a l a n d o t h e r m e a n i n g s . T h e r e are e l e v e n

t y p e s o f c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e d i s c u s s e d in § § 1 9 . 1 - 1 1 . In the final section, § 1 9 . 1 2 , c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e s a r e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

1 9 . 1 E p i s t e m i c c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e w i t h r e p e t i t i o n

A c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e w i t h repetition c o n s i s t s o f t w o o c c u r r e n c e s o f the s a m e v e r b w i t h

identical c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g w i t h o u t a n y o v e r t m a r k i n g o f syntactic d e p e n d e n c y . Its

m e a n i n g is e p i s t e m i c ; t h e s e p r e d i c a t e s are translated a s ' m a y b e , possibly'.

T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y evidentiality specification e x c e p t for visual

p r e s e n t . T h e n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l is t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t o p t i o n ; this is illustrated in 1 9 . 1 .

19.1 [ t a r a d a t a r a d a - m h a ] m a - y e k a n a - d e - m h a

a l i v e a l i v e - P R E S . N O N V I S N E G - k n o w + P A S S - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

'It i s n o t k n o w n w h e t h e r h e (a d r u n k l y i n g in t h e street) is a l i v e o r not.'

In 19.2 t h e e v i d e n c e is visible to t h e p e o p l e - w h o h a v e d o u b t o n l y a s to h o w to

interpret it.

1 9 . 2 hi [ d i - p e - k a - n h i di-pe-sita]

D E M : A N I M 3 s g n f - l e a v e - R E C . P . V I S - A N T 3 s g n f - l e a v e - P E R F

' " H e (the otter) m u s t h a v e left (the h o u s e a n d t h e utensils) already," (said t h e

p e o p l e w h o s a w t h e h o u s e a n d t h e utensils left b e h i n d b y t h e otter).'

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 4 5 0 19 Complex predicates

A n d if o n e h a s e n o u g h g e n e r a l e v i d e n c e to m a k e a n i n f e r e n c e , a g e n e r i c inferred

w o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e . R a f a e l B r i t o o f t e n said that h e c o u l d c u r e c o u g h s b y b l e s s i n g .

A f t e r o n e o f h i s c h i l d r e n a c t u a l l y s t o p p e d c o u g h i n g , o t h e r s c o m m e n t e d i n c r e d u l o u s l y :

19.3 k w e d i - a [di-fiapa di-fiapa-sina]

h o w 3 s g n f - s a y 3 s g n f - b l e s s 3 s g n f - b l e s s - R E M . P . I N F R

m a - y e k a d e - m h a

N E G - k n o w + N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

' W h e t h e r h e ( R a f a e l ) h a d d o n e t h e b l e s s i n g o r not, w e don't k n o w . '

A n e p i s t e m i c c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c a n b e u s e d w i t h n e g a t i o n ( n o t e that b o t h

c o m p o n e n t s are n e g a t e d ) .

1 9 . 4 [ m a - n u - k a d e m a - n u - k a d e - m h a ]

N E G - c o m e - N E G N E G - c o m e - N E G - P R E S . V I S

' H e is p r o b a b l y n o t c o m i n g ( w e can't see h i m ) . '

T h e y c a n o c c u r w i t h p o t e n t i a l m o o d , as in 19.5.

19.5 n u h u a - m i s i n i [ n u - b u e t a n u - b u e t a - b o h t a ]

I - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R 1s g - l e a r n 1 s g - l e a r n - P O T

'I a m p r o b a b l y c a p a b l e o f l e a r n i n g too.'

If t h e r e is j u s t o n e v e r b a l enclitic, it u s u a l l y g o e s o n t o t h e last c o m p o n e n t o f t h e

p r e d i c a t e , a s in 19.1 a n d 1 9 . 3 - 5 . If o n e enclitic h a s t w o o r m o r e syllables, a n d other(s)

c o n t a i n j u s t o n e , t h e l o n g e r enclitic g o e s o n t o t h e last c o m p o n e n t , a n d t h e s h o r t e r o n e ( s )

a t t a c h t o t h e first o n e , a s i n 1 9 . 2 a n d 19.6 ( u s e d t o a n s w e r m y q u e s t i o n a s to w h e t h e r t h e

m a n w a l k i n g in front o f u s w a s i n d e e d B a t i s t a Brito).

1 9 . 6 [ d i - n u - k a di-nu-sita]

3 s g n f - c o m e - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - c o m e - P E R F

'It is i n d e e d h i m ( B a t i s t a B r i t o ) a l r e a d y c o m i n g . '

1 9 . 2 P r o l o n g e d c u s t o m a r y a c t i o n

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s e x p r e s s i n g p r o l o n g e d c u s t o m a r y a c t i o n s are m a r k e d w i t h the

enclitic -kape ' c u s t o m a r y ' ( s e e § 1 5 . 1 . 3 ) a n d c o n t a i n t w o o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e s a m e

p r e d i c a t e w i t h identical c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g . U n l i k e e p i s t e m i c c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w i t h

repetition, n o enclitic c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e r e p e a t e d v e r b s . T h e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e

is m a r k e d w i t h -kape at t h e e n d o f the entire c o n s t r u c t i o n . In 19.7, t h e c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e ( u n d e r l i n e d ) f o r m s p a r t o f a n a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , lit. 'well-live-

l i v e - c u s t o m a r y ' (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) . A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is at 15.20.

1 9 . 7 d i - k a p i di-tutu [ m a t f a - p i d a n a d i - n a

3 s g n f - h a n d 3sgnf-tie g o o d / p r o p e r - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - l i v e

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 19.3 Complex predicate with a subordinator and repetition 451

di-fia-kapel d i - n h a w h e - r i d a l i p a - n u k u

3 s g n f - l i v e - C U S T 3 s g n f - p a r e n t . i n . l a w - M A S C n e a r - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e (soldier) g o t m a r r i e d , ( a n d ) lived v e r y w e l l for a l o n g t i m e n e a r his father-in-

law.'

1 9 . 3 C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e w i t h a s u b o r d i n a t o r a n d r e p e t i t i o n

A c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e w i t h a s u b o r d i n a t o r a n d repetition h a s a n indefinite m e a n i n g

' w h a t e v e r , w h e r e v e r , a n y t h i n g ' . S u c h a p r e d i c a t e h a s the f o l l o w i n g structure:

s u b o r d i n a t o r k a n i ' w h e r e ' o r kwe ' h o w ' f o l l o w e d b y t w o o c c u r r e n c e s o f the s a m e v e r b

( n o t e t h a t o n l y t w o i n d e f i n i t e - i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s c a n b e u s e d ) . A n y t e n s e -

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification, e x c e p t for p r e s e n t visual, is a c c e p t a b l e . T e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y

enclitics g o o n t o t h e last c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e , b u t n o t b e t w e e n t h e m .

A c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e w i t h a s u b o r d i n a t o r a n d w i t h repetition is m o n o c l a u s a l . N o

m a r k e r o f s y n t a c t i c d e p e n d e n c y c a n b e i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n t h e r e p e a t e d v e r b s . 19.8 is a n

e x a m p l e o f s u c h a m o n o c l a u s a l c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e . In contrast, 19.9 c o n t a i n s t w o

c l a u s e s o n e o f w h i c h is m a r k e d w i t h t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka; h e r e , t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e is

s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e m a i n c l a u s e w i t h a p a u s e ( 2 5 . 5 3 is a s i m i l a r e x a m p l e ) .

1 9 . 8 [ k w e n u - a n u - a - d e ]

h o w l s g - g o l s g - g o - F U T . C E R T

' " A n y t h i n g m i g h t h a p p e n to m e , " (said t h e m a n w i t h resignation).'

1 9 . 9 k w e p i - a - k a [ P A U S E ] p i - a - m h a d e

h o w 2 s g - g o - S U B [ P A U S E ] 2 s g - g o - F U T

' Y o u w i l l g o t h e w a y y o u w a n t to go.'

T h e o r d e r o f c l a u s e s in a b i c l a u s a l c o n s t r u c t i o n is syntactically free ( a n d d e p e n d s o n

d i s c o u r s e - s e e C h a p t e r 2 5 ) ; t h u s , 1 9 . 1 0 is g r a m m a t i c a l .

1 9 . 1 0 p i - a - m h a d e k w e p i - a - k a

2 s g - g o - F U T h o w 2 s g - g o - S U B

' Y o u w i l l g o t h e w a y y o u w a n t to go.'

In c o n t r a s t , t h e o r d e r o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c a n n o t b e r e v e r s e d :

* n u - a - d e kwe n u - a ( i n s t e a d o f 19.8) is u n g r a m m a t i c a l .

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w i t h k a n i h a v e t h e m e a n i n g o f ' s o m e t h i n g m u s t b e h a p p e n i n g

s o m e w h e r e o r at s o m e t i m e b u t w e are n o t s u r e w h e r e o r w h e n ' , a s in 19.11 a n d 1 9 . 1 2 .

T h e y m a y b e u s e d to d e l i b e r a t e l y c o n c e a l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a s k e d for: R a f a e l B r i t o said

1 9 . 1 1 w h e n q u e s t i o n e d a s to his w h e r e a b o u t s t h e p r e v i o u s night.

1 9 . 1 1 [ k a n i n u - r a p a n u - r a p a - k a ]

w h e r e l s g - d a n c e l s g - d a n c e - R E C . P . V I S

'I d a n c e d s o m e w h e r e ( a n d this is n o n e o f y o u r business).'

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s o f this k i n d are f r e q u e n t l y u s e d w i t h n o n - v i s u a l e v i d e n t i a l s , a s in

1 9 . 1 2 , f r o m a story b y M a r i n o M u n i z a b o u t his family.

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 4 5 2 19 Complex predicates

19.12pa:tfi n u - w e - d o - n i p e

other.of.different.sort 1 s g - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - F E M - P L

a l i a - t h a - n a p a k e d u - n a m i - k h a

E X I S T - F R - R E M . P . V I S o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M 3 s g f - d i e - A W A Y

d u - a p a k e k a - s a - n i r i - k h a

3 s g f - g o o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M R E L - s p o u s e - M A S C - A W A Y

d u - a d u - a - k h a [kani alia a l i a - m h a ]

3 s g n f - g e t 3 s g n f - g o w h e r e E X I S T E X I S T - P R E S . N O N . V I S

' T h e r e u s e d t o b e m y o t h e r (relatives), y o u n g e r sisters; o n e died, o n e g o t m a r r i e d

a n d w e n t a w a y ; s h e m u s t b e s o m e w h e r e (but I don't k n o w w h e r e s h e is).'

T h i s c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e t y p e c a n o c c u r w i t h potential - b o h t a , as in 19.13.

1 9 . 1 3 [ k a n i d i - t h u k a d i - t h u k a - b o t h a ]

w h e r e 3 s g n f - b r e a k 3 s g n f - b r e a k - P O T

'It (the o l d m o t o r g i v e n b y a w h i t e b o s s to B a t i s t a Brito) is c a p a b l e o f b r e a k i n g

s o m e w h e r e . '

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w i t h kwe ' h o w ' h a v e t h e m e a n i n g o f 'anything, w h a t e v e r ' , as in

1 9 . 8 a n d 1 9 . 1 4 .

1 9 . 1 4 [ k w e d i h m e r i k u d i h m e r i k u - p i d a n a ]

h o w 3 s g n f + m a k e . n o i s e 3 s g n f + m a k e . n o i s e - R E M . P . R E P

' H e w a s s p e a k i n g (lit. m a k i n g w h a t e v e r (useless) n o i s e ) in w h a t e v e r l a n g u a g e

(that n o o n e c o u l d m a k e s e n s e of).'

If a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e o f this t y p e c o n t a i n s t w o m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a u s a t i v e s , it is

p o s s i b l e for t h e last o n e o f t h e s e to t a k e a n a d d i t i o n a l m a r k e r -ta i n d i c a t i n g c o m p l e t e

i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e o b j e c t (see D u n d e r § 1 3 . 3 . 1 ) . T h i s is illustrated w i t h 1 9 . 1 5 .

1 9 . 1 5 [ k a n i d u - s u e d u - s u e - t a - s i k a ]

w h e r e 3 s g f - l i e + C A U S 3 s g f - l i e + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E C . P . I N F R

' S h e m u s t h a v e p u t (the k e y ) s o m e w h e r e (but w e h a v e n o i d e a w h e r e ) . '

1 9 . 4 P a s s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e w i t h a u x i l i a r y

T h e p a s s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e - d i s c u s s e d in § 1 3 . 1 - is d e r i v e d w i t h the prefix ka- a n d

suffix - k a n a f o l l o w e d b y a n auxiliary v e r b -a 'go, d o , give'; t h u s , k a - h h a - k a n a di-a ( R E L -

eat-PASS 3 s g n f - A U X ) 'he w a s hit' is a p a s s i v e o f - h a 'hit' (see 13.2). T h e s e c o n d a r y v e r b

- d i a ' b e c o m e ' is u s e d i n s t e a d o f -a. T h e auxiliary is e m p l o y e d w h e n a p r o c e s s is

d e s c r i b e d , a s in 13.2, a n d n o t its result, a s in 13.4. N o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n i n t e r v e n e

b e t w e e n t h e m a i n v e r b a n d t h e auxiliary; t h e o r d e r o f c o m p o n e n t s is fixed, a n d t h e

p r e d i c a t e enclitics g o o n t o t h e m a i n v e r b a n d n o t o n the auxiliary as in 13.2, 13.5 a n d

1 9 . 1 6 .

1 9 . 1 6 [ k a - k w i s a - k a n a - k a di-a] n u - n a

R E L - s c o l d - P A S S - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - A U X 1 s g - O B J

' H e w a s s c o l d e d b y m e . '

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 19.6 A dm irative complex predicate 4 5 3

P a s s i v e s d o n o t q u a l i f y a s serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , b e c a u s e t h e c o m p o n e n t s d o n o t

get t h e s a m e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g . P a s t participles d e r i v e d f r o m p a s s i v e s are v e r y rare.

W h e n t h e s e are f o r m e d , t h e a u x i l i a r y is o m i t t e d , e.g. k a - k w i s a - k a n a - k a r i (REL-scold-

P A S S - P A S T . R E L . M A S C ) 'the o n e w h o w a s s c o l d e d ' (see § 2 0 . 1 ) . T h i s is t h e o n l y i n s t a n c e o f

a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e b e i n g n o m i n a l i s e d . A l s o s e e d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r D in § 1 3 . 1

( e s p e c i a l l y e x a m p l e 13.16).

1 9 . 5 A p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e w i t h a u x i l i a r y

T h e a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c o n s i s t s o f a s e q u e n c e : lexical v e r b -da p l u s t h e

a u x i l i a r y v e r b -a 'say' f o l l o w e d b y t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ha. T h e c o m p o n e n t s c a n h a v e

different c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e m a r k e r s : t h e a g e n t a g a i n s t w h o s e a c t i o n s the w a r n i n g is m a d e

is c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e lexical v e r b - e.g. 'it' ( a w a v e ) in 1 9 . 1 7 - a n d the p e r s o n w h o

is d o i n g t h e w a r n i n g is c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e v e r b 'say' - e.g. 'we' in 1 9 . 1 7 . T h e o r d e r

o f c o m p o n e n t s is f i x e d a n d n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n b e p o s i t i o n e d b e t w e e n t h e m .

A p p r e h e n s i v e p r e d i c a t e s t a k e n o further p r e d i c a t e enclitics.

A n a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e is u s e d w h e n t h e w a r n i n g is attributed to

s o m e b o d y o t h e r t h a n t h e s p e a k e r , a s in 1 6 . 7 1 - 2 ; o r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e a g a i n s t w h i c h the

h e a r e r is b e i n g w a r n e d is to o c c u r in t h e future, a n d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y , as in 1 6 . 7 4 a n d

1 6 . 7 6 . A l s o s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n in § 1 6 . 4 . In 1 9 . 1 7 , f r o m a n a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e by

A m e r i c o B r i t o , a n a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e refers to a potential d a n g e r o f

d r o w n i n g w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r d i d n o t realise at t h e m o m e n t o f the event.

1 9 . 1 7 n e s e h a n u - p u a - t h a - n a - p a d a

t h e n b i g - C L : R I V E R - F R - R E M . P . V I S - C O U N T E R E X

[ d i - a m e t a - d a w a - k a ] w a :

3 s g n f - d r o w n + C A U S - A P P R l p l + s a y - S U B l p l + g o

w a : - k h a w a : - n a

l p l + g o - A W A Y l p l + g o - R E M . P . V I S

T h e n t h e r e w a s , u n e x p e c t e d l y , a b i g river. It (the w a v e ) c o u l d h a v e d r o w n e d us,

w e w e n t o n , w e w e n t off, w e went.'

T h e a p p r e h e n s i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d . It d e v e l o p e d a s t h e result o f

c a l q u i n g a n a p p r e h e n s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m T u c a n o ( A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a ) .

1 9 . 6 A d m i r a t i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e

T h e a d m i r a t i v e is e x p r e s s e d w i t h a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g structure: lexical

v e r b p l u s suffix - m h e p l u s a u x i l i a r y v e r b -a 'go, say, let, give'. B o t h the lexical v e r b a n d

t h e a u x i l i a r y r e c e i v e t h e s a m e s u b j e c t c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g ; n o c o n s t i t u e n t c a n i n t e r v e n e

b e t w e e n t h e t w o . A d m i r a t i v e c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d . T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n is n o t at all frequent,

a n d is m o s t o f t e n u s e d w i t h v e r b s o f p e r c e p t i o n -ka 'see, look' a n d - h i m a 'hear'.

A d m i r a t i v e c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification.

A d m i r a t i v e c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e m o o d

m a r k e r - m h e l i n k i n g its t w o c o m p o n e n t s .

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 4 5 4 19 Complex predicates

A d m i r a t i v e is u s e d t o e x p r e s s surprise, a s in 1 9 . 1 8 a n d 1 9 . 1 9 , or r e a c t i o n to

s o m e t h i n g u n e x p e c t e d o r u n u s u a l , as in 1 9 . 2 0 - 1 .

1 9 . 1 8 0 H y a r u - s i m a - w e n i - d e - k a

O H t h i n g - N P O S S N E G - p a y - N E G - S U B

[ d u - k a - m h e d u - a - k a ]

3 s g f - s e e - A D M 3 s g f - A U X - R E C . P . V I S

' O l i v i a w a s s u r p r i s e d at t h i n g s b e i n g c h e a p (lit. O l i v i a , t h i n g s b e i n g c h e a p , l o o k e d

(at this) in a d m i r a t i o n ) . '

1 9 . 1 9 [ n u - k a - m h e n u - a - m a h k a ] n a - i t u - n i p e - n u k u

l s g - s e e - A D M l s g - A U X - R E C . P . N O N . V I S 3 p l - s t e a l - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I w a s u n p l e a s a n t l y s u r p r i s e d b y t h e theft ( w h i c h I d i d n o t see).'

A d m i r a t i v e is o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d a s ' c o u l d h a r d l y b e l i e v e their eyes':

1 9 . 2 0 d i h a - d a p a n a - s e - p i d a n a n a h a m a t f a - d a p a n a - s e

A R T - C L : H A B - L O C - R E M . P . R E P t h e y g o o d / p r o p e r - C L : H A B - L O C

k a w h i n a k a - n i k i k a w h i n a k a

w a k e . u p 3 p l + a r r i v e - C O M P L w a k e . u p 3 p l + a r r i v e

m e d a - p i d a n a [ n a : k a - m h e n a : - d a - n i k i ]

s o - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + a r r i v e - A D M 3 p l + A U X - D O U B T - C O M P L

' T h e y w o k e u p in a beautiful h o u s e , t h e y w o k e u p a n d c o u l d h a r d l y b e l i e v e their

eyes.'

1 9 . 2 1 n u - k a [ h a r a m e - m h e n u - a - m h a n a ]

1 s g - s e e f r i g h t e n - A D M 1s g - A U X - R E M . P . N O N . V I S

'I s a w ( t h e b u i l d i n g ) a n d c o u l d n o t b e l i e v e m y e y e s (lit. I s a w a n d w a s s c a r e d in

surprise).'

A d m i r a t i v e c a n o c c u r w i t h t h e m a r k e r o f d o u b t -da, as in:

1 9 . 2 2 n u - s i p i - m h a n u - n h a - n i k i n u h a

1 s g - t a i l - P R E S . N O N . V I S 1s g - e a t - C O M P L I

[ n u - k a m a - m h e n u - a - d a ] d i - a - p i d a n a

1 s g - d r u n k - A D M 1s g - A U X - D O U B T 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

'"I m u s t b e e a t i n g m y tail, I a m p r o b a b l y d r u n k (to m y surprise)," said (the squirrel

i n t h e O r i g i n story).'

1 9 . 7 I r r e s u l t a t i v e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e

T h e irresultative c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c o n s i s t s o f t w o o c c u r r e n c e s o f the s a m e v e r b ; t h e

first o n e t a k e s t h e p r e d i c a t e enclitics, a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e t a k e s t h e suffix - k a n e . T h e t w o

c o m p o n e n t s h a v e identical c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g a n d n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n i n t e r v e n e

b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e o r d e r o f c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n b e r e v e r s e d . A n irresultative c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification. It i s n e v e r n e g a t e d .

Irresultative c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s d e s c r i b e a c t i o n s o r states w h i c h d o n o t q u i t e a m o u n t

t o w h a t t h e y o u g h t to. In 1 9 . 2 3 , t h e irresultative c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e d e s c r i b e d the fact

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 19.7 Irresultative complex predicate 4 5 5

that t h e y (the T a r i a n a c h i l d r e n ) d o u n d e r s t a n d T a r i a n a , b u t n o t q u i t e e n o u g h to s p e a k it,

a n d this is w h y t h e y feel a s h a m e d .

1 9 . 2 3 w a - y a r u p e - n u k u [ n h e m a - n a k a n h e m a - k a n e ]

l p l - t h i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l + h e a r - P R E S . V I S 3 p l + h e a r - I R R E S

k a p e m a n i - m a - n a k a d i h a - n a k u

a s h a m e d - E X C - P R E S . V I S i t - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e y d o u n d e r s t a n d o u r l a n g u a g e b u t n o t quite e n o u g h , (so) t h e y are v e r y m u c h

a s h a m e d o f it (i.e. t h e fact t h a t t h e y d o n o t really k n o w their o w n l a n g u a g e ) . '

1 9 . 2 4 d e s c r i b e s a g r e e d y p e r s o n w h o eats a lot, b u t n e v e r e n o u g h to b e satisfied.

1 9 . 2 4 [ d i - n h a - k a n e d i - n h a - n a k a ] k e p i n a - k a d e - m h a

3 s g n f - e a t - I R R E S 3 s g n f - e a t - P R E S . V I S f u l l - N E G - P R E S . N O N . V I S

' H e eats, b u t n o t e n o u g h , ( a n d ) h e d o e s n o t b e c o m e full.'

D e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n t e x t , irresultative c a n a c q u i r e v a r i o u s o v e r t o n e s . 1 9 . 2 3 c o m e s

f r o m a s t o r y a b o u t a b r a v e s h o e m a k e r w h o a s k e d a d u c k to h e l p h i m to find a g o l d e n

c r o w n ; t h e u n h e l p f u l d u c k replied:

1 9 . 2 5 n h u a [ n u - y e k a - n a k a n u - y e k a - k a n e ]

I 1s g - k n o w - P R E S . V I S 1 s g - k n o w - I R R E S

'I d o k n o w ( b u t I a m n o t telling you).'

Finally, h e p e r s u a d e d o t h e r d u c k s to g i v e h i m s o m e i n d i c a t i o n o f w h e r e the c r o w n

w a s ; h o w e v e r , t h e y w a r n e d h i m that t h e y w e r e n o t g o i n g to g i v e h i m c o m p l e t e

i n f o r m a t i o n , u s i n g irresultative:

1 9 . 2 6 p i - n a [ w a - k a l i t e - d e w a - k a l i t e - k a n e ]

2 s g - O B J l p l - t e l l - F U T . C E R T l p l - t e l l - I R R E S

' W e will tell y o u ( b u t n o t all o f it).'

T h e irresultative c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e is s e m a n t i c a l l y c l o s e to frustrative, a n d c a n o c c u r

w i t h it. W h e n J o v i n o B r i t o r e a l i s e d h e h a d lost a useful p h o n e n u m b e r w h i c h h e d i d

h a v e b e f o r e , h e s a i d 1 9 . 2 7 .

1 9 . 2 7 [ a l i a - t h a - n a a l i a - k a n e ]

E X I S T - F R - R E M . P . V I S E X I S T - I R R E S

'It u s e d t o b e h e r e ( b u t is n o t h e r e a n y m o r e ) . '

In c o n v e r s a t i o n s , t h e irresultative c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e is u s e d in 'attenuative' r e s p o n s e s

to q u e s t i o n s like: ' A r e y o u w e l l ? ' ( A n o t h e r possibility w o u l d b e to a n s w e r : matfa-naka,

k w a m e ( g o o d / p r o p e r - P R E S . v i s , j u s t a b o u t ) . ) S t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e s p o n s e s o f t h e t y p e 'I a m

w e l l ' a r e n o t f a v o u r e d .

1 9 . 2 8 m a t f a - n a k a - s i t a m a t f a - k a n e

g o o d / p r o p e r - P R E S . V I S - P E R F g o o d / p r o p e r - I R R E S

' ( W e ) a r e sort o f well.'

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 4 5 6 19 Complex predicates

A q u e s t i o n 'did m a n y p e o p l e c o m e ? ' is m o s t likely to b e a n s w e r e d b y hanupe-ka

h a n u p e - k a n e ( m a n y - R E C . P . v i s m a n y - i R R E S ) ' m a n y , m o r e o r less' i n s t e a d o f a

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d 'many'. ' A t t e n u a t i v e ' r e s p o n s e s are d i s c u s s e d in § 2 5 . 5 . 2 .

S p e a k e r s o f t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect a l l o w o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s to c o m e b e t w e e n the

c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e irresultative c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e , a s in 1 9 . 2 9 ; this is n o t f o u n d in t h e

S a n t a R o s a dialect.

1 9 . 2 9 m a t f a - n a k a - s i t a w a - n a m a t j a - k a n e

g o o d / p r o p e r - P R E S . V I S - P E R F l p l - O B J g o o d / p r o p e r - I R R E S

' ( W e ) a r e sort o f well.'

1 9 . 8 C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e o f s m a l l e x t e n t

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s o f s m a l l e x t e n t c o n s i s t o f t w o o c c u r r e n c e s o f the s a m e p r e d i c a t e

w i t h i d e n t i c a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g ; t h e first c o m p o n e n t t a k e s t h e tense-evidentiality

enclitics, a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e t a k e s t h e m a r k e r - k a w y a . T h e o r d e r o f c o m p o n e n t s is fixed

a n d n o c o n s t i t u e n t c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e m . T h i s c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e is u s e d m o r e

o f t e n in t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect t h a n in S a n t a R o s a . S e e 1 9 . 3 0 - 1 .

1 9 . 3 0 i y a d i - n u - n a k a d i - n u - k a w y a

r a i n 3 s g n f - c o m e - P R E S . V I S 3 s g n f - c o m e - S M A L L . E X T E N T

' R a i n is c o m i n g a little bit.'

W h e n s u c h a c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e is n e g a t e d , n e g a t i o n g o e s o n t o the first c o m p o n e n t .

19.31 k e t e m i - k a d e - n a k a k e t e m i - k a w y a

r e m a i n - N E G - P R E S . V I S r e m a i n - S M A L L . E X T E N T

" N o t h i n g r e m a i n s , n o t o n e little bit.'

1 9 . 9 Q u a s i - s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n

Q u a s i - s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e t h e s a m e p r o p e r t i e s a s serial v e r b s , e x c e p t that t h e y

c o n t a i n a s u b o r d i n a t i n g particle kwe 'how'. Q u a s i - s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s o c c u r w i t h

t h e v e r b -yeka ' k n o w ' w h e n it is n e g a t e d a n d m e a n 'not to k n o w h o w to d o s o m e t h i n g '

( s e e e x a m p l e s u n d e r B in § 1 2 . 1 . 4 ) T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n o c c u r in fixed

o r d e r a n d n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n i n t e r v e n e . E x a m p l e s are in 1 2 . 5 7 - 8 , a n d in 1 9 . 3 2 - 3 .

1 9 . 3 1 c o m e s f r o m a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e T a r i a n a ' s w a n d e r i n g s , w h e n t h e y realised that it

w a s i m p o s s i b l e for t h e m to c o m e b a c k to J a p u r a river n o t b e c a u s e t h e y d i d n o t k n o w

w h e r e to g o o r h o w to d o it b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e p r o p h e c y that t h e y w o n ' t b e a b l e to d o it.

1 9 . 3 2 n e - m a - d i a - k a d e - m h a w a :

N E G - N E G - r e t u r n - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S l p l + g o

w a - v e k a n a m a - p i u

1 p l - c a n / b e . a b l e t w o - T I M E

' W e c a n n o t r e t u r n for t h e s e c o n d time.'

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 1 9 . 1 1 C l a u s e - l i k e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e 4 5 7

I n c o n t r a s t , in 1 9 . 3 3 , w h i c h c o n t a i n s a serial-like c o n s t r u c t i o n , -yeka m e a n s ' k n o w

h o w t o d o s o m e t h i n g ' a n d d e s c r i b e s t h e inability to c o m e b a c k b e c a u s e o f n o t k n o w i n g

w h e r e t o g o , o r h o w to d o it.

1 9 . 3 3 k a y u - m a k a n a h a n a w i k i n a - t h i - s e d e - p e n i n a h a

s o - A F F t h e y p e o p l e 3 p l - e y e - N E G . E X - P L : A N I M t h e y

k w e m a - d i a - k a d e n a - y e k a - p i d a n a

h o w N E G - r e t u r n - N E G 3 p l - k n o w . h o w . t o - R E M . P . R E P

' S o t h e p e o p l e w i t h o u t e y e s ( w h o s e e y e s w e r e stolen b y t h e devil) t h e y d i d n o t

k n o w h o w to c o m e back.'

1 9 . 1 0 C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w i t h t h e o p t i o n a l s u b o r d i n a t o r k w e a n d p u r p o s i v e

m o o d

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w i t h t h e o p t i o n a l s u b o r d i n a t o r kwe a n d p u r p o s i v e m o o d are f o r m e d

w i t h t h e s e c o n d a r y v e r b s m a n h i n a , m a h y u n a 'be difficult, i m p o s s i b l e ' a n d k a n h i n a 'be

1
p o s s i b l e , easy ( s e e D 2 in § 1 2 . 1 . 4 ; t h e s e v e r b s t a k e n o n - c a n o n i c a l l y m a r k e d a r g u m e n t s ) .

T h e c o m p o n e n t s o c c u r in fixed order, a n d n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n i n t e r v e n e . S e e

e x a m p l e s 1 2 . 6 6 - 9 , a n d 1 9 . 3 4 .

1 9 . 3 4 d u - h a - n i r i-ne [ p a - s a p e - h y u ( k w e )

3 s g f - p a r e n t - M A S C - I N S I M P - s p e a k - P U R P . N O N V I S S U B

m a n h i n a - m a - n a ] , n a k u - n u k u

b e . d i f f i c u l t - E X C - R E M . P . V I S 3 p l + s p e e c h - T O P . N O N . A / S

m h e m a - k a d e - m h a n a

N E G + h e a r - N E G - R E M . P . N O N V I S

'It w a s h a r d (for m e ) to talk to h e r father, (I) d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d their l a n g u a g e . '

1 9 . 1 1 C l a u s e - l i k e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e

T h e c l a u s e - l i k e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e c o n s i s t s o f p a . p e f o l l o w e d b y t h e v e r b -ni 'do' w i t h a

s u b o r d i n a t i n g enclitic -ka a n d a n o t h e r v e r b w h i c h carries t h e s a m e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g a s

t h e v e r b -ni 'do'. It is u s e d m o s t f r e q u e n t l y to refer to s o m e t h i n g that m i g h t or m i g h t n o t

h a p p e n in t h e future. 1 9 . 3 5 is r e p o r t e d l y t h e last t h i n g t h e late E u g e n i o M u n i z ( Y u n u l i )

said to h i s w i f e b e f o r e h e w e n t to a p a r t y f r o m w h i c h h e n e v e r returned.

1 9 . 3 5 [ p a : p e n u - n i - k a n u - d i a - m h a d e ]

m a y b e 1s g - d o - S U B 1 s g - r e t u r n - F U T . U N C E R T

" M a y b e I w i l l c o m e back.'

C l a u s e - l i k e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s c a n o c c u r w i t h a n y m o o d , m o d a l i t y o r evidentiality

specification. I n 1 9 . 3 6 it o c c u r s w i t h potential -bohta. V a r i o u s c o n s t i t u e n t s - s u c h as the

s u b j e c t o r t h e object, a s in 1 9 . 3 6 - c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n the parts o f the p r e d i c a t e .

1 9 . 3 6 [ p a : p e n u - n i - k a ] n h u a n u h p a n i - n i p e [ n u - k e t a - b o t h a ] n h u a

m a y b e 1s g - d o - S U B I l s g + w o r k - N O M l s g - m e e t - P O T I

'I m a y b e c a p a b l e o f f i n d i n g s o m e job.'

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 4 5 8 19 Complex predicates

C l a u s e - l i k e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s c a n o c c u r w i t h c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s w i t h repetition, to

e x p r e s s w e a k e r p r o b a b i l i t y , a s in 1 9 . 3 7 .

1 9 . 3 7 [ p a : p e n a - n i - k a ] h y u k a d e h y u k a d e - m h a d e

m a y b e 3 p l - d o - S U B n o t . a p p e a r n o t . a p p e a r - F U T
1
T h e y p r o b a b l y w o n ' t appear.

A c l a u s e - l i k e c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e is c o n s i d e r e d to b e o n e p r e d i c a t e rather t h a n a

c o m p l e x c l a u s e b e c a u s e it o c c u p i e s o n e p r e d i c a t e slot a n d its c o m p o n e n t s c a n n o t

a c q u i r e i n d e p e n d e n t t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y o r a n y o t h e r specification; it is p r o n o u n c e d a s

o n e p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e a n d n o p a u s e s are a c c e p t a b l e b e t w e e n its c o m p o n e n t s . In

a d d i t i o n , n o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e c o m p o n e n t s . O c c a s i o n a l l y ,

h o w e v e r , t h e c o m p o n e n t s m a y a p p e a r in r e v e r s e order, a s in 1 9 . 3 8 , as a n afterthought.

1 9 . 3 8 d e s u - d e n u - a [ P A U S E ] p a : p e n u - n i - k a

t o m o r r o w - F U T . C E R T l s g - g o [ P A U S E ] m a y b e l s g - d o - S U B

'I w i l l g o t o m o r r o w . . . [ P A U S E ] m a y b e . '

1 9 . 1 2 C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s a n d serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s : a c o m p a r i s o n

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s in T a r i a n a are h e t e r o g e n o u s , b o t h in their f o r m a n d in their

s e m a n t i c s . T h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s are s h a r e d b y serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d s o m e , or

all, c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s .

(i) T h e i r c o m p o n e n t s c a n n o t b e r e p e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y o r q u e s t i o n e d separately.

(ii) A l l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d m o s t c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s are c o n t i g u o u s : n o

o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t c a n b e i n s e r t e d b e t w e e n their c o m p o n e n t s .

(iii) C o m p o n e n t s o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s c a n n o t a c q u i r e

i n d e p e n d e n t v a l u e for tense-evidentiality, polarity o r a n y o t h e r v e r b a l

c a t e g o r i e s .

(iv) Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s c o n s i s t o f s e v e r a l

g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d s ; t h e y c o n s t i t u t e o n e p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e a n d t h e r e is n o

s e g m e n t a l l y m a r k e d p a u s e b e t w e e n c o m p o n e n t s .

(v) Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s are p e r c e i v e d a s o n e unit b y

n a t i v e s p e a k e r s .

(vi) Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s are m o n o c l a u s a l a n d

m o n o p r e d i c a t i ve.

( v i i ) A l l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d m o s t c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s - e x c e p t for

Irresultative ( § 1 9 . 7 ) a n d c l a u s e - l i k e C P s ( § 1 9 . 1 1 ) - h a v e a fixed o r d e r o f

c o m p o n e n t s .

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s differ f r o m serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s in t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s :

(i) U n l i k e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s c a n n o t b e relativised o r

n o m i n a l i s e d . U n l i k e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , n o i m p e r a t i v e s c a n b e f o r m e d o n

c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s .

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 1 9 . 1 2 C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s a n d s e r i a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s : a c o m p a r i s o n 4 5 9

(ii) E a c h o f t h e e l e v e n t y p e s o f c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s h a s its o w n rules as to w h e r e

p r e d i c a t e enclitics attach; t h e s e rules are different f r o m serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

(iii) C o m p o n e n t s o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a n n o t b e identical v e r b s ; e p i s t e m i c

c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e ( § 1 9 . 1 ) , p r o l o n g e d c u s t o m a r y a c t i o n c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e

( § 1 9 . 2 ) , c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e w i t h a s u b o r d i n a t o r a n d repetition ( § 1 9 . 3 ) ,

irresultative c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e ( § 1 9 . 7 ) a n d c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e o f s m a l l e x t e n t

( § 1 9 . 8 ) c o n t a i n t w o o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e s a m e v e r b .

(iv) Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s d o n o t c o n t a i n a n y m a r k e r s o f a syntactic link

b e t w e e n their c o m p o n e n t s ; e x c e p t for e p i s t e m i c c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s ( § 1 9 . 1 ) , all

c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s d o .

(v) Serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n t a i n identical c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g o n all their

c o m p o n e n t s ; t w o c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s - p a s s i v e ( § 1 9 . 4 ) a n d a p p r e h e n s i v e

( § 1 9 . 5 ) - d o not.

(vi) T h e r e a r e restrictions o n serialisability o f v e r b s o f different classes. N o s u c h

restrictions h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e possibility o f o c c u r r e n c e o f

v e r b s in c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s .

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 2 0

P a r t i c i p l e s a n d n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s

T a r i a n a h a s a n u m b e r o f fully p r o d u c t i v e d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l s . T h e y i n c l u d e participles,

o r relative v e r b f o r m s , w h o s e m a i n f u n c t i o n is to m a r k relative c l a u s e s , see § 2 0 . 1 a n d

C h a p t e r 2 3 , a n d c o n v e r b s a n d n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , d i s c u s s e d in § 2 0 . 2 . N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s

c o n s t i t u t e a s u b c l a s s o f n o m i n a l s w h i c h differ f r o m o t h e r s in that t h e y d o n o t t a k e the

indefinite p o s s e s s o r m a r k e r i- (see C h a p t e r s 3 a n d 6). A l l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s are

c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y affix s h a r i n g , a s d i s c u s s e d in § 1 8 . 2 , w h e r e b y t h e m a r k e r o f the

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n a p p l i e s j u s t o n c e p e r serial v e r b . N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n n o t b e d e r i v e d

f r o m c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s ( w i t h a p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f p a s s i v e participles: see § 2 0 . 1 ) .

A k t i o n s a r t enclitics a l w a y s o c c u r o u t s i d e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , e.g. na-sita-nipe dhuli (3pl-

s h o o t - N O M SLIDE) 'their s h o o t i n g w i t h a sliding m o t i o n ' , k a - w h a - k a - r i h o t h o (REL-bite-

PAST.REL.MASC.SG T H R O U G H ) 'the o n e w h o bit right t h r o u g h ' a n d s o on.

In § 2 0 . 3 w e d i s c u s s t h e role o f classifiers in their d e r i v a t i o n a l function, a n d t h e t o p i c -

a d v a n c i n g v o i c e a s a d e r i v a t i o n a l strategy.

2 0 . 1 P a r t i c i p l e s

P a r t i c i p l e s m a r k t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a relative c l a u s e (see C h a p t e r 23), a n d are often

t r a n s l a t e d a s a g e n t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s . T h e y are d e r i v e d f r o m p r e f i x e d v e r b s w i t h t h e

p r e f i x k a - 'relative' - w h o s e n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t is m a - 'negative' - a n d d i s t i n g u i s h

t h r e e t e n s e s , w i t h n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r w i t h i n t h e m . S e e T a b l e 9.2.

T w o g e n d e r s a n d plural n u m b e r are d i s t i n g u i s h e d o n l y in past participles; e.g. k a - s w a

(REL-lie) 'the o n e w h o is l y i n g d o w n ' , k a - s w a - k a - r i (REL-lie-PAST.REL-MASC.SG) 'the m a n

w h o w a s l y i n g d o w n ' , k a - s w a - k a - r u (REL-lie-PAST.REL-FEM.SG) 'the w o m a n w h o w a s

l y i n g d o w n ' , k a - s w a - k a - n i (REL-lie-PAST.REL-PL) 'those w h o w e r e lying d o w n ' , k a - s w a -

p e n a (REL-lie-FUT.PART) 'the o n e to lie d o w n ' . W h e n a participle is d e r i v e d f r o m a serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e prefix ka- g o e s o n t o e v e r y c o m p o n e n t , e.g. itfiri [ka-inu k e m h a n i ]

( g a m e [REL-kill R E L + w a l k ] ) 'hunter, o r t h e o n e w h o w a l k s a r o u n d killing g a m e ' (also s e e

18.5) w h i l e t h e p a s t a n d future participle suffixes o c c u r o n c e p e r c o n s t r u c t i o n

( p r e f e r r a b l y o n t h e first w o r d ) , j u s t like o t h e r n o m i n a l i s i n g suffixes - see -ka/i 'past

p a r t i c i p l e s i n g u l a r m a s c u l i n e ' in 2 0 . 1 .

2 0 . 1 m a l i e r i - k a - p i d a n a d i h a - n e k a y u

s h a m a n - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P h e - F O C . A / S t h u s

[ k a - n i - k a r i k e m h a n i - y a n a - n h e ]

R E L - d o - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G R E L + w a l k - P E J - F O C . A / S

' H e w a s a s h a m a n , t h e n a u g h t y o n e w h o w e n t r o u n d a c t i n g like this.'

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 20.2 Nominalisations and converbs 461

P a r t i c i p l e s a r e n e g a t e d w i t h t h e prefix m a - a n d the suffix - k a d e , e.g. d i - n a m a - n a -

k a d e - k a r i ( 3 s g n f - O B J N E G - w a n t - N E G - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G ) 'the o n e w h o d i d n o t w a n t h i m ' ;

s e e § 2 3 . 1 for further e x a m p l e s .

P r e f i x l e s s v e r b s h a v e o n l y p a s t a n d future participles, e.g. ma:tfi tapulisa-kari ( b a d

d r e a m - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G ) 'the o n e w h o h a d h a d a b a d d r e a m ' , matfa hiku-pena

( g o o d / p r o p e r a p p e a r - F U T . P A R T ) 'the o n e w h o is g o i n g to l o o k good'. D e r i v a t i o n s w i t h

classifiers a r e u s e d i n s t e a d o f p r e s e n t participles, e.g. hiku-ite ( a p p e a r - N C L : A N i M ) 'the

a p p e a r i n g one'. P a r t i c i p l e s d e r i v e d f r o m p a s s i v e s are rare, e.g. iniri k a - w h a - k a n a - k a r i

(traira.fish REL-bite-PASS-PAST.REL.MASC.SG) 'the o n e w h o w a s bitten b y a traira fish'.

S e e § 2 0 . 3 , o n -ni d e r i v a t i o n s u s e d instead.

P a r t i c i p l e s c a n b e u s e d as a g e n t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , to refer t o h u m a n activities, e.g.

y a m m a k a s i khepa ( c l o t h i n g R E L + w a s h ) ' w a s h e r w o m a n ' , iflri k a - i n u ( g a m e REL-kill)

'hunter', k a - k a m a ( R E L - b e . d r u n k ) 'drunk', k a - r a h t a (REL-breathe) 'breather, lung'. T h e y

o c c a s i o n a l l y a c q u i r e u n p r e d i c t a b l e m e a n i n g s , e.g. k a - w a n a k a - n h a (REL-call REL-eat)

'the n a m e o f a n evil spirit w h o s h o u t s a n d eats p e o p l e up'.

2 0 . 2 N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s a n d c o n v e r b s

T h e r e a r e t h r e e fully p r o d u c t i v e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s ( n o n - p r o d u c t i v e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s are

d i s c u s s e d in § 1 0 . 3 ) . T h e fully p r o d u c t i v e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s are -nipe 'action, state a n d

o b j e c t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' ; - m i 'past n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ' ; a n d -ri 'general n o n - p a s t

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , convert)'. A l l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s f o r m e d o n p r e f i x e d v e r b s c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e

t h e A / S a c o n s t i t u e n t a n d c a n b e d e r i v e d f r o m a n y v e r b . Just like v e r b s , t h e y c a n n o t t a k e

t h e i n d e f i n i t e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g prefix /-. T h e s e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d in

§ § 2 0 . 2 . 1 - 3 . T h e i r p r o p e r t i e s are c o n t r a s t e d in § 2 0 . 2 . 4 .

2 0 . 2 . 1 The - n i p e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n

T h e b a s i c m e a n i n g o f t h e -nipe n o m i n a l i s a t i o n is that o f action/state a n d o b j e c t

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , e.g. nu-dana-nipe ( l s g - w r i t e - N O M ) ' m y w r i t i n g ; w h a t I w r i t e or h a v e

written'; d i : n u - n i p e ( 3 s g n f + k i l l - N O M ) 'his killing; w h a t h e killed'. T h e -nipe

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s h a r e s a n u m b e r o f p r o p e r t i e s w i t h n o u n s . If it h a s a s e c o n d a r g u m e n t ,

this a r g u m e n t c a n n o t b e c a s e - m a r k e d a n d n o r m a l l y o c c u r s p r e p o s e d to t h e

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n . T h i s a r g u m e n t c a n b e

• a l o c a t i v e a r g u m e n t : hinipuku wehpani-nipe ( g a r d e n 1p l + w o r k - N O M ) 'our w o r k

in g a r d e n s ' ;

• a n i n s t r u m e n t a l / c o m i t a t i v e a r g u m e n t : Itfirimhene A d a r u n e na-inu-kaka-nipe

( I t f i r i m h e n e a d a r u n e 3pl-kill-REC-NOM) 'the w a r o f t h e I t f i r i m h e n e w i t h t h e

A d a r u n e ' ;

• o b j e c t a r g u m e n t : p e . t h e na-ni-nipe ( m a n i o c . b r e a d 3 p l - d o - N O M ) 'their m a k i n g o f

m a n i o c bread'.

T h e A / S a c o n s t i t u e n t c a n b e o v e r t l y e x p r e s s e d ; it is t h e n p r e p o s e d to the

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , a s in 2 0 . 2 a n d 2 0 . 3 . T h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n a n d its A ('evil spirit') in 2 0 . 2

are in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

2 0 . 2 d i h a d i - k a m a - k a - p i d a n a [ n a m u

h e 3 s g n f - b e . d r u n k - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P evil.spirit

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 4 6 2 20 Participles and nominalisations

d i - e r i t a - n i p e - n u k u ]

3 s g n f - d r i n k + C A U S - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e g o t d r u n k , b e c a u s e o f w h a t h e w a s g i v e n to d r i n k b y t h e evil spirit.'

C o n s t r u c t i o n s w h i c h c o n s i s t o f a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n w i t h a n o v e r t l y e x p r e s s e d A / S a are

s i m i l a r t o p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d c a n b e interpreted a s either t y p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n .

T h i s is s h o w n in 2 0 . 3 , w i t h ' d a n c i n g o f t h e d a n c e - m a s t e r ' , in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s . T h e o n l y

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n v o l v i n g a p r e f i x e d n o u n , a n d t h e o n e in

2 0 . 3 , is t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e indefinite p r e f i x /- ( o b l i g a t o r y in p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s :

s e e § 6 . 4 . 1 ) . In 2 0 . 3 , t h e third p e r s o n plural c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r is u s e d .

2 0 . 3 [hi m a m n a - r a p a - n i p e ] p i - n a

D E M : A N I M d a n c e . m a s t e r 3 p l - d a n c e - N O M 2 s g - O B J

t u k i n u - k a l i t e - d e

a.little l s g - t e l l - F U T . C E R T

'I w i l l tell y o u a little a b o u t t h e d a n c i n g o f t h e d a n c e master', or 'I w i l l tell y o u a

little a b o u t t h e d a n c e o f t h e d a n c e master'.

A t r a n s i t i v e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n c a n h a v e a n object. It t h e n a p p e a r s p r e p o s e d to t h e

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , a s in 2 0 . 4 . W h e t h e r t h e p r e p o s e d c o n s t i t u e n t is s u b j e c t or o b j e c t c a n b e

o n l y u n d e r s t o o d in t e r m s o f t h e c o n t e x t . In 2 0 . 4 , t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n t a k e s t h e

i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r p a - , s i n c e t h e s u b j e c t o f 'work' h a s a g e n e r i c

referent.

2 0 . 4 k a y w a - n i te [ d i h a i n p e h p a n i - n i p e ]

t h u s l p l - d o until A R T s a p I M P + w o r k - N O M

d i - s i s a - k a - n u k u w a - d i a

3 s g n f - e n d - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - r e t u r n

w a k a - n a - p i t a d i h a di-na-ri-se

l p l + a r r i v e - R E M . P . V I S - A G A I N A R T 3 s g n f - l i v e - N O M - L O C

'After w e d i d t h u s , w h e n t h e w o r k o n t h e s a p finished, w e c a m e b a c k to that p l a c e

w h e r e h e w a s living.'

If a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n h a s a n o v e r t third p e r s o n subject, it is u s u a l l y c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d

w i t h a t h i r d - p e r s o n prefix, a s in 2 0 . 2 a n d 2 0 . 3 . A n i m p e r s o n a l s u b j e c t is c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c e d w i t h a n i m p e r s o n a l prefix, a s in 2 0 . 5 (see § 6 . 1 . 3 , o n i m p e r s o n a l c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c i n g w i t h a n o v e r t g e n e r i c subject).

2 0 . 5 n e - a - t h a p h a tjari p a - p i t a - n i p e

t h e n - E M P H - F R I M P m a n I M P - b a t h e - N O M

T h i s is j u s t h o w m a n ' s b a t h i n g is.'

N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n h a v e a direct s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t a s their object, j u s t like a n y

o t h e r v e r b f o r m . In 2 0 . 6 , t h e direct s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t 'thus I will do' a p p e a r s b e f o r e

t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n di-a-nipe 'his s a y i n g , w h a t h e said'; a n d T - w h i c h also b e l o n g s to

t h e d i r e c t s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t - a p p e a r s after t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , as a n a f t e r t h o u g h t .

T h e d i r e c t s p e e c h c o m p l e m e n t is in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

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 20.2 Nominalisations and converbs 4 6 3

2 0 . 6 y u w a p i k u - p u - k a p h i a ha-niri

s o m e . t i m e . a g o - A U G - R E C . P . V I S y o u p a r e n t - M A S C

[ h i - k a y u - d e n u - n i ] d i - a - n i p e

D E M : A N I M - t h u s - F U T . C E R T 1s g - d o 3 s g n f - s a y - N O M

[ n h u a ] m a - n i - k a d e

I N E G - d o - N E G

' S o m e t i m e a g o y o u r father d i d n o t d o w h a t h e said ( w h e n h e said): "I will d o

thus".'

N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n n o t b e pluralised. H o w e v e r , t h e y are treated a s c o l l e c t i v e

i n a n i m a t e n o u n s , a n d t a k e t h e p l u r a l f o r m o f d i m i n u t i v e -tupe a n d plural o f n o m i n a l

p a s t -mikU e.g. p a - h h a - n i p e - t u p e (iMP-eat-NOM-DiM:PL) 'little bits o f food, eating'; p a -

h h a - n i p e - m i k i (iMP-eat-NOM-NOM.PAST.PL) 'food that w a s d e s t r o y e d ' (also s e e 8.4). In

2 0 . 7 , a -nipe n o m i n a l i s a t i o n is d e r i v e d f r o m a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n 'bring' ('take-

c o m e ' ) . I n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f affix s h a r i n g in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s

d e s c r i b e d in § 1 8 . 2 , -nipe o c c u r s j u s t o n c e o n t h e first c o m p o n e n t o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

a n d t h e d i m i n u t i v e p l u r a l o c c u r s at t h e e n d . T h e article d i h a - w h i c h m o d i f i e s the

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n - a p p e a r s in its s i n g u l a r f o r m , as is n o r m a l l y t h e c a s e if the h e a d o f a n

N P is i n a n i m a t e .

2 0 . 7 hT-thaka d i h a [ n h u t a - n i p e n u - n u - t u p e ]

D E M : A N I M - F R + R E C . P . V I S A R T 1s g + t a k e - N O M l s g - c o m e - D I M : P L

T h e s e a r e (in v a i n ) t h e f e w little t h i n g s I brought.'

2 0 . 8 s h o w s t h a t a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , 'their b e l o n g i n g s ' , r e q u i r e s -peri, t h e collective

p l u r a l a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r , o n t h e m o d i f i e r .

2 0 . 8 k w e - p e r i n a - d e - n i p e , [ n h e t a

d i s t r i b u t i v e - C O L L 3 p l - h a v e - N O M 3 p l + t a k e

n a - n u - n a ] n h a

3 p l - c o m e - R E M . P . V I S t h e y

' W h a t e v e r b e l o n g i n g s ( t h e y h a d ) , t h e y b r o u g h t t h e m . '

N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s w i t h -nipe c a n a c q u i r e a p a s s i v e o r a n a c t i v e interpretation

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n t e x t : di-kalite-nipe (3sgnf-tell-NOM) c a n m e a n 'things told b y h i m ;

h i s telling ( o f s o m e t h i n g to s o m e b o d y ) ' o r ' w h a t h e told', a n d di-ka-nipe ( 3 s g n f - s e e -

N O M ) c a n m e a n 'things s e e n b y h i m , h i s seeing', o r ' w h a t h e saw', as in 2 0 . 9 .

2 0 . 9 d i - k a l i t e - t h u y - p i d a n a - n i k i [ d i h a d i - k a - n i p e - n u k u ]

3 s g n f - t e l l - a l l - R E M . P . R E P - C O M P L h e 3 s g n f - s e e - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e t o l d ( t h e m ) all h e saw.'

In 2 0 . 1 0 , t h e -nipe n o m i n a l i s a t i o n m e a n s 'their d o i n g , w h a t t h e y did', a n d in 2 0 . 1 1 it

m e a n s 'the o n e m a d e b y h i m , his m a k i n g ' . Cf. di-yeka-nipe ( 3 s g n f - k n o w - N O M ) 'his

a c q u a i n t a n c e s , t h e o n e s k n o w n to h i m ' in 2 0 . 3 1 .

2 0 . 1 0 d u h a u p h e - d o n e m a - y e k a d e - p i d a n a

s h e o l d + p a r e n t - F E M N E G N E G - k n o w + N E G - R E M P . R E P

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 4 6 4 20 Participles and nominalisations

[ n a h a k a y u n a - n i - n i p e - n u k u ]

t h e y t h u s N E G - d o - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h e w i d o w d i d n o t k n o w o f their h a v i n g d o n e (things) this w a y . '

2 0 . 1 1 d u h a d a : n a d u - p a l a - p i d a n a ,

s h e s h a d o w 3 s g f - p u t - R E M . P . R E P

[ d u h a d i - n i - n i p e - n h a ]

s h e 3 s g n f - d o - N O M - P A U S

' S h e cast a s h a d o w , s h e ( w h o w a s ) t h e o n e m a d e b y h i m . '

W h e n n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s in -nipe f u n c t i o n as m o d i f i e r s in n o u n p h r a s e s t h e y u s u a l l y

a c q u i r e p a s s i v e interpretation. In 2 0 . 1 2 , t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n is a m o d i f i e r to the n o u n

p u p a w a 'poison'; t h e w h o l e N P - in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s - is a n i n s t r u m e n t a n d t a k e s

i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e .

2 0 . 1 2 d i s a d i - a d i - w a p a - n h a m a w i p i - n e

3 s g n f + g o . u p 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - w a i t - P A U S h o o k - I N S

[ d i h a p u p a w a d i - s u e - t a - n i p e - n e ]

A R T p o i s o n 3 s g n f - l i e + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - N O M - I N S

' H e c l i m b e d u p a n d w a i t e d w i t h t h e h o o k , w i t h t h e p o i s o n a r r a n g e d b y him.'

In 2 0 . 1 3 , t h e m o d i f y i n g n o m i n a l i s a t i o n is a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n .

2 0 . 1 3 p h i t a p i - p u p a n i - n u k u

2 s g + t a k e 2 s g - i n s t r u m e n t - T O P . N O N . A / S

[ p h i t a - n i p e p i - n u - n u k u ]

2 s g + t a k e - N O M 2 s g - c o m e - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T a k e t h e i n s t r u m e n t , t h e o n e y o u brought.'

T h e -nipe n o m i n a l i s a t i o n c a n b e e m p l o y e d as a n alternative to a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e ,

that is, a s a c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategy, a s in 2 0 . 1 4 .

2 0 . 1 4 k w a n a - n h i n a p i - n a n a - b u e t a

w h o - R E M . P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 2 s g - O B J 3 p l - t e a c h

i n a - n u k u p a - t h i - n i p e

w o m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S I M P - c o p u l a t e - N O M

' W h o t a u g h t y o u h o w to c o p u l a t e w i t h w o m e n ? '

W h e n u s e d a s c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategies, -nipe n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n b e i n t r o d u c e d

w i t h a n o p t i o n a l s u b o r d i n a t o r - c o m p l e m e n t i s e r k w e , as in 2 0 . 1 5 ; see § 2 4 . 3 .

2 0 . 1 5 n h u a n u - a - t h a - k a n u - a - k a n e

I l s g - g o - F R - R E C . P . V I S l s g - g o - I R R E S

n e m h e m a k a d e - k a k w e n h a

N E G N E G + h e a r - R E C . P . V I S S U B t h e y

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 20.2 Nominalisations and converbs 465

n a - n i - n i p e - n u k u

3 p l - d o - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I d i d g o t h e r e ( w i t h o u t a c h i e v i n g m u c h ) , I d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e y w e r e

d o i n g . '

2 0 . 2 . 2 The - m i nominaHsation

T h e - m i n o m i n a H s a t i o n is u s e d for a result o r a p a s t location, in c o n t r a s t to t h e -ri

n o m i n a H s a t i o n w h i c h refers to a n o n - p a s t location, a n o b j e c t o r a p r o c e s s , e.g. dihpani-

m i ( 3 s g n f + w o r k - L O C . N O M . P A S T ) 'the p l a c e w h e r e h e u s e d to w o r k , t h e result o f his

w o r k ' ; d i h p a n i - r i ( 3 s g n f + w o r k - L O C . N O M . N O N P A S T ) 'the p l a c e w h e r e h e is w o r k i n g , his

w o r k (as o b j e c t ) , his w o r k i n g (as a process)'. T h e -mi n o m i n a H s a t i o n h a s a n u m b e r o f

n o m i n a l p r o p e r t i e s . It c a n o c c u p y t h e s u b j e c t slot, as in 2 0 . 1 6 , a n d a n o b j e c t slot as in

2 0 . 1 7 . O r it c a n b e a n a r g u m e n t o f a p o s t p o s i t i o n , as in 2 0 . 1 8 . N o t e that the s u b j e c t o f

this n o m i n a H s a t i o n c a n b e o v e r t l y e x p r e s s e d , a n d t h e n it is p r e p o s e d to the - m i f o r m .

2 0 . 1 6 k h i d a [ p e d a l i a - p e n a - w a - m i ] a l i a - n a k a

r e a d y o l d - P L 3 p l - p u t . d o w n - N O M . P A S T E X I S T - P R E S . V I S

' R e a d y . H e r e is w h a t t h e o l d p e o p l e p u t d o w n . '

2 0 . 1 7 [ p i - w a - m i - n u k u ] p i - k a

2 s g - m a r k - N O M . P A S T - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - s e e

' W a t c h w h a t y o u h a v e m a r k e d . '

2 0 . 1 8 [ d u h a h a - d u d u - s a p e - m i ] k a y u d u - n i - s i n a

s h e p a r e n t - F E M 3 s g f - s a y - N O M . P A S T like 3 s g f - d o - R E M . P . I N F R

' S h e d i d t h e w a y h e r m o t h e r h a d told (her).'

In 2 0 . 1 9 , t h e - m i n o m i n a H s a t i o n is m a r k e d w i t h the locative case.

2 0 . 1 9 k a y di-ni d i - m a r a di-a

t h u s 3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n s t r e a m 3 s g n f - g o

te y a k a l e [ d i h t a - m i - s e ]

until v i l l a g e 3 s g n f + t a k e - N O M . P A S T - L O C

d i - n a d i - d i e t a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f - r e t u r n + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

' T h u s h e w e n t d o w n s t r e a m a n d p u t h i m b a c k f r o m w h e r e h e h a d t a k e n h i m . '

T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e - m i n o m i n a H s a t i o n h a s to b e inferred f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . In 2 0 . 1 6 -

1 8 , it is a n o b j e c t n o m i n a H s a t i o n , a n d in 2 0 . 1 9 - 2 0 it is a l o c a t i v e n o m i n a H s a t i o n .

2 0 . 2 0 [ p h i a p i - n u - m i ] a i - t u k i - m h a

y o u 2 s g - c o m e - N O M . P A S T h e r e - D I M - P R E S . N O N V I S

' T h e p l a c e y o u c a m e f r o m is right h e r e (said the evil spirit to the d r u n k ) . '

If a n o m i n a l i s e d transitive v e r b h a s a n o v e r t l y m a r k e d A / S a c o n s t i t u e n t a n d a n object,

b o t h a r e p r e p o s e d ; t h e o b j e c t is p o s i t i o n e d c l o s e r to t h e n o m i n a H s a t i o n , as is 'evil spirit'

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 4 6 6 20 Participles and nominalisations

in t h e s e c o n d n o m i n a l i s a t i o n in 2 0 . 2 1 . T h a t d i h a 'he' a n d n a m u 'evil spirit' are different

c o n s t i t u e n t s is c o r r o b o r a t e d b y t h e fact that t h e r e is a p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e m .

'.21tuki n a - n u n a - m u s u [ n h a n e m a - m i - n a k u ]

a.little 3 p l - c o m e 3 p l - g o . o u t t h e y 3 p l + s l e e p - N O M . P A S T - T O P . N O N . A / S

[ d i h a A n a m u o d i - k e t a - m i - n a k u ]

h e evil, spirit 3 s g n f - m e e t - N O M . P A S T - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h e y c a m e o u t a bit a n d a r r i v e d at t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e y h a d slept, t h e p l a c e w h e r e

h e h a d e n c o u n t e r e d t h e evil spirit.'

T h e - m i n o m i n a l i s a t i o n c a n n o t b e u s e d to m a r k c o n c o m i t a n t p r e d i c a t i o n , u n l i k e t h e

-ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ( s e e b e l o w ) . It c a n , h o w e v e r , b e u s e d a s a c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategy,

a s in 2 0 . 2 2 .

2 0 . 2 2 n h a p e d a l i e - p e w a - w h e - n i - n e [ n h a

t h e y o l d - P L l p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - P L - P L t h e y

n a - y a - m i - n a k u ] n u - k a l i t e n u - w a

3 p l - l i v e - N O M . P A S T - T O P . N O N . A / S 1sg-tell 1 sg-try

n u - a - d e

l s g - g o - F U T . C E R T

'I w i l l try a n d tell h o w t h e o l d p e o p l e , o u r g r a n d f a t h e r s , u s e d to live.'

S i m i l a r l y t o t h e -nipe n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , t h e - m i n o m i n a l i s a t i o n c a n o c c u r w i t h a n

o p t i o n a l c o m p l e m e n t i s e r kwe9 a s in 2 0 . 2 3 .

2 0 . 2 3 p u s a r u i p i t a n a i-na k w a m h e

otter I N D F + n a m e 2 p l - O B J a.little

n u - w a - k h u l i - m h a d e [ k w e

1 s g - t e l l - S L I D E - F U T . U N C E R T S U B

d i - n i - m i - n a k u ] d i h a n a w i k i - n u k u

3 s g n f - d o - N O M . P A S T - T O P . N O N . Av
/ Ss A R T m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - h n e - t a - m i - n a k u

3 s g n f - p o i n t + C A U S 1- C A U S 2 - N O M . P A S T - T O P . N O N . A / S

'I w i l l tell y o u a little bit o f a story n a m e d after t h e otter, w h a t his a c t i o n s w e r e ,

a n d w h a t h e h a d s h o w n to t h e m a n . '

T h e - m i n o m i n a l i s a t i o n h a r d l y e v e r o c c u r s a s a m o d i f i e r to a n o t h e r n o u n . H o w e v e r ,

w h e n it d o e s , it t a k e s a classifier a s a n a g r e e m e n t m a r k e r , u n l i k e t h e -nipe

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n b u t s i m i l a r to adjectival m o d i f i e r s (see §5.1.2). In 2 0 . 2 4 , t h e h e a d n o u n

'road' (to w h i c h t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n d i - m u s u - m i 'the p l a c e w h e r e h e w e n t d o w n ' is a

m o d i f i e r ) is o m i t t e d .

2 0 . 2 4 d i h a w a l i k a s u di-a d i - r u k u - m i

h e i n . b e g i n n i n g 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - N O M . P A S T

d i - m u s u - m i - p u n a - n u k u

3 s g n f - g o . o u t - N O M . P A S T - C L : R O A D - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e w e n t at t h e b e g i n n i n g (to) w h e r e h e w e n t d o w n , o n t o [the r o a d ] b y w h i c h h e

w e n t d o w n . '

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 20.2 Nominalisations and c o n v e r t s 4 6 7

U n l i k e -nipe n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , - m i n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s d o n o t t a k e m o d i f i e r s o r n o m i n a l

s u f f i x e s s u c h a s d i m i n u t i v e s . Instead, t h e y o c c u r w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e r b a l suffixes,

e.g. t h e v e r b a l d i m i n u t i v e -tuki/tiki - a n d n o t t h e n o m i n a l s i n g u l a r -tuki, plural -tupe - in

2 0 . 2 5 .

2 0 . 2 5 n h u a h i k u r n u - a - m i - t i k i ] i-na

I like.this 1s g - s a y - N O M . P A S T - D I M 2 p l - O B J

n u - k a n u - p e , i-na n u - w a p a

l s g - s e e l s g - t h r o w l s g - O B J l s g - w a i t

n u - w h a , n u - n i - n a k a n h u a n u - p h e - n e - n e

l s g - s i t l s g - d o - P R E S . V I S I l s g - o l d e r . b r o t h e r - P L - P L

'I a m l o o k i n g at y o u like this ( w i t h ) w h a t little I h a v e said, I w a i t o n y o u , this is

w h a t I d o , m y o l d e r brothers.'

2 0 . 2 . 3 The -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n

T h e -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n refers t o a n o n - p a s t location, a n o b j e c t o r a p r o c e s s a n d c a n

d e s c r i b e a p l a c e a s in 2 0 . 2 7 , o r it c a n b e a n o b j e c t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , as in n u - d o k o l a - r i

( l s g - b e n d - N O M . N O N P A S T ) 'joint ( o f h u m a n b o d y ) ' , n u - m h e t a - r i ( l s g - t h i n k -

N O M . N O N P A S T ) ' t h o u g h t , o p i n i o n ' , o r n u - p e y a - a ( l s g - b e . i n . f r o n t - N O M . N O N P A S T ) ' w h a t o r

w h o is in front o f m e ' , nu-kapi kai-ri ( l s g - h a n d h u r t - N O M . N O N P A S T ) 'a s o r e o n m y hand',

p a - r a p a - r i ( i M P - d a n c e - N O M . N O N P A S T ) ' d a n c i n g party', o r p a - m a w i t a - r i ( i M P - o w e -

N O M . N O N P A S T ) 'debt'. It c a n a l s o b e a n a g e n t n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , e.g. p i m a - r i ( s o u n d -

N O M . N O N P A S T ) ' s o m e t h i n g that s o u n d s ; m u s i c ' . O r it c a n b e a n i n s t r u m e n t

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , a s in kalisi p h e m a - r i (story i M P + h e a r - N O M . N O N P A S T ) 'radio, the

i n s t r u m e n t w i t h w h i c h o n e listen to stories'. It h a s a t e m p o r a l m e a n i n g in d i - k e n a - r i

( 3 s g n f - s t a r t - N O M . N O N P A S T ) ' b e g i n n i n g ' .

T h i s d e r i v a t i o n h a s a n u m b e r o f n o m i n a l p r o p e r t i e s . It c a n b e u s e d a s a n o m i n a l

a r g u m e n t : a n S in 2 0 . 2 6 a n d a l o c a t i v e in 2 0 . 4 ( m a r k e d w i t h t h e l o c a t i v e -se suffix) a n d

in 2 0 . 2 7 ( w h e r e it is t o p i c a l a n d t a k e s t h e - n u k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' enclitic). In 2 0 . 2 6 ,

y a n a k a ' w h i s k y ' , t h e object, p r e c e d e s t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n p a - i r a - r i 'drinking'.

2 0 . 2 6 hi p a y a r u h i y a n a k a

D E M : A N I M m a n i o c . b e e r D E M : A N I M w h i s k y

[pa-ira-fi] p u a y a - n a

I M P - d r i n k - N O M . N O N P A S T d i f f e r e n t - R E M . P . V I S

d i h a - m i s i n i

h e - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R

' D r i n k i n g o f m a n i o c b e e r a n d o f w h i s k y is also different.'

In 2 0 . 2 7 t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , n a h a 'they', p r e c e d e s it.

2 0 . 2 7 n e s a n a : k a n a - s w a - p i d a n a

3 p l + g o . u p 3 p l + a r r i v e 3 p l - l i e - R E M . P . R E P

d i h a h y a p a - n a w i k a - s e - n u k u n a h a

A R T m o u n t a i n - C L : V E R T t o p - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S t h e y

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 4 6 8 20 Participles and nominalisations

[ n a : k a - r i - n u k u l

3 p l + a r r i v e - N O M . N O N P A S T - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e y w e n t u p to t h e t o p o f t h e m o u n t a i n , to the p l a c e w h e r e t h e y arrived.'

T h e -ri d e r i v a t i o n s c a n a c q u i r e a d v e r b i a l m e a n i n g s , cf. wyume-ri (last-

N O M . N O N P A S T ) 'at last, b e i n g last o n e ' in 2 0 . 2 8 .

2 0 . 2 8 w v u m e - f i-se d u k a k o l o

l a s t - N O M . N O N P A S T - L O C 3 s g f + a r r i v e R O L L

d u - s u e - t a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - l i e + C A U S l - C A U S 2 - R E M . P . R E P

'At last s h e a r r i v e d a n d p u s h e d t h e m rolling.'

T h e -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n n o t b e m o d i f i e d , a n d t h e y d o n o t t a k e a n y d i m i n u t i v e or

a u g m e n t a t i v e m a r k e r s , o r a n y o t h e r n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y . T h e y are e m p l o y e d as a w a y

o f m a r k i n g c o m p l e m e n t s o f t h e v e r b o f w a n t i n g , as in 2 0 . 2 9 , a n d o f o t h e r v e r b s , e.g.

m a h y u n a 'be difficult' in 2 0 . 3 0 (see further e x a m p l e s in C h a p t e r 2 4 ) . T h i s sets t h e m

a p a r t f r o m o t h e r n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s w h i c h c a n b e u s e d as c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategies w i t h

v a r i o u s o t h e r v e r b s .

2 0 . 2 9 d u - n a p a - y a m i - r i - s i n a d i - n a

3 s g n f - O B J I M P - d i e - N O M . N O N P A S T - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g n f - w a n t

' H e w a n t e d h e r to die.'

2 0 . 3 0 w h a - n e - n u k u m a h y u n a - m a - m h a

w e - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S b e . d i f f i c u l t - E X C - P R E S . N O N V I S

p a - s a p e - n

I M P - s p e a k - N O M . N O N P A S T

' A s far a s w e are c o n c e r n e d , s p e a k i n g ( a b o u t t h e T a r i a n a history) is difficult.'

In 2 0 . 3 1 t h e -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n is t h e a r g u m e n t o f the p o s t p o s i t i o n kayn, a n d in 2 0 . 3 2

it is t h e a r g u m e n t o f t h e p o s t p o s i t i o n ikwa 'down'.

2 0 . 3 1 h i k u w a h a w a - w h a - r i k a y u

t h u s w e l p l - s i t - N O M . N O N P A S T like

n a - w h a - p i d a n a d i - y e k a - n i p e - m i a - p i d a n a

3 p l - s i t - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - k n o w - N O M - O N L Y - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e y w e r e sitting like w e are sitting, t h e y all w e r e his a c q u a i n t a n c e s . '

2 0 . 3 2 w a - k w a - r i i - k w a

1 p l - h a n g . i n . h a m m o c k - N O M . N O N P A S T I N D F - d o w n

n e y u na: n a - p i p i n a n e m h a n i

3 p l + g o . u p s t r e a m 3 p l + g o 3pl-get.lost 3 p l + w a l k

h y u k a d e - n a n h a - y a n a - p e

n o t a p p e a r - R E M . P . V I S t h e y - P E J - P L

' D o w n f r o m o u r s l e e p i n g p l a c e (lit. the p l a c e w h e r e w e w e r e h a n g i n g in

h a m m o c k s ) t h e y w e n t u p a n d g o t lost, t h e y d i d n o t a p p e a r , the n a u g h t y ones.'

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 2 0 . 2 N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s a n d c o n v e r t s 4 6 9

A n a d d i t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n m a d e o n l y in -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s a n d n o t in a n y o t h e r

d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l s is o p t i o n a l t e n s e m a r k i n g w i t h t h e suffix -ka 'non-past' p r e c e d i n g -ri,

e.g. alia-ri (EXIST-NOM.NONPAST) 'being, t h e p l a c e w h e r e o n e / s o m e t h i n g is

( s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e t i m e o f s p e e c h ) ' , alia-ka-ri 'the p l a c e or t h e w a y w h e r e

o n e / s o m e t h i n g u s e d t o b e ( a n d still is)'. T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o is illustrated

in 2 0 . 3 3 - 4 .

2 0 . 3 3 [ h a n u p e p a n a - p h e alia-ri-se]

m a n y l e a f - C L : L E A F E X I S T - N O M . N O N P A S T - L O C

d i - u k a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - a r r i v e - R E M . P . R E P

' H e a r r i v e d at t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e r e w e r e m a n y leaves.'

2 0 . 3 4 p i - n a n u - k a l i t e - d e hi [ w a h a

2 s g - O B J l s g - t e l l - F U T . C E R T D E M : A N I M w e

alia-ka-fil

E X I S T - T E N S E - N O M . N O N P A S T

'I w i l l tell y o u this, h o w w e u s e d to be.'

A f o r m w i t h - k a - a n d -ri, like alia-ka-ri in 2 0 . 3 4 , is s e m a n t i c a l l y c l o s e to a -mi

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ; in a f e w c a s e s s p e a k e r s d i d i n d e e d u s e a -mi n o m i n a l i s a t i o n a n d a -ka-ri

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n a s s y n o n y m s .

T h e -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s are u s e d to m a r k locative s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , as in 2 0 . 3 5 .

2 0 . 3 5 te h i n i p u d i - r u k u - f i - s e

until r o a d 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - N O M . N O N P A S T - L O C

n a - n u d a i n u - p i d a n a

3 p l - c o m e s l e e p - R E M . P . R E P

T h e y c a m e u p to t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e r o a d w a s g o i n g d o w n a n d slept.'

A l o c a t i v e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e w i t h a -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n c a n b e i n t r o d u c e d w i t h the

i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n u s e d as a s u b o r d i n a t o r - s e e C h a p t e r 2 4 - as in 2 0 . 3 6 ( w h e r e the

-ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n is a p p l i e d to a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) .

2 0 . 3 6 k a n i w h a r w a - r u k u - r i w a k a ]

w h e r e w e l p l - g o . d o w n - N O M . N O N P A S T l p l + a r r i v e

w a - r u k u w a k a w a - d i a w a - n u

l p l - g o . d o w n l p l + a r r i v e l p l - r e t u r n l p l - g o . u p

' W h e r e w e a r r i v e d b y g o i n g d o w n , w e w e n t d o w n c o m i n g b a c k a n d g o i n g up.'

In y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h , t h e -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s are c o n s i s t e n t l y u s e d to m a r k

s i m u l t a n e o u s t e m p o r a l c l a u s e s . S e e 2 0 . 3 7 - 8 .

2 0 . 3 7 n a - p u m i - s e n a h a p e d a l i a - p e na-sisa-ri-se

3 p l - a f t e r - L O C t h e y o l d - P L 3 p l - e n d - N O M . N O N P A S T - L O C

n e k a n a n h a - h a - d o - n u k u

3 p l + c h i e f t h e y - p a r e n t - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S

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 4 7 0 20 Participles and nominalisations

k a - n h a - k a r i d i - m u s u - p i d a n a d i - n u

R E L - e a t - R E L . P A S T . M A S C . S G 3 s g n f - c o m e . o u t - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - c o m e

'After t h e m , w h e n / a f t e r t h e o l d o n e s finished, their chief, t h e o n e w h o h a d e a t e n

their m o t h e r , c a m e out.'

2 0 . 3 8 d i h a d i h p a n i - r i - s e p i a s a - p i

h e 3 s g n f + w o r k - N O M . N O N P A S T - L O C p i a c a b a - C L : P A L M

i - a p i - s e - p i d a n a d i - y a d i - e m a

I N D F - u n d e r - L O C - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s t a y 3 s g n f - s t a n d

' ( T h e d e v i l ) w a s s t a n d i n g u n d e r n e a t h t h e p i a c a b a p a l m , w h i l e h e (the m a n ) w a s

w o r k i n g . '

T h e -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r s in t h e e p i s t e m i c e x p r e s s i o n 'to m y m i n d ' , as

in 2 0 . 3 9 .

2 0 . 3 9 n u h a n u - m h e t a - r i - n u k u di-dia

I 1s g - t h i n k - N O M . N O N P A S T - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - r e t u r n

d i - n u - m h a d e

3 s g n f - c o m e - F U T

' T o m y m i n d (lit. a s for m y t h i n k i n g ) h e will c o m e back.'

T h e -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n is o f t e n t h e o n l y p r e d i c a t i o n in a n o n - m a i n c l a u s e , i n d i c a t i n g

a n a c t i o n c o n c o m i t a n t to t h a t o f t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e . T h i s f u n c t i o n is

f u n c t i o n a l l y s i m i l a r to that o f c o n v e r b s - see H a s p e l m a t h ( 1 9 9 5 ) . A c o n v e r b a l c l a u s e

w i t h a -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n a s t h e p r e d i c a t e d o e s n o t h a v e to h a v e t h e s a m e s u b j e c t as t h e

m a i n v e r b . D i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s are s h o w n in 2 0 . 4 0 - 1 , w h i l e t h e t w o c l a u s e s in 2 0 . 4 2 s h a r e

t h e s a m e subject. T h e c o n v e r b a l c l a u s e a n d t h e m a i n c l a u s e s h a r e tense-evidentiality: in

2 0 . 4 0 t h e m a r k e r g o e s o n t o t h e c o n v e r b a l c l a u s e , a n d in 2 0 . 4 1 it g o e s o n t o t h e m a i n

c l a u s e .

2 0 . 4 0 d i h a k a w a l i k u p e d a d i - w h a - f i - p i d a n a

h e b e . s o r r y 3 s g n f - s i t - C O N V - R E M . P . R E P

d h u e d u - n u

3 s g f + e n t e r 3 s g f - c o m e

' W h i l e h e w a s sitting b e i n g sorry, s h e c a m e in.'

2 0 . 4 1 n h a n a - w a p a - r i k e t e m i - s i n a - d a k a

t h e y 3 p l - w a i t - C O N V r e m a i n - R E M . P . I N F R - Y E T

' W h i l e t h e y w e r e w a i t i n g , t h e r e w a s still s o m e (fish) left.'

2 0 . 4 2 w y a k a [na:-fi n a - n u - p i d a n a - s i t a ]

far 3 p l + g o - C O N V 3 p l - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P - P E R F

n h a - n e n a - n a n a - p i n i t a - k a - t a

t h e y - F O C . A / S 3 p l - O B J 3 p l - f o l l o w - D E C L - A G A I N

' T h e y h a v i n g g o n e far, t h e y w e r e f o l l o w i n g t h e m . '

T h e u s e o f c o n v e r b s in T a r i a n a is t h e result o f diffusion f r o m T u c a n o , w i t h its

s e q u e n c e s o f participial c l a u s e s . Y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s often u s e -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s w h e r e

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 20.2 Norn inalisatiom and converbs 471

m o r e traditional s p e a k e r s w o u l d e m p l o y c l a u s e s e q u e n c i n g w i t h the s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka

( s e e § 2 2 . 2 ) , a s i n 2 0 . 4 3 .

2 0 . 4 3 d i h a - n e d i h a k a p i n a - n i p e - n e

h e - F O C . A / S A R T m a n i o c . b e e r 3 p l + g o - N O M - F O C . A / S

k a p u a - r i d i - y e n a d i - p e - n a - n i k i

b e . i n t o x i c a t i n g - C O N V 3 s g n f - e x c e e d 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R E M . P . V I S - C O M P L

'It, t h e o n e m a d e o u t o f m a n i o c b e e r , is e x c e e d i n g l y intoxicating.'

In 2 0 . 4 4 a n d 2 0 . 4 5 J o v i n o B r i t o u s e d c o n v e r b a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s to link c l a u s e s , w h e r e

s u b o r d i n a t i n g -ka w a s u s e d b y m o r e traditional s p e a k e r s .

2 0 . 4 4 d i - r u k u d i - a - p i d a n a d i h a k a w h i

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P A R T m a n i o c . f l o u r

d i r a d i - w h a - f i

3 s g n f + d r i n k 3 s g n f - s i t - C O N V

' H e w e n t d o w n ( a n d ) w a s sitting d r i n k i n g m a n i o c flour.'

».45nese d i h p a n i - r i d i - e m a - p i d a n a d i - n a

t h e n 3 s g n f + w o r k - C O N V 3 s g n f - s t a n d - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J

n h e p a n a - n h a - n i k i

3 p l + t a k e 3 s g n f - e a t - C O M P L

' W h i l e h e w a s w o r k i n g , t h e y t o o k h i m a n d ate h i m up.'

C o n v e r b a l c l a u s e s a r e m o r e f r e q u e n t in y o u n g e r p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h - t h e r e are m a n y

m o r e e x a m p l e s o f t h e s e in stories t o l d b y O l i v i a a n d J o v i n o B r i t o t h a n b y C a n d i d o

B r i t o . H o w e v e r , 2 0 . 4 6 , f r o m t h e T a r i a n a O r i g i n story told b y C a n d i d o , d o e s c o n t a i n a

c o n v e r b a l c l a u s e . H e s u b s e q u e n t l y c o r r e c t e d h i m s e l f a n d s u g g e s t e d n a - n i - p i d a n a (3pl-

do-REM.P.REP) i n s t e a d o f na-ni-ri.

2 0 . 4 6 n a - n h a na-ni-ri n a - w h e - r i - p e r i

3 p l - e a t 3 p l - d o - C O N V 3 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - O L D . M A S C

i n e s e r i w h y u m e - d a - s e - n a k u d h i t a

I n e r r e l a s t - C L : R O U N D - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + t a k e

t a t h a d i - n i t a - p i d a n a

u p 3 s g n f - g o . u p + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

' W h i l e t h e y w e r e e a t i n g their o l d g r a n d f a t h e r Y n e r r e t o o k the last (finger) a n d

1
t h r e w it u p w a r d s .

A c o n v e r b f o r m e d o n t h e v e r b n a 'want' is u s e d as a n a d v e r b a n d s h o w s a n interesting

s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t : it d e s c r i b e s d o i n g s o m e t h i n g b e c a u s e o f o n e ' s o w n w i l f u l n e s s
1
a n d t h u s b e i n g liable for r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; it c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d a s ' t h r o u g h h i s o w n fault

(see d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r B in § 2 6 . 3 ) .

2 0 . 4 7 d i - n a - r i - m h a k a w a l i k u p e d a

3 s g n f - w a n t - C O N V - P R E S . V I S b e . s o r r y , u p s e t

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 4 7 2 20 Participles and nominalisations

d i - a - k h a n i - k a

3 s g n f - g o - A W A Y - S U B

' H e is u p s e t t h r o u g h his o w n fault (lit. h i m w a n t i n g ) , h a v i n g g o n e a w a y . '

2 0 . 2 . 4 Three n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s : a c o m p a r i s o n

In § 2 0 . 2 . 1 - 3 w e h a v e s e e n that t h e t h r e e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s s h a r e s o m e , b u t n o t all,

p r o p e r t i e s . T h e y c a n all b e u s e d a s v e r b a l a r g u m e n t s ( A , S, O , or o b l i q u e s ) a n d b e

a r g u m e n t s o f p o s t p o s i t i o n s . T h e y differ in t h e n u m b e r o f n o m i n a l p r o p e r t i e s t h e y

d i s p l a y , a n d in their c a p a c i t i e s to act a s p r e d i c a t e s . T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s are c o m p a r e d in

T a b l e 2 0 . 1 .

T a b l e 2 0 . 1 s h o w s that n o t all t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s are e q u a l l y 'nominal'. T h e -ri

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n is t h e m o s t v e r b a l o n e , w h i l e -nipe d i s p l a y s the m o s t n o m i n a l p r o p e r t i e s

- s u c h a s t h e ability o f c o m b i n i n g w i t h n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y a n d o f b e i n g m o d i f i e d .

T A B L E 2 0 . 1 N O M I N A L A N D V E R B A L P R O P E R T I E S O F N O M I N A L I S A T I O N S

P R O P E R T I E S -nipe -mi -ri

U S E A S C O M P L E M E N T S T R A T E G I E S W I T H with just a few

y e s y e s
M O S T V E R B S subgroups of verbs

T A K E S U B O R D I N A T O R k w e ( O P T I O N A L L Y ) n o n o n o

yes; require agreement

T A K E M O D I F I E R S i n -peri 'collective' on n o n o

modifiers

yes; d o not take yes; take

B E U S E D A S M O D I F I E R S n o
classifiers classifiers

C O M B I N E W I T H N O M I N A L M O R P H O L O G Y ,
y e s n o n o
E . G . D I M I N U T I V E

B E U S E D A S T H E P R E D I C A T E O F
n o n o y e s
C O N V E R B A L C L A U S E

H A V E A D D I T I O N A L T E N S E - M A R K I N G n o n o y e s

2 0 . 2 . 5 N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s a n d s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s

W e will s h o w in C h a p t e r s 2 1 a n d 2 2 that all s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a n d c o m p l e m e n t

c l a u s e s in T a r i a n a c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d as b e l o n g i n g to t h e s u b c l a s s o f n o m i n a l s , s i n c e

t h e y c a n b e c a s e - m a r k e d . T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d h e r e

a n d s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s o f t h e t y p e s d i s c u s s e d in § 2 2 . 1 are as f o l l o w s :

(i) N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s are s i m i l a r to o r d i n a r y n o u n s in that t h e y c a n b e u s e d as

a r g u m e n t s o f v e r b s a n d p o s t p o s i t i o n s , as h e a d s o f p o s s e s s i v e n o u n p h r a s e s a n d

in t h e p r e d i c a t e slot. In contrast, s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s c a n o n l y a p p e a r as o b l i q u e

a r g u m e n t s o f t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e , b u t n o t in o t h e r f u n c t i o n s .

(ii) T h e -nipe n o m i n a l i s a t i o n t a k e s n o m i n a l affixes a n d enclitics; t h e y h a v e a v a l u e

for n u m b e r ( s e e a b o v e , o n d i m u n i t i v e plural -tupe w i t h n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s ) . T h i s

is n o t t h e c a s e w i t h s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s .

(iii) T h e -nipe a n d t h e - m i n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s - b u t n o t s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s - c a n b e

u s e d a s m o d i f i e r s , a s in 2 0 . 1 2 - 1 3 .

(iv) U n l i k e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , all n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n b e c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h n o u n s ,

a s in 2 0 . 4 8 w h e r e a -nipe n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , 'drinking' ('what y o u drank'), is

c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h 'whisky'.

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 2 0 . 3 O t h e r d e r i v a t i o n a l d e v i c e s 4 7 3

2 0 . 4 8 pir a - n i p e h o t h o y a n a k a - n u k u d i h a

2 s g + d r i n k - N O M A W A Y w h i s k y - T O P . N O N . A / S A R T

m e s a d a - p e r i - n a k u n e pi-a

e m p t y - C O L L - T O P . N O N . A / S t h e n 2 s g - g o

p i - w h e - t a h i p a - k w a

2 s g - s i t + C A U S l - C A U S 2 g r o u n d - C L : F L A T . S U R F A C E

' Y o u r d r i n k (lit. w h a t y o u d r a n k a w a y ) , w h i s k y , the e m p t y bottle, g o a n d p u t (all

this) o n t h e g r o u n d . '

2 0 . 3 O t h e r d e r i v a t i o n a l d e v i c e s

C l a s s i f i e r s in their d e r i v a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n - s e e §5.1.3 - are f r e q u e n t l y u s e d to n o m i n a l i s e

a n o u n p h r a s e o r a w h o l e c l a u s e . T h e y attach to t h e e n d o f a n N P o r a clause. F o r

i n s t a n c e , inisi hanupe (lice m a n y ) m e a n s ' m a n y lice', a n d inisi hanupite (lice

m a n y + N C L : A N i M ) m e a n s 'a p e r s o n w i t h a lot o f l i c e ' . Ka-mayana hanupe (REL-lie m a n y )

m e a n s 'the o n e w h o lies a lot, a liar', a n d ka-mayana hanupite (REL-lie m a n y + N C L . A N i M )

m e a n s 'a p e r s o n w h o b e l o n g s to a class o f p e o p l e w h o lie a lot'. Similarly, k a - k a m a

h a n u p i t e ( R E L - b e . d r u n k m a n y + N C L : A N i M ) m e a n s 'a h e a v y drinker, t h e o n e w h o d r i n k s

t o o m u c h ' . 2 0 . 4 9 a n d 2 0 . 5 0 illustrate d e r i v a t i o n s w i t h t h e classifier - w a n i 'natural

p h e n o m e n o n , a b s t r a c t n o u n s ' a n d w i t h -pua 'river' f r o m a c l a u s e 'water d o e s n o t end'.

2 0 . 4 9 u : n i n e - m a - s i s a - k a d e - w a n i

w a t e r N E G - N E G - e n d - N E G - C L : N A T . P H E N

' o c e a n (lit. a p h e n o m e n o n o r a p l a c e w h e r e w a t e r d o e s n o t e n d ) '

2 0 . 5 0 u : n i n e - m a - s i s a - k a d e - p u a

w a t e r N E G - N E G - e n d - N E G - C L : R I V E R

'a h u g e river (lit. a k i n d o f river w h e r e w a t e r d o e s n o t e n d ) '

A s n o t e d in § 2 0 . 1 , classifiers are u s e d to d e r i v e functional e q u i v a l e n t s o f p r e s e n t

p a r t i c i p l e s f r o m p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s , e.g. di-yakale ka-de (3 sgnf-village R E L - h a v e ) 'the o n e

w h o h a s a village; a s e d e n t a r y Indian' - w h e r e t h e relative prefix ka- is u s e d to d e r i v e a

r e g u l a r p a r t i c i p l e f r o m a p r e f i x e d v e r b 'have' - a n d di-yakale sedite ( 3 s g n f - v i l l a g e

n o t . e x i s t + N C L : A N i M ) 'the o n e w h o h a s n o village, a n o m a d i c Indian'. A l o n g s i m i l a r

lines, classifiers a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d to d e r i v e participles f r o m p a s s i v e s . T h e d e r i v e d

n o m i n a l r e t a i n s t h e s a m e m a r k i n g o f a r g u m e n t s a s t h e p a s s i v e , e.g. d i - n a k a - h h a - k a n i t e

( 3 s g n f - O B J REL-eat-PASS+NCL:ANiM) 'the o n e e a t e n b y h i m ' is a r e g u l a r d e r i v a t i o n f r o m

k a - n h a - k a n a d i - n a (REL-eat-PASS 3sgnf-OBJ) '(he) w a s e a t e n b y h i m ' (see § 1 9 . 4 a n d

§ 1 3 . 1 o n p a s s i v e ) . U n l i k e w i t h t h e p a s s i v e , the a r g u m e n t s o f a n o m i n a l i s e d v e r b h a v e to

p r e c e d e t h e v e r b (see C h a p t e r 2 5 , o n c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r a n d w o r d o r d e r ) ; this p r o p e r t y is

s h a r e d w i t h o t h e r n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d in § 2 0 . 2 a b o v e . Classifiers are also u s e d to

d e r i v e n o n - p a s t participles f r o m n e g a t i v e f o r m s - e.g. m a - n a - k a d e - p e n i 'the o n e s w h o

d o n o t w a n t ' i n 2 3 . 1 3 a n d m a - d e - k a d i t e 'the o n e w h o d o e s n o t h a v e ' in 2 0 . 5 1 .

2 0 . 5 1 n e pa:tfi y a p h i n i - t u p e

N E G other.of.different.kind t h i n g - D I M : P L

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 4 7 4 20 Participles and nominalisations

m a - d e - k a d i t e d u h a i n a r u

N E G - h a v e - N E G + N C L : A N I M A R T : F E M w o m a n

d u - a - p i d a n a

3 s g f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' T h i s w o m a n w e n t a r o u n d w i t h n o p o s s e s s i o n s (lit. w i t h o u t h a v i n g a n y t h i n g ) . '

T o p i c - a d v a n c i n g v o i c e d e r i v a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d in § 1 3 . 5 c a n b e u s e d h e a d l e s s l y a n d

t h e n a c q u i r e t h e m e a n i n g o f i n s t r u m e n t , t i m e o r l o c a t i o n n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s , e.g.: n u - i r a -

n i - d a ( l s g - d r i n k - T O P . A D V - C L : R O U N D ) ' m y d r i n k i n g cup'; p a - d e n a - n i - w h y a ( i M P - p a d d l e -

T O P . A D V - C L : C A N O E ) ' c a n o e w i t h p a d d l e s ' (as o p p o s e d to o n e w i t h a n o u t b o a r d m o t o r ) ;

p a - i r a - n i - k a d a ( l M P - d r i n k - T O P . A D V - C L : D A Y ) ' d r i n k i n g day'; n a - r a p a - n i - n a ( 3 p l - d a n c e -

T O P . A D V - C L : V E R T ) ' d a n c i n g stick'; p a - w h a - n i p a (lMP-sit-TOP.ADV+CL:OPEN.SPACE) 'a

chair, b e n c h ' .

T h e s e f o r m s a r e t h e s o u r c e o f T a r i a n a n a m e s for all k i n d s o f n e w l y i n t r o d u c e d

c o n c e p t s , e.g. p a - d u k u n i a - n i - d a (iMP-light-TOP.ADV-CL:ROUND) 'torch'; p a - d u k u n i a - n i -

w h i (lMP-light-TOP.ADV-CL:THlN) 'match'; p a - d a n a - n i - n a ( I M P - w r i t e - T O P . A D V - C L : V E R T )

'pencil, p e n ' a n d s o o n .

A s w e n o t e d in § 1 3 . 5 , p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s d o n o t h a v e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g v o i c e ; h o w e v e r ,

y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e w h a t l o o k like -ni d e r i v a t i o n s o f p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s as

n o m i n a l h e a d s , e.g. t a r a d a - e h k w a p i (be.alive-CL:DAY) o r t a r a d a - n i - e h k w a p i ( b e . a l i v e -

T O P . A D V - C L : D A Y ) 'life'.

T o p i c - a d v a n c i n g d e r i v a t i o n s o f transitive v e r b s are o f t e n u s e d in a w a y s i m i l a r to

p a s s i v e p a r t i c i p l e s , w i t h a slight s e m a n t i c difference: for i n s t a n c e , p a - h h a - n i t e (iMP-eat-

T O P . A D V + N C L : A N I M ) m e a n s 'edible', w h i l e k a - n h a - k a n i t e m e a n s 'eaten'; similarly,

w h e m a n i t e in 2 0 . 5 2 m e a n s 'the o n e o f t e n d i s c u s s e d b y us'. T h e a d v e r b d a . k i d a 'often'

p r e c e d e s t h e d e r i v a t i o n w h e m a n i t e in 2 0 . 5 2 , a s is u s u a l l y t h e c a s e w i t h n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s

(cf. t h e p o s i t i o n i n g o f kayu 'like' in front o f a n o m i n a l i s a t i o n in 2 0 . 1 ) . Whemanite

m o d i f i e s t h e n o u n h e m a 'tapir'; h o w e v e r , a p a u s e in front of h e m a i n d i c a t e s that this is a

k i n d o f a f t e r t h o u g h t - s e e C h a p t e r 2 5 .

2 0 . 5 2 e h k w a p i - p e n a p a d a - p i d a n a d a : k i d a

d a y - P L e a c h - R E M . P . R E P o f t e n

w h e m a - n i t e d i - m u s u [ P A U S E ] h e m a

l p l + h e a r - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N I M 3 s g n f - g o . o u t [ P A U S E ] tapir

' E v e r y d a y t h e o n e o f t e n d i s c u s s e d b y u s w o u l d g o o u t (into t h e g a r d e n ) , [ P A U S E ]

t h e tapir.'

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 21

C l a u s e t y p e s a n d other syntactic issues

T h i s c h a p t e r c o n s i d e r s a n u m b e r o f b a s i c syntactic issues for T a r i a n a , p r o v i d i n g a

b a c k g r o u n d for C h a p t e r s 2 2 - 2 4 w h i c h d e a l w i t h d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e types. W e s u m m a r i s e

t h e s t r u c t u r e o f n o u n p h r a s e s in § 2 1 . 1 . C o o r d i n a t i o n o f n o u n p h r a s e s is d i s c u s s e d in

§ 2 1 . 2 . T h e n , in § 2 1 . 3 , w e s u m m a r i s e t h e structure o f p r e d i c a t e s . C l a u s e t y p e s are

c o n s i d e r e d in § 2 1 . 4 . In § 2 1 . 5 w e d i s c u s s criteria for g r a m m a t i c a l relations.

2 1 . 1 T h e s t r u c t u r e o f n o u n p h r a s e s

A n o u n p h r a s e in T a r i a n a c o n s i s t s o f a h e a d p l u s o n e o r m o r e m o d i f i e r s . A n o u n , a n

a d j e c t i v e , o r a m e m b e r o f o n e o f t h e c l o s e d c l a s s e s d i s c u s s e d in § § 1 1 . 2 - 9 -

d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , specifier articles, quantifiers a n d deictics ~ c a n f u n c t i o n a s N P h e a d s . A

s u m m a r y o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n w o r d c l a s s e s a n d f u n c t i o n a l slots in a c l a u s e w a s

g i v e n i n T a b l e 3.7. T a b l e 11.1 c o n t a i n s a s u m m a r y o f w h i c h m e m b e r s o f c l o s e d w o r d

c l a s s e s c a n f u n c t i o n a s m o d i f i e r s a n d w h i c h c a n n o t .

T h e h e a d o f a n N P triggers classifier o r a n i m a c y a g r e e m e n t o n its m o d i f i e r ( s ) (see

C h a p t e r 5 for further details); a n i m a t e N P h e a d s also trigger n u m b e r a g r e e m e n t - s e e

§ 8 . 4 . A g r e e m e n t is t h e m a i n criterion for h e a d s in T a r i a n a .

A d j e c t i v e s , m e m b e r s o f c l o s e d c l a s s e s (see § § 1 1 . 1 - 9 ) a n d s o m e n o u n s c a n b e u s e d as

m o d i f i e r s . T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e first t w o g r o u p s o f m o d i f i e r s w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e h e a d is

d i s c u s s e d in § 2 1 . 1 . 1 . D i s c o n t i n u o u s n o u n p h r a s e s are c o n s i d e r e d in § 2 1 . 1 . 2 . In § 2 1 . 1 . 3

w e a n a l y s e a p p o s i t i o n a l N P s w h i c h c o n s i s t o f n o u n s m o d i f y i n g o t h e r n o u n s . H e a d l e s s

N P s a r e c o n s i d e r e d in § 2 1 . 1 . 4 , a n d t h e structure o f p o s s e s s i v e a n d o f a d p o s i t i o n a l N P s is

d i s c u s s e d in § 2 1 . 1 . 5 .

2 1 . 1 . 1 P o s i t i o n of adjectival a n d c l o s e d c l a s s modifiers w i t h respect to the h e a d of a

n o u n p h r a s e

O n l y a f e w m o d i f i e r s f r o m c l o s e d c l a s s e s a l w a y s p r e c e d e t h e N P h e a d . T h e y i n c l u d e

specifier articles ( § 1 1 . 2 ) , d e m o n s t r a t i v e s ( § 1 1 . 3 ) a n d t h e quantifier kanapada ' h o w

m a n y , h o w m u c h ; this m a n y , this m u c h ' . O t h e r m o d i f i e r s f r o m c l o s e d c l a s s e s c a n b e

p r e h e a d a n d p o s t h e a d - t h e s e are interrogative-distributive kwa ( § 1 1 . 4 ) ; gestural deictic

k h i ( § 1 1 . 5 ) ; d i s t r i b u t i v e i n d i v i d u a l i s e r napada ( § 1 1 . 6 ) ; g e n e r a l indefinites p a - (also u s e d

a s t h e n u m e r a l 'one') and p a : 0 ' a n o t h e r o f different kind' ( § 1 1 . 7 ) ; a n d o t h e r n u m e r a l s

( § 1 1 . 8 ) ; a n d q u a n t i f i e r s thuy 'all', hidapada 'every', m h a i d a 'few' a n d hanupe ' m a n y '

( § 1 1 . 9 ) .

A l l a d j e c t i v e s , w h e t h e r t h e y are d e r i v e d o r n o t (see §3.1.3), c a n b e u s e d as p r e h e a d o r

a s p o s t h e a d m o d i f i e r s .

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 4 7 6 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

W h e t h e r m o d i f i e r s are p r e h e a d o r p o s t h e a d d e p e n d s o n the d e f m i t e n e s s a n d

specificity o f t h e h e a d n o u n . M o d i f i e r s t e n d to b e p l a c e d b e f o r e a n o u n w h i c h is either

definite o r specific, o r w h i c h is indefinite b u t g o i n g to b e topical. In contrast, a m o d i f i e r

is p l a c e d after a n indefinite, n o n - s p e c i f i c , o r o t h e r w i s e i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l n o m i n a l referent.

In 2 1 . 1 ( = 1 1 . 1 ) , 'man', ' w o m a n ' a n d 'children' - t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s o f t h e story - are

i n t r o d u c e d w i t h p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r s - indefinite p a : - 'one' a n d n u m e r a l n a m a - 'two' (see

§ § 1 1 . 7 - 8 ) . T h e w o r d atfa-tupe 'little m e n ' is a n o u n p h r a s e o n its o w n , s e p a r a t e d b y

p a u s e s .

2 1 . 1 [paita tfari] k a - s a - d o - p i d a n a

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M m a n R E L - s p o u s e - F E M - R E M . P . R E P

[ p a : - m a i n a r u - n u k u ] d u h a i n a r u

o n e - C L : F E M w o m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S A R T . F E M w o m a n

k a n a p e r i - p i d a n a [ n h a m e p a e m i - p e n i ]

h a v e . c h i l d r e n - R E M . P . R E P t w o + N U M . C L : H U M c h i l d - P L . A N I M

P A U S E atfa-tupe P A U S E d u h a i n a r u

P A U S E m a n : P L - D I M . P L P A U S E A R T . F E M w o m a n

d u - e n i p e - n u k u d u - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - c h i l d r e n - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

' A m a n m a r r i e d a w o m a n . T h e w o m a n g a v e birth to t w o c h i l d r e n , little m a l e s . T h e

w o m a n s a i d t o t h e children...'

T h e h e a d n o u n o f t h e n o u n p h r a s e in 2 1 . 2 is i n t r o d u c e d for t h e first t i m e in this

n a r r a t i v e , b u t its referent - a n a u g h t y tapir w h o d e s t r o y s g a r d e n s - is w e l l k n o w n to the

h e a r e r s , a n d is g o i n g to b e t h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f t h e story. T h e adjective 'bad' p r e c e d e s the

h e a d n o u n .

2 1 . 2 n e [ma:tfite h e m a - y a n a ] d i - s w a - n h i - n a

t h e n b a d + N C L : A N I M t a p i r - P E J 3 s g n f - l i e - A N T - R E M . P . V I S

' T h e n a n a u g h t y ( w e l l - k n o w n ) b a d tapir w a s lying (there).'

In 2 1 . 3 a n a d j e c t i v e is also p r e p o s e d to a n o u n w h i c h h a s b e e n i n t r o d u c e d w i t h a

d e m o n s t r a t i v e in t h e p r e c e d i n g c l a u s e .

2 1 . 3 [hi u n i - n u k u ] d i - k a k w a - n h i

D E M i A N I M w a t e r - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - p l a n - A N T

d i - n i - s i n a [ m a t f a - w a n i uni] h i k u - s i n a

3 s g n f - d o - R E M . P . I N F R g o o d - C L : N A T . P H E N w a t e r a p p e a r - R E M . P . I N F R

' H e (the C h r i s t i a n G o d ) p l a n n e d this w a t e r , g o o d w a t e r a p p e a r e d . '

In contrast, 'water' is indefinite a n d n o t topical in 2 1 . 4 , a n d the m o d i f i e r 'white' is

p o s t p o s e d to it.

2 1 . 4 n e d i k i - p u a - s e k e p i t a n a [uni h a l e - p u a ]

t h e n 3 s g n f + t r i b u t a r y - C L : R I V E R - L O C R E L + n a m e w a t e r w h i t e - C L : R I V E R

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 21.1 The structure of noun phrases 4 7 7

[ d i h a - p u a - s e ] w a - w a w a : - n a - p i t a

A R T - C L : R I V E R - L O C l p l - e n t e r l p l + g o - R E M . P . V I S - A G A I N

' ( A river) k n o w n a s a tributary ( o f a b i g g e r river), in this river t h e r e is w h i t e w a t e r ,

w e e n t e r e d this river again.'

In 2 1 . 5 t h e n u m e r a l p a : o c c u r s after t h e h e a d n o u n w h o s e referent is a n u n i m p o r t a n t

p a r t i c i p a n t a n d is n o t u s e d a s a t o p i c o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i s c o u r s e .

2 1 . 5 d i - r u k u - k a d i - u k a d i - n a

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n - S U B 3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3 s g n f - O B J

[ k e p i r i a paita] d i - a - p i d a n a

b i r d o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

'After h e c a m e d o w n , a b i r d said to him...'

In 2 1 . 6 , t h e n u m e r a l s o c c u r after t h e h e a d n o u n s : h e r e t h e w o r d s ' m a n ' a n d ' w o m a n '

refer t o t h e s e x o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s o f a H a n s e l - a n d - G r e t e l t y p e story, m e a n i n g 'a m a l e '

a n d 'a f e m a l e ' . T h e p o s i t i o n o f m o d i f i e r s c a n b e a c c o u n t e d for b y this n o n - r e f e r e n t i a l u s e

o f t h e t e r m s ' m a n ' a n d ' w o m a n ' .

2 1 . 6 k a : w a : w a - n a l e - n i k i n a : - p i d a

in. v a i n l p l + g o l p l - d i s a p p e a r - C O M P L 3 p l + s a y - R E P

n a r w a d a n h a - t u p e - n h e [tfari

3 p l + t h i n k t h e y - D I M : P L - F O C . A / S m a n

paite] i n a r u [ p a : - m a ]

o n e + N U M . C L : H U M A N w o m a n o n e - C L : F E M

' " W e a r e g o i n g to d i s a p p e a r in v a i n , " t h o u g h t t h e little o n e s , a m a l e a n d a female.'

In 1 1 . 4 8 , p a . f l 'other ( o f a different k i n d ) ' o c c u r s as a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r w i t h h e a d

n o u n s w h i c h a r e i m p o r t a n t in t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i s c o u r s e - as a s o u r c e o f potential d a n g e r .

In contrast, i n 2 1 . 7 , t h e s a m e w o r d m o d i f i e s t h e n o u n n a w i k i 'people' w h i c h is indefinite

a n d is n o t g o i n g to b e further d e p l o y e d in t h e narrative (the l o c a t i o n is g o i n g to b e

topical). T h e m o d i f i e r o c c u r s after t h e n o u n .

2 1 . 7 [ n a w i k i pa:tfi] m a : - k a n a - p e r i - n u k u

p e o p l e other.of.dififerent.kind N E G + g o - P A S S - C O L L - T O P . N O N . A / S

pi-ni p i - w h e - t a

2 s g - d o 2 s g - s i t + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

' D o p u t ( w h a t y o u f o u n d ) w h e r e p e o p l e o f o t h e r k i n d d o n o t go.'

M o d i f i e r s a l w a y s o c c u r p o s t h e a d in a n o u n p h r a s e in the p r e d i c a t e slot, as in 2 1 . 8 , or

as a c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t , a s in 2 1 . 6 3 .

2 1 . 8 p h i a [ i n a r u m a t f a i t e - n a k a ] p h i a

y o u w o m a n g o o d + N C L : A N I M - P R E S . V I S y o u

' Y o u are a n i c e w o m a n . '

If t h e r e is m o r e t h a n o n e p o s t h e a d m o d i f i e r , a n u m e r a l a p p e a r s closest to t h e h e a d . In

a s e q u e n c e o f a d j e c t i v a l m o d i f i e r s v a l u e a d j e c t i v e s p r e c e d e all others. T h i s is illustrated

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 4 7 8 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

in 2 1 . 9 - t h e l o n g e s t n o u n p h r a s e in t h e c o r p u s . T h e n u m e r a l is p o s t p o s e d to the

indefinite h e a d n o u n .

2 1 . 9 [pani-si p a : - d a p a n a [ n a w i k i a l i a - n i - d a p a n a ]

h o u s e - N P O S S o n e - C L : H A B p e r s o n E X I S T - T O P . A D V - C L : H A B

m a t j a - d a p a n a w a l i - d a p a n a ]

g o o d - C L : H A B n e w - C L : H A B

' A g o o d n e w h o u s e w h e r e p e o p l e are.'

C o l o u r a d j e c t i v e s f o l l o w v a l u e a d j e c t i v e s a n d p r e c e d e all others.

2 1 . 1 0 [uni m a t f a - p u a - p e h a l e - p u a - p e

w a t e r g o o d - C L : R I V E R - P L w h i t e - C L : R I V E R - P L

k h e w a k a - p u a - p e ] m a w a r i n a - w a - p i d a n a

d e e p - C L : R I V E R - P L s n a k e 3 p l - e n t e r - R E M . P . R E P

' S n a k e s e n t e r n i c e d e e p w h i t e - w a t e r rivers.'

If a n o u n c o n t a i n s a p r e p o s e d m o d i f i e r , a n d t h e n a n o t h e r m o d i f i e r is p o s t p o s e d to it,

t h e latter is likely t o f o r m a n o u n p h r a s e o n its o w n . T h i s is t h e c a s e in 2 1 . 1 1 , w h e r e a

p a u s e a n d falling i n t o n a t i o n b e t w e e n 'fish' a n d ' l o o k i n g like piraiba' s h o w that t h e t w o

b e l o n g t o different N P s .

2 1 . 1 1 d i - m i a d i - u k a di-r a h t a k u p h e - p a s i - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - f l o a t 3 s g n f - a r r i v e 3sgnf-float fish-AUG-REM.P.REP

[ h a n u - i t e - p i d a n a k u p h e ] [ P A U S E ] [ka:tu k a y u

b i g - N C L : A N I M - R E M . P . R E P fish [ P A U S E ] piraiba.fish like

h i k u - i t e - p i d a n a ] [ P A U S E ]

a p p e a r - N C L : A N I M - R E M . P . R E P [ P A U S E

[ k a - d a n i t e - p a s i - p i d a n a ]

R E L - p a i n t + N C L : A N I M - A U G - R E M . P . R E P

f
A l a r g e fish floated, a b i g fish, o n e that l o o k e d like p i r a i b a fish, a striped one.'

M o d i f i e r s to p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s a l w a y s f o l l o w t h e h e a d , e.g. n a h a nhamepa 'they t w o '

in 5.12. M o d i f i e r s d e r i v e d f r o m v e r b s a n d serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s are a l w a y s p o s t h e a d ,

e.g. dpia k e s a - n i - p e r i ( p i g REL+smell-AFF-CL:COLL) 'wild s m e l l y pigs' (i.e. w i l d

p e c c a r i e s ) in 8.26, a n d h e m a n a . n i t e n a - n h a (tapir 3 p l + g i v e - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N i M 3pl-eat)

'a d o m e s t i c c o w ' (lit. 'a tapir fed b y t h e m ' ) (this a n d o t h e r d e r i v a t i o n s o n serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d in § 1 8 . 1 ) . ' H e a v y ' m o d i f i e r s (i.e. t h o s e w h i c h c o n t a i n m o r e

t h a n o n e w o r d ) f o r m e d o n a n o u n p h r a s e c a n o n l y b e p o s t h e a d , e.g. e m i t e [wesi

h a n u p i t e ] (child [ m u c u s m u c h + N C L : A N l M ] ) 'a c h i l d w i t h a lot o f m u c u s ' . ( D e r i v a t i o n o f

m o d i f i e r s f r o m n o u n p h r a s e s is d i s c u s s e d in §20.3.) T h e s e m o d i f i e r s m a y h a v e m u l t i p l e

n o u n c l a s s a g r e e m e n t w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e h e a d - see the o v e r v i e w in C h a p t e r 4, a n d

d i s c u s s i o n i n §5.1.3). E x a m p l e 2 1 . 1 2 s h o w s a h e a v y m o d i f i e r (a n o m i n a l i s e d t o p i c

a d v a n c i n g d e r i v a t i o n ) w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e h e a d n o u n .

2 1 . 1 2 p a - p i o - p i d a n a [e:ni rei

o n e - C L : T I M E S - R E M . P . R E P c h i e f k i n g

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 2 1 . 1 The s t r u c t u r e of n o u n p h r a s e s 4 7 9

n h a na:-ni-te] a l i a - p i d a n a

t h e y 3 p l + s a y - T O P . A D V - N C L : A N I M E X I S T - R E M . P . R E P

'It w a s o n c e u p o n a t i m e , t h e r e w a s a c h i e f w h o m t h e y call king.'

R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s f o l l o w their a n t e c e d e n t (see 2 3 . 3 - 4 a n d 2 3 . 9 ) , o r p r e c e d e it ( 2 3 . 1 3 ,

2 3 . 1 9 a n d 2 3 . 2 5 ) . A d j e c t i v e s w h i c h c o n t a i n a d d i t i o n a l m o r p h o l o g i c a l m a r k e r s , e.g.

a u g m e n t a t i v e s o r d i m i n u t i v e s , a l s o t e n d to f o l l o w their a n t e c e d e n t . In 2 1 . 1 3 ma.tfite 'bad

one', c o n t a i n i n g a n a u g m e n t a t i v e , is p o s t p o s e d to t h e h e a d n o u n , 'blind snake', w h i c h h a s

b e e n i n t r o d u c e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g c l a u s e ( 2 1 . 1 6 ) a n d is t h e t o p i c o f t h e narrative.

2 1 . 1 3 k w e p i - n i - k a s u - n i h k a [itfitfi

w h a t / h o w 2 s g - d o - I N T - I N T E R . R E C P . V I S b l i n d . s n a k e

m a : t f i t e - p u - n u k u ] pi-apita

b a d + N C L : A N I M - A U G - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - d r a g

p i - n u p i - n u - n i h k a

2 s g - g o . u p 2 s g - c o m e - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R

' W h a t d i d y o u b r i n g this really b a d b l i n d s n a k e for?'

A n o u n p h r a s e c a n c o n t a i n n o m o r e t h a n o n e p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r . In 2 1 . 1 4 , a n o u n

p h r a s e - in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s - c o n t a i n s o n e p r e h e a d a n d o n e p o s t h e a d m o d i f i e r . T h e

a d j e c t i v e 'bad' c o u l d n o t a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e h e a d in this N P , s i n c e t h e p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r

slot is o c c u p i e d b y t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e .

2 1 . 1 4 [hihi n a w i k i ma:tfi-peni]

D E M . P R O X . E M P H p e o p l e b a d - P L : A N I M

t a l i - n u k u n a - n h a - k a

a r a c u . f i s h - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - e a t - R E C . P . V I S

' T h e s e b a d p e o p l e eat a r a c u fish.1

T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e - d i s t r i b u t i v e k w a a n d its d e r i v a t i v e s a l w a y s p r e c e d e t h e h e a d n o u n

w h e n t h e y a r e u s e d in t h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e m e a n i n g ; in c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s (see § 1 1 . 4 a n d

§ 2 4 . 4 , e.g. k a n i i n 2 4 . 4 2 ) ; o r in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' w h a t ' s its n a m e ' : s e e 1 1 . 3 4 a n d 1 1 . 3 6 . If

t h e r e is a n o t h e r p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r , it is p o s i t i o n e d after t h e h e a d . T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e k w e -

p e r i h a s t o o c c u p y clause-initial p o s i t i o n a n d a p p e a r s a s a p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r ;

c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e o t h e r p r e h e a d m o d i f i e r , a d e m o n s t r a t i v e ( i f it is p r e s e n t ) , a p p e a r s after

t h e h e a d , e.g. kwe-peri y a p h i n i - t h a hi ( I N T - P L : I N A N thing-FR D E M : A N I M ) ' W h a t sort o f

t h i n g s a r e t h e s e (that h e l o v e s s o m u c h ) ? ' T h i s is t h e o n l y c a s e w h e n a d e m o n s t r a t i v e c a n

b e p o s t p o s e d t o t h e h e a d o f a n N P .

2 1 . 1 . 2 D i s c o n t i n u o u s n o u n p h r a s e s

T h e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f a n N P m a y o c c u r t o g e t h e r . H o w e v e r , n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y N P s are split:

t h e h e a d o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e p r e d i c a t e a n d t h e m o d i f i e r s after it, a s illustrated in 2 1 . 1 5 . O r

t h e h e a d c a n o c c u r after t h e p r e d i c a t e w i t h t h e m o d i f i e r before. T h e a b s e n c e o f a p a u s e

b e f o r e t h e m o d i f i e r i n d i c a t e s that this is a d i s c o n t i n u o u s N P a n d n o t a n a f t e r t h o u g h t

c o n s t r u c t i o n . Split N P s a r e u s e d to i n t r o d u c e a referent w h o s e identity is s u p p o s e d to b e

u n k n o w n t o t h e s p e a k e r b u t w h i c h a p p e a r s to b e i m p o r t a n t . 2 1 . 1 5 c o m e s f r o m a story

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 4 8 0 21 Clause types and other syntactic issues

a b o u t a m a n l o o k i n g for w o m e n ; w h e n h e h a d f o u n d o n e h e p r e s e n t e d h e r to h i s m o t h e r

s a y i n g 2 1 . 1 5 .

2 1 . 1 5 n h u a [inaru] n u - k e t a - k a n h u a [ p a : - m a ]

I w o m a n l s g - e n c o u n t e r - R E C . P . V I S I o n e - C L : F E M

'I e n c o u n t e r e d a w o m a n . '

If t h e h e a d o c c u r s after t h e p r e d i c a t e a n d t h e m o d i f i e r b e f o r e it, this is a w a y o f

c o m m u n i c a t i n g u n e x p e c t e d i n f o r m a t i o n . In 2 1 . 1 6 , the m a n is a n n o u n c i n g to his m o t h e r

t h a t h e h a s killed s o m e g a m e for h e r - a n d g u e s s w h a t ? It is a b l i n d s n a k e - w h i c h his

m o t h e r , like all t h e P i r a t a p u y a , is s u p p o s e d to like. (In fact, s h e h a t e s it a n d r e s p o n d s

w i t h 2 1 . 1 3 . )

2 1 . 1 6 n h u a [paita-ka] n u - k e t a [itfitfi]

I o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M - R E C . P . V I S l s g - e n c o u n t e r b l i n d . s n a k e

'I h a v e killed o n e , g u e s s w h a t : a b l i n d snake.'

O n e m o d i f i e r c a n b e p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e p r e d i c a t e , a n d a n o t h e r o n e p l u s t h e h e a d after

it. In 2 1 . 1 7 R a f a e l B r i t o , t h e y o u n g e s t s p e a k e r o f t h e S a n t a R o s a v a r i e t y o f T a r i a n a ,

d e c i d e d to tell a story. T h i s w a s h i s first l o n g story in T a r i a n a ; the h e a d n o u n 'story' is a n

u n e x p e c t e d p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n .

2 1 . 1 7 n h u a [hi] n u - k a l i t e - d e [tuki kalisi]

I D E M : A N I M l s g - t e l l - F U T . C E R T little story

'I w i l l tell y o u this - g u e s s w h a t - a little story.'

I n c o n t r a s t , t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o e x a m p l e s c o n t a i n a f t e r t h o u g h t s - s i g n a l l e d b y a p h r a s e -

final falling i n t o n a t i o n a n d a p a u s e .

2 1 . 1 8 d i h a - n a i p a m u n a - p i d a n a p a : - t y a r e P A U S E

A R T - C L : L A K E m i d d l e - R E M . P . R E P o n e - C L : C U P P A U S E

h i w a r u - t y a r e - p i d a n a P A U S E d i h a - t y a r e

g o l d - C L : C U P - R E M . P . R E P P A U S E A R T - C L : C U P

'In t h e m i d d l e o f t h e l a k e t h e r e w a s a c u p , a g o l d e n c u p , that cup.'

2 1 . 1 9 n u - w i n i - n u k u P A U S E h l - n u k u

1 s g - p r e y - T O P . N O N . A / S P A U S E D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

P A U S E p i - n a n u - p u - m i - n e t a - n a k a

P A U S E 2 s g - O B J 1s g - f o l l o w - N O M - A F F + C A U S - P R E S . V I S

'I a m f o l l o w i n g y o u , this o n e , y o u ( w h o are) m y prey.'

2 1 . 1 . 3 A p p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s

A p p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a n o u n m o d i f y i n g a n o t h e r n o u n . N o u n s w h i c h

o c c u r a s m o d i f i e r s are (a) p r o p e r n a m e s , (b) k i n s h i p t e r m s , a n d (c) g e n e r i c n o u n s .

P r o p e r n a m e s a n d k i n s h i p t e r m s f o l l o w t h e h e a d n o u n . In 2 1 . 2 0 p r o p e r n a m e s

( u n d e r l i n e d ) p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n to t h e h e a d n o u n s ' m y y o u n g e r brother' a n d

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 21.1 The structure of noun phrases 481

' m y father's e l d e r brother' ( s i n c e t h e s p e a k e r , G r a c i l i a n o , h a s a f e w o f e a c h ) . T h e r e is n o

p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e h e a d n o u n a n d t h e m o d i f i e r .

2 1 . 2 0 h i [ n u - w e - r i J o v i n o l

D E M : A N I M 1s g - y o u n g e r . b r o t h e r - M A S C J o v i n o

d i - a p i - n a - k u s u d i h a - d a - n u k u

3 s g n f - p u l l - R E M . P . V I S - T O . A N D . F R O A R T - C L : R O U N D - T O P . N O N . A / S

n e - m e h p a - k a d e - m h a n a k a d a w a d i - s w a - m a f i a

N E G - N E G + s t a r t - N E G - R E M . P . N O N V I S d a r k 3 sgnf-lie- A M I D S T

d i h a - d a e p i s i - d a d h i p a - n a

A R T - C L : R O U N D m e t a l - C L : R O U N D 3 s g n f + s t a r t - R E M . P . V I S

e p i s i - d a d h i p a - k a w a - k a w h a w a - t h a k a

m e t a l - C L : R O U N D 3 s g n f + s t a r t - S U B l p l - s e e w e l p l - c r o s s

w a : - n a te [ p a i p h e k a E d u ] d a l i p a

l p l + g o - R E M . P . V I S u p . t o father's.older.brother E d u n e a r

' T h i s y o u n g e r b r o t h e r o f m i n e , J o v i n o , p u l l e d (the m o t o r ) to a n d f r o . . . w h e n it w a s

g e t t i n g d a r k , t h e m o t o r started, w e s a w t h e m o t o r g e t t i n g started, c r o s s e d a n d w e n t

u p to o u r father's e l d e r brother's, E d u ' s , place.'

In 2 1 . 2 2 , a k i n s h i p n o u n f o l l o w s t h e h e a d n o u n ' w o m a n ' it m o d i f i e s .

2 1 . 2 2 [ d u h u a i n a r u d i - s a - d o ] d i h a

s h e w o m a n 3 s g n f - s p o u s e - F E M h e

k a y - d i - n i - k a m a : - s a - k a d e - p i d a n a

t h u s - 3 s g n f - d o - S U B N E G - b e . s a t i s f i e d - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

' T h i s w o m a n , h i s w i f e , w a s n o t satisfied, w h e n h e a c t e d thus.'

T h e n o u n s n a w i k i 'person, p e o p l e ' , inaru ' w o m a n ' a n d pari ' m a n ' c a n m o d i f y p e r s o n a l

p r o n o u n s , w h i c h t h e y f o l l o w , a s in 2 1 . 2 3 ; cf. also atfa-tupe (man:PL-DiM.PL) a s a

m o d i f i e r t o ' t w o c h i l d r e n ' in 2 1 . 1 .

2 1 . 2 3 k i - s i n a w a - n u w h a [ w h a n a w i k i ] [ w h a y e p o s a n a ]

t h u s - R E M . P . I N F R l p l - c o m e w e w e p e o p l e w e I n d i a n s

' W e c a m e like this, w e ( i n d i g e n o u s ) p e o p l e , w e Indians.'

W h e n n o u n s i n a r u ' w o m a n ' a n d pari ' m a n ' are u s e d to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e s e x o f a n i m a l s ,

t h e y a l s o f o l l o w t h e n o u n s t h e y m o d i f y , e.g. tfinu inaru ( d o g w o m a n ) 'a f e m a l e dog',

tfinu pari ( d o g m a n ) 'a m a l e dog'. T h e s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s are c a i q u e s o f T u c a n o

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , e.g. T u c a n o d i d y i n u m i o 'she-dog'; t h e y are n o t f o u n d in B a n i w a .

T h e n a m e s o f tribal g r o u p s c a n m o d i f y p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s b y f o l l o w i n g t h e m , as in

2 1 . 2 3 ( ' w e Indians'). T h e g e n e r i c n a w i k i 'people, p e r s o n ' a l w a y s f o l l o w s a n a m e o f a

tribal g r o u p o r a n y o t h e r n o u n , e.g. Kuphemene n a w i k i ' P i r a t a p u y a p e o p l e ' ,

M a y a k a n a k u n i n a w i k i ' B a n i w a p e o p l e ' , Uhu n a w i k i ' H o h o d e n e p e o p l e ' , Kayari y e p u a s e

n a w i k i ( V a u p e s i N D F + d o w n s t r e a m - L O C p e o p l e ) ' p e o p l e f r o m d o w n t h e V a u p e s river',

hipada n a w i k i 'stone p e o p l e ' (i.e. s t o n e s w h i c h h a v e h u m a n s h a p e a n d are b e l i e v e d to b e

a n c i e n t p e o p l e ) . T h i s o r d e r i n g is c a l q u e d f r o m T u c a n o w h e r e m a s a 'people, p e r s o n '

a l w a y s f o l l o w s t h e e t h n o n y m ; B a n i w a d o e s n o t h a v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f this k i n d . ( N a m e s

for tribe m e m b e r s h a v e a different structure: m a l e n a m e s t a k e t h e s i n g u l a t i v e -seri

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 4 8 2 21 Clause types and other syntactic issues

d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 8, e.g. k u p h e m e n e - s e r i 'a P i r a t a p u y a m a n ' , y a s e n e - s e r i 'a T u c a n o

1
m a n , w h i l e f e m a l e n a m e s a r e c o m p o u n d s w i t h (i)-sa-do ((iNDF)-spouse-FEM), e.g.

k u p h e m e n i s a - d o ( f r o m k u p h e m e n e - i - s a - d o ) 'a P i r a t a p u y a w o m a n ' , y a s e n i s a - d o 'a T u c a n o

w o m a n ' , t a r i a - s a - d o 'a T a r i a n a w o m a n ' . )

T h e g e n e r i c n o u n y a p h i n i 'thing' o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e n o u n it m o d i f i e s if it m e a n s

' ( w h a t ) k i n d o f thing', a s in 2 1 . 2 4 a n d 2 1 . 3 5 , a n d in 11.36.

2 1 . 2 4 k u i t e y a p h i n i itflr i - n h a

I N T E R + N C L : A N I M t h i n g a n i m a l - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

' W h a t sort o f a n i m a l (is this)?'

W h e n it o c c u r s after a n o u n , it m e a n s ' s o m e t h i n g like', a n d t h e n b e h a v e s like a

p o s t p o s i t i o n o f t y p e H (see § 1 1 . 1 1 ) ; cf. 2 1 . 2 5 . A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is 1 1 . 9 6 .

2 1 . 2 5 p u p e r i y a p h i n i hiniri n h e t a - s i n a

p e a c h . p a l m t h i n g / l i k e ukuki.fruit 3 p l + t a k e - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e y t o o k t h i n g s like p e a c h p a l m (fruit), u k u k i fruit.'

O f t h e t i m e w o r d s d i s c u s s e d in § 3 . 2 , o n l y h e k u 'yesterday', i k a s u 'today' a n d d e s u

' t o m o r r o w ' c a n o c c u r in a n a p p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a n o t h e r t i m e w o r d referring to

t h e t i m e o f t h e d a y , e.g. h e k u h e k w a 'yesterday n o o n ' , o r ikasu depita 'tonight', as in

2 1 . 2 7 - 8 . S i n c e n e i t h e r o f t h e s e c a n b e m o d i f i e d t h e s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d

h e a d e d N P s , a n d a r e b e s t treated a s a p p o s i t i o n a l . T h e s e N P s c a n t a k e o n l y o n e c a s e -

m a r k e r , - n u k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' .

2 1 . 1 . 4 H e a d l e s s n o u n p h r a s e s

F u l l N P s a r e n o t s o f r e q u e n t in n a r r a t i v e s n o r in c o n v e r s a t i o n s . H e a d l e s s N P s a r e u s e d

i n s t e a d , a classifier b e i n g sufficient to identify t h e referent. T h e full n o u n d o e s n o t e v e n

n e e d t o b e m e n t i o n e d , a s in 2 1 . 2 6 , w h e r e t h e m a i n c h a r a c t e r is i n t r o d u c e d w i t h a

h e a d l e s s N P c o n s i s t i n g o f a n u m e r a l a n d classifier.

2 1 . 2 6 u p i t h a - p e r i - s e n u - a - k a n h u a a l i a - p i d a n a

l o n g . t i m e . a g o + F R - C O L L - L O C 1s g - s a y - S U B I E X I S T - R E M . P . R E P

n i y a - n h i p h e p a d i n i p e - n e

3 s g n f + s t a y - A N T o n e + N U M . C L : H U M A N 3 s g n f + c h i l d r e n - C O M

' L o n g t i m e a g o , I a m s a y i n g , t h e r e lived o n e ( m a n ) a l o n e w i t h his children.'

S i m i l a r e x a m p l e s a r e s h o w n in 5 . 2 0 - 1 a n d 5 . 7 3 - 4 ; s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f classifiers a s

r e f e r e n t t r a c k i n g d e v i c e s in § 5 . 2 . In a c t u a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s - w h e r e it is u s u a l l y o b v i o u s

w h a t p e o p l e a r e t a l k i n g a b o u t - full n o u n s o c c u r m u c h less o f t e n t h a n classifiers

e m p l o y e d w i t h a d e i c t i c o r w i t h a n article. I n s u c h e x a m p l e s , a n e l l i p s e d n o m i n a l h e a d

c a n b e a d d e d .

H e a d l e s s N P s w h i c h c o n t a i n j u s t a n a d j e c t i v e o r a n u m e r a l h a v e a n indefinite

referent, a s in 2 1 . 2 6 - 7 a n d in 5.74. In contrast, referents o f h e a d l e s s N P s c o n s i s t i n g o f a n

article o r o f a deictic are definite - s e e 5.73 a n d 5.75.

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 21.1 The structure of noun phrases 4 8 3

2 1 . 2 7 i k a s u d e p i t a - n u k u n u - n a [ m a t f a - d a p a n a

t o d a y n i g h t + A D V - T O P . N O N . A / S 1s g - O B J g o o d - C L : H A B

h i w a r u - d a p a n a - m i a ] pi-ni p h i a

g o l d - C L : H A B - O N L Y 2 s g - d o y o u

' T o n i g h t m a k e m e a g o o d ( h o u s e ) , m a d e o n l y o f gold.'

A n i n d e f i n i t e referent c a n b e i n t r o d u c e d w i t h o n e h e a d l e s s m o d i f i e r p l a c e d in front o f

t h e p r e d i c a t e , a n d t h e n a n a d d i t i o n a l , i m p o r t a n t , p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e a d d e d w i t h

a n o t h e r h e a d l e s s m o d i f i e r p l a c e d after t h e p r e d i c a t e , a s in 2 1 . 2 8 . T h i s is s i m i l a r to t h e

split n o u n p h r a s e e x e m p l i f i e d in 2 1 . 1 5 w h e r e t h e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e m o d i f i e r after t h e

p r e d i c a t e is a w a y o f i n d i c a t i n g that a referent is g o i n g to b e i m p o r t a n t .

2 1 . 2 8 p h i a [ i k a s u d e p i t a - n u k u ] [ p a - d a p a n a ]

y o u t o d a y n i g h t + A D V - T O P . N O N . A / S o n e - C L : H A B

p i - n i [ p i - y a - d a p a n a - p e n a ]

2 s g - d o 2 s g - P O S S - C L : H A B - N O M . F U T

' T o n i g h t y o u m a k e o n e ( h o u s e ) , y o u r ( h o u s e ) to be.'

2 L I . 5 P o s s e s s i v e a n d adpositional n o u n p h r a s e s

In p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s t h e o r d e r o f c o n s t i t u e n t s is fixed: t h e p o s s e s s o r a l w a y s

p r e c e d e s t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 6; this is different f r o m B a n i w a

o f I $ a n a a n d o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e s ) . T h e m a r k i n g o f p o s s e s s i o n d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r

t h e r e f e r e n t is a l i e n a b l y o r i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d . If t h e p o s s e s s e e is a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d

a n d c a n n o t t a k e p r e f i x e s , p o s s e s s i o n is m a r k e d b y s i m p l e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t e r m s , e.g.

tfinu p a n i s i ( d o g h o u s e ) 'dog's h o u s e ' . If t h e p o s s e s s e e is i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d ,

p o s s e s s i o n is m a r k e d t h r o u g h p r e f i x e s , e.g. n u - p i t a n a ( l s g - n a m e ) ' m y n a m e ' . A n d if t h e

p o s s e s s o r is a n o t h e r N P , t h e p o s s e s s e d n o u n t a k e s t h e indefinite prefix /-, e.g. kuphe i-

p i t a n a (fish I N D F - n a m e ) 'the n a m e o f a fish' (see § § 6 . 2 - 4 ) . T h i s p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g is

b e i n g lost b y y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s - w h o s a y p h i a itfa ( y o u hair) i n s t e a d o f p i - tfa-re ( 2 s g -

hair-POSS) ' y o u r hair'. S o m e y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s m a r k p o s s e s s i o n t w i c e in c o n s t r u c t i o n s

like d i h a ditfa ( h e 3 s g n f + h a i r ) ( i n s t e a d o f di-tfa-re 'his hair'). T h i s is t h e result o f

c a l q u i n g T u c a n o p a t t e r n s o f p o s s e s s i o n m a r k i n g - s e e C h a p t e r 6.

T h e r e is a n o t h e r p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n d e s c r i b e d in § 6 . 5 . 2 w h i c h i n v o l v e s t h e u s e

o f a g e n e r i c p o s s e s s i v e classifier y a r u p e 'thing', e.g. S a b a y a r u p e marie ( S a b a t h i n g

k n i f e ) 'Saba's ( p o s s e s s i o n ) knife'. It is e m p l o y e d w h e n t h e p o s s e s s i o n is in f o c u s .

C o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i v e -ya- a n d p o s s e s s e d classifiers (see § 6 . 5 . 1 ) c a n b e

e m p l o y e d w i t h i n a l i e n a b l y a n d a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d n o u n s if t h e fact o f a n o u n b e i n g

p o s s e s s e d is t o b e f o c u s s e d o n o r if t h e h e a d n o u n is o m i t t e d , e.g. 6 . 2 5 , 2 1 . 2 8 a n d 2 1 . 2 9 -

3 0 . 2 1 . 2 9 c o n t a i n s a q u e s t i o n .

2 1 . 2 9 k w a n a i t e - n h a

w h o P O S S + N C L : A N I M - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

' W h o s e ( a n i m a t e o b j e c t ) is this ( d o g ) ? '

T h e h e a d l e s s c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i v e prefix, t h e m a r k e r -ya- a n d t h e a n i m a t e

classifier -ite (this s e q u e n c e fuses into -He) c a n b e u s e d in t w o a d d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g s : ' m y

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 4 8 4 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

s p o u s e ' , a s in 2 1 . 3 0 (in t h e P e r i q u i t o s variety), a n d , a s a e u p h e m i s m , ' w o m a n ' s genitalia',

a s in 6.26.

2 1 . 3 0 n e s e n u h a n u - I t e - n u k u n u - k e - n h i n a

t h e r e I l s g - P O S S + N C L : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S l s g - m e e t - A N T + R E M . P . V I S

n u l t e - n u k u n u - s a - d o a - n u k u

1 s g + P O S S + N C L : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S 1s g - s p o u s e - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h e r e I e n c o u n t e r e d m y ( s p o u s e ) , m i n e , m y s p o u s e . '

A d p o s i t i o n a l n o u n p h r a s e s a l s o h a v e a fixed c o n s t i t u e n t order. A l l t h e a d p o s i t i o n s

e x c e p t for te 'up to, until' are p o s t p o s i t i o n s ; a n d c a n o n l y o c c u r in front o f their a r g u m e n t

i f it is a n a f t e r t h o u g h t , a s s h o w n in 1 1 . 1 0 8 .

2 1 . 2 C o o r d i n a t i o n o f n o u n p h r a s e s

C o o r d i n a t i o n o f n o u n p h r a s e s w h o s e h e a d s are i n a n i m a t e is e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h s i m p l e

j u x t a p o s i t i o n , a s in 2 1 . 2 5 a n d 2 1 . 3 1 . W h e n several n o u n p h r a s e s are j u x t a p o s e d a

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e n u m e r a t i n g i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n is u s e d - s e e §2.9. E n u m e r a t e d n o u n s are

in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s .

2 1 . 3 1 n i h y a - n i p e a l i a - m h a [ k u h e n i ] [ n a m u ]

3 s g n f + e a t - N O M E X I S T - P R E S . V I S c r a b evil.spirit

n h a - k a - s i a l i a - m h a [ k u h e n i ] [ka:siri] [ m a : n a p i ]

f o o d - T H - N O M E X I S T - P R E S . V I S c r a b c r o c o d i l e little.fish

[ t a w a r i ] [uru] [ d a w a k i ] [yaka]

traira.type.fish b o d o . f i s h j a n d i a . f i s h s h r i m p

' T h e r e is h i s (evil spirit's f o o d ) , t h e r e is c r a b , evil spirit's food, (there are) c r a b ,

c r o c o d i l e , little fish, traira fish, b o d o fish, j a n d i a fish, s h r i m p . '

T h e c o n j u n c t i o n k a i k a is u s e d to c o o r d i n a t e direct o b j e c t s w i t h s i m i l a r referents (cf.

§ 2 6 . 2 . 1 ) . It o c c u r s after t h e p e n u l t i m a t e e n u m e r a t e d n o u n - w h i c h carries a typical

e n u m e r a t i n g r i s i n g a n d falling i n t o n a t i o n pattern; its last v o w e l is often l e n g t h e n e d as if

it w e r e a n a f t e r t h o u g h t . T h e c o n n e c t i v e kaika is h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h k a i k a 'in vain' (see

7.13). It is d i f f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r c o n n e c t i v e s d i s c u s s e d in § 1 1 . 1 0 in that it c a n n o t t a k e a n y

n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y at all. In 2 1 . 3 2 kaika c o o r d i n a t e s j u s t t w o n o u n s .

2 1 . 3 2 n a m u k e r u - k a d i - w a n a - k a [iya k a i k a k a l e ]

evil.spirit b e . a n g r y - S U B 3 s g n f - c a l l - S U B r a i n a n d w i n d

d i - p u m i d i - w a n a - n a - p i t a hi e n u

3 s g n f - a f t e r 3 s g n f - c a l l - R E M . P . V I S - A G A I N D E M : A N I M t h u n d e r

T h e evil spirit b e i n g a n g r y , after h e c a l l e d rain a n d w i n d , h e called t h u n d e r . '

In 2 1 . 3 3 a n d 1 1 . 2 6 m o r e t h a n t w o n o u n s are c o o r d i n a t e d .

2 1 . 3 3 [ y e m a - p u t u i r i p u p a n i - n a k a i k a y e m a - n a ]

c i g a r - C L : H O L L O W ritual. s t i c k - C L : V E R T a n d c i g a r - C L : V E R T

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 21.2 Coordination of noun phrases 4 8 5

p i r i - n e k a y u n h u a n u h m e t a - n a - t a

Y u r u p a r y . f l u t e - I N S like I l s g + t h i n k - R E M . P . V I S - E M P H

' T h e ritual c i g a r h o l d e r , t h e ritual stick a n d t h e cigar w i t h t h e Y u r u p a r y flute, this

is w h a t I t h o u g h t (of).'

If a n o u n o c c u r s in a c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e c o n n e c t i v e kaika a n d is m o d i f i e d , t h o s e

m o d i f i e r s w h i c h c a n o c c u r p r e h e a d a n d p o s t h e a d h a v e to f o l l o w t h e n o u n t h e y m o d i f y .

T h i s is a l s o true o f t h e a d j e c t i v e 'small' a n d t h e n u m e r a l 'one' in 2 1 . 3 4 .

2 1 . 3 4 d i - d e - p i d a n a [sipi k a i k a [ m a r i e tsu-Ita-tiki]]

3 s g n f - h a v e - R E M . P . R E P b l o w . g u n a n d k n i f e s m a l l - N C L : I N A N - D I M

d i h a - m a k a - s e d i - d e [ [ y a n a k a - d a

A R T - C L : C L O T H - L O C 3 s g n f - h a v e w h i s k y - C L . R O U N D

p a - d a ] k a i k a y e m a ] d i - d e - p i d a n a

o n e - C L : R O U N D a n d t o b a c c o 3 s g n f - h a v e - R E M . P . R E P

' W h a t h e ( t h e evil spirit) h a d w a s a b l o w g u n a n d a s m a l l knife, in his b a g w h a t h e

h a d w a s o n e bottle o f w h i s k y a n d t o b a c c o , (this is) w h a t h e had.'

C o o r d i n a t i n g c o m i t a t i v e - d i s c u s s e d in §7.3.2 - is t h e m a i n m e c h a n i s m for

c o o r d i n a t i n g A / S a r g u m e n t s ('subjects': s e e b e l o w § 2 1 . 5 ) . T h e c o m i t a t i v e N P triggers

p l u r a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g o n t h e v e r b e v e n if e a c h o f t h e n o u n s w h i c h f o r m t h e N P are

singular, a n d it c a n o n l y b e u s e d if b o t h p a r t i c i p a n t s are a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , u n l i k e

c o n j o i n i n g enclitics - m i s i n i a n d -sini 'too' d i s c u s s e d in §9.4. T h e enclitics h a v e n o

restrictions o n t h e syntactic f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s t h e y c o o r d i n a t e . T h e s e

c o n s t i t u e n t s h a v e t o h a v e a h u m a n o r a n a n i m a t e referent. U n l i k e all o t h e r c o o r d i n a t i n g

m e c h a n i s m s , t h e s e enclitics c a n o c c u r o n a single n o u n , as in 9 . 3 1 - 2 . A c o m p l e m e n t

c l a u s e o r a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e c a n n o t b e c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h a n o u n , a s s h o w n in 2 4 . 7 ,

w h i l e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n - s e e 2 0 . 4 8 .

T a r i a n a h a s n o d i s j u n c t i o n . T o e x p r e s s a d i s j u n c t i v e m e a n i n g , n o u n s o r h e a d l e s s N P s

are s i m p l y j u x t a p o s e d , a s in 2 1 . 3 5 , 2 1 . 3 6 a n d 2 1 . 1 4 2 (the first line). J u x t a p o s e d n o u n s

w h i c h f o r m a d i s j u n c t i o n are u n d e r l i n e d .

2 1 . 3 5 k u i t e y a p h i n i irjiri p u : w e

I N T E R + N C L : A N I M t h i n g g a m e c a p u c c h i n . m o n k e y

d i - p a n e d i - n h a d i - n i t u - k a di-a d i - k a

3 s g n f - p l a n t a t i o n 3 s g n f - e a t 3 s g n f - s t e a l - S U B 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - s e e

' H e w e n t to s e e w h a t t h i n g - g a m e o r c a p u c c h i n m o n k e y - w a s stealing a n d e a t i n g

h i s plantation.'

D i s j u n c t i o n o f n u m e r a l s u s e d in a h e a d l e s s N P is illustrated in 2 1 . 3 6 , f r o m a

d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n O f f e r i n g feast b y A m e r i c o Brito.

2 1 . 3 6 k a n a p a d a r m a d a l i p a k e h p u n i p e ] n a - m u s u

h o w . m a n y t h r e e + N U M . C L : H U M f o u r 3 p l - g o . o u t

n a k a n e m a - n h i n a - d a

3 p l + a r r i v e 3 p l + s t a n d - A N T + R E M . P . V I S - U N C E R T

' H o w e v e r m a n y , t h r e e o r f o u r ( m e n ) w e n t o u t a n d s t o o d (outside).'

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 4 8 6 21 Clause types and other syntactic issues

T h e d i s j u n c t i o n o, a l o a n from P o r t u g u e s e o u 'or', is u s e d b y m o s t s p e a k e r s w i t h n o u n

p h r a s e s . J u s t t h e t w o o l d e s t s p e a k e r s - C a n d i d o a n d A m e r i c o B r i t o - n e v e r u s e it. In

2 1 . 3 7 - f r o m a s t o r y t o l d b y J o v i n o B r i t o , a v e r y i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r - o o c c u r s w i t h t w o

h e a d l e s s N P s , a n d in 2 1 . 3 8 - f r o m a n a r r a t i v e b y a v e r y traditional L e o n a r d o B r i t o -

w i t h full N P s . T h e i n t o n a t i o n p a t t e r n w i t h o is t h e s a m e a s that w i t h kaika.

2 1 . 3 7 [paita o n a m a - i t a ] d h i t a

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M o r t w o - N U M . C L : A N I M 3 s g n f + t a k e

d i - d i a d i - u k a d i - u k a - n h i

3 s g n f - r e t u r n 3 sgnf-arri v e 3 sgnf-arri v e - A N T
1
' H e m a n a g e d t o g e t o n e o r t w o (fish) a n d arrive.

2 1 . 3 8 [ n h a h a - n i r i o n a - w h e - r i ]

t h e y p a r e n t - M A S C o r 3 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C

n a - p i r i n a n a - d e - s i n a

3 p l - i n s t r u m e n t 3 p l - h a v e - R E M . P . I N F R

T h e i r father o r their g r a n d f a t h e r h a d their instrument.'

T h e l o a n o c a n o c c u r w i t h t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g enclitic -misini, a s in 2 1 . 3 9 , f r o m t h e

s a m e s t o r y a s 2 1 . 3 8 . J u s t like in P o r t u g u e s e (in w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r is q u i t e fluent), o is

r e p e a t e d t w i c e t o m a r k a m u l t i p l e d i s j u n c t i o n 'either.. .or'.

2 1 . 3 9 p a i t a [ d i h a di-kesi-ni o

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M h e 3 s g n f - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - N O M o r

d i - w e - r i o d i h a di-phe-ri]

3 s g n f - y o u n g e r . s i b l i n g - M A S C o r A R T 3 s g n f - e l d e r . s i b l i n g - M A S C

iri n a - w h e - r i - m i s i n i

s o n 3 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R

k a y a - s i n a diha-sini

l i k e . t h i s - R E M . P . I N F R h e - T O O : A C T . C O N T R

' O n e p e r s o n , a b l o o d relative o f his, o r a y o u n g e r b r o t h e r , o r a s o n o f h i s o l d e r

b r o t h e r , o r their g r a n d f a t h e r , h e a l s o d i d like this.'

T h e l o a n d i s j u n c t i o n c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y b e u s e d t o c o o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , a s in 2 1 . 4 0

( f r o m a s t o r y t o l d b y J o v i n o Brito), a n d in 2 1 . 1 3 9 . It t h e n o c c u r s at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e

s e c o n d c l a u s e , j u s t like o t h e r c o n n e c t i v e s - s u c h as d i w e s e w y a in 2 1 . 4 0 (their f u n c t i o n s

a r e d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2 5 ) .

2 1 . 4 0 h a w d i w e s e w y a - n u k u m a y a k a n i m a y a k a n i - y a

O K t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S straight s t r a i g h t - E M P H

p i - w h a - t h e p h i p i - a p h u a p i - r u k u p i - a

2 s g - f a l l - I N T O . W A T E R 2 s g - d i v e 2 s g - g o . d o w n 2 s g - g o

p i - k a pi-Tta k a n i t e - n e h i k u

2 s g - s e e 2 s g - g o . u p + C A U S w h i c h + N C L : A N I M - F O C . A / S a p p e a r

h i k u - m h a d e , p i - n a d u - a - p i d a n a d u - k a l i t e

a p p e a r - F U T 2 s g - O B J 3 s g f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P 3sgf-tell

d i h a h a - d o . o ke:ri itu alia alia

h e p a r e n t - F E M o r m o o n d a u g h t e r E X I S T E X I S T

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 21.4 Types of clauses 4 8 7

p i - r u k u - k a pi-a-pita

2 s g - g o . d o w n - S U B 2 s g - g o - A G A I N

' " O K , t h e n fall into w a t e r a n d d i v e d o w n really straight a w a y ( a n d ) l o o k u p (to

s e e ) w h i c h o n e will a p p e a r t o y o u , " his m o t h e r said to h i m , "or m a y b e t h e r e is t h e

m o o n ' s d a u g h t e r , w h e n y o u g o d o w n again".'

2 1 . 3 S t r u c t u r e o f p r e d i c a t e s

A s s h o w n i n T a b l e 3.7, a m e m b e r o f a n y o p e n o r s e m i - o p e n w o r d c l a s s c a n b e t h e h e a d

o f a s i m p l e intransitive p r e d i c a t e . O n l y transitive v e r b s c a n b e h e a d s o f transitive

p r e d i c a t e s . A l l t h e c l o s e d c l a s s e s d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 11 c a n h e a d a n intransitive

p r e d i c a t e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f c o n n e c t i v e s ( § 1 1 . 1 0 ) , s u c h a s n e s e 'then', ne 'then,

there', d i - w e s e w y a 'and so, then', a n d k a i k a 'and' ( d i s c u s s e d in s o m e detail in § 2 1 . 2

a b o v e ) .

T h e s t r u c t u r e o f a s i m p l e p r e d i c a t e is g i v e n in S c h e m e s 12.1-2. O t h e r p r e d i c a t e t y p e s

i n c l u d e serial v e r b s - s e e C h a p t e r 1 8 - a n d c o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s - s e e C h a p t e r 19.

C o m p l e x p r e d i c a t e s a l w a y s c o n s i s t o f v e r b s . T h e c o m p o n e n t s o f b o t h c o m p l e x

p r e d i c a t e s a n d serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s o c c u r in a f i x e d o r d e r d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n t y p e .

O f all t h e n o n - v e r b a l p r e d i c a t e h e a d s , o n l y n o u n s a n d a d j e c t i v e s c a n f o r m serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s ; t h e y b e h a v e a s S 0 v e r b s . T h e r e is a g r o u p o f intransitive p r e f i x l e s s v e r b s

w h i c h t a k e o b l i q u e s u b j e c t s a n d c a n o c c u r a s p r e d i c a t e a r g u m e n t s w i t h o u t b e i n g

n o m i n a l i s e d . T h e s e b e h a v e j u s t like o t h e r Sj 0 v e r b s - s e e § 1 2 . 1 . 2 , g r o u p B . A serial v e r b

w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f a n o u n a n d a n o t h e r v e r b is illustrated in 2 1 . 4 1 .

2 1 . 4 1 y a w i ka-fiha

j a g u a r R E L - e a t

'a t y p e o f s h a m a n w h o is s a i d to b e a b l e to t u r n into a j a g u a r a n d eat p e o p l e '

If a n a d j e c t i v a l r o o t is e m p l o y e d in a c o m p o u n d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n , o r in a n a m b i e n t

serial v e r b , it o c c u r s in its r o o t f o r m , e.g. matfa ' g o o d ; well', maitfi 'bad; badly', kiya

'strong; strongly' ( s e e § § 3 . 1 - 2 ) .

A p r e d i c a t e is a m i n i m a l c o n s t i t u e n t o f a c l a u s e . T h e r e are n o special m e a n s o f

p r e d i c a t e c o o r d i n a t i o n ; c l a u s e l i n k i n g t e c h n i q u e s e m p l o y e d in a n e q u i v a l e n t f u n c t i o n are

c o n s i d e r e d in C h a p t e r 2 4 .

2 1 . 4 T y p e s o f c l a u s e s

I n d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s are: d e c l a r a t i v e ( § 2 1 . 4 . 1 ) , i m p e r a t i v e ( § 2 1 . 4 . 2 ) , i n t e r r o g a t i v e

( § 2 1 . 4 . 3 ) a n d e x c l a m a t o r y ( § 2 1 . 4 . 4 ) . T h e s e c l a u s e t y p e s differ in their ability to e x p r e s s

v e r b a l c a t e g o r i e s , especially, tense-evidentiality; t h e y s h o w different i n t o n a t i o n a n d

c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r i n g p a t t e r n s . A n o v e r v i e w o f d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s is g i v e n in § 2 1 . 4 . 5 .

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 4 8 8 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

2 1 . 4 . 1 D e c l a r a t i v e c l a u s e s

D e c l a r a t i v e c l a u s e s h a v e v a r i a b l e c o n s t i t u e n t order, a n d their p r e d i c a t e h a s t h e full set o f

t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y d i s t i n c t i o n s d e s c r i b e d in § 1 4 . 2 . T h e y c a n b e ( A ) C O P U L A C L A U S E S ,

( B ) V E R B L E S S C L A U S E S , ( C ) I N T R A N S I T I V E A N D E X T E N D E D I N T R A N S I T I V E C L A U S E S a n d

( D ) T R A N S I T I V E A N D D I T R A N S I T I V E C L A U S E S .

A . C O P U L A C L A U S E S e x p r e s s ( A l ) e x i s t e n c e , l o c a t i o n a n d p o s s e s s i o n , ( A 2 ) identity a n d

e q u a t i o n , ( A 3 ) p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l state, ( A 4 ) b e c o m i n g , ( A 5 ) similarity a n d

a p p e a r a n c e , a n d ( A 6 ) n a m i n g .

C l a u s e s o f t y p e s A l , A 2 a n d A 3 e m p l o y a prefixless c o p u l a v e r b a l i a ( w i t h its

n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t sede o c c u r r i n g o n l y i n t y p e A l ) , w h i l e c l a u s e s o f t y p e A 4 e m p l o y

p r e f i x e d c o p u l a v e r b s - a ' b e c o m e (transitory state)', -dia ' b e c o m e a g a i n , b e c o m e

( p e r m a n e n t state)', -matfika ' t r a n s f o r m into' a n d -he 'enter'. Prefixless c o p u l a v e r b s c a n

t a k e o n e o r t w o a r g u m e n t s ; a n d their s e c o n d a r g u m e n t c a n b e m a r k e d w i t h t h e o b j e c t

c a s e . In contrast, p r e f i x e d c o p u l a v e r b s obligatorily t a k e t w o a r g u m e n t s . T h e i r first -

A / S a - a r g u m e n t is c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e v e r b , a n d their s e c o n d a r g u m e n t is a z e r o -

m a r k e d c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t w h i c h differs in its p r o p e r t i e s f r o m b o t h A / S a n d O (see

d i s c u s s i o n in § 1 2 . 1 . 5 , a n d a s u m m a r y in T a b l e 12.3). C l a u s e s o f similarity a n d

a p p e a r a n c e - t y p e A 5 - e m p l o y t h e p r e f i x l e s s c o p u l a v e r b h i k u 'appear, b e like', a n d t h e

n a m i n g c l a u s e s - t y p e A 6 - e m p l o y t h e prefixless c o p u l a v e r b kepitana ( R E L + n a m e ) 'be

n a m e d ' .

A l . C O P U L A C L A U S E S O F E X I S T E N C E , L O C A T I O N , P O S S E S S I O N . T h e prefixless c o p u l a s a l i a

a n d s e d e c a n a p p e a r w i t h o n e a r g u m e n t , a n d t h e n t h e y u s u a l l y h a v e a n existential

r e a d i n g , a s in 1 2 . 7 7 - 8 , 2 2 . 3 3 ( s e c o n d o c c u r r e n c e ) , 2 2 . 4 0 , 2 2 . 5 9 , 2 1 . 1 2 a n d 2 1 . 4 2 . T h e

c o p u l a c l a u s e is in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s , a n d t h e c o p u l a is u n d e r l i n e d .

2 1 . 4 2 p a y a p e - s e - p e n i - k a [ m a m alia-ka]

o l d . t i m e - L O C - P L : A N I M - S U B d a n c e . m a s t e r E X I S T - S U B

h l - k a y u - s i n a di-a d i - r a p a - k a

D E M : A N I M - t h u s - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g n f - s a y 3 s g n f - s i n g - D E C L

'In t h e o l d d a y s , w h e n t h e r e w a s a d a n c e m a s t e r , this is h o w h e sang.'

If a c l a u s e w i t h a c o p u l a c o n t a i n s a c o m i t a t i v e , it m e a n s e x i s t e n c e , as in 2 1 . 4 3 ( w h e r e

a l i a is serialised).

2 1 . 4 3 n h u a p h e p a p i : n e

I o n e + N U M . C L : H U M A N 2 s g + C O M I T

[ a l i a - t h a k a n u - n a ] n h u a

E X I S T - F R + R E C . P . V I S l s g - l i v e I

'I l i v e a l o n e w i t h y o u (lit. I e x i s t a l o n e w i t h you).'

If t h e r e is a n o v e r t locative, a c o p u l a c l a u s e a c q u i r e s a locational r e a d i n g , a s in 1 2 . 7 9

a n d 2 1 . 4 4 .

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 2 1 . 4 Types of c l a u s e s 4 8 9

2 1 . 4 4 h ! - n h a d i - w i k a - n e s e d e - p i d a n a i n a r u

D E M : A N I M - P A U S 3 s g n f - o n . t o p - L O C N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P w o m a n

T h i s ( b r a n c h ) , o n t o p o f it, t h e r e w a s n o w o m a n . '

F o r a p o s s e s s i v e r e a d i n g , a s e c o n d a r g u m e n t in t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e c a n b e a d d e d , as

in 1 2 . 8 1 a n d 2 1 . 4 5 .

2 1 . 4 5 a l - n u k u k u p h e s e d e - n a k a w a - n a

h e r e - T O P . N O N . A / S fish N E G . E X - P R E S . V I S l p l - O B J

' H e r e w e h a v e n o fish.'

I n 2 1 . 4 6 t h e p o s s e s s o r a r g u m e n t is t o p i c a l i s e d a n d t a k e s t h e s u b j e c t c a s e (see C h a p t e r

2 5 ) .

2 1 . 4 6 n h a P A U S E u n i s e d e - p i d a n a

t h e y P A U S E w a t e r N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

' A s for t h e m , (they) h a d n o water.'

If a p o s s e s s i v e r e a d i n g is clear f r o m t h e c o n t e x t , t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t c a n b e o m i t t e d ,

a s i n 2 2 . 5 8 ('if h e h a s a son', lit. 'if t h e r e is a son'). Similarly, a l o c a t i o n c a n b e o m i t t e d if

it is c l e a r f r o m t h e c o n t e x t , a s in 2 1 . 4 7 a . T h i s is a n a n s w e r to t h e q u e s t i o n a s k e d b y t h e

evil spirit in 2 1 . 4 7 a : t h e evil spirit c a n s m e l l t h e o d o r o f h u m a n b l o o d ( h e c a n n o t s e e t h e

m a n ) , a n d t h e r e f o r e a s k s w h o t h e p e r s o n is u s i n g t h e v i s u a l evidential). In 2 1 . 4 7 b his

w i f e a s s u r e s h i m that t h e r e is n o o n e in t h e h o u s e b u t her; a n d in 2 1 . 4 7 c s h e is m a k i n g

this (false) s t a t e m e n t s t r o n g e r b y u s i n g a full c o p u l a locational c l a u s e . T h e c o p u l a v e r b

f o r m s a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e v e r b - m i n a 'be alone' (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) .

21 A l a . k w a n a - n i h k a n a k a n a w i k i a i - n u k u

w h o - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 3 p l + a r r i v e p e r s o n h e r e - T O P . N O N . A / S

iri p u i s a n i - p u - m h a

b l o o d s m e l l . o f . b l o o d - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S

' W h o is t h e p e r s o n that a r r i v e d h e r e ? T h e r e is a s m e l l o f blood.'

2 1 . 4 7 b \ s e d e - n a k a ]

N E G . E X - P R E S . V I S

' T h e r e is n o o n e (in t h e h o u s e ) . '

2 1 . 4 7 c [ [ n u - m i n a - n a k a a l i a - n a k a ] al-se

l s g - b e . a l o n e - P R E S . V I S E X I S T - P R E S . V I S h e r e - L O C

p a n i s i w a l i k u - s e ]

h o u s e i n s i d e - L O C

'I a m h e r e all a l o n e i n s i d e t h e h o u s e . '

D u e t o f r e q u e n t ellipsis, c o p u l a c l a u s e s in T a r i a n a are often a m b i g u o u s : for i n s t a n c e ,

2 1 . 4 8 c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s h a v i n g a l o c a t i o n a l r e a d i n g ( ' m y relatives are n o t there') o r

a n existential r e a d i n g ( ' m y relatives d o n o t exist ( a n y m o r e ) ' ) .

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 4 9 0 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

2 1 . 4 8 n u - k e s i - p e s e d e - s i k a

1 s g - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - P L N E G . E X - R E C . P . I N F R

' M y relatives are n o t there' o r ' M y relatives d o n o t exist (e.g. t h e y all died)'.

A n a l t e r n a t i v e p o s s e s s i v e c l a u s e is a r e g u l a r transitive c l a u s e w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i v e v e r b

-de ' h a v e in o n e ' s p o s s e s s i o n , t a k e , a c q u i r e ' ( c o g n a t e w i t h B a n i w a o f l 9 a n a -de 'carry,

take'). V e r b a l p o s s e s s i v e c l a u s e s are n o r m a l l y u s e d if t h e p o s s e s s e e is a l i e n a b l y

p o s s e s s e d , a n d i n d i c a t e t e m p o r a r y p o s e s s i o n for a particular p e r i o d o f t i m e . In 2 1 . 4 9 ,

f r o m a h u n t i n g story, E m i l i o B r i t o talks a b o u t a k n i f e a n d o t h e r useful t h i n g s h e h a d in

h i s p o s s e s s i o n at t h e m o m e n t o f t h e h u n t i n g . If h e h a d b e e n t a l k i n g a b o u t s o m e t h i n g h e

p o s s e s s e d p e r m a n e n t l y , h e w o u l d h a v e u s e d a c o p u l a c o n s t r u c t i o n s i m i l a r to that o f

2 1 . 4 5 . O t h e r e x a m p l e s o f -de 'have' a r e 2 1 . 5 3 a n d 2 1 . 8 4 .

2 1 . 4 9 s u r a r a n a - y a - n i p e k u t u r n o m a r i e n u - d e - n a

s o l d i e r 3 p l - p u t . o n - N O M s o c k k n i f e l s g - p o s s e s s - R E M . P . V I S

'I h a d in m y p o s s e s s i o n a k n i f e ( a n d ) s o c k s w h i c h soldiers wear.'

T h e p o s s e s s i v e v e r b m a y b e e m p l o y e d w i t h a n i n a l i e n a b l e n o u n a s a p o s s e s s e e to

a c h i e v e a stylistically u n e x p e c t e d effect. C a n d i d o a n d L e o n a r d o Brito's late father, a

s h a m a n a n d a m a n o f g r e a t k n o w l e d g e a n d w i s d o m , is r e p o r t e d to h a v e o f t e n s a i d 2 1 . 5 0

a s a w a y o f telling h i s c h i l d r e n to t h i n k for t h e m s e l v e s . A s i m i l a r e x a m p l e is 1 5 . 1 9 6 .

2 1 . 5 0 w a - w h i d a w a - d e - n a k a w h a

l p l - h e a d l p l - h a v e - P R E S . V I S w e

' W e c a n t h i n k for o u r s e l v e s (lit. w e h a v e o u r o w n head).'

W h e n n o m i n a l i s e d , t h e v e r b -de refers to 'possessions', e.g. na-de-nipe ( 3 p l - h a v e -

N O M ) 'their p o s s e s s i o n s ' . A l s o s e e § 1 2 . 1 . 1 .

T h e p o s i t i v e a l i a ( a n d n o t sede) is u s e d in a ritual g r e e t i n g f o r m u l a c o n s i s t i n g o f a

q u e s t i o n a n d a n a n s w e r . T h i s f o r m u l a is u s e d b y s o m e o n e w h o h a s j u s t a r r i v e d at a p l a c e

- s e e 2 1 . 5 1 a a n d b .

Q u e s t i o n :

2 1 . 5 1 a a l i a - t h a p h i a ?

E X I S T - P A S T . N O N V I S . I N T E R y o u

' D o y o u exist?'

A n s w e r :

2 1 . 5 1 b a l i a - n a k a

E X I S T - P R E S . V I S

'I exist.'

V e r b l e s s c l a u s e s c a n b e u s e d i n s t e a d o f existential, locational a n d p o s s e s s i v e c o p u l a

c l a u s e s - s e e d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r B b e l o w .

A 2 . C O P U L A C L A U S E S O F I D E N T I T Y A N D E Q U A T I O N . T h e p o s i t i v e c o p u l a a l i a - b u t n o t t h e

n e g a t i v e -sede - c a n b e e m p l o y e d in identity a n d e q u a t i o n c l a u s e s w h e r e it t a k e s a

c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t . T h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t a l w a y s o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e c o p u l a , as in

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 21.4 Types of clauses 4 9 1

2 1 . 5 2 - 7 ; t h e s u b j e c t c a n f o l l o w t h e c o p u l a if s t r o n g l y c o n t r a s t i v e - s e e § 2 5 . 1 . 1 . T h i s

u s a g e b e a r s a distinct i n f l u e n c e f r o m t h e T u c a n o c o p u l a nit; it is f o u n d w i t h o l d e r a n d

w i t h y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s , a n d c o u l d b e i n d i c a t i v e o f diffusion a fair t i m e in t h e past.

V e r b l e s s c l a u s e s a r e u s e d m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n c o p u l a c l a u s e s to e x p r e s s identity a n d

e q u a t i o n . C o p u l a c l a u s e s a r e o n l y p r e f e r r e d if t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t is s t r o n g l y

c o n t r a s t i v e a n d its c o n t e n t s g o a g a i n s t all e x p e c t a t i o n s , as in 2 1 . 5 2 - 3 .

2 1 . 5 2 [paita y a p h i n i a l i a - m h a d i h a ]

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M t h i n g E X I S T - P R E S . N O N V I S h e

' H e is s o m e t h i n g e l s e ( n o t w h a t w e e x p e c t e d ) . '

2 1 . 5 3 n e s e - p i d a n a d i h a m a k a m a k a - t i k i d i - d e - p i d a n a

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P h e b a g - D I M 3 s g n f - h a v e - R E M . P . R E P

[hi d i - t a p a l e - k h a a l i a - p i d a n a d i h a ]

D E M : A N I M 3 s g n f - b e l t - C L : C U R V E D E X I S T - R E M . P . R E P h e

' T h e n h e h a d a little b a g , this belt o f his w a s (in fact a b a g ) ( n o t a n y t h i n g else).'

If t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t is topical, t h e c o p u l a c o n s t r u c t i o n c o u l d also b e u s e d . T h i s

is s h o w n in 2 1 . 5 4 , from t h e O r i g i n story told b y C a n d i d o Brito. T h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t

'the r o o t o f w h i t e p e o p l e ' is topical, s i n c e t h e story is a b o u t t h e o r i g i n s o f different tribes.

T h e first o c c u r r e n c e o f a l i a is in a n e q u a t i o n c l a u s e , a n d t h e s e c o n d o c c u r r e n c e is

l o c a t i o n a l ( w i t h t h e l o c a t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t o m i t t e d ) .

2 1 . 5 4 [ d i h a y a l a n a i-thani alia-sina-pita

A R T w h i t e . m a n I N D F - r o o t E X I S T - R E M . P . I N F R - A G A I N

d i h a - m i s i n i ] [ t h u y a alia-sina]

h e - T O O : P A R T . C O N T R all E X I S T - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e b e g i n n i n g (lit. r o o t ) o f t h e w h i t e m a n w a s it, t o o , t h e y all w e r e (there).'

If t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t is t o p i c a l a n d c o n t r a s t i v e at t h e s a m e t i m e , it c a n b e p l a c e d

at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c l a u s e , a s in 2 1 . 5 5 , w h e r e t h e otter stresses t h e ' m e n - l i k e '

b e h a v i o u r o f h i s c h i l d r e n w h i c h is a l s o topical - t h e w h o l e story is a b o u t t h e p r i n c i p l e s

o f ' p r o p e r b e h a v i o u r ' .

2 1 . 5 5 [atfa i h y a a l i a - k a - n a k a ]

m a m P L 2 p l E X I S T - D E C L - P R E S . V I S

' Y o u a r e real m e n . '

If a n e q u a t i o n a l c l a u s e w i t h a c o p u l a h a s t o b e n e g a t e d , t h e v e r b a l n e g a t o r g o e s

directly o n t o t h e c o p u l a ( n o t e that t h e n e g a t i v e c o p u l a v e r b sede c a n n o t b e u s e d here).

2 1 . 5 6 e h k w a p i m e d a - p u a l i a - k a d e - p i d a n a

d a y u s e l e s s - A U G E X I S T - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e d a y w a s n o t a u s e l e s s one.'

A n e q u a t i o n a l c l a u s e w i t h a c o p u l a c a n o c c u r w i t h a n o m i n a l i s e d a d j e c t i v e o r a

n o m i n a l i s e d c l a u s e in t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t slot, a s in 2 1 . 5 7 .

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 4 9 2 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

2 1 . 5 7 p a : - d a d u - w e - d o

o n e - C L : R O U N D 3 s g f - y o u n g e r . s i s t e r - F E M

p u i m i t e a l i a - p i d a n a

m e n s t m a t e . f o r . f i r s t . t i m e + N C L : A N I M E X I S T - R E M . P . R E P

' O n e d a y h e r y o u n g e r sister w a s t h e o n e w h o m e n s t r u a t e d for t h e first time.'

A p r e f i x l e s s S 0 v e r b c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y o c c u p y t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t slot, as in 2 1 . 5 8

(the c o p u l a is serialised).

2 1 . 5 8 d u - n a k a - s a - d o [ a l i a - p i d a n a d i - n a - n h i ]

3 s g f - O B J R E L - s p o u s e - F E M E X I S T - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T

' H e w a s t h e o n e m a r r i e d to her.'

If a c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t c o n s i s t s o f a n o m i n a l i s e d c l a u s e w i t h a r g u m e n t s o f its o w n ,

its o b j e c t m u s t p r e c e d e t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t , a s in 2 1 . 5 8 - 9 .

2 1 . 5 9 [ w a - n a k a - p i n i t a - k a r i ] a l i a - m h a - n i k i d i h a

l p l - O B J R E L - f o l l o w - P . P A R T E X I S T - P R E S . N O N V I S - C O M P L h e

' T h e o n e w h o h a d f o l l o w e d u s is he!'

If t h e o b j e c t o f t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a n o m i n a l i s e d clausal c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t is a totally

u n e x p e c t e d p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n , it c a n a p p e a r after t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e :

2 1 . 6 0 [ d i h a n a m u t s o m e k a r u n i t e

A R T evi.spirit m u c h b e . d a n g e r o u s + N C L : A N I M

a l i a - m h a tjinu]

E X I S T - P R E S . V I S d o g

' T h e evil spirit is t h e o n e s c a r e d of....the d o g ( o f all things!).'

A 3 . C O P U L A C L A U S E S O F P H Y S I C A L A N D M E N T A L S T A T E . C o p u l a c l a u s e s u s e d to d e s c r i b e

p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l states c o n t a i n a n o m i n a l ( w h i c h c a n also b e u s e d a s a n Sj 0 v e r b ) a s

their c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t - s e e C u n d e r § 1 2 . 1 . 5 . T h e c o p u l a is u s e d o n l y if t h e state is

f o c u s s e d . In 2 1 . 6 1 a t h e state o f h u n g e r is i n t r o d u c e d for t h e first t i m e in t h e story.

2 1 . 6 1 b p r o v i d e s a n e x p l a n a t i o n for this state (lack o f f o o d ) ; a n d w h e n t h e s t a t e m e n t

a b o u t t h e h u n g e r is r e p e a t e d in 2 1 . 6 1 b , t h e r e is n o n e e d to focalise it a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y

t h e c o p u l a is n o t u s e d .

2 1 . 6 1 a m h a i s i k i n a - n a alia-sina

h u n g e r / b e . h u n g r y 3 p l - O B J E X I S T - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e y w e r e h u n g r y (lit. h u n g e r to t h e m existed).'

2 1 . 6 1 b p a - n h a - r i s e d e - p i d a n a

I M P - e a t - N O M N E G . E X - R E M . P . R E P

m h e s i k i n e - p i d a n a

h u n g e r / b e . h u n g r y t h e n - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e r e w a s n o f o o d , s o t h e y w e r e h u n g r y . '

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 2 1 . 4 Types of c l a u s e s 4 9 3

N o u n s a n d d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s w h i c h d e s c r i b e h u m a n feelings a n d m e n t a l

states o b l i g a t o r i l y t a k e t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e w h e n u s e d a s c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t s in

identity c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t h e c o p u l a , a s in 2 1 . 6 2 (the c o p u l a is e m p l o y e d h e r e a s a

m a r k e r o f c o n t r a s t ) .

2 1 . 6 2 d u h a m a t f a - p e r i p u w h i d i - w a - n i p e - n e - m h a alia

s h e g o o d - C O L L b e . g l a d 3 s g n f - e n t e r - N O M - I N S - P R E S . N O N V I S E X I S T

' S h e is v e r y h a p p y i n d e e d (lit. s h e is w i t h g o o d feeling o f b e i n g glad).'

A v a l u e a d j e c t i v e matfa 'proper, g o o d ' o r ma.tfi 'bad' c a n b e u s e d a s c o p u l a

c o m p l e m e n t ( w i t h o u t a n y c a s e m a r k i n g ) t o refer t o a p h y s i c a l state o f a p e r s o n , e.g. 'be

w e l l ' a s i n 2 1 . 6 3 .

2 1 . 6 3 [ m a t f a a l i a - k a - n u k u ] d u h u a

g o o d E X I S T - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S s h e

w a - i n e - b u h t a d u - e m h a n i aT-se-nuku

l p l - I N S - C O N D 3 s g f - w a l k . a b o u t h e r e - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

'If ( s h e ) w e r e w e l l , s h e w o u l d c o m e w i t h us.'

T o n e g a t e s u c h a c l a u s e t h e v e r b a l n e g a t o r -kade is e m p l o y e d , as in 2 1 . 5 6 .

N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s o f a l i a c a n d e s c r i b e t h e m a n n e r o f e x i s t e n c e - 'the w a y w e u s e d to

be', a s in 2 0 . 3 4 , a n d l o c a t i o n - 'place w h e r e t h e r e w e r e m a n y leaves', a s in 2 0 . 3 3 , a n d

'the w o r l d w h e r e t h e y w e r e ' in 2 1 . 6 4 .

2 1 . 6 4 m a t f a - e h k w a p i - n u k u [ n h a

g o o d - D A Y / W O R L D - T O P . N O N . A / S t h e y

a l i a - e h k w a p i - n u k u ] n a - n i

E X I S T - D A Y / W O R L D - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - d o

n a - w h a - k a p e - t h a n i n a

3 p l - s i t - C U S T - F R + A N T + R E M . P . V I S

' T h e y w e r e l i v i n g in a beautiful w o r l d w h e r e t h e y w e r e . '

A l o c a t i v e n o m i n a l i s a t i o n o f a l i a ( f o r m e d w i t h a classifier - s e e d i s c u s s i o n in § 2 0 . 3 )

c a n t a k e a n o v e r t l o c a t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t , e.g. 'this land' in 2 1 . 6 5 .

2 1 . 6 5 [ a l - n u k u h a - h i p a y - n u k u n a w i k i

h e r e - T O P . N O N . A / S D E M . G E N - C L : L A N D - T O P . N O N . A / S p e o p l e

a l i a - p e n i - p e n a ] d i - a - s i n a d i - s a p e

E X I S T - P L : A N I M - N O M . F U T 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g n f - t a l k

' H e (the C r e a t o r ) s p o k e for future p e o p l e to b e in this land.'

N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s o f a l i a h a r d l y e v e r a c q u i r e a p o s s e s s i v e r e a d i n g ; t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

w i t h a l i a in 2 1 . 6 6 c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s h a v i n g a locational m e a n i n g : 'a h o u s e w h e r e

t h e r e a r e t w o storeys'.

2 1 . 6 6 m a t j a - d a p a n a [ n a m a - k u m a al i a - d a p a n a ]

g o o d - C L : H A B t w o - C L : L E V E L E X I S T - C L : H A B

'a g o o d h o u s e w i t h t w o levels (i.e. t w o storeys)'

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 4 9 4 21 Clause types and other syntactic issues

I n c o n t r a s t , n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s o f sede refer to t h e a b s e n c e o f s o m e t h i n g in a certain

l o c a t i o n , e.g. u n i s e d e - p u a ( w a t e r N E G . E X - C L : R I V E R ) 'a r i v e r w i t h n o w a t e r ' (lit. (a river

w h e r e ) w a t e r is n o n - e x i s t e n t ) , o r to p o s s e s s i o n , e.g. ne k w a k a s e d i t e (NEG w h a t

N E G . E X + N C L : A N I M ) 'the o n e w h o h a s a b s o l u t e l y nothing'. T o refer t o s o m e o n e w h o

p o s s e s s e s s o m e t h i n g , t h e p o s s e s s i v e v e r b -de is u s e d , e.g. thuya ka-de (all R E L - h a v e ) 'the

o n e w h o h a s e v e r y t h i n g ' ; *thuya alite (all EXIST+NCL:ANIM) is u n g r a m m a t i c a l (cf. -de

'have' in e x a m p l e s 2 1 . 4 9 - 5 0 ) .

F u r t h e r u s a g e s o f t h e n e g a t i v e existential sede are d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 1 7 (cf.

e x a m p l e 1 7 . 1 8 w h e r e it is u s e d a s a n e g a t o r o f a c o m p o n e n t o f a serial v e r b ) . It c a n a l s o

o c c u r a s a n e m p h a t i c r e s u m p t i v e n e g a t o r o f a p r e c e d i n g c l a u s e , in t h e m e a n i n g o f 'this

d o e s n o t h a p p e n ' , a s in 2 1 . 6 7 (part o f w h i c h is 17.75).

2 1 . 6 7 k u i t e - p u k a s u di-iiha

I N T E R + N C L : A N I M - N O T . A T . A L L 3 s g n f - e a t

n u - n a s e d e - n a k a

l s g - O B J N E G . E X - P R E S . V I S

' N o o n e (i.e. a n i m a l ) w i l l eat m e - this d o e s n o t h a p p e n . '

A 4 . C O P U L A C L A U S E S O F B E C O M I N G . C l a u s e s o f b e c o m i n g c o n t a i n p r e f i x e d c o p u l a v e r b s

- s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n § 1 2 . 1 . 5 . A s w i t h p r e f i x l e s s c o p u l a s , t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t

p r e c e d e s t h e c o p u l a , a s in 2 1 . 6 8 .

2 1 . 6 8 y a l a n a i - d i a - k a s u

w h i t e . m a n 2 p l - b e c o m e . a g a i n - I N T

' Y o u w i l l b e c o m e w h i t e p e o p l e again.'

C o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r h e l p s d i s t i n g u i s h a c o p u l a u s e o f - a 'go, b e c o m e ' , -dia ' b e c o m e

again', a n d - h e 'enter' ( a s in 1 2 . 8 4 - 5 a n d 1 2 . 8 8 ) , a n d -matfika ' t r a n s f o r m into' f r o m their

u s e a s full v e r b s : t h e l o c a t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t o f a m o t i o n v e r b c a n b e p r e p o s e d o r p o s t p o s e d

t o t h e p r e d i c a t e , i n a d d i t i o n to p o t e n t i a l l y t a k i n g a c a s e - m a r k e r , w h i l e t h e c o p u l a

c o m p l e m e n t is u s u a l l y p r e p o s e d a n d c a n n o t b e c a s e - m a r k e d .

If t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t is p r e s e n t e d a s a n u n e x p e c t e d f o c u s s e d p i e c e o f

i n f o r m a t i o n , it c a n b e p l a c e d after t h e p r e d i c a t e , a s in 2 1 . 6 9 ( f r o m t h e O r i g i n m y t h ) .

2 1 . 6 9 n e - s i n a h a w a - m a t f i k a y e p o s a n a

t h e n - R E M . P . I N F R w e l p l - t r a n s f o r m I n d i a n

' T h e n w e t r a n s f o r m e d into - g u e s s w h a t - Indians!'

A 5 . C O P U L A C L A U S E S O F S I M I L A R I T Y A N D A P P E A R A N C E . C o p u l a c l a u s e s o f similarity a n d

a p p e a r a n c e c o n t a i n t h e c o p u l a v e r b h i k u 'appear, b e like'. W h e n u s e d a s a c o p u l a , this

v e r b t a k e s t w o a r g u m e n t s - a s u b j e c t a n d a c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t . Just a s w i t h a l i a

'existential', t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t o f h i k u h a s to p r e c e d e t h e p r e d i c a t e a n d c a n n o t t a k e

a n y c a s e m a r k i n g , a n d t h u s is a n a r g u m e n t distinct f r o m b o t h s u b j e c t s a n d o b j e c t s - cf.

T a b l e 1 2 . 3 - a n d f u n c t i o n s a s a c o m m e n t a r y to t h e m . T h i s is illustrated i n 2 1 . 7 0 - 1 . In

2 1 . 7 0 t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t is a n adjective, a n d in 2 1 . 7 1 it is a n o u n .

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 2 1 . 4 Types of c l a u s e s 4 9 5

2 1 . 7 0 m a t f a - m a - p e - p i d a n a h i k u

g o o d - C L : F E M - P L - R E M . P . R E P a p p e a r

' ( T h e w o m e n ) l o o k e d beautiful.'

2 1 . 7 1 n e s e n a w i k i h i k u - p i d a n a

t h e n p e r s o n a p p e a r - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e n h e w a s s i m i l a r to a p e r s o n . '

In 2 1 . 7 2 t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t is a n a d v e r b - n o t e that o t h e r c o p u l a s d o n o t t a k e

a d v e r b s a s c o m p l e m e n t s . T h i s e x a m p l e c o n t a i n s a c o p u l a c l a u s e w i t h h i k u n o m i n a l i s e d

w i t h a classifier.

2 1 . 7 2 p a t h i d a h i k u - m a - p e - p i d a n a n e m a

e q u a l l y a p p e a r - C L : F E M - P L - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + s t a n d

' T h e y s t o o d l o o k i n g identical.'

T h e s u b j e c t c a n b e p o s t p o s e d to t h e c o p u l a , if c o n t r a s t i v e , as in 2 1 . 7 3 .

2 1 . 7 3 h a - e h k w a p i - n u k u ma:tfite h i k u n h u a

D E M : A N I M - W O R L D - T O P . N O N . A / S b a d + N C L : A N I M a p p e a r I

'I l o o k b a d in this w o r l d . '

T h e c o p u l a h i k u c a n b e serialised, a s in 2 1 . 7 4 .

2 1 . 7 4 d i h a d i - k a - k a - n u k u [ w a l i k i - r u h i k u ]

h e 3 s g n f - s e e - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S y o u n g . p e r s o n - F E M a p p e a r

d u - e k u d u - a - p i d a n a d i - s a m i s e - n e

3 s g f - r u n 3 s g f - g o - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - b a c k - I N S

' W h e n h e w a s l o o k i n g (lit. h i m l o o k i n g ) , s h e r a n t o w a r d s t h e b a c k o f h i m , l o o k i n g

like a y o u n g w o m a n ( b u t in fact s h e w a s a fish a n d c o u l d n ' t r u n ; s o t h e w h o l e

t h i n g w a s a n illusion).'

U n l i k e a n y o t h e r c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t , t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f h i k u s o m e t i m e s gets

m a r k e d w i t h p o s t p o s i t i o n kayu ( w i t h a v a r i a n t ki:) 'like', a s in 2 1 . 1 1 ('the o n e l o o k i n g

like p i r a i b a fish'), a n d in 2 1 . 7 5 .

2 1 . 7 5 m e n a i t e k i : - t h a - n a h i k u

N E G + q u i c k + N C L : A N I M l i k e - F R - R E M . P . V I S a p p e a r

d i h a n e : r i - n e

A R T d e e r - F O C . A / S

' T h e d e e r l o o k e d like a s l o w one.'

T h e v e r b h i k u c a n b e u s e d a s a n intransitive v e r b ' e m e r g e , appear', a s in 2 1 . 3 , 1 3 . 4 4 ,

1 7 . 2 8 a n d 1 8 . 6 , a n d w i t h a n o p t i o n a l b e n e f i c i a r y - ' a p p e a r to s o m e b o d y ' , a s in 2 1 . 4 0 .

W h e n u s e d i n a m b i e n t serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s h i k u m e a n s 'thus, like this', a s in 1 3 . 1 8 ,

1 3 . 2 4 a n d 1 7 . 4 1 , a n d , in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h -pana 'all', it m e a n s 'openly', a s in 1 8 . 5 6 .

T h e c o p u l a a n d t h e intransitive v e r b h i k u h a v e a special n e g a t i v e c o u n t e r p a r t hyukade

- s e e 1 7 . 6 2 - 4 , a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n u n d e r B in § 1 7 . 5 .

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 4 9 6 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

T h e c o p u l a h i k u c a n n o t b e p a s s i v i s e d in a n y o f its u s a g e s . It c a n b e c a u s a t i v i s e d in its

intransitive u s a g e , b u t n o t a s a c o p u l a (see e x a m p l e s 1 3 . 4 5 - 6 a n d d i s c u s s i o n there).

O t h e r p r e f i x l e s s c o p u l a s a l s o c a n n o t b e c a u s a t i v i s e d o r p a s s i v i s e d , a n d n e i t h e r c a n t h e

p r e f i x e d o n e s .

A 6 . C O P U L A C L A U S E O F N A M I N G . A c o p u l a c l a u s e o f n a m i n g c o n t a i n s t h e c o p u l a v e r b

k e p i t a n a ( R E L + n a m e ) 'be n a m e d ' as t h e p r e d i c a t e , t h e subject, a n d a c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t

- t h e n a m e o f a p e r s o n , a p l a c e , o r a n o b j e c t - w h i c h c a n n o t b e c a s e m a r k e d a n d h a s t h e

s a m e p r o p e r t i e s a s t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t o f t h e existential c o p u l a s a n d of h i k u 'appear,

b e like'. U n l i k e w i t h c o p u l a c l a u s e s o f similarity a n d a p p e a r a n c e , t h e c o p u l a

c o m p l e m e n t d o e s n o t h a v e to p r e c e d e t h e p r e d i c a t e , as illustrated in 2 1 . 7 6 - 7 . E x a m p l e

2 1 . 7 6 c o m e s t h e O r i g i n m y t h a b o u t N a n a y o , t h e m y t h i c a l w o m a n - c r e a t o r . T h e p o s t -

p r e d i c a t e p o s i t i o n o f t h e n a m e - u s u a l l y r e s e r v e d for c o n t r a s t i v e a n d u n e x p e c t e d

p a r t i c i p a n t s o r i n f o r m a t i o n (see § 2 5 . 1 . 1 ) creates a rhetorical effect: 'and h e r n a m e w a s -

g u e s s w h a t - N a n a y o ! ' N o s u c h effect is i m p l i e d in 2 1 . 7 7 w h e r e t h e c o m p l e m e n t o c c u r s

in t h e p r e - p r e d i c a t e p o s i t i o n .

2 1 . 7 6 d i w e s e w y a d u - i t u k e p i t a n a - s i n a

t h e n 3 s g f - d a u g h t e r R E L + n a m e - R E M . P . I N F R

hi N a n a y o

D E M : A N I M N a n a y o

' T h e n h i s d a u g h t e r w a s c a l l e d this N a n a y o . '

2 1 . 7 7 d i h a p h e r i s i , h i K u i - s i n a k e p i t a n a

A R T first.born.son D E M : A N I M K u i - R E M . P . I N F R R E L + n a m e

' T h e firstborn s o n , h i s n a m e w a s Kui.'

If a n a m i n g c l a u s e is n o m i n a l i s e d , t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t a l w a y s p r e c e d e s t h e

n o m i n a l i s e d c o p u l a , a s in 2 1 . 7 8 :

2 1 . 7 8 d u h u a N a n a y o k e p i t a n i t e alia-sina

A R T N a n a y o R E L + n a m e + N C L : A N I M E X I S T - R E M . P . I N F R

' T h e r e w a s that ( w o m a n ) b y t h e n a m e o f N a n a y o . '

A q u e s t i o n ' w h a t is y o u r n a m e ? ' c o n t a i n s t h e interrogative p r o n o u n kw- w i t h the

a n i m a t e n o u n c l a s s m a r k e r , as s h o w n in 2 1 . 7 9 .

2 1 . 7 9 p h i a k u i t e - n h a k e p i t a n a

y o u I N T E R + N C L : A N I M - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R R E L + n a m e

' Y o u , w h a t ' s y o u r n a m e ? '

T h e c o p u l a k e p i t a n a c a n t a k e its c o p u l a r s u b j e c t in t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e , a s in 2 1 . 8 0 ;

this o c c u r s o n l y in t h e s p e e c h o f o l d e r p e o p l e a n d a p p e a r s to b e a m o r e a r c h a i c v a r i a n t

o f 2 1 . 8 1 . T h e p o s t - p r e d i c a t e p o s i t i o n o f t h e n a m e , 'thunder', in 2 1 . 8 0 , a c h i e v e s a

rhetorical effect, j u s t a s in 2 1 . 7 6 . T h e fact that his (the T a r i a n a ancestor's) n a m e w a s

t h u n d e r is o n e o f t h e focal p o i n t s o f t h e o r i g i n m y t h , a n d this c l a u s e e m p h a s i s e s this. In

contrast, 2 1 . 8 1 s o u n d s neutral.

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 2 1 . 4 Types of c l a u s e s 4 9 7

2 1 . 8 0 k e p i t a n a - s i n a d i - n a e : n u

R E L + n a m e - R E M . P . I N F R 3 s g n f - 0 B J t h u n d e r

' H i s n a m e w a s : T h u n d e r (lit. t h e n a m e to h i m w a s T h u n d e r ) . '

2 1 . 8 1 d i h a e m u k e p i t a n a - s i n a

h e t h u n d e r R E L + n a m e - R E M . P . I N F R

'His n a m e w a s T h u n d e r . '

W h e n n e g a t e d , k e p i t a n a t a k e s a n e g a t i v e prefix m a - a n d t h e suffix - h a d e , e.g.

m e p i t a n a - k a d e ( N E G + n a m e - N E G ) ' ( s o m e t h i n g ) u n n a m e d ' a n d 2 1 . 8 2 .

2 1 . 8 2 d u h a M a r i a m e p i t a n a - k a d e - k a

s h e M a r i a N E G + n a m e - N E G - R E C . P . V I S

' H e r n a m e is n o t M a r i a . '

U n l i k e o t h e r p r e f i x l e s s c o p u l a s , t h e n e g a t i v e mepitana ' u n n a m e d ' c a n b e p a s s i v i s e d :

m e p i t a n a - k a n a - d e ( N E G + n a m e - P A S S - N E G ) m e a n s 'it i s u n n a m e d ' .

B . V E R B L E S S C L A U S E S are e m p l o y e d to e x p r e s s e x i s t e n c e , location, identity a n d

e q u a t i o n , m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l state, attribution a n d e v a l u a t i o n . T h e y are n e v e r e m p l o y e d

a s p o s s e s s i v e c l a u s e s . C l a u s e s w h i c h e x p r e s s e x i s t e n c e , location, identity a n d e q u a t i o n ,

a n d m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l state c a n also c o n t a i n a c o p u l a - in w h i c h c a s e t h e r e is a

p r a g m a t i c d i f f e r e n c e .

V e r b l e s s existential c l a u s e s o n l y o c c u r at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f n a r r a t i v e s a s a m e a n s o f

i n t r o d u c i n g a participant, a s in 2 1 . 8 3 - 4 . T h e y c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d . T h e y are restricted in

o c c u r r e n c e t o o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e s o f narratives.

2 1 . 8 3 p a i t a - p i d a n a itfir i k a - i n u k e m h a n i

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M - R E M . P . R E P g a m e R E L - k i l l R E L + w a l k . a b o u t

' T h e r e w a s o n e ( m a n ) w h o w a s g o i n g a r o u n d h u n t i n g g a m e . '

T h e s e c o n d s e n t e n c e o f a n a r r a t i v e i n t r o d u c e d b y s u c h a v e r b l e s s c l a u s e m o r e o f t e n

t h a n n o t c o n t a i n s a v e r b - a n d this c a n b e a c o p u l a alia, as in 2 1 . 8 4 .

2 1 . 8 4 p a - p i o - p i d a n a . eni rei n h a na:-nite

o n e - C L : T I M E - R E M . P . R E P c h i e f k i n g t h e y 3 p l + c a l l - T O P . A D V + N C L : A N I M

a l i a - p i d a n a p a - y a k a l e - s e d i h a

E X I S T - R E M . P . R E P o n e - C L : V I L L A G E - L O C h e

d i - d e - p i d a n a n i y a - n h i k u i t e w a r n

3 s g n f - h a v e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + s t a y - A N T I N T E R + N C L : A N I M p a r r o t

'It w a s [like this] o n c e . T h e r e w a s a chief, called k i n g , in a village. H e h a d , w h a t ' s

its n a m e , a parrot.'

V e r b l e s s l o c a t i o n a l c l a u s e s are q u i t e frequent; t h e y c a n b e u s e d a n y w h e r e p r o v i d e d

t h e l o c a t i o n a l m e a n i n g is clear f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . A n e x a m p l e is 2 1 . 8 5 .

2 1 . 8 5 n h a n e k a n a n a - n a - n i - d a p a n a - p e

t h e y 3 p l + c h i e f 3 p l - l i v e - T O P . A D V - C L : H A B - P L

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 4 9 8 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

m a t f a - d a p a n a - p e - k a - p i d a n a

g o o d - C L : H A B - P L - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P

h i w a r u - d a p a n a - p e - m i a - k a - s e - p i d a n a n e s e - n u k u

g o l d - C L : H A B - P L - O N L Y - D E C L - C O N T R - R E M . P . R E P t h e r e - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e r e w e r e t h e ( h o u s e s ) w h e r e their c h i e f lived, g o o d h o u s e s , all m a d e o f gold.'

T h e m a j o r i t y o f identity a n d e q u a t i o n c l a u s e s are v e r b l e s s . In t h e s e c l a u s e s , t h e

c o p u l a is u s e d o n l y u n d e r specific d i s c o u r s e c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d u n d e r A a b o v e - for

i n s t a n c e , if t h e c o p u l a c o m p l e m e n t is f o c u s s e d o r u n e x p e c t e d . A c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n

v e r b l e s s i d e n t i t y c l a u s e s a n d a n identity c l a u s e w i t h a c o p u l a is illustrated in 2 1 . 8 6 . T h i s

is t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e first l o n g story t o l d b y R a f a e l Brito, t h e y o u n g e s t s p e a k e r o f t h e

S a n t a R o s a dialect. In 2 1 . 8 6 a a n d b h e u s e s v e r b l e s s c l a u s e s , a n d in 2 1 . 8 6 c h e u s e s a

c o p u l a c l a u s e - w h i c h c o n t a i n s a f o c u s s e d p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h s h o w s that R a f a e l

is different f r o m a n y o t h e r p e r s o n in t h e village: h e is t h e local s c h o o l t e a c h e r .

2 1 . 8 6 a n h u a R a f a e l alte

I R a f a e l h e r e + N C L : A N I M

'I a m R a f a e l , t h e o n e f r o m here.'

2 1 . 8 6 b n h u a - n i r i L e o n a r d o - n a k a

1 s g + p a r e n t - M A S C L e o n a r d o - P R E S . V I S

' M y father is L e o n a r d o . '

2 1 . 8 6 c n h u a a l - n a k u a l i a - n a k a

I h e r e - T O P . N O N . A / S E X I S T - P R E S . V I S

[ p r o f e s s o r a l i a - n a k a n h u a ]

t e a c h e r E X I S T - P R E S . V I S I

'I l i v e h e r e , I a m a s c h o o l teacher.'

V e r b l e s s c l a u s e s o f p h y s i c a l a n d m e n t a l state c o n t a i n Sj 0 r o o t s (in their n o m i n a l

u s a g e ) m a r k e d w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e , a s in 2 1 . 8 7 . T h e s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s are u s e d to

d e s c r i b e t h e t e m p o r a r y c h a r a c t e r o f a state.

2 1 . 8 7 n u h a a d a k i - n e - m h a

I b e . f e v e r i s h / f e v e r - I N S - P R E S . N O N V I S

'I a m f e v e r i s h (right n o w , for a s h o r t time).'

T o refer t o a m o r e p r o l o n g e d state, a v e r b a l intransitive c l a u s e w i t h a n Sj 0 p r e d i c a t e is

u s e d , a s in 2 1 . 8 8 . ( N o t e that its o n l y a r g u m e n t t a k e s t h e -na c a s e - s e e § 12.1.3.)

2 1 . 8 8 a d a k i - m h a n u - n a

b e . f e v e r i s h ( S i o ) - P R E S . N O N V I S 1 sg-to

'I h a v e b e e n f e v e r i s h (lit. t o m e fever) ( o v e r a l e n g t h y p e r i o d o f time).'

A l l attributive c l a u s e s are v e r b l e s s . T h e y c a n c o n t a i n n o u n s , adjectives,

d e m o n s t r a t i v e s o r d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l s in their p r e d i c a t e slot. C o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r c a n b e

s u b j e c t - c o m m e n t , a s in 2 1 . 8 9 - 9 0 , o r c o m m e n t - s u b j e c t , as in 2 1 . 9 1 (see C h a p t e r 2 5 , o n

t h e p r a g m a t i c s o f p o s t - p r e d i c a t e subjects). 2 1 . 8 9 c o n t a i n s a n a d j e c t i v e in t h e p r e d i c a t e

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 2 1 . 4 Types of c l a u s e s 4 9 9

slot, a n d in 2 1 . 9 0 , t h e p r e d i c a t e slot is o c c u p i e d w i t h a n o m i n a l i s e d v e r b 'the o n e w h o

h a s n o fear'.

2 1 . 8 9 w y u m e - m a - s e m a t f a - m a - p i d a n a

l a s t - F E M - C O N T R g o o d - F E M - R E M . P . R E P

T h e last o n e w a s beautiful.'

2 1 . 9 0 u n i p i t h e r i d i h a u n i k a r u - k a d i t e - p i d a n a

w a t e r otter h e w a t e r b e . a f r a i d - N E G + N C L : A N I M - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e w a t e r otter, h e is t h e o n e n o t s c a r e d o f water.'

I n 2 1 . 9 1 t h e s u b j e c t is p o s t p o s e d to t h e n o u n a s t h e p r e d i c a t e :

2 1 . 9 1 h a n u - k a r a p i - p i d a n a d i h a f i a m u d i - n h a - n i - k a r a p i

b i g - C L : P L A T E - R E M . P . R E P A R T evil.spirit 3 s g n f - e a t - T O P . A D V - C L : P L A T E

' B i g w a s t h e p l a t e from w h i c h t h e evil spirit ate.'

T o n e g a t e a n identity a n d e q u a t i o n a n d a n attributive v e r b l e s s c l a u s e , t h e v e r b a l

n e g a t o r -kade g o e s o n t o t h e p r e d i c a t e , a s in 2 1 . 9 2 .

2 1 . 9 2 s a p a t u k a - n i - k a d e - n a k a n h u a rei i r i - n a k a n h u a

s h o e R E L - d o - N E G - P R E S . V I S I k i n g s o n - P R E S . V I S I

'I a m n o t t h e o n e w h o m a k e s s h o e s , I a m a k i n g ' s son.'

S T A T E a n d E V A L U A T I O N c l a u s e s a r e a s u b t y p e o f v e r b l e s s c l a u s e s . T h e y c o n s i s t o f a n

a d j e c t i v a l p r e d i c a t e o f v a l u e o r p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t y , a n d n o o v e r t subject. S u c h a c l a u s e is

a g e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n - it c a n b e p o s i t i v e , a s in 2 1 . 9 3 - 4 o r n e g a t i v e , a s in

2 . 3 2 .

2 1 . 9 3 [ m a t f a - n a k a ] d i w e s e w y a - n u k u p h i a n u - n a

b e . g o o d - P R E S . V I S t h e n - T O P . N O N . A / S y o u 1 s g - O B J

p h e p a - n h i p i - d e

2 s g + a n s w e r - A N T 2 s g - h a v e

' G o o d , t h e n y o u d o r e s p e c t m e . '

2 1 . 9 4 h a p e - p u - m h a

c o l d - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S

'It i s cold.'

A state a n d e v a l u a t i o n c l a u s e is a full c l a u s e a n d n o t j u s t a n interjection, b e c a u s e it

c a n t a k e a n y e v i d e n t i a l t h a t is a p p r o p r i a t e in a g i v e n c o n t e x t : in 2 1 . 9 3 p r e s e n t v i s u a l is

e m p l o y e d , w h i l e 2 1 . 9 4 e m p l o y s p r e s e n t n o n - v i s u a l , a n d 2 . 3 2 r e c e n t p a s t inferred. A

state a n d e v a l u a t i o n c l a u s e is v e r y s i m i l a r to a n intransitive c l a u s e w i t h a n S 0 v e r b in the

p r e d i c a t e c l a u s e . U n l i k e t h e s e , h o w e v e r , a state a n d e v a l u a t i o n c l a u s e c a n n o t h a v e a n y

u n d e r l y i n g o r o v e r t s u b j e c t (in this, it is s i m i l a r t o i m p e r s o n a l c l a u s e s i n s o m e I n d o -

E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s ) .

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 5 0 0 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

C . INTRANSITIVE CLAUSES fall into t h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s : ( C I ) strictly intransitive, ( C 2 )

d o u b l e S - c l a u s e s , a n d ( C 3 ) e x t e n d e d intransitive.

Strictly intransitive c l a u s e s ( C I ) are s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d - t h e y c o n t a i n a n intransitive

v e r b a s their p r e d i c a t e . Intransitive v e r b s c a n b e o f Sa, S 0 o r Sj 0 t y p e s - s e e e x a m p l e s a n d

d i s c u s s i o n in § 1 2 . 1 . 2 . Intransitive c l a u s e s c a n c o n t a i n o b l i q u e s , for i n s t a n c e , a

b e n e f i c i a r y , a s in 2 1 . 9 5 . In c o n t r a s t to e x t e n d e d intransitive c l a u s e s w h e r e o b l i q u e s are

o b l i g a t o r y , t h e s e o b l i q u e s are o p t i o n a l h e r e . P r o p e r t i e s o f o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t s - w h i c h

i n c l u d e a l o c a t i o n a l , a t e m p o r a l , a n i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t o r t h e s t a n d a r d

o f c o m p a r i s o n - a r e d i s c u s s e d in § 2 1 . 5 .

2 1 . 9 5 d i h a - n e - n h a d i - k a w a n a - p e k a i k a - p i d a n a d i - n a

h e - F O C . A / S - P A U S 3 s g n f - l e g - P L a c h e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J

' A s for h i m , h i s l e g s w e r e a c h i n g t o h i m . '

D o u b l e S - c l a u s e s ( C 2 ) a r e a s u b t y p e o f intransitive clauses. T h e y refer to e m o t i o n a l

states a n d c o n t a i n a n i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d b o d y part p r e p o s e d to t h e p r e d i c a t e . If t h e

p r e d i c a t e is a p r e f i x e d v e r b , it c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s t h e p o s s e s s o r o f t h e b o d y part, -kare

'heart, soul' ( w h e r e e m o t i o n s a n d m e n t a l states are 'located' in T a r i a n a - s e e § 2 6 . 3 ) , a s in

2 1 . 9 6 - 7 . D o u b l e s u b j e c t c l a u s e s w i t h -kare h a v e a n i d i o m a t i c m e a n i n g .

2 1 . 9 6 d u - k a r e d u - w a r a - k a

3 s g f - h e a r t 3 s g n f - d i m i n i s h - R E C . P . V I S

' S h e is w o r r i e d (lit. s h e d i m i n i s h e d w i t h r e s p e c t to h e r heart).'

2 1 . 9 7 n u - k a r e n h u e - m h a

1 s g - h e a r t 1s g + e n t e r - P R E S . N O N V I S

'I f e e l c a l m a n d h a p p y (lit. I e n t e r e d w i t h r e s p e c t to m y heart).'

U n l i k e m o s t o t h e r c l a u s e t y p e s , t h e s e c l a u s e s h a v e a fixed c o n s t i t u e n t order. T h e

e v i d e n t i a l i t y enclitics c a n o n l y g o o n t o t h e p r e d i c a t e - in a n y o t h e r c l a u s e t y p e t h e y c a n

g o o n t o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e c l a u s e a s w e l l ; this issue is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2 5 .

T h e b o d y p a r t c a n n o t t a k e a n y c a s e - m a r k i n g . T h e b o d y part c a n t a k e s o m e n o u n

m o r p h o l o g y , e.g. -miki-ri ' n o m i n a l p a s t - s i n g u l a r n o n - f e m i n i n e ' , a n d t h u s is a n o m i n a l .

T h e s e c l a u s e s c a n n o t b e m a d e i m p e r a t i v e ; a n d t h e y h a r d l y e v e r o c c u r in s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e s , w i t h s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e sensitive enclitics. T h a t is, t h e criterion o f s a m e s u b j e c t o r

different s u b j e c t is h a r d l y a p p l i c a b l e . T h i s m a k e s it difficult to d e c i d e w h a t t h e

g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s a r e in t h e s e c l a u s e s .

B o d y p a r t s e m p l o y e d in d o u b l e S - c l a u s e s are i n a l i e n a b l y p o s s e s s e d , a n d t h e

p o s s e s s o r is c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e b o d y part. It is also c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e

p r e d i c a t e - n o t e that in a s i m p l e intransitive c l a u s e a b o d y part is r o u t i n e l y c r o s s -

r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e p r e d i c a t e a s third p e r s o n s i n g u l a r n o n - f e m i n i n e , as in 2 1 . 9 8 .

2 1 . 9 8 h a - d a d i - w h i d a - m i a - n h a y e n u n i - s e - p i d a n a

D E M - C L : R O U N D 3 s g n f - h e a d - O N L Y - P A U S h i g h - L O C - R E M . P . R E P

d i - n u d i - a

3 s g n f - c o m e 3 s g n f - g o

' O n l y that h e a d o f his w e n t up.'

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 2 1 . 4 Types of c l a u s e s 5 0 1

T h e c o n s t i t u e n t w h i c h is c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e p r e d i c a t e is t h e s u b j e c t - A / S a . T h e

c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g p a t t e r n o f t h e s e c l a u s e s w o u l d i m p l y that t h e p o s s e s s o r o f t h e b o d y

p a r t is t h e subject. H o w e v e r , s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e - o n e o f t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l s u b j e c t

p r o p e r t i e s in T a r i a n a (to b e d i s c u s s e d in § 2 1 . 5 , a n d t h e n in C h a p t e r 2 2 ) a n d t h e o n l y

i n t r a c l a u s a l p r o p e r t y s h a r e d b y A , S a a n d S 0 - p r o v i d e s c o n t r a r y results. W h e n d o u b l e S-

c l a u s e s a p p e a r in c l a u s e s e q u e n c i n g structures w h i c h r e q u i r e t h e u s e o f s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e

s e q u e n c i n g enclitics ( d i s c u s s e d in detail in C h a p t e r 2 2 ) , a different s u b j e c t clitic is

r e q u i r e d , a s s h o w n in 2 1 . 9 9 .

2 1 . 9 9 n u - n u - k a y a m i n u - k a r e n u - w a r a - k a

1 s g - c o m e - A F T E R : D S 1s g - h e a r t 1s g - d i m i n i s h - R E C . P . V I S

'After I c a m e , I w a s w o r r i e d (lit. I d i m i n i s h e d w i t h r e s p e c t to m y heart).

T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p o s s e s s o r d o e s n o t p o s s e s s all t h e subject p r o p e r t i e s , a n d that

this c l a u s e t y p e r e m a i n s a m b i g u o u s as to t h e g r a m m a t i c a l relations o f t h e n o m i n a l

c o n s t i t u e n t s .

E x t e n d e d intransitive c l a u s e s ( C 3 ) w h i c h c o n t a i n prefixless v e r b s w e r e a n a l y s e d a n d

e x e m p l i f i e d in § 1 2 . 1 . 3 . T h e s e c l a u s e s c o n t a i n t w o o b l i g a t o r y a r g u m e n t s , o n e o f w h i c h is

t h e s u b j e c t - s e e § 2 1 . 5 , a n d t h e o t h e r c a n t a k e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e - m a r k i n g . T h e difference

b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n d a r g u m e n t o f a transitive v e r b a n d this a r g u m e n t is that it c a n n o t b e

t h e t a r g e t o f a p a s s i v e - s e e § 1 3 . 1 . T h e v e r b s w i : n u 'hit target (in s h o o t i n g ) ' (see 1 2 . 4 4 )

a n d k a s a n i r i 'get m a r r i e d ( o f a m a n ) ' ( 7 . 4 1 ) h a v e their s e c o n d a r g u m e n t in the locative

c a s e .

D . T R A N S I T I V E A N D D I T R A N S I T I V E C L A U S E S c o n t a i n a transitive o r a ditransitive v e r b in

their p r e d i c a t e slots - s e e d i s c u s s i o n a n d e x a m p l e s in § 1 2 . 1 . 1 . M o s t transitive v e r b s a n d

a n u m b e r o f ditransitive v e r b s in T a r i a n a c a n a l s o b e u s e d in intransitive c l a u s e s . Strictly

transitive v e r b s i n c l u d e -de 'have', - b u e t a 'teach, learn', a n d t h e v e r b s d e r i v e d f r o m

transitive v e r b s w i t h t h e a r g u m e n t - a d d i n g -ita d i s c u s s e d u n d e r C in § 1 2 . 1 . 1 a n d in

§ 1 3 . 4 .

A l l transitive a n d ditransitive v e r b s m a r k their n o n - s u b j e c t a r g u m e n t s w i t h t h e n o n -

s u b j e c t c a s e {-na for p r o n o u n s , - n u k u for all topical n o m i n a l s ) . O n l y o n e n o n - s u b j e c t

a r g u m e n t c a n b e t h e target o f a p a s s i v e - a n d this is t h e m a i n criterion for 'objecthood';

s e e C h a p t e r s 7 a n d 1 3 , a n d § 2 1 . 5 b e l o w . A l l t h e transitive v e r b s - w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f

'have' - c a n b e p a s s i v i s e d . J u s t o n e a m b i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b , -hipa 'grab', c a n b e u s e d a s a

d i t r a n s i t i v e v e r b w i t h its third a r g u m e n t m a r k e d w i t h a l o c a t i v e c a s e , a s illustrated in

2 1 . 1 0 0 . ( T h e s a m e v e r b is u s e d transitively in 12.4, a n d intransitively in 12.5.)

2 1 . 1 0 0 d h i p a - p i d a n a d i - n a d i - t f i n u m a - s e

3 s g n f + g r a b - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f - b e a r d - L O C

' H e (the evil spirit) g r a b b e d h i m b y t h e beard.'

T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n is s i m i l a r to a ' d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n ' d e s c r i b e d u n d e r C in

§ 7 . 5 ; a n d i n d e e d alternates w i t h it (as illustrated in 7.73). T h e u s e o f l o c a t i v e c a s e for

t h e third a r g u m e n t of-hipa c o u l d b e a r s o m e i n f l u e n c e f r o m P o r t u g u e s e .

T h e c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r in transitive, ditransitive, e x t e n d e d intransitive a n d intransitive

c l a u s e s f o l l o w s t h e t e n d e n c i e s o u t l i n e d in C h a p t e r 2 5 . R e s t r i c t i o n s o n t h e c o n s t i t u e n t

o r d e r in d o u b l e S - c l a u s e s w e r e d i s c u s s e d a b o v e .

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 5 0 2 21 Clause types and other syntactic issues

2 1 . 4 . 2 I m p e r a t i v e c l a u s e s

T h e p r e d i c a t e o f a n i m p e r a t i v e c l a u s e m u s t c o n t a i n a n i m p e r a t i v e v e r b f o r m . P o s i t i v e

i m p e r a t i v e s h a v e at least n i n e d i s t i n c t i o n s ( d i s c u s s e d in § 1 6 . 1 ) . T h e n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e

( d i s c u s s e d i n § 1 7 . 3 ) h a s j u s t t h r e e distinctions: a g e n e r a l p r o h i b i t i v e m a r k e d w i t h

m h a i d a , a r e p o r t e d ( s e c o n d h a n d ) -pida, a n d polite s u g g e s t i o n -nha. T w o i m p e r a t i v e

m a r k e r s a r e a l s o u s e d in i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s - t h e polite s u g g e s t i o n - n h a a n d t h e

i m m e d i a t e i m p e r a t i v e - w a . N o o t h e r c l a u s e s a r e u s e d in t h e f u n c t i o n o f a c o m m a n d .

I m p e r a t i v e c l a u s e s h a v e a h i g h e r p i t c h a n d s t r o n g e r intensity o n t h e s t r e s s e d syllable o f

t h e p r e d i c a t e , a n d m a y h a v e a falling i n t o n a t i o n .

A s s h o w n i n § 1 6 . 1 , i m p e r a t i v e c l a u s e s d o n o t h a v e a n y evidentiality m a r k i n g , e x c e p t

for r e p o r t e d -pida u s e d to m a r k t h e i m p e r a t i v e b y p r o x y (see § 1 6 . 1 . 4 ) . T h i s is t h e o n l y

i m p e r a t i v e m a r k e r t h a t c a n o c c u r w i t h o t h e r i m p e r a t i v e m a r k e r s to s h o w that t h e o r d e r

h a s b e e n g i v e n b y s o m e o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e s p e a k e r - s e e 2 1 . 1 0 1 .

2 1 . 1 0 1 p i - f i h a - s e - p i d a

2 s g - e a t - I M P V . P R O X - I M P V . S E C

'Eat h e r e ( f o l l o w i n g h e r order).'

I m p e r a t i v e c l a u s e s f o l l o w t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r o u t l i n e d in

C h a p t e r 2 5 . S e e § 2 5 . 1 . 3 o n t h e p o s i t i o n o f s u b j e c t in i m p e r a t i v e c l a u s e s .

2 1 . 4 . 3 I n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s

I n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s h a v e a special set o f t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k e r s w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h

t h r e e t e r m s ( i n s t e a d o f f o u r t e r m s in d e c l a r a t i v e c l a u s e s ) - s e e § 1 4 . 3 a n d T a b l e 14.3.

P o l a r ( y e s - n o ) q u e s t i o n s d o n o t c o n t a i n a n y q u e s t i o n w o r d ; t h e y are d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y

rising i n t o n a t i o n , a n d t h e c h o i c e o f a n evidential. C o n t e n t q u e s t i o n s c o n t a i n a q u e s t i o n

w o r d .

P o l a r a n d c o n t e n t q u e s t i o n s u s e i n t e r r o g a t i v e m o o d , p l u s o p t i o n a l rising i n t o n a t i o n o n

t h e last w o r d o f t h e q u e s t i o n c l a u s e o r o n t h e q u e s t i o n w o r d in a c o n t e n t q u e s t i o n , a n d

'eye-gaze'. U n l i k e in d e c l a r a t i v e a n d i m p e r a t i v e c l a u s e s , i n t e r r o g a t i v e c l a u s e s d o n o t

c o n t a i n ' p a u s a l f o r m s ' ( d i s c u s s e d in §2.7).

T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n p o l a r q u e s t i o n s a n d c o n t e n t q u e s t i o n s is a s f o l l o w s :

• i n c o n t e n t q u e s t i o n s t h e u s e o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e m o o d is n o t o b l i g a t o r y : m a r k e r s c a n

b e o m i t t e d if clear f r o m t h e c o n t e x t ;

• t e n s e - m o o d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e i n d i c a t e d in T a b l e 14.3 c a n b e u s e d ,

e.g. future, 'doubt', c o n d i t i o n a l a n d ' c o u n t e r - e x p e c t a t i o n ' - s e e e x a m p l e s in

§ 1 4 . 3 .

T h e r e a r e n o distinct s u b t y p e s o f p o l a r q u e s t i o n s ( s u c h a s alternative q u e s t i o n s , etc.),

a n d n o t a g q u e s t i o n s . F o r b o t h p o l a r a n d c o n t e n t q u e s t i o n s , t h e r e is a 'strong d o u b t '

q u e s t i o n t y p e m a r k e d w i t h - s o ( T u c a n o b a a is s o m e t i m e s u s e d i n s t e a d o f - s o b u t

i m m e d i a t e l y c o r r e c t e d ) ; this m a y o c c u r w i t h s o m e o t h e r e v i d e n t i a l specification o r m a r k

a q u e s t i o n b y itself, a s illustrated b y 1 4 . 1 3 4 - 9 a n d d i s c u s s e d in § 1 4 . 3 . 3 . T h e n o n -

i n t e r r o g a t i v e u s e s o f -so are d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 15.

C o n t e n t q u e s t i o n w o r d s are d e r i v e d from t h e interrogative-distributive s t e m k w a (see

§ 1 1 . 4 ) . T h e r e are n o i n t e r r o g a t i v e v e r b s ; a n d c o n s t i t u e n t s in s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s c a n n o t

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 2 1 . 4 Types of c l a u s e s 5 0 3

b e q u e s t i o n e d . Q u e s t i o n i n g m o r e t h a n o n e c o n s t i t u e n t is n o t a l l o w e d . W h e n

a c c o m p a n i e d b y n e g a t i o n ne s o m e are u s e d a s n e g a t i v e p r o n o u n s . A c o m p l e t e list o f

i n t e r r o g a t i v e w o r d s - s o m e o f w h i c h a l s o h a v e a n indefinite-distributive r e a d i n g

d i s c u s s e d in § 1 1 . 4 - a r e g i v e n b e l o w :

• k w a n a ' w h o ' , ne k w a n a 'no one';

• ku-ite 'which';

• k w a - , k w a k a (^classifiers listed in T a b l e s 5.2 a n d 11.2) 'what, w h i c h ' , ' w h i c h e v e r

1
( t h i n g ) , every , ne k w a k a ' n o t h i n g , n o n e ' ;

• kanapada ' h o w m a n y ' , 'this m a n y , s o m e ' ;

• k a i d a ' h o w m u c h ' , 'this m u c h , certain q u a n t i t y ( o f different kinds)';

• k a n i (+classifiers) ' w h i c h one';

• k w e k a 'why';

• k w e - w a n i y a p h i n i (INTER-CL:ABSTR t h i n g ) o r k w e - w a n i ' w h y , w h y o n earth';

• k w e ' h o w , w h y ' ;

• k w e m a k a ' w h e n ' ;

• kani(-se) ' w h e r e ' , ' w h e r e v e r ' .

A l l q u e s t i o n w o r d s - e x c e p t for k w e m a k a 'when', kweka 'why', k a n i 'where', kaida

' h o w m u c h ' , 'this m u c h , certain q u a n t i t y ( o f different k i n d s ) a n d kwe ' h o w , w h y ' w h i c h

are i n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b s - b e l o n g t o t h e c l a s s o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e - d i s t r i b u t i v e s (see § 1 1 . 4 ) ,

a n d kanapada ' h o w m a n y ' , 'this m a n y , s o m e ' is a t y p e quantifier ( § 1 1 . 9 ) a n d c o n s t i t u t e s

a c l o s e d c l a s s o f its o w n .

C o n t e n t q u e s t i o n w o r d s are u s u a l l y sentence-initial ( s e e § 2 5 . 1 . 3 ) . T h e y m a y f o l l o w

i n t r o d u c t o r y n e 'then', a s in 2 1 . 1 0 2 . T h e y c a n o c c u r in a n y p o s i t i o n if in a n o n - q u e s t i o n

f u n c t i o n - s e e § 1 1 . 4 a n d § 1 1 . 9 . T h e o r d e r o f o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s is t h e s a m e a s in

d e c l a r a t i v e c l a u s e s - s e e C h a p t e r 2 5 .

2 1 . 1 0 2 n e k w e pi-ni p i - n i - n i h k a d i - n a

t h e n h o w 2 s g - d o 2 s g - d o - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 3 s g n f - O B J

' T h e n h o w c o m e y o u h a v e d o n e this to h i m ? '

Q u e s t i o n w o r d s c a n o c c u r in relative c l a u s e s - s e e § 2 3 . 2 - a n d in c o m p l e m e n t

c l a u s e s - s e e § 2 4 . 4 . T h e u s e o f c o n t e n t q u e s t i o n w o r d s is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d ; i n t e r r o g a t i v e

a d v e r b s a r e illustrated in 2 1 . 1 0 3 - 5 .

2 1 . 1 0 3 k w e m a k a - m h a d e p i - u k a p h i a

w h e n - F U T 2 s g - a r r i v e y o u

' W h e n a r e y o u a r r i v i n g ? '

T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e k w e m a k a c a n t a k e t h e p r e p o s i t i o n te 'until', u n l i k e a n y o t h e r

i n t e r r o g a t i v e , a s in 2 1 . 1 0 4 .

2 1 . 1 0 4 te k w e m a k a d i - d i a - m h a d e

until w h e n 3 s g n f - s t a y - F U T

' W h e n is h e s t a y i n g until?'

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 5 0 4 21 Clause types and other syntactic issues

2 1 . 1 0 5 k w e k a - n i h k a pi-a p h i a

w h y - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R 2 s g - g o y o u

' W h y (for w h a t r e a s o n ) h a v e y o u g o n e ? '

B e s i d e s k w e k a 'why', t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f a d d i t i o n a l w a y s t o a s k for a r e a s o n . O n e

w a y i n v o l v e s a c o n s t r u c t i o n ' h o w c o m e , in w h a t w a y ' , a s in 2 1 . 1 0 2 , a n d 2 1 . 1 0 6 , 1 4 . 8 3

a n d 1 4 . 1 9 5 .

2 1 . 1 0 6 k w e - s i k a di-ni d i - y a m i

h o w - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R 3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - d i e

' W h y d i d h e (the m o u s e ) die?' ( S a i d a b o u t a d e a d m o u s e f o u n d in t h e h o u s e . )

T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n is a l s o u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' w h a t for', a s in 2 1 . 1 0 7 .

2 1 . 1 0 7 k w e n u - n i - k a s u - b o t h a n u - a m a - y e k a - k a d i t e

h o w l s g - d o - I N T - C O N D l s g - g o N E G - k n o w - N E G + N C L : A N I M

' W h a t w o u l d I g o for, m e w h o d o e s n o t k n o w ( w h a t to d o there)?'

Y e t a n o t h e r , m o r e e m p h a t i c w a y o f a s k i n g 'why' i n v o l v e s k w e - w a n i ( I I O W - C L : A B S T R )

' w h y , w h y o n earth', a s in 2 1 . 1 0 8 , o r k w e - w a n i y a p h i n i ( h o w - C L : A B S T R t h i n g ) ' w h y o n

earth', a s in 2 1 . 1 0 9 w h e r e it o c c u r s w i t h -so 'doubt'. T h e u s e o f inferred e v i d e n t i a l in

2 1 . 1 0 8 - 9 i n d i c a t e s that t h e s p e a k e r h a s a b s o l u t e l y n o c l u e a b o u t t h e r e a s o n o f t h e e v e n t s .

2 1 . 1 0 8 k w e - w a n i - s i n a k a y di-a d i h a

h o w - C L : A B S T R - R E M . P . I N F R . I N T E R t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y h e

' W h y o n e a r t h d i d h e s a y t h u s ? '

2 1 . 1 0 9 k w e - w a n i y a p h i n i - s i k a

h o w - C L : A B S T R t h i n g - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R

k a y d i - a - s o

t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - E M P H . I N T E R

' W h y o n e a r t h d i d h e s a y t h u s , I really w o n d e r ? '

N e g a t i v e a n s w e r s i n v o l v e t h e n e g a t i v e f o r m o f t h e v e r b -ni 'do'. T h i s is illustrated

b e l o w : 2 . 1 1 0 a is a q u e s t i o n a n d 2 1 . 1 1 0 b is a n e g a t i v e a n s w e r (see C h a p t e r 2 5 for further

d i s c u s s i o n ) . S e e a l s o 1 7 . 9 5 a n d 1 7 . 9 7 .

Q u e s t i o n :

2 1 . 1 1 0 a k w e pi-ni p i - r a h t a - n h a

h o w 2 s g - d o 2 s g - f l o a t - P R E S . V I S . I N T E R

' W h y a r e y o u floating?'

A n s w e r :

2 1 . 1 1 0 b m a - n i - k a d e - n a k a

N E G - d o - N E G - P R E S . V I S

' F o r n o t h i n g , j u s t l i k e t h a t (lit. I d o n o t do).'

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 2 1 . 4 Types of c l a u s e s 5 0 5

It is n o t c u l t u r a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e to a s k t o o m a n y q u e s t i o n s in T a r i a n a - s e e t h e

d i s c u s s i o n in § 1 4 . 3 . Q u e s t i o n s are u s e d a s c o n v e r s a t i o n s u s t a i n e r s - s e e D i a g r a m 14.3

a n d § 2 5 . 5 . 2 , a n d in g r e e t i n g f o r m u l a s a s in 2 1 . 1 1 1 - 1 3 .

2 1 . 1 1 1 ( = 1 4 . 8 8 ) First t h i n g in t h e m o r n i n g :

k a w h i - t h a p h i a ?

b e . a w a k e - P R E S . N O N V I S . I N T E R y o u . s g

' A r e y o u a w a k e ? '

k a w h i - n a k a

b e . a w a k e - P R E S . V I S

'I a m a w a k e . '

2 1 . 1 1 2 T o s o m e o n e w h o h a s j u s t c o m e :

p i - u k a - n i h k a p h i a ?

2 s g - a r r i v e - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R y o u

' H a v e y o u a r r i v e d ? '

n u k a - k a

l s g + a r r i v e - R E C . P . V I S

'I h a v e arrived.'

2 . 1 1 3 S o m e o n e w h o h a s j u s t a r r i v e d to h i s h o s t s :

alia-tha p h i a ?

e x i s t - P R E S . N O N V I S . I N T E R y o u . s g

' D o y o u exist?'

a l i a - n a k a

e x i s t - P R E S . V I S

'I exist.'

A t t h e ritual o f O f f e r i n g t h e p e r s o n p e r f o r m i n g the offering s a y s to t h o s e w h o r e c e i v e

t h e offering:

2 1 . 1 1 4 a i - w h a - t h a ihia?

2 p l - s i t - P R E S . N O N V I S . I N T E R y o u . p l

' A r e y o u sitting?'

T h e y r e s p o n d :

2 1 . 1 1 4 b w a - w h a - n a k a

l p l - s i t - P R E S . V I S

' W e are sitting.'

T o s o m e o n e w h o h a s c o m e a l o n g w a y a ritual g r e e t i n g o f w e l c o m e is s u n g w i t h a

v e r y p a r t i c u l a r w a i l i n g i n t o n a t i o n (cf. also 2.45).

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 5 0 6 21 Clause types and other syntactic issues

2 1 . 1 1 5 n u i t o k w e - n i h k a p i - n u

m y . d a u g h t e r . V O C h o w - I N T E R . R E C . P . V I S 2 s g - c o m e

p i - u k a w y a k a p i - n u

2 s g - a r r i v e far 2 s g - c o m e

' M y d a u g h t e r , h o w h a v e y o u c o m e , y o u c a m e f r o m afar...'

2 1 . 4 . 4 E x c l a m a t o r y c l a u s e s

E x c l a m a t o r y c l a u s e s h a v e n o t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specifications. T h e y u s u a l l y c o n s i s t o f

o n e g r a m m a t i c a l w o r d , o n e n o u n p h r a s e , o r j u s t a s i m p l e p r e d i c a t e .

2 1 . 1 1 6 d a p a - m i k i - r i !

p a c a - N O M I N A L . P A S T - N O N . F E M

T h e d e a d p a c a (it w a s ) ! ' ( N o t C o l o m b i a n guerillas: this w a s O l i v i a Brito's

e m p h a t i c r e s p o n s e to m y s c a r e d r e a c t i o n - ' w h a t is it?' - to a g u n s h o t in t h e

m i d d l e o f t h e night.)

T h e y o f t e n h a v e a slightly rising i n t o n a t i o n , a n d t h e s t r e s s e d syllable is p r o n o u n c e d

w i t h m o r e i n t e n s i t y a n d / o r w i t h a l o n g e r v o w e l , a s in 2 1 . 1 1 7 w h e r e u is u n d e r l i n e d s i n c e

it w a s p r o n o u n c e d w i t h g r e a t e r intensity. 2 1 . 1 1 7 w a s O l i v i a Brito's s u r p r i s e d r e a c t i o n to

t h e s i z e o f a b a b y s h e w a s s h o w n .

2 1 . 1 1 7 h a n u - i t e !

b i g - N C L : A N I M

'It's a b i g o n e ! ' o r ' H o w b i g it is!'

In 2 1 . 1 1 8 a n e x c l a m a t o r y c l a u s e c o n s i s t s o f a n N P ; t h e stressed v o w e l o f t h e last

c o m p o n e n t is p r o n o u n c e d a s l o n g e r t h a n u s u a l (this is w h a t O l i v i a said s e e i n g h e r

y o u n g e r b r o t h e r d r u n k ) .

2 1 . 1 1 8 p h i a ma:tfi::te

y o u b a d + N C L : A N I M

' Y o u n a u g h t y ( p e r s o n ) ! '

A n e x a m p l e o f a v e r b in a n e x c l a m a t o r y c l a u s e is 1 5 . 1 9 3 .

2 1 . 4 . 5 D e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s : a n o v e r v i e w

D e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s fall i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s : s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s d i s c u s s e d in

C h a p t e r 2 2 , relative c l a u s e s d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2 3 a n d c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s c o n s i d e r e d

i n C h a p t e r 2 4 . C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s , relative c l a u s e s a n d m o s t s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s h a v e

n o s e p a r a t e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k i n g (see T a b l e 2 2 . 2 , for t h e f e w t y p e s o f s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e s t h a t d o h a v e it). T h e s e c l a u s e s c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d non-finite, s i n c e a r e d u c e d set

o f v e r b a l c a t e g o r i e s m a y b e m a r k e d o n their p r e d i c a t e .

U n l i k e m a i n c l a u s e s , w h i c h d i s p l a y c o n s i d e r a b l e f r e e d o m in their c o n s t i t u e n t order,

d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s a r e typically predicate-final (see § 2 5 . 1 . 3 ) , w i t h a preferential o r d e r

A O V - a s in 2 2 . 3 , 2 2 . 3 6 o r 2 3 . 1 0 , o r S V , a s in 2 2 . 8 , 2 2 . 1 6 a n d 2 3 . 1 7 , o r S O b l i q u e V , as

in 2 3 . 1 1 a n d 2 3 . 2 3 . A n o b l i q u e c o n s t i t u e n t c a n c o m e b e t w e e n t h e A / S a n d t h e v e r b , a s

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 21.5 Grammatical relations 5 0 7

in 2 2 . 1 2 , 2 2 . 1 9 ; after t h e s u b j e c t ( A ) a n d b e f o r e t h e object, a s in 2 2 . 6 1 ; o r c l a u s e -

initially, a s i n 2 2 . 2 0 a n d 2 2 . 4 4 , in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e p r a g m a t i c s o f p o s i t i o n s in t h e

c l a u s e d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 2 5 .

I n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s e m p l o y e d in c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s d o n o t h a v e to b e in t h e

clause-initial p o s i t i o n . In 2 4 . 4 1 a n i n t e r r o g a t i v e c o m p l e m e n t i s e r (kani ' w h e r e ' ) f o l l o w s

t h e s u b j e c t o f a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e . In 2 1 . 4 0 a n i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n kanite ' w h i c h o n e '

i n t r o d u c i n g t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e o c c u p i e s clause-initial position.

C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s , a n d a n u m b e r o f s u b t y p e s o f o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s ( s e e

T a b l e 2 2 . 2 , for a s u m m a r y ) c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a r g u m e n t s o f t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n

c l a u s e a n d h a v e n o u n - l i k e p r o p e r t i e s - for i n s t a n c e , t h e y t a k e n o m i n a l c a s e - m a r k i n g .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a n d n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d in

§ 2 0 . 2 . 4 . A d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e c a n b e a c o p u l a c l a u s e , o r a v e r b l e s s c l a u s e , o r a n y o t h e r

c l a u s e d e s c r i b e d u n d e r § 2 1 . 4 . 1 a b o v e .

2 1 . 5 G r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s

In this s e c t i o n w e p r e s e n t a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e d e f i n i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f g r a m m a t i c a l

relations. T h e p r o p e r t i e s s h a r e d b y A , S a a n d S 0 - w h i c h a l l o w u s to g r o u p t h e m u n d e r

t h e n o t i o n o f ' s u b j e c t ' - are d i s c u s s e d in § 2 1 . 5 . 1 . W e also a n a l y s e t h e p r o p e r t i e s s h a r e d

b y A a n d S a b u t n o t b y S 0 , a n d t h e p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h are different for A , S a a n d S 0 .

S u b j e c t p r o p e r t i e s o f Sj 0 are t h e n c o n s i d e r e d . ( A l s o see A i k h e n v a l d f o r t h c o m i n g - a . ) In

§ 2 1 . 5 . 2 w e d i s c u s s o b j e c t s a n d o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t s .

2 1 . 5 . 1 Defining 'subjects'

In this s e c t i o n w e p r o p o s e a c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t h r e e c l a s s e s o f intransitive

v e r b s (Sj 0 , S a a n d S 0 ) in T a r i a n a , d e m o n s t r a t i n g that Sj 0 is i n d e e d a distinct g r a m m a t i c a l

f u n c t i o n . G r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s in T a r i a n a c a n b e s h o w n to m a p clearly o n t o

m o r p h o l o g i c a l v e r b t y p e s ; t h a t is, t h e r e is sufficient e v i d e n c e for p o s t u l a t i n g at least

t h r e e t y p e s o f S (Sj 0 , S a a n d S 0 ) a s distinct s u b t y p e s w h i c h s h a r e a v a r i e d n u m b e r o f

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - d e f i n a b l e a s 'subject' p r o p e r t i e s - w i t h A function. ( S e e C h a p t e r 12 for

v e r b t y p e s . )

C o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r in T a r i a n a p r o v i d e s little i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g 'subjecthood'.

C o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r is free, w i t h j u s t a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s a v e r b final order. T h e r e are n o

p i v o t restrictions; that is, if t w o c l a u s e s w h i c h s h a r e c o r e a r g u m e n t s are c o o r d i n a t e d , a n y

c o r e f e r e n t i a l c o r e a r g u m e n t c a n b e d e l e t e d p r o v i d e d it c a n b e r e t r i e v e d f r o m t h e

d i s c o u r s e c o n t e x t (cf. A i k h e n v a l d 1 9 9 5 b ) - s e e C h a p t e r 2 5 .

A , S a a n d S 0 a r g u m e n t s a c q u i r e t h e s a m e c a s e - m a r k i n g - s e e C h a p t e r 7. O t h e r s h a r e d

'subject' p r o p e r t i e s o f A , S a a n d S 0 f o r m a s u b s e t o f t h e typical syntactic p r o p e r t i e s o f

s u b j e c t s a n d c o v e r t h e u n i v e r s a l s y n t a c t i c p h e n o m e n a d e p e n d e n t o n 'subject' a s d e f i n e d

b y D i x o n ( 1 9 9 4 : 1 3 1 ) . T h e u n i v e r s a l p h e n o m e n a characteristic o f ' s u b j e c t s ' s u g g e s t e d b y

D i x o n ( 1 9 9 4 : 1 3 1 - 4 1 ) i n c l u d e i m p e r a t i v e s ( p r o p e r t y A in this s e c t i o n ) a n d c o n s t i t u e n t s

w i t h 'can', 'try', ' b e g i n ' a n d s i m i l a r v e r b s - this is c o v e r e d b y t h e S a m e S u b j e c t c o n s t r a i n t

i n serial v e r b s i n T a r i a n a . T w o o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s - I m p e r a t i v e s d i s c u s s e d i n § 1 6 . 1 a n d

t h e S a m e S u b j e c t c o n s t r a i n t in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s d i s c u s s e d in § 1 8 . 2 relate to a n

i n t r a c l a u s a l u n i v e r s a l p r o p e r t y o f subjects. S w i t c h r e f e r e n c e c o n t r o l in c l a u s e j o i n i n g is

t h e o n l y i n t e r c l a u s a l s u b j e c t - p r o p e r t y o f T a r i a n a ; this is d i s c u s s e d in § 2 2 . 1 .

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 5 0 8 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

P r o p e r t i e s s h a r e d b y A / S a b u t n o t b y S 0 i n c l u d e : t h e applicability o f t h e v a l e n c y

r e d u c i n g r e c i p r o c a l d e r i v a t i o n ( § 1 3 . 2 ) , o f t h e a r g u m e n t m a n i p u l a t i n g d e r i v a t i o n ( § 1 3 . 5 ) ,

a n d serialisability ( § 1 8 . 2 ) .

R e c i p r o c a l s c a n n o t b e d e r i v e d f r o m S G v e r b s , a n d n e i t h e r c a n t h e a r g u m e n t

m a n i p u l a t i n g t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g v o i c e ( e x c e p t i n t h e s p e e c h o f s o m e y o u n g e r p e o p l e - s e e

§ 2 0 . 3 ) . T h e r e a r e n o restrictions o n serialisability o f transitive v e r b s a n d S a v e r b s .

R e s t r i c t i o n s o n serialisability o f S 0 v e r b s g o a l o n g t h e f o l l o w i n g lines:

( A ) A serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n n o t c o n s i s t j u s t o f S 0 v e r b s .

( B ) S 0 v e r b s c a n b e u s e d o n l y in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f certain s e m a n t i c t y p e s

a n d n o t in o t h e r s ( s e e § 1 8 . 2 ) . T h e y are typically u s e d in a m b i e n t serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s a s 'modifiers' t o t h e s e m a n t i c a l l y m a i n v e r b . S 0 v e r b s c a n also b e

u s e d in serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h a s p e c t u a l m e a n i n g s , b u t n o t in m o d a l serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

A , S a a n d S 0 differ a s to t h e applicability a n d the s e m a n t i c effect o f t w o v a l e n c y

c h a n g i n g m e c h a n i s m s : p a s s i v e a n d c a u s a t i v e . A , S a a n d S 0 c a n b e targets o f p a s s i v e .

H o w e v e r , t h e s e m a n t i c effects o f t h e p a s s i v e are different: t h e p a s s i v e o f a transitive

v e r b o r o f a ditransitive v e r b d e r i v e s a n intransitive v e r b ; the p a s s i v e o f a n intransitive

S a v e r b d e r i v e s a n i m p e r s o n a l , a n d t h e p a s s i v e o f a n S 0 v e r b h a s h a b i t u a l c o n n o t a t i o n s .

( S e e § 1 3 . 1 . ) T r a n s i t i v e , S a a n d S 0 v e r b s differ w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e c a u s a t i v i s i n g

m e c h a n i s m s t h e y e m p l o y - s e e d i s c u s s i o n in § 1 3 . 4 a n d S c h e m e 1 3 . 1 .

T h e s i n g l e a r g u m e n t o f t h e Sj 0 v e r b s - c a l l e d h e r e Sj 0 a r g u m e n t - s h a r e s s o m e

p r o p e r t i e s w i t h A / S a a n d S 0 a r g u m e n t s , a n d s o m e p r o p e r t i e s w i t h j u s t t h e S a o r j u s t t h e

S 0 a r g u m e n t ; h o w e v e r , it differs f r o m all o f t h e s e in o t h e r properties. T h e p r o p e r t i e s

w h i c h S j 0 s h a r e s w i t h S a a n d S 0 a p p l y to all t h e t h r e e s u b c l a s s e s o f Sj 0 v e r b s (see u n d e r C

i n § 1 2 . 1 . 2 ) a n d s o d o t h e o n e s s h a r e d w i t h S a a n d t h e o n e s s h a r e d w i t h S 0 ( s e e

A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 1 a for m o r e d i s c u s s i o n ) .

T h e SJO a r g u m e n t s h a r e s j u s t o n e s u b j e c t p r o p e r t y w i t h A , S a a n d S 0 a r g u m e n t s : t h e

S a m e S u b j e c t c o n s t r a i n t in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s . If t h e first v e r b in a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n is o f Sj 0 -type t h e n t h e s e c o n d v e r b h a s to b e active intransitive (S a )-type, as

in 2 1 . 1 1 9 , o r Sj 0 -type, a s in 2 1 . 1 2 0 .

T h e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n in 2 1 . 1 1 9 c o n s i s t s o f dai (Sj 0 v e r b ) a n d - i m a ( S a v e r b )

' b e . s l e e p y - c l o s e . e y e s ' (this is a typical w a y o f s a y i n g 'be asleep'). T h e s h a r e d s u b j e c t is

t h e third p e r s o n p l u r a l c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d o n t h e S a v e r b . N o t e that in this e x a m p l e t h e

p r o n o m i n a l s u b j e c t n a h a 'they' is u n m a r k e d for c a s e (as is n o r m a l for A , S a o r S 0

subject), a n d c a n n o t t a k e t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e m a r k e r -na (as it w o u l d h a v e d o n e , if t h e

Sj 0 v e r b dai w e r e u s e d b y itself, e.g. dai n a - n a ( b e . s l e e p y 3pl-OBJ) 'they are sleepy'.

2 1 . 1 1 9 n h a dai n e m a n a - s w a

t h e y b e . s l e e p y 3 p l + c l o s e . e y e s 3pl-lie

T h e y lay asleep.'

Sj 0 v e r b s s h a r e o n e p r o p e r t y w i t h A a n d S a b u t n o t w i t h S 0 v e r b s . A serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n n o t c o n s i s t o f j u s t t w o S 0 v e r b s . B u t it c a n c o n s i s t o f j u s t Sj 0 v e r b s .

2 1 . 1 2 0 illustrates a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h c o n s i s t s o f t w o Sj 0 v e r b s . N o t e that

t h e p r o n o m i n a l s u b j e c t T t a k e s t h e -na n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e a s r e q u i r e d b y Sj 0 v e r b s .

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 21.5 Grammatical relations 5 0 9

2 1 . 1 2 0 n u - n a d a i k a i - p u - m h a

1 s g - O B J b e . s l e e p y a c h e - A U G - P R E S . N O N V I S

'I a m v e r y s l e e p y (lit. I a m (so) s l e e p y I ache).'

A n u m b e r o f p r o p e r t i e s o f S l o v e r b s are s h a r e d w i t h S 0 b u t n o t w i t h A o r S. S i m i l a r l y

t o t h e S 0 a r g u m e n t , t h e S j 0 c a n n o t b e t h e target o f r e c i p r o c a l o r t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g

d e r i v a t i o n - s e e § 1 3 . 2 .

S i m i l a r l y to S 0 v e r b s , Sj 0 v e r b s c a n o n l y o c c u r in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f a l i m i t e d

n u m b e r o f s e m a n t i c t y p e s . B u t u n l i k e S 0 v e r b s - w h i c h typically o c c u r in m o d i f i e r - l i k e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s , a n d in a s p e c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s - t h e y m a y b e u s e d a s t h e first c o m p o n e n t

o f serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t h e s e m a n t i c s o f c a u s e - e f f e c t , a s illustrated in 2 1 . 1 2 1 .

2 1 . 1 2 1 y u w a p i k u m h a i s i k i d i - y a m i - p i d a n a

s o m e t i m e b e . h u n g r y ( S j 0 ) 3 s g n f - d i e / f a i n t ( S a ) - R E M . P . R E P

d i - a - n h a

3 s g n f - g o ( S a ) - P A U S

' S o m e t i m e later h e felt h u n g r y e n o u g h to faint (lit. h e felt h u n g r y ( a n d )

fainted).'

L i k e S 0 v e r b s , t h e y c a n n o t b e u s e d in m o d a l serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s - 2 1 . 1 2 2 is

u n g r a m m a t i c a l .

2 1 . 1 2 2 * n u - n a - m h a dai

1 s g - w a n t - P R E S . N O N V I S b e . s l e e p y

? 'I w a n t to b e sleepy.'

T h e Sjo v e r b s h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h are n o t s h a r e d w i t h either S a o r S 0

o r A . U n l i k e A / S a o r S 0 v e r b s , Si 0 v e r b s c a n n o t b e p a s s i v i s e d . U n l i k e A , S a a n d S 0 t y p e s ,

SJO p r e d i c a t e s trigger t h e u s e o f a different-subject enclitic in c l a u s e c o m b i n i n g , e v e n if

t h e referent o f t h e A , S a o r S 0 in t h e c o n j o i n e d c l a u s e is t h e s a m e , a s in 2 1 . 1 2 3 . T h e u s e

o f t h e s a m e - s u b j e c t enclitic w o u l d b e u n g r a m m a t i c a l h e r e .

2 1 . 1 2 3 d e r i n u - n h a - k a n a m i m h a i s i k i

b a n a n a 1s g - e a t ( A ) - A F T E R : D S b e . h u n g r y ( S i 0 )

k a i - k a d e - m h a n u - n a

a c h e ( S i o ) - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S 1 s g - O B J

'After I h a v e e a t e n a b a n a n a I a m n o t h u n g r y . '

S ^ v e r b s differ f r o m o t h e r v e r b t y p e s in h o w t h e y are n e g a t e d in serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n s . A serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n in T a r i a n a c a n c o n t a i n j u s t o n e n e g a t i o n

m a r k e r ( n o t e t h a t t h e c o m p o n e n t s c a n n o t b e n e g a t e d separately). If a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a n Sj 0 v e r b t h e n e g a t i o n m a r k e r g o e s o n the first p r e f i x l e s s

v e r b in t h e series, a s s h o w n in 2 1 . 1 2 4 ( w i t h a n S a v e r b a n d a transitive v e r b ) a n d 2 1 . 1 2 5

( w i t h a n S 0 v e r b a n d a n S a v e r b ) . N o t e that n e g a t i o n is m a r k e d w i t h a p r e f i x (ma-) a n d a

suffix (-kade) w i t h a p r e f i x e d v e r b , as in 2 1 . 1 2 4 a n d w i t h j u s t a suffix {-hade) w i t h a

p r e f i x l e s s v e r b , a s in 2 1 . 1 2 5 .

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 5 1 0 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

2 1 . 1 2 4 m e m a - k a d e - p i d a n a d i - k e t a

N E G + c l o s e . e y e s ( S a ) - N E G - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - f i n d ( A )

' H e c o u l d n ' t s l e e p (lit. h e didn't find sleep).'

2 1 . 1 2 5 h a l i a - k a d e - p i d a n a d i - s w a

b e . l i g h t ( S 0 ) - N E G - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-lie(S a )

'It d i d n ' t g e t light.'

If a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n s a n Si 0 v e r b , t h e n e g a t i o n m a r k e r g o e s o n t h e

s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t , a s in 2 1 . 1 2 6 w i t h a n Sj 0 v e r b o f t h e s u b g r o u p B , a n d in 2 1 . 1 2 7 , w i t h

a n Sio v e r b o f t h e s u b g r o u p C (see § 1 2 . 1 . 2 ) . V e r b s o f s u b g r o u p A b e h a v e in e x a c t l y t h e

s a m e w a y .

2 1 . 1 2 6 i h y a n u - e n i p e m h a i s i k i m a - y a m i - k a s u

2 p l l s g - c h i l d r e n b e . h u n g r y ( S i o ) N E G - f a i n t / d i e ( S a ) - I N T

' Y o u , m y c h i l d r e n , a r e n o t g o i n g to d i e o f h u n g e r . '

2 1 . 1 2 7 m a t f a m a - r e n a - k a d e - m h a

b e . g o o d ( S i o ) N E G - f e e l ( S a ) - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S

' ( W e ) d o n ' t feel well.'

U n l i k e A , S a a n d S 0 a r g u m e n t s , t h e Sj 0 a r g u m e n t o f t h e v e r b s o f A a n d B s u b g r o u p s

c a n n o t b e t h e t a r g e t o f a n i m p e r a t i v e . H o w e v e r , if a n Si 0 -type v e r b o f s u b g r o u p B f o r m s

p a r t o f a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n y i m p e r a t i v e is perfectly g r a m m a t i c a l , as in 2 1 . 1 2 8 ,

w i t h a d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e , a n d 2 1 . 1 2 9 , w i t h a p r o h i b i t i v e .

2 1 . 1 2 8 m h a i s i k i d i - y a m i - t u p e

b e . h u n g r y ( S i o ) 3 s g n f - d i e / f a i n t ( S a ) - I M P V . D E T R

'Let h i m d i e o f h u n g e r . '

2 1 . 1 2 9 m h a i d a m h a i s i k i p i - y a m i

P R O H b e . h u n g r y ( S i 0 ) 2sg-die/faint(S a )

' D o n o t d i e o f h u n g e r . '

T h e Sio v e r b s o f s u b g r o u p C (that is, t h e o n e s w h i c h c a n also b e u s e d a s S 0 v e r b s ) ,

c a n o c c u r w i t h d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e , a s illustrated in 2 1 . 1 3 0 , a n d w i t h i m p e r a t i v e 'by

p r o x y ' - s e e 2 1 . 1 3 1 .

2 1 . 1 3 0 n a - n a m a t f a - t u p e

3 p l - O B J g o o d ( S i o ) - I M P V . D E T R

' S e r v e s t h e m right (lit. let it b e g o o d o n t h e m to their d e t r i m e n t ) . '

2 1 . 1 3 1 m a t f a - p i d a n a - n a

g o o d ( S i o ) - I M P V . S E C 3 p l - O B J

'Let it b e g o o d for t h e m ( f o l l o w i n g a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s order).'

T h e y c a n n o t o c c u r w i t h t h e p r o h i b i t i v e , o r a n y o t h e r i m p e r a t i v e .

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 21.5 Grammatical relations 511

T h e m e c h a n i s m s e m p l o y e d for c a u s a t i v i s i n g t h e S i 0 v e r b s o f t h e t h r e e s u b g r o u p s are

different f r o m t h o s e u s e d for c a u s a t i v i s i n g transitive, a c t i v e intransitive a n d stative

v e r b s - s e e S c h e m e 1 3 . 1 .

In a d d i t i o n , all t h e v e r b s o f t h e B s u b g r o u p o f Si 0 v e r b s c a n b e u s e d a s p r e d i c a t e

a r g u m e n t s w i t h o u t b e i n g n o m i n a l i s e d . T h e y c a n also a p p e a r in t w o k i n d s o f alternative

c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( s e e V a n d V I u n d e r C in § 1 2 . 1 . 2 ) .

W e h a v e s e e n t h a t A a n d S a s h a r e a l m o s t all syntactic p r o p e r t i e s in T a r i a n a . A n

e x p l a n a t i o n for this c o u l d b e p r o v i d e d b y t h e fact that m o s t transitive v e r b s in T a r i a n a

c a n b e a l s o u s e d intransitively, a s a c t i v e intransitives.

T h e A , S a a n d S 0 a r g u m e n t s s h a r e t h r e e s y n t a c t i c p r o p e r t i e s , b e s i d e s t h e c a s e - m a r k i n g

for c o r e c o n s t i t u e n t s - t h e s a m e s u b j e c t c o n s t r a i n t in serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s , o p e r a t i o n

o f s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e , a n d i m p e r a t i v e ; t h e s e justify their status a s 'subject'. T h e A , S a a n d

S 0 c a n b e t a r g e t s o f p a s s i v e . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , S 0 v e r b s h a v e a f e w p r o p e r t i e s that set

t h e m a p a r t f r o m A / S a .

T h e s h a r e d p r o p e r t i e s o f A , S a , S 0 a n d Sj 0 v e r b s are sufficient to justify t h e c a t e g o r y

o f 'subject'. T h e Sxo v e r b s m i g h t a p p e a r to b e s o m e w h a t ' p r o b l e m a t i c ' s i n c e o f all t h e

s u b j e c t p r o p e r t i e s i n t h e l a n g u a g e t h e y s h o w s u b j e c t h o o d o n l y t h r o u g h 'the s a m e s u b j e c t

constraint' in serialisation. H o w e v e r , in m a n y l a n g u a g e s (see O n i s h i 2 0 0 1 ) t h e 'strongest'

s u b j e c t p r o p e r t i e s i n c l u d e c o n t r o l o v e r coreferential d e l e t i o n in c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s ,

c o n t r o l o v e r reflexivisation, a n d p i v o t c o n t r o l : t h e y t e n d to b e r e t a i n e d b y n o n -

c a n o n i c a l l y m a r k e d A / S m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s . Serial v e r b s in T a r i a n a

c o v e r t h e f u n c t i o n a l d o m a i n o f c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s in o t h e r l a n g u a g e s (e.g.

c o n s t r u c t i o n s like ' w a n t t o d o s o m e t h i n g ' , o r 'try to d o s o m e t h i n g ' , o r ' b e g i n to d o

s o m e t h i n g ' a r e r e n d e r e d b y serial v e r b s ) . T h e m a i n strategy for r e f l e x i v e s a r e a l s o serial

v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s . K e e p i n g in m i n d that T a r i a n a h a s n o p i v o t c o n s t r a i n t s , this i m p l i e s

that t h e s a m e s u b j e c t c o n s t r a i n t d o e s i n d e e d c o v e r t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n a l d o m a i n a s a

n u m b e r o f o t h e r cross-linguistically 'strong' s u b j e c t p r o p e r t i e s .

A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f transitive, intransitive active (S a ), intransitive stative (S 0 ) a n d

Sio v e r b s w i t h a n o n - c a n o n i c a l l y m a r k e d s u b j e c t s h o w s that t h e Sj 0 a r g u m e n t o f t h e Sj 0 -

t y p e v e r b s c a n i n d e e d b e t r e a t e d a s a distinct s u b t y p e o f S a s part o f t h e g r a m m a t i c a l

r e l a t i o n 'subject'. T h e d a t a o f T a r i a n a s h o w , h o w e v e r , that t h e b e h a v i o u r i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f

t h e Sio a r g u m e n t o f t h e t h r e e distinct s u b g r o u p s o f t h e Sj 0 -type v e r b s m a y p r o v i d e

e v i d e n c e i n f a v o u r o f a possibility o f further 'splitting' o f t h e c a t e g o r y o f Sj 0 .

2 1 . 5 . 2 Objects a n d o b l i q u e s

O b j e c t s a n d o b l i q u e s c a n t a k e t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e m a r k e r - n u k u a n d , if

e x p r e s s e d w i t h a p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n , t h e n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e -na. O b l i q u e c o n s i t u e n t s a l s o

t a k e o b l i q u e c a s e m a r k e r s ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 7).

T h e m a i n d e f i n i t i o n a l p r o p e r t y o f direct o b j e c t s is that t h e y c a n b e targets o f p a s s i v e

( § 1 3 . 1 ) , w h i l e o b l i q u e s c a n n o t b e . W i t h ditransitive v e r b s , t h e 'gift' - b u t n o t t h e

r e c i p i e n t - c a n b e t h e target o f p a s s i v e , a n d t h u s fulfils t h e c o n d i t i o n s for b e i n g a 'true'

direct o b j e c t - s e e e x a m p l e s 1 3 . 7 - 8 . In d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s , d i s c u s s e d u n d e r C in

§ 7 . 5 , o n l y o n e c o n s t i t u e n t , t h e 'possessed', c a n b e t h e target o f a p a s s i v e - s e e 7 . 7 5 .

V e r b s w i t h d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a n i n s t a n c e o f ditransitive

v e r b s .

O b l i q u e c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n refer t o (i) location, (ii) i n s t r u m e n t s a n d a c c o m p a n i m e n t ,

(iii) a s s i s t a n c e a n d r e a s o n , a n d (iv) t i m e . T h e l o c a t i v e c a s e -se is u s e d to m a r k l o c a t i o n

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 5 1 2 21 Clause types and other syntactic issues

('in', 'at', 'from', to'), w h i l e t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e -ne (-ine w i t h p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s )

c a n m a r k i n s t r u m e n t s , a c c o m p a n i m e n t , a s s i s t a n c e a n d r e a s o n , t i m e , a n d a l s o t h e

l o c a t i o n 'all over', 'all a l o n g ' (see §7.3). A d p o s i t i o n a l N P s are also e m p l o y e d w i t h

l o c a t i o n a l , c o m i t a t i v e a n d o t h e r m e a n i n g s - s e e § 1 1 . 1 1 .

T h e s t a n d a r d o f c o m p a r i s o n is a n a d d i t i o n a l k i n d o f o b l i q u e . T h e s t a n d a r d o f

c o m p a r i s o n g e t s m a r k e d b y o n e o f t w o p o s t - p o s i t i o n s : -waraka 'less than', f r o m t h e v e r b

• w a r a k a ' r e d u c e , d i m i n i s h ' , o r -yena ' m o r e than', f r o m -yena 'pass, o v e r c o m e , surpass'.

U n l i k e a n y o t h e r o b l i q u e c o n s t i t u e n t s a n d o t h e r d e r i v e d a d p o s i t i o n s , t h e s t a n d a r d o f

c o m p a r i s o n c a n n o t t a k e a n y c a s e - m a r k i n g . In 2 1 . 1 3 2 ' m o r e than' is u s e d w i t h a

p r o n o m i n a l a r g u m e n t .

2 1 . 1 3 2 p h i a - n e [ n u - y e n a - k a ] k a r u n a ,

y o u - F O C . A / S 1s g - o v e r c o m e - R E C . P . V I S d a n g e r o u s

k a y u m a k a n u - e k u n u - d a w a - m a h k a

s o l s g - r u n l s g - h i d e - R E C . P . N O N V I S

' Y o u a r e m o r e d a n g e r o u s t h a n m e , a n d so I r a n a n d h i d f r o m you.'

In 1 1 . 7 5 - 6 ' m o r e than' a n d 'less than' are u s e d w i t h N P a r g u m e n t s ; t h e c o m p a r a t i v e

a d p o s i t o n s t a k e t h e indefinite p e r s o n /- c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g m a r k e r s i n c e their a r g u m e n t is

p r e p o s e d . Y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s t e n d n o t to u s e t h e indefinite prefix w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e

a d p o s i t i o n s t h u s m a k i n g t h e m m o r e like v e r b s . T h i s is illustrated in 2 1 . 1 3 3 a n d 2 1 . 1 3 4 .

2 1 . 1 3 3 i n a r u [tfari d i - y e n a - i h a ] d u h p a n i - n a k a

w o m a n m a n 3 s g n f - o v e r c o m e - A P P R O X 3 s g f + w o r k - P R E S . V I S

' A w o m a n w o r k s slightly m o r e t h a n a m a n . '

2 1 . 1 3 4 Y a s e n e y a r u p e d i - y e n a - m h a T a l i a

T u c a n o l a n g u a g e 3 s g n f - o v e r c o m e - P R E S . N O N V I S T a r i a n a

y a r u p e v o g a l d i - d e

l a n g u a g e v o w e l 3 s g n f - h a v e

' T a r i a n a h a s m o r e v o w e l s t h a n T u c a n o . '

U n l i k e c o m p a r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s , s u p e r l a t i v e s are e x p r e s s e d w i t h serial v e r b s , as

s h o w n in 1 8 . 4 6 ( d i s c u s s e d § 1 8 . 3 ) . H o w e v e r , a c l a u s e c o n t a i n i n g a s u p e r l a t i v e serial v e r b

c a n b e j u x t a p o s e d w i t h a n o t h e r c l a u s e that in fact i m p l i e s c o m p a r i s o n . In 2 1 . 1 3 5 , a

s u p e r l a t i v e serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n is u s e d in t h e first c l a u s e - t h e c l a u s e that f o l l o w s

i m p l i e s t h a t t h e m a n w a s e a t i n g s l o w e r t h a n t h e j a g u a r a n d this is w h y h e lost t h e

c o m p e t i t i o n .

2 1 . 1 3 5 d i h a y a w i [ d i - n h a k e n a n i

A R T j a g u a r 3 s g n f - e a t b e . q u i c k

d i - y e n a - p i d a n a - n i k i ] d i h a n a w i k i - n e

3 s g n f - p a s s - R E M . P . R E P - C O M P L A R T m a n - F O C . A / S

t u i k i - t i k i - p i d a n a niiiha

l i t t l e - l i t t l e - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + e a t

' T h e j a g u a r ate e x t r e m e l y q u i c k l y , t h e m a n ate little b y little.'

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 21.5 Grammatical relations 513

W e h y p o t h e s i s e t h a t t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e indefinite prefix /- in c o m p a r a t i v e

c o n s t r u c t i o n s like t h e o n e s in 2 1 . 1 3 3 - 4 c o u l d b e i n f l u e n c e d b y a n a n a l o g y to s u p e r l a t i v e

serial c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h t h e v e r b - y e n a , as in 2 1 . 1 3 5 .

C o m p a r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h a n o v e r t s t a n d a r d o f c o m p a r i s o n are c o m p a r a t i v e l y

r a r e in t e x t s a n d in d i s c o u r s e . A n u m b e r o f o t h e r m e a n s - w h i c h c a n b e t e r m e d

' c o m p a r a t i v e strategies' - are u s e d instead. T h e s e i n c l u d e iha ' a p p r o x i m a t i v e ' u s e d w i t h

a d j e c t i v e s - s e e d i s c u s s i o n in § 3 . 1 . 3 - o r t h e u s e o f t h e prefixless v e r b litena 'be m o r e ' ,

a s in 1 8 . 5 9 a n d 2 1 . 1 3 6 .

2 1 . 1 3 6 d u - n a - s i n a litena-niki-pita

3 s g f - w a n t - R E M . P . I N F R b e . m o r e - C O M P L - A G A I N

' S h e w a n t e d m o r e ( t h a n b e f o r e ) again.'

T h e a p p r o x i m a t i v e - i h a c a n b e u s e d in a c o m p a r a t i v e m e a n i n g o n a v e r b , a s in

2 1 . 1 3 7 .

2 1 . 1 3 7 w e s i r i p i - a p i - r u k u - i - t a y h a

inaja.fruit 2 s g - g i v e 2 s g - g o . d o w n - C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 + A P P R O X

' G i v e m e s o m e m o r e inaja fruit ( f r o m t h e tree).'

A n o t h e r w a y o f e x p r e s s i n g a c o m p a r a t i v e m e a n i n g is b y u s i n g a n a d j e c t i v e referring

to c h a n g e a b l e states, e.g. 'strong' as in 2 1 . 1 3 8 , f r o m a story told b y J o s e M a n o e l Brito.

T h i s e x a m p l e c o m e s from a story a b o u t a r u n n i n g c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n a d e e r a n d a

turtle.

2 1 . 1 3 8 h a w w a s a nai d i - a - p i d a n a

O K let's.go c o u s i n 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

d i - d u w e - r i - n u k u k w a n a

3 s g n f - m a i r i g e a b l e . r e l a t i v e - M A S C - T O P . N O N . A / S w h o

k i a k u n e k u - m h a d e d i - a - p i d a n a

s t r o n g 3 p l + r u n - F U T 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

' " O K , let's g o , c o u s i n , " said (the turtle) to his relative (deer), " ( t h e n w e will

s e e ) w h o w i l l b e s t r o n g e r (lit. s t r o n g ) in r u n n i n g , " h e said.'

In t h e d i a l e c t o f P e r i q u i t o s r e p e t i t i o n a p p e a r s to b e e m p l o y e d to e x p r e s s a

c o m p a r a t i v e m e a n i n g , as s h o w n in 2 1 . 1 3 9 a n d 2 1 . 1 4 0 , a g a i n f r o m a story a b o u t a

r u n n i n g c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n a d e e r a n d a turtle told b y M a r i n o M u n i z ( T 5 . 1 5 ) . In b o t h

e x a m p l e s t h e n a r r a t o r in fact e m p l o y s r e p e t i t i o n (in s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) a n d a g r a d a b l e

a d j e c t i v a l r o o t k i a k u 'strong' ( u n d e r l i n e d ) s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ; 2 1 . 1 3 9 also c o n t a i n s a

d i s j u n c t i o n , w i t h a b o r r o w e d m a r k e r o 'or', t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e c o m p a r i s o n .

2 1 . 1 3 9 k w a n a - n h a [ k i a k u k i a k u - m h a d e ]

w h o - I N T E R . P R E S . V I S s t r o n g s t r o n g - F U T

d i - a - p i d a n a , o p h i a - n h e k i a k u , o

3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P o r y o u - F O C . A / S s t r o n g o r

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 5 1 4 2 1 C l a u s e types a n d o t h e r s y n t a c t i c i s s u e s

n h u a - n h e [ k i a k u - k a k i a k u - m h a d e ] d i - a - p i r e n a

I - F O C . A / S s t r o n g - S U B s t r o n g - F U T 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

' " ( W e w i l l s e e ) w h o is stronger," h e (turtle) said, "or y o u are stronger, o r I

w i l l b e stronger," h e said.'

2 1 . 1 4 0 m a - t h a r a k w a n a - n h e [ i - e k u - k a

c o m e . o n - P R E C w h o - F O C . A / S I N D F - r u n - S U B

i-eku] k i a k u - m h a d e

I N D F - r u n s t r o n g - F U T

' C o m e o n p l e a s e , w h o will b e s t r o n g e r in r u n n i n g ? '

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , s i m p l e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f c l a u s e s c a n b e u s e d , a s in 2 1 . 1 4 1 - 2 . T h i s

s t r a t e g y is p r e f e r r e d b y o l d e r s p e a k e r s , s u c h a s C a n d i d o Brito. H e is c o m p a r i n g m a n i o c

b e e r a n d t h e traditional m a n i o c d r i n k kahpi w i t h r e s p e c t to their strength.

2 1 . 1 4 1 a p a l e - s i n a k a p u a - n i k i n a - n a

d i f f e r e n t - R E M . P . I N F R m a k e . d r u n k - C O M P L 3 p l - O B J

n e - s i n a n a - n a h i k u hi p a y a r u

t h e n - R E M . P . I N F R 3 p l - O B J like.this D E M : A N I M m a n i o c . b e e r

k a y u - k a d e - m h a d i h a h i k a h p i

l i k e - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S it D E M : A N I M m a n i o c . d r i n k

'It ( r i t u a l m a n i o c d r i n k kahpi) m a k e s t h e m d r u n k in a different w a y , it is n o t

like m a n i o c b e e r , t h e kahpi drink.'

I n 2 1 . 1 4 2 h e e x t e n d s t h e c o m p a r i s o n to t h e E u r o p e a n - i n t r o d u c e d c a n e w h i s k y , w h i c h

is t h e s t r o n g e s t d r i n k o f all. H e u s e s a c o n v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e v e r b 'pass' (in

s q u a r e b r a c k e t s ) t o e x p r e s s t h e c o m p a r i s o n (the v e r b 'pass' f o r m s a serial v e r b

c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h t h e v e r b 'throw' - s e e § 1 8 . 2 ) . T h e s t a n d a r d o f c o m p a r i s o n , t h e kahpi

d r i n k , is m a r k e d w i t h i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e . T h i s u s a g e o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e is v e r y rare.

2 1 . 1 4 2 d i h a - e h k w a p i hi p a y a r u h i

A R T - W O R L D / D A Y D E M : A N I M m a n i o c . b e e r D E M : A N I M

y a n a k a pa-ira-ri p u a y a - n a

c a n e . w h i s k y I M P - d r i n k - C O N V d i f f e r e n t / a d v e r s e - R E M . P . V I S

d i h a - m i s i n i d i h a - k h a - n e d i h a

i t - T O O . P A R T . C O N T R A R T - C L : C U R V - I N S A R T

k a h p i n a - n i p e - n e [ k a p u a - r i

m a n i o c . d r i n k 3 p l + g o - N O M - I N S m a k e . d r u n k - C O N V

[ d i - y e n a d i - p e - n a - n i k i ] ]

3 s g n f - p a s s 3 s g n f - t h r o w - R E M . P . V I S - C O M P L

' T h e s e d a y s d r i n k i n g m a n i o c b e e r (or) c a n e w h i s k y is q u i t e different ( f r o m

d r i n k i n g t h e traditional kahpi); it ( w h i s k y ) is m u c h s t r o n g e r t h a n that o n e ,

k a h p i , m a d e f r o m a c u r v e d (vine).'

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 2 2

S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a n d c l a u s e l i n k i n g

S u b o r d i n a t e , o r n o n - f i n i t e , c l a u s e s i n T a r i a n a are t h e m a i n d e v i c e u s e d for c l a u s e

l i n k i n g . S y n t a c t i c a l l y , t h e y are a d j u n c t s t o t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e , e x p r e s s i n g

t e m p o r a l a n d / o r c a u s a l m e a n i n g s . T h e y fall into t h r e e g r o u p s . S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s

m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g enclitics h a v e a n u m b e r o f p r o p e r t i e s that set t h e m a p a r t f r o m

o t h e r c l a u s e t y p e s - s e e § 2 2 . 1 . S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h t h e s e q u e n t i a l enclitic

- k a s h o w s o m e similarities t o c l a u s e s d i s c u s s e d in § 2 2 . 1 . T h e i r specific p r o p e r t i e s are

o u t l i n e d i n § 2 2 . 2 . S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s c o n t a i n i n g a d p o s i t i o n s are a s e p a r a t e t y p e

d i s c u s s e d i n § 2 2 . 3 . In t h e final s e c t i o n o f this c h a p t e r I s u m m a r i s e t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f

different k i n d s o f s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f c l a u s e l i n k i n g in T a r i a n a .

P u r p o s i v e c l a u s e s , w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e yet a n o t h e r t y p e o f s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e , w e r e

d i s c u s s e d i n § 1 6 . 7 .

2 2 . 1 C l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g enclitics

T a r i a n a h a s a l a r g e n u m b e r o f s e q u e n c i n g enclitics w h i c h i n d i c a t e relative t e n s e , that is,

s i m u l t a n e i t y o r p r e c e d e n c e w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e a c t i o n o r state e x p r e s s e d in t h e m a i n

c l a u s e , a n d t o t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s that e x p r e s s r e a s o n o r c a u s e . C l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h

s e q u e n c i n g enclitics b e h a v e like n o m i n a l a d j u n c t s in that t h e y o c c u p y t h e slot o f a n

o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t o f t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e (see C h a p t e r s 2 1 a n d 2 5 o n

c o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r ) . T h e y c a n t a k e n o m i n a l c a s e m a r k e r s - n u k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' a n d

-se 'locative'. T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e l o c a t i v e h e r e is slightly different f r o m t h e l o c a t i v e

u s e d w i t h N P s : w h e n u s e d w i t h s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , it m e a n s 'at t h e t i m e o f o r at t h e

v e r y m o m e n t after X ' . S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s c a n n o t t a k e a n y o t h e r n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y ,

n o r c a n t h e y b e m o d i f i e d o r c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h N P s o r n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s in t h e s a m e

f u n c t i o n . In this t h e y differ f r o m n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s - s e e further d i s c u s s i o n in § 2 0 . 2 . 5 .

S o m e , b u t n o t all, s e q u e n c i n g clitics are s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e - s e n s i t i v e , that is, their u s e

d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r their s u b j e c t ( A / S ) is t h e s a m e a s that o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e . S w i t c h

r e f e r e n c e is o n e o f t h e criterial s u b j e c t p r o p e r t i e s in T a r i a n a (see C h a p t e r 2 1 ) . S i n c e

s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e is n o t f o u n d in a n y o t h e r A r a w a k l a n g u a g e o f t h e U p p e r R i o N e g r o a r e a

a n d is w i d e s p r e a d i n t h e E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s , it is likely to h a v e e n t e r e d T a r i a n a a s

t h e result o f areal diffusion.

S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g enclitics c a n n o t h a v e i n d e p e n d e n t

s p e c i f i c a t i o n for t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y ; h o w e v e r , t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k i n g enclitics

o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e c a n a t t a c h to a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e , j u s t as t h e y c a n g o o n t o a n y o t h e r

o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t in a c l a u s e . C o n s t i t u e n t o r d e r in s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s o f this t y p e is

u s u a l l y p r e d i c a t e - f i n a l .

S w i t c h r e f e r e n c e - s e n s i t i v e s e q u e n c i n g enclitics a r e d i s c u s s e d in § 2 2 . 1 . 1 , a n d all t h e

o t h e r s e q u e n c i n g enclitics are c o n s i d e r e d in § 2 2 . 1 . 2 .

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 5 1 6 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

2 2 . 1 . 1 S w i t c h reference-sensitive s e q u e n c i n g enclitics

S w i t c h r e f e r e n c e - s e n s i t i v e enclitics c a n m a r k t h e a c t i o n a s ( A ) p r i o r to that o f t h e m a i n

c l a u s e , o r a s ( B ) s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h that o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e . T h e y are s h o w n in T a b l e

2 2 . 1 .

T A B L E 2 2 . 1 S W I T C H R E F E R E N C E - S E N S I T I V E S E Q U E N C I N G E N C L I T I C S

S A M E S U B J E C T D I F F E R E N T S U B J E C T

P R I O R -hyume/-yuhme 'after; b e c a u s e ' -kayami 'after'

- n i s a w a , - k a n a d a , - n i p u a , -piyana,
S I M U L T A N E O U S - n i k h e , -kakari 'during, w h i l e '
- k a r i k u , -kapua 'while, d u r i n g '

A . A C T I O N P R I O R T O T H A T O F T H E M A I N C L A U S E . T h e s a m e s u b j e c t s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e -

s e n s i t i v e enclitic, - h y u m e 'after, b e c a u s e ' , is t h e result o f g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n o f a stative

(S 0 ) v e r b w h y u m e 'be o v e r , b e last' (see d i s c u s s i o n in A i k h e n v a l d 2 0 0 0 b ) in a v e r b

c o m p o u n d i n g s t r u c t u r e o r in a serial v e r b . T h a t -hyume r e q u i r e s t h e s a m e s u b j e c t in b o t h

c l a u s e s m a y b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e s a m e s u b j e c t c o n s t r a i n t in serial v e r b s a n d v e r b

c o m p o u n d i n g .

In t h e c o u r s e o f g r a m m a t i c a l i s a t i o n f r o m a full r o o t to a n enclitic, -hyume u n d e r w e n t

a p h o n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e w h e r e b y it l o s t p r i m a r y stress f r o m t h e first syllable a n d a c q u i r e d

s e c o n d a r y stress o n t h e final syllable. N o t e that all t h e s e q u e n c i n g enclitics h a v e

s e c o n d a r y stress o n t h e last syllable. T h e enclitic -hyume also u n d e r w e n t p h o n o l o g i c a l

d e p l e t i o n : t h e a s p i r a t e d w h in whyume w a s s i m p l i f i e d to h. In r a p i d s p e e c h -hyume

u n d e r g o e s further p h o n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e a n d d e p l e t i o n , n a m e l y , m e t a t h e s i s in t h e first

syllable a n d t h e l o s s o f h . It is t h e n p r o n o u n c e d a s -yuhme or -yume. 2 2 . 1 s h o w s t h e u s e

of w h y u m e a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t S 0 p r e d i c a t e .

2 2 . 1 h i w h y u m e - n a k a

this b e o v e r / l a s t - P R E S . V I S

'This is all (or: this is over).'

Its u s e a s a s e q u e n c i n g enclitic is illustrated b e l o w .

2 2 . 2 [inafi n a - m a t f i k a - h v u m e l n h e m a t h a n i - p i d a n a

m u c u r a . r a t 3 p l - b e b a d + T H - A F T E R : S S 3 p l + s h o u t - R E M . P . R E P

'After t h e y t r a n s f o r m e d into m u c u r a rats, t h e y shouted.'

O n e p r e d i c a t e c a n c o n t a i n t w o different enclitics w h i c h b o t h c o m e f r o m

g r a m m a t i c a l i s e d v e r b c o m p o u n d e d structures. E x a m p l e 2 2 . 3 illustrates t h e A k t i o n s a r t

enclitic - h a l a ' o p e n s p a c e ' (see § 1 5 . 2 ) a n d t h e s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e - s e n s i t i v e -hyume w h i c h

o c c u p i e s t h e final p o s i t i o n . T h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k e r a p p e a r s t w i c e in t h e s e n t e n c e :

o n c e o n t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e , a n d o n c e o n t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n

c l a u s e (repetition o f t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k e r s is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2 5 ) .

2 2 . 3 [ d i h a a m a n a - p i d a n a n a w i k i - y a - m a k a - n u k u

A R T d o l p h i n - R E M . P . R E P p e r s o n - P O S S - C L . C L O T H - T O P . N O N . A / S

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 2 2 . 1 C l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g e n c l i t i c s 5 1 7

d i - n a - h a l a - h y u m e - p i d a n a l n a w i k i

3 s g n f - p u t . o n - O P E N . S P A C E - A F T E R : S S - R E M . P . R E P p e r s o n

d i - m a t f i - k a d i - n u d i - n u - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - b a d - T H E M E 3 s g n f - g o . u p 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P

'After t h e d o l p h i n p u t o n t h e h u m a n shirt ( o n t h e o p e n s u r f a c e o f h i s c h e s t ) , h e

t u r n e d into a m a n a n d c a m e u p s t r e a m . '

T h e enclitic - h y u m e c a n a c q u i r e a n a d d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g o f ' b e c a u s e , since', as in 1 3 . 2 0

a n d 2 2 . 4 .

2 2 . 4 [ y a r u - m a k a - s i k h e p a d i - k a - h y u m e - p i d a n a ]

t h i n g - C L : C L O T H - N P O S S R E L + w a s h 3 s g n f - s e e - A F T E R : S S - R E M . P . R E P

d i - d e n a d i - a d i - k a

3 s g n f - p a d d l e 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - s e e

d i t u - p u - p i d a n a d i - y e k a - p i d a n a - n i k i

3 s g n f + d a u g h t e r - A U G - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - k n o w - R E M . P . R E P - C O M P L

' B e c a u s e h e s a w s o m e o n e w h o w a s w a s h i n g c l o t h e s , h e p a d d l e d to see, h e really

r e c o g n i s e d h i s d a u g h t e r . '

A c l a u s e c o n t a i n i n g - h y u m e c a n f o l l o w t h e m a i n c l a u s e , as in 2 2 . 5 .

2 2 . 5 d i - a - p i d a n a [ d i h a n a w i k i - n u k u d i - k a - h y u m e ]

3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P A R T m a n - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s e e - A F T E R : S S

' H e (evil spirit) s p o k e , after h e s a w t h e m a n . '

A - h y u m e c l a u s e h a r d l y e v e r t a k e s t h e t o p i c a l - n u k u m a r k i n g . T h e r e are a f e w

e x a m p l e s w h e r e it t a k e s l o c a t i v e -se ( m e a n i n g 'the v e r y m o m e n t after'), a s in 2 2 . 6 . In

this e x a m p l e t h e - h y u m e c l a u s e c o n t a i n s a -ka c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e (see § 2 4 . 1 ) .

2 2 . 6 [ [ k a y d i - a - k a ] d h i m a - h y u m e - s e - p i d a n a ]

t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - S U B 3 s g n f + h e a r - A F T E R : S S - L O C - R E M . P . R E P

d i - n a d i - k a l i t e - n h a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f - t e l l - P A U S

' T h e v e r y m o m e n t after h e h e a r d h i m s a y t h u s , h e told h i m (the n e w s ) . '

T h e different s u b j e c t s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e - s e n s i t i v e enclitic m e a n i n g 'after' is -kayami

( a l s o p r o n o u n c e d a s - k a h a m i o r a s -kayami). In 2 2 . 7 t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y m a r k i n g o f

t h e w h o l e s e n t e n c e g o e s o n t o t h e s u b o r d i n a t e clause.

2 2 . 7 [ h i n i p u k u - s e d i - a - k a y a m i - p i d a n a ] d i - n a

g a r d e n - L O C 3 s g n f - g o - A F T E R : D S - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - O B J

d i h a d i - a di-sata d h i m a

h e 3 s g n f - s a y 3 s g n f - g r e e t 3 s g n f + h e a r

'After h e (the C r e a t o r o f M a n i o c ) w e n t to t h e g a r d e n , h e (the u n c l e ) a s k e d h i m (the

C r e a t o r ' s son).'

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 5 1 8 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

A c l a u s e m a r k e d b y -kayami c a n g o in b e t w e e n c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e (just

like a n y o t h e r o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t ) , a s in 2 2 . 8 w h e r e it f o l l o w s t h e o b j e c t a n d in 2 2 . 9

w h e r e it f o l l o w s t h e subject.

2 2 . 8 n e : r i - n u k u [ n a n a h a - d o d u - a - k a y a m i ]

d e e r - T O P . N O N . A / S t h e y p a r e n t - F E M 3 s g f - g o - A F T E R : D S

n a h a y a n a p e - y a n a - p e - h a n a - w a s a

t h e y c h i l d - P E J - P L - P A U S 3 p l - u n t i e

n a - r u k u - i - p i d a n a n h e t a n a - m a n i k a

3 p l - g o . d o w n - C A U S - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + t a k e 3 p l - p l a y

n a - y a - n h i d i h a n e : r i - t i k i - n u k u

3 p l - s t a y - A N T A R T d e e r - D I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

T h e d e e r , after their m o t h e r w e n t off, t h e n a u g h t y c h i l d r e n u n t i e d , p u t (the little

d e e r ) d o w n , t o o k ( h i m ) a w a y a n d p l a y e d w i t h t h e little deer.'

2 2 . 9 d i h a w a r i k i r i - p i d a n a [ d i h a ha-nifi h a - d o

A R T y o u n g . m a n - R E M . P . R E P h e p a r e n t - M A S C p a r e n t - F E M

d i - y a m i - k a y a m i ] k h e r u n i k a n a d i - r e n a d i - y a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - d i e - A F T E R : D S u n h a p p y 3sgnf-feel 3 s g n f - c r y - R E M . P . R E P

T h e y o u n g m a n after h i s father a n d m o t h e r h a d d i e d felt u n h a p p y a n d cried.'

A c l a u s e m a r k e d w i t h -kayami c a n b e c a s e - m a r k e d . In 2 2 . 1 0 it t a k e s - n u k u s i n c e it is

t o p i c a l . T h e u s e o f a different s u b j e c t enclitic s h o w s that t h e c o n s t i t u e n t n u - n a 'to m e ' ,

m a r k e d w i t h t h e o b j e c t c a s e , is n o t t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e - s e e the d i s c u s s i o n in

§ 2 1 . 5 . 1 .

2 2 . 1 0 [ n u - i n u - k a y a m i - n u k u ] n u - n a m a t f a - m h a d e

1 s g - k i l l - A F T E R : D S - T O P . N O N . A / S 1s g - O B J g o o d - F U T

'After I kill ( m y e n e m y ) , it w i l l b e g o o d for m e . '

I n 2 2 . 1 1 a c l a u s e m a r k e d w i t h -kayami t a k e s t h e l o c a t i v e -se\ t h e r e c e n t p a s t

c o n d i t i o n a l is u s e d to refer t o s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a s a l m o s t h a p p e n e d b u t didn't q u i t e

h a p p e n . T h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e c o m e s after t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e .

2 2 . 1 1 n u h u a p a i t a - n e n u - k a p i n u - t u t u - t u k i - k a

I o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M - I N S l s g - h a n d 1 s g - t i e - D I M - S U B

n h u a p i n e - d a n u - k a p i n u - t u t u - t h a - s i k a

I 2 s g + I N S - U N C E R T l s g - h a n d l s g - t i e - F R - R E C . P . I N F R

p h i a [ n u - t u t u - k a y a m i - s e - b o h t a - k a ] p i - u k a p h i a

y o u l s g - t i e - A F T E R : D S - L O C - C O N D - R E C . P 2 s g - a r r i v e y o u

'I h a v e a l m o s t m a r r i e d s o m e o n e else, it w a s n o t certain w h e t h e r I m i g h t m a r r y y o u

( o r n o t ) (lit. tie h a n d s ) , t h e v e r y m o m e n t after y o u h a v e a l m o s t a r r i v e d I c o u l d

h a v e a l r e a d y g o t m a r r i e d (to s o m e o n e else).'

T h e - k a y a m i c l a u s e s are s o m e w h a t u n u s u a l in that t h e y c a n t a k e a d i m i n u t i v e m a r k e r .

I n 2 2 . 1 2 it is t h e n o m i n a l m a r k e r -tuki, a n d in 2 2 . 1 3 it is t h e m a r k e r -tiki w h i c h is m o s t l y

u s e d w i t h v e r b s i n t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect b u t is u s e d w i t h n o u n s in t h e P e r i q u i t o s

dialect. T h e t w o m a r k e r s a p p e a r to b e in free v a r i a t i o n in t h e c o n t e x t o f -kayami. A l l t h e

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 2 2 . 1 C l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g e n c l i t i c s 5 1 9

e x a m p l e s o f d i m i n u t i v e s w i t h - k a y a m i c o m e f r o m h i g h l y a r c h a i c n a r r a t i v e s b y A m e r i c o

B r i t o w h o s e l e x i c o n a n d g r a m m a r s h o w s a f e w o t h e r affinities w i t h t h e P e r i q u i t o s

dialect (e.g. - s u l a 'yet' i n s t e a d o f S a n t a R o s a -sida\ -kite 'tell' i n s t e a d o f S a n t a R o s a

-kalite).

2 2 . 1 2 hi y a n a p e h a - d o ira-ka-si-tuki-tuki

D E M i A N I M c h i l d r e n p a r e n t - F E M d r i n k - T H E M - N O M - D I M - D I M

d u - n i d u - w h e d u - m a t f i k e t a

3 s g f - d o 3 s g f - s i t + C A U S 3 s g f - b a d + T H + C A U S

d u - w h e - t a [ d u h a h i - k a y u

3 s g f - s i t + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 s h e D E M : A N I M - t h u s

d u - n i - k a y a m i - t u k i ] d i h a n u - k a n u - i d o a - n e

3 s g f - d o - A F T E R : D S - D I M h e l s g - s e e 1 s g - n e p h e w - I N S

n u - k a l i t e n u - n i n u - w h a - n a k a

lsg-tell l s g - d o l s g - s i t - P R E S . V I S

' T h e m o t h e r o f t h e c h i l d r e n p r e p a r e d (lit. m a d e - m a d e s i t - m a d e g o b a d ) a little

d r i n k , after s h e d i d like this a bit, I l o o k e d , w i t h m y n e p h e w , I a m t a l k i n g sitting.'

2 2 . 1 3 n u - i d o a - n e k a y u [ n u - a - k a y a m i - t i k i ]

1 s g - n e p h e w - P L like 1 s g - s a y - A F T E R : D S - D I M

'After I h a v e s p o k e n , m y n e p h e w s (are g o i n g to b e ) like this.'

N a r r a t i v e s t o l d b y A m e r i c o B r i t o are t h e o n l y o n e s in w h i c h -kayami is u s e d w h e n

t h e s u b j e c t s o f t h e m a i n a n d o f t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e are t h e s a m e - a s in 2 2 . 1 4 . T h e s e

n a r r a t i v e s , all o f w h i c h a r e a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g feast r e m e m b e r e d b y A m e r i c o a s a n

e y e w i t n e s s , a r e h i g h t l y a r c h a i c . M o r e o v e r , e x a m p l e s 2 2 . 1 2 - 1 4 are r e p e a t e d a l m o s t w o r d -

f o r - w o r d in all h i s n a r r a t i v e s a b o u t t h e O f f e r i n g feast, a n d t h e y a p p e a r to h a v e a

f o r m u l a i c c h a r a c t e r : this is w h a t t h e M a s t e r o f t h e H o u s e u s e d to s a y to h i s g u e s t s o n

this o c c a s i o n . T h i s u n u s u a l f u n c t i o n o f -kayami in t h e s e texts s u p p o r t s t h e h y p o t h e s i s

that s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e in T a r i a n a is a r e c e n t feature diffused f r o m E a s t T u c a n o l a n g u a g e s .

2 2 . 1 4 h i k a y u - w a n i - t i k i n u - a n u - s a p e

D E M . A N I M t h u s - E M P H - D I M l s g - g o lsg-tell

n u - k a m a - d e n h u a n u - a ,

l s g - b e . d r u n k - F U T . C E R T I l s g - g o

[ n u - w h a - k a y a m i - t i k i - k a ] n u - k e s i - p e

1 s g - s i t - A F T E R : D S - D I M - R E C . P . V I S 1 s g - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - P L

' T h i s is h o w I will talk really a bit, I will g e t d r u n k , I h a v e g o n e o n (talking), after I

sat d o w n for a bit, m y relatives.'

B . A C T I O N S I M U L T A N E O U S W I T H T H A T O F T H E M A I N C L A U S E . T h e s a m e s u b j e c t s w i t c h

r e f e r e n c e - s e n s i t i v e enclitic is - n i k h e illustrated in 2 2 . 1 5 . In all t h e e x a m p l e s in t h e

c o r p u s t h e - n i k h e c l a u s e s a r e p r e p o s e d t o t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a n d t h e y a p p e a r n o t to t a k e

a n y c a s e - m a r k i n g .

2 2 . 1 5 [ d i - w a p a - n i k h e ] a m a k u - s e d i - n u

3 s g n f - w a i t - W H I L E : S S h a m m o c k - L O C 3 s g n f - g o . u p

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 5 2 0 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

d i - k w a d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - h a n g . i n . h a m m o c k 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

' W h i l e h e w a s w a i t i n g , h e w a s l y i n g in his h a m m o c k , h e lay in his h a m m o c k . '

T h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d different-subject enclitic w i t h m e a n i n g 'while, d u r i n g ' is

- n i s a w a . I n 2 2 . 1 6 t h e - n i s a w a c l a u s e is p r e p o s e d to t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a n d in 2 2 . 1 7 it

o c c u r s p o s t p o s e d .

2 2 . 1 6 [ k a r a k a d i - a p u a - n i s a w a ] p e d a r ia-pe

r o o s t e r 3 s g n f - c r o w - W H I L E : D S o l d - P L

n a - p i t a - s i n a n a - y a - n h i u p i t h a - n u k u

3 p l - b a t h e - R E M . P . I N F R 3 p l - s t a y - A N T o l d + F R - T O P . N O N . A / S

'In t h e o l d e n d a y s o l d p e o p l e b a t h e d w h e n t h e r o o s t e r w a s c r o w i n g . '

In 2 2 . 1 7 , t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e - n i s a w a c l a u s e is coreferential w i t h t h e a r g u m e n t o f t h e

p o s t p o s i t i o n -dalipa 'close (to t h e m ) ' . T h i s s e n t e n c e also c o n t a i n s a s e q u e n t i a l c l a u s e

m a r k e d w i t h - k a ( s e e § 2 2 . 2 ) w h i c h h a s t h e s a m e m e a n i n g a s t h e - n i s a w a c l a u s e .

2 2 . 1 7 n a - n u n a - y h a n a - t h a k a n a - n u te

3 p l - c o m e 3 p l - s w i m 3 p l - c r o s s 3 p l - c o m e until

n a - d a l i p a - s e [ d e p i h a n a - p i t a - n i s a w a ]

3 p l - c l o s e - L O C n i g h t + A P P R O X 3 p l - b a t h e - W H I L E : D S

n a - n u n a - i n e - p i d a n a [na-pita-ka]

3 p l - c o m e 3 p l - I N S - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - b a t h e - S U B

T h e y ( t h e T a r i a n a ) c a m e s w i m m i n g c l o s e to t h e m (their e n e m i e s ) w h i l e t h e y (the

e n e m i e s ) w e r e b a t h i n g , t h e T a r i a n a c a m e t o w a r d s t h e m , w h i l e t h e y w e r e bathing.'

A - n i s a w a c l a u s e c a n o c c u r w i t h t h e p o s t p o s i t i o n -mafia 'amidst' a s in 2 2 . 1 8 (see

§ 2 2 . 3 , o n s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h this p o s t p o s i t i o n ) .

2 2 . 1 8 [ d i h a d i m a - n i s a w a mafia] halite

h e 3 s g n f + s l e e p - W H I L E : D S a m i d s t early

i - p e y a - p i d a n a - n h a halia d i - n i t a - p i d a n a - n h a

I N D F - b e f o r e - R E M . P . R E P - P A U S early 3 s g n f - g o . u p + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P - P A U S

'In t h e v e r y m i d d l e o f h i s ( m a n ' s ) s l e e p i n g , b e f o r e d a w n , early h e (spirit) m a d e

( e v e r y o n e ) rise.'

A - n i s a w a c l a u s e c a n b e m a r k e d w i t h t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t c a s e - n u k u , if it

d e s c r i b e s t h e a c t i o n s w h i c h a r e topical for this stretch o f d i s c o u r s e , as in 2 2 . 1 9 . H e r e

w h a t is d i s c u s s e d is t h e son's h i d i n g f r o m s o m e o n e w h o m h e t h o u g h t w a s a n evil spirit.

2 2 . 1 9 [ d i h a k a y u d i - d a w a d i - a - n i s a w a - n u k u ]

h e t h u s 3 s g n f - h i d e 3 s g n f - g o - W H I L E : D S - T O P . N O N . A / S

k a n i - s i k a di-a nu-ri d i - a - p i d a n a

w h e r e - P A S T . I N F R . I N T E R 3 s g n f - g o l s g - s o n 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

' W h i l e h e (the s o n ) w e n t into h i d i n g , h e (father) said, " W h e r e h a s m y s o n g o n e ? " '

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 2 2 . 1 C l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g e n c l i t i c s 5 2 1

If t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e is a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e enclitic

- n i s a w a c a n g o o n t o o n e c o m p o n e n t , w i t h - n u k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' o n t h e o t h e r o n e

(the c a s e - m a r k e r is a l w a y s at t h e e n d o f t h e c l a u s e ) , as in 2 2 . 2 0 .

2 2 . 2 0 [hT-kayu p h i a m a t f a - p u w h i - n i s a w a

D E M : A N I M - t h u s y o u w e l l - b e . h a p p y - W H I L E : D S

p i - w a - n u k u ] w a - n a n a k i

2 s g - b e c o m e - T O P . N O N . A / S l p l - O B J evil.spirit

d i - n h a - t h a m a - n i k i

3 s g n f - e a t - F R + P R E S . N O N V I S - C O M P L

' W h i l e y o u w e r e h a v i n g f u n like this, t h e evil spirit h a s a l m o s t e a t e n u s up.'

A - n i s a w a c l a u s e c a n b e m a r k e d w i t h t h e l o c a t i v e -se, m e a n i n g 'at t h e v e r y m o m e n t

of:

2 2 . 2 1 [ w a - p a t u - n i s a w a - s e ] n h e t a - m i - n a k a

l p l - a r r i v e - W H I L E : D S - L O C 3 p l + b r i n g - N O M . P A S T - P R E S . V I S

' A t t h e v e r y m o m e n t o f o u r arrival, (this w a s t h e p l a c e ) w h e r e t h e y h a d b r o u g h t

(their g o o d s ) . '

A - n i s a w a c l a u s e c a n n o t g o in b e t w e e n t h e s u b j e c t a n d t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n

c l a u s e .

A s y n o n y m o f - n i s a w a i s -kanada; a c c o r d i n g to t h e s p e a k e r s this enclitic is e x t r e m e l y

a r c h a i c . It is v e r y rare a n d o c c u r s o n l y in h i g h l y traditional n a r r a t i v e s - s e e 2 2 . 2 2 .

2 2 . 2 2 [ d i h a d i m a - k a n a d a ] n h e na: d i h a - p a

h e 3 s g n f + s l e e p - W H I L E : D S 3 p l + e n t e r 3 p l + g o A R T - C L : P A I R

s o m e - p a - n u k u n a : - k h a n i h o t h o n h e t a - p i d a n a

m a i n - C L : P A I R - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l + g o - A W A Y a w a y 3 p l + t a k e - R E M . P . R E P

' W h i l e h e w a s a s l e e p , t h e y t o o k a w a y t h e m a i n p a i r ( o f earrings).'

A n o t h e r s y n o n y m o f - n i s a w a is - n i p u a , a n e x t r e m e l y rare s e q u e n c i n g enclitic w h i c h

a p p e a r s o n l y in v e r y traditional texts, as in 2 2 . 2 3 .

2 2 . 2 3 [ d i - k a m a - n i p u a ] n a h a t u m e - n e n a - w h a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - b e . d r u n k - W H I L E : D S t h e y a n t - P L 3 p l - s i t - R E M . P . R E P
1
' W h i l e h e w a s d r u n k , t h e a n t s sat d o w n ( a n d cried for him).

A s y n o n y m o f - n i s a w a u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y in t h e dialect o f P e r i q u i t o s is -piyana,

illustrated in 2 2 . 2 4 .

2 2 . 2 4 [ i y a - p i y a n a ] y a l a n a h e k u t a - d a

r a i n - W H I L E : D S w h i t e w o o d + C L : O B J E C T - C L : R O U N D

k a - d e n u - n a k a p e m a n i n u - a n h i - k a

R E L - h a v e l s g - O B J s h a m e l s g - f e e l - S U B

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 5 2 2 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

n a - r a h t e - m h e n a n u - n a

l p l - f l o a t + C A U S - R E M . P . N O N V I S 1 s g - O B J

' W h e n it w a s r a i n i n g , t h e o n e w h o h a d a n o u t b o a r d m o t o r (lit. w h i t e m a n ' s p a d d l e )

m a d e m e float, w h i l e I w a s feeling a s h a m e d . '

T h e different s u b j e c t s e q u e n c i n g enclitic -kariku m e a n s 'a p r o l o n g e d a c t i o n

h a p p e n i n g at t h e s a m e t i m e a s a n o t h e r p a s t a c t i o n o r state'. W h i l e - n i s a w a is u n m a r k e d

for t e n s e , - k a r i k u c a n o n l y b e u s e d if t h e m a i n c l a u s e is cast in r e c e n t p a s t o r r e m o t e

past. It is i l l u s t r a t e d in 2 2 . 2 5 .

2 2 . 2 5 [ w h a w h e s a - k a r i k u w a - n u - k a ]

w e l p l + g o . u p - W H I L E . P A S T : D S l p l - c o m e - S U B

u n i k i d a - y a a l i a - n a m e d a

w a t e r l i k e . t h i s - E M P H E X I S T - R E M . P . V I S C O U N T E R E X P

' W h e n w e w e r e g o i n g u p s t r e a m , c o m i n g , t h e w a t e r level w a s like this ( a g a i n s t all

e x p e c t a t i o n ) . '

A - k a r i k u c l a u s e c a n b e c a s e - m a r k e d . In 2 2 . 2 6 it t a k e s t h e l o c a t i v e -se, m e a n i n g 'at

t h e v e r y t i m e w h e n ' . T h i s e x a m p l e also s h o w s that a -kariku c l a u s e c a n b e i n s e r t e d

b e t w e e n o t h e r a r g u m e n t s o f t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e .

2 2 . 2 6 n h a w a l i k a s u - n a k u [hi y a l a n a

t h e y b e g i n n i n g - T O P . N O N . A / S D E M : A N I M w h i t e . m a n

s e d e - k a r i k u - s e ] d i - t h a n i n a

N E G . E X - W H I L E . P A S T : D S - L O C 3sgnf-start

n a - n i n a - y a n a - y a - n h i - t h a - n i n a

3 p l - d o 3pl-live 3 p l - s t a y - A N T - F R - A N T + R E M . P . V I S

' T h e y at t h e b e g i n n i n g - w h e n t h e r e w a s n o w h i t e m a n - this is h o w t h e y l i v e d at

t h e start.'

In 2 2 . 2 7 - 8 , f r o m a story a b o u t t h e r e a s o n s for t h e i m p e n d i n g e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e T a r i a n a

l a n g u a g e d u e to t h e w a y s c h o o l i n g w a s o r g a n i s e d , t h e -kariku c l a u s e t a k e s t h e topical

n o n - s u b j e c t m a r k i n g - n u k u .

2 2 . 2 7 [ w a h a w a - b u e t a - k a r i k u - s e - n u k u ]

w e l p l - l e a r n - W H I L E . P A S T : D S - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

hi d i - k e n a d i - y a - n h i

D E M . A N I M 3 s g n f - b e g i n 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T

'At t h e v e r y t i m e that w e w e r e s t u d y i n g , it (the p r o c e s s o f l a n g u a g e loss) h a d

started.'

In 2 2 . 2 8 , t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e -kariku c l a u s e is first p e r s o n plural 'we', a n d t h e s u b j e c t o f

t h e m a i n c l a u s e is t h e i m p e r s o n a l u s e d in t h e g e n e r a l m e a n i n g o f ' a l l o f us' - s e e § 6 . 1 . 3 .

H o w e v e r , t h e t w o s u b j e c t s are t r e a t e d as different. T h e -kariku c l a u s e is c o o r d i n a t e d

w i t h a n o t h e r t e m p o r a l c o n s t i t u e n t - p a y a p e s e - n u k u 'a l o n g t i m e ago'.

2 2 . 2 8 p a y a p e - s e - n u k u [ w a h a

l o n g . a g o - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S w e

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 2 2 . 1 C l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g e n c l i t i c s 5 2 3

w a - b u e t a - k a r i k u - s e - n u k u ] p a i - n e

l p l - s t u d y - W H I L E . P A S T : D S - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S p r i e s t - P L

y a - d a p a n a - s e p a - y a - h y u n a p a : w e y a

P O S S - C L : H A B - L O C I M P - l i v e - H A B I T t o g e t h e r

' A l o n g t i m e a g o , at t h e t i m e w h e n w e w e r e s t u d y i n g , w e lived t o g e t h e r in t h e

priests' h o u s e . '

T h e m a r k e r - k a r i k u c a n b e u s e d a s a d e r i v a t i o n a l suffix, e.g. h a n e - k a r i k u (DEM.DIST-

w h i l e ) 'last y e a r , a l o n g t i m e ago'. T h e s a m e s u b j e c t c o u n t e r p a r t o f - k a r i k u is - k a k a / i , a s

in 2 2 . 2 9 ( t h e r e s p o n s e to m y q u e s t i o n a b o u t h o w C a n d i d o B r i t o lost t h e c o m m a n d o f h i s

r i g h t h a n d ) .

2 2 . 2 9 [ n u - w e - r i n a - i n u - k a k a r i - n u k u ]

l s g - y o u n g e r . b r o t h e r - M A S C 3 p l - k i l l - W H I L E . P A S T : D S

d i - k a p i n a - p i s a - n a

3 s g n f - h a n d 3 p l - c u t - R E M . P . V I S

' W h i l e t h e y w e r e killing m y y o u n g e r b r o t h e r , t h e y c u t his hand.'

T h e enclitic -kapua ' b e c a u s e : different subject' m a r k s s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s o f r e a s o n .

T h e r e is n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g enclitic referring to t h e s a m e subject. T h e -kapua c l a u s e

f o l l o w s t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a s in 2 2 . 3 1 - 2 .

2 2 . 3 1 p i - n a y a w i n u - n h a - d e d i h a - y a n a - n a k u

2 s g - O B J j a g u a r 1s g - e a t - F U T . C E R T h e - P E J - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i h a k a y u d i - a - s i n a

h e t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . I N F R

[ k a y u d i - a - k a p u a ] d i - a - p i d a n a

t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - B E C A U S E : D S 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P

"'I w i l l eat y o u , j a g u a r , " h e (the f o x ) s a i d to h i m s i n c e h e (the j a g u a r ) h a d s p o k e n

t o h i m t h u s , h e s a i d (this).'

U n l i k e a n y o t h e r s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e - s e n s i t i v e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , -kapua c l a u s e s c a n

h a v e their o w n t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y s p e c i f i c a t i o n distinct f r o m that o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e a s

in 2 2 . 3 1 a .

2 2 . 3 1 a te! n a h a m u l i t u - n e n a - y a m i - p i d a n a t h u y n a

o h ! A R T : P L t o a d - P L 3 p l - d i e - R E M . P . R E P all 3 p l + g o

n e p a i t a k e t e m i - r i s e d e

N E G o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M r e m a i n - C O N V N E G . E X

m a t f i a - n a k a k a s i n a - w y a - n u k u [ n h a w a - n a

g o o d - P R E S . V I S n o w - E X T R A L - T O P . N O N . A / S t h e y l p l - O B J

n a - k a - m i k i r i - k a p u a n a : - p i d a n a ]

3 p l - l o o k - L O O K . D O W N - B E C A U S E : D S 3 p l + g o - R E M P . R E P

' O h ! T h e t o a d s all died, n o t a single o n e r e m a i n e d . T h i s is g o o d n o w ,

b e c a u s e t h e y are s a i d to h u m i l i a t e us.'

If t h e m a i n c l a u s e a n d t h e -kapua c l a u s e h a v e t h e s a m e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y v a l u e , j u s t

o n e m a r k e r is u s e d , a s in 2 2 . 3 2 .

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 5 2 4 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

2 2 . 3 2 i n a r u i - w h e - r i - p e r i - n e ya:tu

w o m a n I N D F - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - O L D . M A S C - I N S s n u f f

d i - e m e - k a - p i d a n a [ d i h a m a w a r i

3 s g n f - s n i f f - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P A R T s n a k e

d i - d a k i - r u - n u k u d i - n h a - k a p u a ]

3 s g n f - g r a n d c h i l d - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - e a t - B E C A U S E : D S

T h e w o m a n ' s g r a n d f a t h e r w a s sniffing snuff, b e c a u s e a s n a k e h a d e a t e n his

g r a n d d a u g h t e r (to find o u t w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d ) . '

A -kapua c l a u s e c a n t a k e t h e s e q u e n t i a l -ka d i s c u s s e d in § 2 2 . 2 if it is c o o r d i n a t e d

w i t h o t h e r c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h -ka. T h e first c l a u s e m a r k e d w i t h -ka c o n t a i n s t h e s a m e

s u b j e c t a s t h e -kapua c l a u s e , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d c l a u s e d o e s n o t - s e e 2 2 . 3 3 .

2 2 . 3 3 k a y u d i - a - k a - n i k i [ d i - n a - p i d a n a

t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - S U B - C O M P L 3 s g n f - O B J - R E M . P . R E P

d i - u k a - k a p u a - k a ] k a y u alia-ka-niki

3 s g n f - a r r i v e - B E C A U S E : D S - S U B t h u s E X I S T - S U B - C O M P L

p a : - k h a a l i a - p i d a n a k e r a w i

o n e - C L : C U R V E D E X I S T - R E M . P . R E P b r a s i l . w o o d

' S a y i n g t h u s , b e c a u s e h e c a m e t o w a r d s h i m , w h i l e it w a s like this, t h e r e w a s a

b r a n c h o f brazil w o o d there.'

O c c a s i o n a l l y , o b l i q u e c a s e s c a n m a r k s u b o r d i n a t e clauses. T e m p o r a l s u b o r d i n a t e

c l a u s e s c a n b e m a r k e d j u s t w i t h t h e l o c a t i v e c a s e -se, m e a n i n g 'as s o o n as', a s in 2 2 . 3 4 - 5

(rather t h a n a t t a c h i n g to t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka - s e e § 2 2 . 2 ) . T h e i n s t r u m e n t a l c a s e c a n

m a r k c l a u s e s o f r e a s o n , a s in 2 2 . 3 6 . C a s e - m a r k e d c l a u s e s s e e m to r e q u i r e t h e s a m e

s u b j e c t in t h e m a i n c l a u s e ; h o w e v e r t h e r e are n o t e n o u g h e x a m p l e s in t h e c o r p u s to

m a k e a d e f i n i t i v e s t a t e m e n t a b o u t this.

2 2 . 3 4 [ n u - n u - s e ] n h u t a n u - n u - d e

1 s g - c o m e - L O C 1s g + t a k e 1 s g - c o m e - F U T . C E R T

'I w i l l b r i n g (it) a s s o o n a s I c o m e . '

2 2 . 3 5 n e s e [ n e m h a n i - s e ] n a h a f i h a m e p a

t h e n 3 p l + w a l k - L O C t h e y t w o + N U M . C L : H U M A N

n a - n a r i t a - p i d a n a

3 p l - q u a r r e l - R E M . P . R E P

' T h e n w h i l e t h e y w e r e w a l k i n g , t h e t w o o f t h e m (tapir a n d turtle) quarrelled.'

2 2 . 3 6 [ p h i a n u - n a m a t f a n h e s i r i - n e ] p h i a n u - n a

y o u l s g - O B J g o o d l i k e - I N S y o u l s g - O B J

p h i p a - k a p i - d e n u - n a h i k u p i - n i - m h a

2 s g + t a k e - S U B 2 s g - h a v e l s g - O B J t h u s 2 s g - d o - P R E S . N O N V I S

' S i n c e y o u like m e , s i n c e y o u r e s p e c t m e , y o u are d o i n g this to m e . '

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 2 2 . 1 C l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g e n c l i t i c s 5 2 5

2 2 . 1 . 2 N o n - s w i t c h reference-sensitive s e q u e n c i n g enclitics

N o n - s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e - s e n s i t i v e enclitics e x p r e s s a variety o f m e a n i n g s . T h e s e q u e n c i n g

enclitic -kaya h a s a n a d v e r s a t i v e m e a n i n g : it i m p l i e s that w h i l e s o m e t h i n g w a s

h a p p e n i n g s o m e t h i n g a d v e r s e o c c u r r e d . Its f u n c t i o n is to p r e p a r e t h e h e a r e r for

s o m e t h i n g u n p l e a s a n t a n d u n e x p e c t e d ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , a -kaya c l a u s e n o r m a l l y p r e c e d e s

t h e m a i n c l a u s e . In 2 2 . 3 7 it is u s e d w i t h s a m e subject, a n d in 2 2 . 3 8 - 9 w i t h different

subject.

2 2 . 3 7 [ d i h a d i - a - k a y a ] h e k u - n a - p e - n u k u

h e 3 s g n f - g o - W H I L E : A D V w o o d - C L : V E R T - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - t h u k a d i - a - p i d a

3 s g n f - b r e a k 3 s g n f - g o - R E P

' W h i l e h e w a s w a l k i n g , all o f a s u d d e n h e b r o k e trees ( p r o v o k i n g a disaster).'

2 2 . 3 8 k a y di-ni di-sita [ d i h m e t a - k a y a ]

t h u s 3 s g n f - d o 3 s g n f - f i n i s h 3 s g n f + t h i n k - W H I L E : A D V

d i s a d i - n u - p i d a n a y a w i paita

3 s g n f + g o . u p 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P j a g u a r o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M

' S o h e finished, w h i l e h e w a s t h i n k i n g , all o f a s u d d e n a j a g u a r c a m e up.'

A -kaya c l a u s e o f t e n h a s c o n c e s s i v e o v e r t o n e s 'in spite of:

2 2 . 3 9 [ n h u a n u - k a - k a y a ] n a - d a w a - n i k i n a - y a - k a

I l s g - l o o k - W H I L E : A D V l p l - h i d e - C O M P L 3 p l - s t a y - R E C . P . V I S

' W h i l e I w a s l o o k i n g (in spite o f m y l o o k i n g ) , t h e y u n e x p e c t e d l y h i d ( f r o m m e ) . '

A -kaya c l a u s e c a n g o in b e t w e e n c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e m a i n clause. In 2 2 . 4 0 it o c c u r s

after t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e .

2 2 . 4 0 d i - n h a w e - r i - n e [ d i h a alia-kaya]

3 s g n f - p a r e n t . i n . l a w - M A S C - F O C . A / S h e E X I S T - W H I L E : A D V

d i - n a m i d i - a - p i d a n a d i h a

3 s g n f - d i e 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P h e

'His f a t h e r - i n - l a w , w h i l e h e (the s o n - i n - l a w ) w a s a r o u n d , all o f a s u d d e n died.'

A -kaya c l a u s e c a n a l s o b e u s e d to p r e p a r e t h e h e a r e r for s o m e t h i n g u n e x p e c t e d , b u t

n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a d v e r s e . I n 2 2 . 4 1 t h e u n e x p e c t e d e v e n t is r a t h e r p o s i t i v e - it is t h e

a p p e a r a n c e o f a b e a u t i f u l h o u s e . T h i s u s e o f a -kaya c l a u s e is s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r to t h e

s e m a n t i c s o f t h e v e r b h a fame 'be s c a r e d , afraid' often u s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e to a d m i r a t i o n ,

a s in 1 9 . 2 1 .

2 2 . 4 1 [ d i h a d i - s a t a - k a y a ] h i k u - k h a d i - e k u

h e 3 s g n f - a s k - W H I L E : A D V a p p e a r - A W A Y 3 s g n f - r u n

d i - a - p i d a n a d i h a p a n i - s i - m i k i r y a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P A R T h o u s e - N P O S S - N O M . P A S T + E M P H - R E M . P . R E P

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 5 2 6 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

w a l i - d a p a n a h i k u - k h a d i - a

n e w - C L : H A B a p p e a r - A W A Y 3 s g n f - g o

' W h i l e h e w a s a s k i n g (the m a g i c ring), all o f a s u d d e n t h e o l d h o u s e w e n t a w a y , a

n e w h o u s e a p p e a r e d . '

A -kaya c l a u s e c a n n o t t a k e a n y c a s e - m a r k e r s , n o r c a n it h a v e its o w n t e n s e -

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification. It c a n b e e m p l o y e d in a h e a d - t a i l l i n k a g e , as in 2 2 . 4 2 ; this is

s i m i l a r t o 2 2 . 1 2 .

2 2 . 4 2 d i s a d i - n u d i - a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f + g o . u p 3 s g n f - c o m e 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P

[ d i - a - k a y a ] d i h a a p a o d h i t a

3 s g n f - g o - W H I L E : A D V A R T h a r p o o n 3 s g n f + t a k e

i t a - w h y a - s e d i - y u d i - e m a - p i d a n a

c a n o e - C L : C A N O E - L O C 3 s g n f - g o . u p s t r e a m 3 s g n f - s t a n d - R E M . P . R E P

d i - m u r u - k a s u k u r i r i - n u k u

3 s g n f - s p e a r - I N T p a c u . f i s h - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e w e n t u p , h a v i n g g o n e , h e u n e x p e c t e d l y g r a b b e d the h a r p o o n a n d w a s g o i n g

u p s t r e a m o n t h e b o a t , h e w a s g o i n g to s p e a r t h e p a c u fish.'

T h e enclitic - k h e , w i t h v a r i a n t s -nikhe ( h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h -nikhe ' w h i l e : S S ' ) a n d

- k h e y a , h a s a c o n c e s s i v e m e a n i n g 'in spite of, although'. 2 2 . 4 3 is a n e x a m p l e o f -khe in

c o n c e s s i v e m e a n i n g . T h i s is w h a t M a r i n o M u n i z said rather a r r o g a n t l y to O l i v i a Brito,

w h e n s h e c a m e u p t o h i m to a s k h i m h o w t o s a y 'stepfather' in T a r i a n a . H e r e t h e m a i n

c l a u s e a n d t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e h a v e different subjects.

2 2 . 4 3 [ p e d a l i e - k h e ] m a - y e k a - d e - m h a p h i a

o l d - I N . S P I T E N E G - k n o w - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S y o u

'In spite o f b e i n g old, y o u d o n o t k n o w . '

T h e s a m e s u b j e c t in b o t h c l a u s e s is illustrated w i t h 2 2 . 4 3 - 4 .

2 2 . 4 4 [ n e s e h i k u d i - k a p i - n u k u d h i p a

t h e n a p p e a r 3 s g n f - h a n d - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + g r a b

d i - u m a - k h e ] d i - k e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - l o o k . f o r - I N . S P I T E 3 s g n f - m e e t + C A U S - R E M . P . R E P

d i h a m a r i e - t i k i - n u k u

A R T k n i f e - D I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n in spite o f t r y i n g to g r a b his h a n d in this w a y , h e e n c o u n t e r e d t h e little

knife.'

U n l i k e -kaya c l a u s e s , -khe c l a u s e s c a n b e p o s t p o s e d to t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a n d m a y h a v e

their o w n t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification. T h i s is illustrated in 2 2 . 4 5 , f r o m t h e o r i g i n

m y t h . T h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e is in t h e f o r m o f d e t r i m e n t a l i m p e r a t i v e , a n d t h u s

c a n n o t b e s p e c i f i e d for t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y (see § 1 6 . 1 . 3 ) , w h i l e t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e

s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e is cast in r e c e n t p a s t visual.

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 2 2 . 1 C l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n c i n g e n c l i t i c s 5 2 1

2 2 . 4 5 n e k i - t u p e d u - y a r i d u h a - y a n a [ w a - n a k a y u - k h e

s o - I M P V . D E T R 3 s g f - d i s a p p e a r s h e - P E J l p l - O B J s o - I N . S P I T E

w a - n a k a - w h a w h e t a - k a r i - t h a - k a ]

l p l - O B J R E L - b r i n g . u p - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G - F R - R E C . P . V I S

'Let h e r d i s a p p e a r , t h o u g h s h e w a s t h e o n e w h o h a d b r o u g h t u s up.'

If t h e m a i n a n d t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s h a v e t h e s a m e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y v a l u e , it

g e t s m a r k e d j u s t o n c e in t h e s e n t e n c e , a s in 2 2 . 4 6 .

2 2 . 4 6 [ d i h a k a r u - k h e - p i d a n a ] di-kalite d i h a

h e f e a r - I N . S P I T E - R E M . P . R E P 3sgnf-tell h e

'In spite o f b e i n g afraid, h e t o l d (the C r e a t o r w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d ) . '

A -khe c l a u s e c a n i n d i c a t e a result o p p o s i t e to w h a t w a s e x p e c t e d , a s in 2 2 . 4 7 ( w h e r e

t h e - k h e c l a u s e a l s o t a k e s a s e q u e n t i a l m a r k e r -ka) o r c a n refer to a n u n e x p e c t e d result,

a s i n 2 2 . 4 8 - 9 . I n t h e s e e x a m p l e s -khe is a l m o s t s y n o n y m o u s w i t h -kaya.

2 2 . 4 7 [ d i - n a - k a d i - w a s a - k h e ] d i s u

3 s g n f - w a n t - S U B 3 s g n f - u n t i e - I N . S P I T E 3 s g n f + d e f e c a t e

d i - s w a d i - a - p i d a n a d i h a n a w i k i

3 s g n f - l i e 3 s g n f - s a y - R E M . P . R E P A R T m a n

' W a n t i n g t o u n t i e ( t h e trap), t h e m a n d e f e c a t e d all o f a s u d d e n . '

2 2 . 4 8 d i h a - n a i - n u k u d h i p a

A R T - C L : L A K E - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f + g r a b

d i - u m a - p i d a n a [ d h i p a d i - u m a - k h e ]

3 s g n f - l o o k . f o r - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f + g r a b 3 s g n f - l o o k . f o r - I N . S P I T E

k a s i r i - n u k u d i - k e t a - p i d a n a

c r o c o d i l e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - e n c o u n t e r - R E M . P . R E P

' H e started l o o k i n g a r o u n d in that lake, w h i l e h e w a s l o o k i n g a r o u n d , all o f a

s u d d e n h e f o u n d a crocodile.'

If t w o - k h e c l a u s e s a r e c o o r d i n a t e d , t h e m a r k e r is r e p e a t e d o n b o t h , a s in 2 2 . 4 9 .

2 2 . 4 9 [ k a y d i - a - k h e - p i d a n a ] [ d i - k a p u k u - k h e ]

t h u s 3 s g - g o - I N . S P I T E - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - t u r n - I N . S P I T E

d i - k a p a i t a tjari-tiki d i - e m a

3 s g n f - s e e o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M m a n - D I M 3 s g n f - s t a n d

y e : n u - k a d i t e - t i k i - p i d a n a

t a l l - N E G + N C L : A N I M - D I M - R E M . P . R E P

' H a v i n g s a i d this, h a v i n g t u r n e d a r o u n d h e s a w : a s m a l l m a n , n o t tall, w a s s t a n d i n g

(there).'

T h e enclitic -kheya 'in spite of, a g a i n s t e x p e c t a t i o n s ' is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h - k h e . (It

p r o b a b l y c o n s i s t s o f - k h e a n d t h e e m p h a t i c -ya: s e e §15.4.)

2 2 . 5 0 k a y u m a k a [ p h a T a l i a - s e r i - k h e y a - n h a ] [ d i h a

t h u s I M P T a r i a n a - S I N G L - I N . S P I T E - P A U S A R T

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 5 2 8 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

y a s e n i k u m a - s a p e - k a d i t e k a y u k a : - k h e y a - n h a ]

T u c a n o N E G - t a l k - N E G + N C L : A N I M like R E L + g o - I N . S P I T E - P A U S

n e s e - n a p h a p a - s a p e p a - b u e t a n a - i n e - n u k u

t h e n - R E M . P . V I S I M P I M P - s p e a k I M P - l e a r n 3 p l - I N S - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h u s t h o u g h w e w e r e T a r i a n a , t h o u g h w e w e r e like t h e o n e w h o d o e s n o t s p e a k

T u c a n o , t h e r e w e learnt (to s p e a k T u c a n o ) w i t h t h e m ( C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s ) . '

A -kheya c l a u s e c a n f o l l o w t h e m a i n c l a u s e , as in 2 2 . 5 1 .

2 2 . 5 1 n e m a - k e t a - k a d e - p i d a n a [ d i - u m a - k h e y a ]

N E G N E G - e n c o u n t e r - N E G - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - l o o k . f o r - I N . S P I T E

' H e d i d n o t find (the r o a d ) t h o u g h h e w a s l o o k i n g for it.'

T h e enclitic - n i k h e w h i c h is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h -khe is illustrated in 2 2 . 5 2 .

2 2 . 5 2 [ d i - p u m i - s e n a - k u k a - n i k h e ] d i - a - k a - k h a

3 s g n f - a f t e r - L O C 3 p l - l i t - I N . S P I T E 3 s g n f - g o - S U B - A W A Y

d i - a - p i d a n a d i - a - n i p e - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - g o - H A B I T . R E P - R E M P . R E P

'In spite o f t h e m lighting (the fire), it w a s g o i n g off all the time.'

S i m i l a r l y to -kaya c l a u s e s , -khe a n d -kheya c l a u s e s c a n n o t b e c a s e - m a r k e d ( e x a m p l e s

w i t h - n i k h e a r e t o o s c a r c e to d r a w a n y c o n c l u s i o n s ) . B o t h -kaya a n d -kheya f o r m

s y n o n y m o u s a d v e r b s w h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h kay ' t h u s ' : kaykaya a n d kaykheya ' a n y h o w , at

least', a s in 2 2 . 5 3 a n d 2 4 . 3 .

2 2 . 5 3 n u - n a k a y - k a y a (or: k a y - k h e y a ) n u - n a p i - n h e - t a

1 s g - O B J t h u s - I N . S P I T E 1s g - O B J 1s g - p o i n t + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

' A t least s h o w m e ( h o w to hunt).'

T h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s d i s c u s s e d in this s e c t i o n are different f r o m m a i n c l a u s e s in

that m o s t o f t h e m h a v e n o i n d e p e n d e n t t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification a n d t h e y r e q u i r e

t h e p r e s e n c e o f a m a i n c l a u s e . T h i s p r o p e r t y is s h a r e d w i t h o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s

d i s c u s s e d in this c h a p t e r . H o w e v e r , u n l i k e t h e s e q u e n t i a l -ka c l a u s e s , t h e y c a n

s o m e t i m e s a p p e a r in t h e p r e d i c a t e slot, a s illustrated in 2 2 . 5 4 .

2 2 . 5 4 n u - w h a - k a y a m i - t i k i - k a

1 s g - s i t - A F T E R : D S - D I M - R E C . P . V I S

'It w a s a f t e r w a r d s that I sat t h e r e a bit.'

2 2 . 2 S e q u e n t i a l - k a

T h e s e q u e n t i a l -ka m a r k s s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m e a n i n g 'after', 'when', 'while' o r 'if.

( U n l i k e -ka c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s , their a c t i o n c a n n o t f o l l o w that o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e s -

s e e § 2 4 . 1 . ) In 2 2 . 1 1 t h e -ka c l a u s e m e a n s 'after', a n d in 2 2 . 3 6 it i s u s e d in t h e m e a n i n g o f

' b e c a u s e , since'. T h e -ka c l a u s e s are n o t s w i t c h reference-sensitive, a n d t h e y c a n h a v e

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 22.2 S e q u e n t i a l - k a 5 2 9

their o w n t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y , a s in 2 4 . 1 1 a n d 2 2 . 6 7 . In 2 2 . 6 a n d 2 2 . 3 3 a -ka c l a u s e

p r e c e d e s t h e m a i n c l a u s e , w h i l e in 2 4 . 1 0 , 2 2 . 1 7 a n d 2 2 . 5 5 it f o l l o w s .

2 2 . 5 5 n u - k a r e m a t f a - p u - n a k a [pi-na n u - k a - k a ]

1 s g - h e a r t g o o d - A U G - P R E S . V I S 2 s g - O B J 1 s g - s e e - S U B

' M y h e a r t feels v e r y g o o d after I h a v e s e e n y o u (i.e. I a m g l a d to s e e you).'

S e q u e n t i a l c l a u s e s w i t h -ka o f t e n h a v e a c o n d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g , a s in 2 2 . 5 6 - 7 . If a

c o n d i t i o n is to b e fulfilled in t h e future, -mhade future (but n o t t h e -de future w h i c h

u s u a l l y m a r k s c e r t a i n e v e n t s ) is u s e d in t h e m a i n c l a u s e w i t h the first p e r s o n subject.

2 2 . 5 6 w a s a w a - k a w h a [ s e d e - k a ] w a : - k h a n i - m h a d e

let's.go l p l - s e e w e N E G . E X - S U B l p l + g o - A W A Y - F U T . U N C E R T

'Let's g o a n d see, if t h e r e is n o ( f o o d ) w e will g o a w a y . '

In 2 2 . 5 7 , - k a c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d a s either 'if o r 'when'.

2 2 . 5 7 [ p a w a l i m a - n i - k a d e - k a ] Y a p i r i k u r i n a - n a d i - p e - n a k a

r i g h t N E G - d o - N E G - S U B G o d 3 p l - O B J 3 s g n f - l e a v e - P R E S . V I S

'If ( t h e y ) d o n o t d o t h e right thing, G o d l e a v e s t h e m . '

If a -ka c l a u s e h a s a s t r o n g c o n d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g it often t a k e s t h e t o p i c a l - n u k u

m a r k i n g . A c o n d i t i o n a l c a n refer to t h e future, a s in 2 2 . 5 8 , or b e c o u n t e r f a c t u a l , as in

2 2 . 5 9 .

2 2 . 5 8 h a - n i r i d i h a di-kalite-sina n a - n a

p a r e n t - M A S C h e 3 s g n f - t e l l - R E M . P . I N F R 3 p l - O B J

[diri t|ari a l i a - k a - n u k u ]

3 s g n f + s o n m a n E X I S T - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e father, h e said t o t h e m , if t h e r e is a s o n (i.e. if h e h a s a son).'

2 2 . 5 9 c o m e s f r o m a c o n v e r s a t i o n , in w h i c h O l i v i a told m e a story o f h o w C a n d i d o

B r i t o g o t f e d u p w i t h living in B r a z i l after h i s s o n C h i c o h a d b e e n killed, a n d w a n t e d to

g o t o V e n e z u e l a w i t h all his c h i l d r e n . H o w e v e r , his w i f e M a r i a said n o , a n d s o all t h e

B r i t o s a r e still in Brazil.

2 2 . 5 9 [ h a w d u - a - k a - n u k u ] s e d e - b o h t a w a - n a

y e s 3 s g f - s a y - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S N E G . E X - C O N D l p l - O B J

'If s h e h a d s a i d y e s , w e w o u l d n o t b e here.'

H o w e v e r , t h e u s e o f t h e t o p i c a l n o n - s u b j e c t m a r k e r - n u k u for t h e c o n d i t i o n a l r e a d i n g

o f a - k a c l a u s e is n o t a l w a y s n e c e s s a r y . A l s o , t h e p r e s e n c e o f - n u k u is n o t o b l i g a t o r y for

a c o u n t e r f a c t u a l r e a d i n g . In 2 2 . 6 0 t h e -ka c l a u s e is c o u n t e r f a c t u a l , b u t it d o e s n o t t a k e

t h e - n u k u m a r k e r . A l s o s e e 1 6 . 9 4 - 6 .

2 2 . 6 0 p h i a t | a r i - n a k a d i - a - p i d a d i - n a

y o u m a n - P R E S . V I S 3 s g n f - s a y - R E P 3 s g n f - O B J

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 5 3 0 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

[ p h i a m e d i t e - k a ] n e - b o h t a - k a p i - p a

y o u i n . v a i n + N C L : A N I M - S U B t h e n - C O N D - R E C . P A S T 2 s g - r o t

' " Y o u a r e a m a n , " h e s a i d to h i m , "If y o u h a d b e e n u s e l e s s , y o u w o u l d h a v e died".'

It m i g h t s e e m that t h e u s e o f - n u k u in c o n d i t i o n a l c l a u s e s is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h H a i m a n ' s

( 1 9 7 8 ) t r e a t m e n t o f c o n d i t i o n a l s a s topics. H o w e v e r , t h e situation in T a r i a n a is n o t all

t h a t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . T h e u s e o f - n u k u c o r r e l a t e s w i t h t h e topicality o f i n f o r m a t i o n in the

d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e , a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n a l m e a n i n g (if t h e r e is o n e ) is s i m p l y inferred f r o m

t h e o v e r a l l c o n t e x t . In 2 2 . 6 1 g i v i n g t h e soldier a p o i s o n e d d r i n k is t h e k e y p o i n t o f t h e

story, a n d t h e d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e c o n t a i n i n g this i n f o r m a t i o n i n c l u d e s - n u k u . T h e -ka

c l a u s e , w h i c h is m a r k e d w i t h - n u k u , a l l o w s for t w o alternative r e a d i n g s : c o n d i t i o n a l o r

t e m p o r a l . I n t h e s a m e w a y , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d in t h e d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s in 2 2 . 5 8 -

9 is w h a t t h e s t o r y is a b o u t ( 7 . 8 8 a n d t h e first c l a u s e o f 2 2 . 6 1 are s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s ) . In

contrast, t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e in 2 2 . 6 0 is irrelevant for t h e story o n t h e

w h o l e , a n d s o - n u k u is n o t u s e d .

2 2 . 6 1 [ n a h a d e k i n a p i - n a p a - i r a - n i p e

t h e y a f t e r n o o n + A D V 2 s g - O B J I M P - d r i n k - N O M

n a : - k a - n u k u ] m h a l d a p i r a

3 p l + g i v e - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S P R O H 2 s g + d r i n k

'If ( o r w h e n ) t h e y g i v e y o u d r i n k in t h e a f t e r n o o n , don't d r i n k (it).'

A - k a c l a u s e c a n t a k e all o t h e r c a s e m a r k e r s e x c e p t for t h e c o m i t a t i v e - i n s t r u m e n t a l

-ne. 2 2 . 6 2 illustrates t h e f o c u s s e d A / S -ne o n a n o n - t o p i c a l -ka c l a u s e - w h i c h is u s e d as

clarification o f a p r e c e d i n g t o p i c a l - k a c l a u s e . T h i s c l a u s e is topical b e c a u s e o f t h e

i m p o r t a n c e o f w h a t a m a n s a w a s o p p o s e d to w h a t evil spirits s a w (see d i s c u s s i o n in

§ 7 . 6 . 2 ) .

2 2 . 6 2 [ d i h a - n e d i - k a - k a - n u k u ] h e k u - p i d a - p a s i

h e - F O C . A / S 3 s g n f - s e e - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S w o o d - R E P - A U G

[ n a w i k i d i - k a - k a - n e ] n u - a - k a n h u a

p e r s o n 3 s g n f - s e e - S U B - F O C . A / S l s g - s a y - S U B I

' W h e n h e w a s l o o k i n g , it w a s a b i g p i e c e o f w o o d , w h e n t h e m a n w a s l o o k i n g , I

a m saying.'

I n 2 2 . 6 3 t h e - k a c l a u s e m a r k e d w i t h t h e f o c u s s e d A / S enclitic -ne is t o p i c a l (a s i m i l a r

e x a m p l e is 7 . 9 0 ) .

2 2 . 6 3 [ p a - y e k a - k a - n e - n u k u ] di-a d i - n a

I M P - k n o w - S U B - F O C . A / S - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s a y 3 s g n f - O B J

k a - s a p e m a w a r y a - p i d a n a

R E L - s p e a k s n a k e + E M P H - R E M . P . R E P

' F o r s o m e o n e w h o d i d k n o w , t h e o n e w h o s p o k e to h i m w a s a snake.'

A - k a c l a u s e c a n t a k e t h e l o c a t i v e -se w i t h t h e m e a n i n g o f 'at t h e v e r y t i m e w h e n ' , a s

i n 2 2 . 6 4 a n d 2 2 . 6 5 .

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 22.2 S e q u e n t i a l - k a 531

2 2 . 6 4 n u h u a k u p h e n h u l i t u - k a - s e h u i s i - m a - m h a n a

I fish 1s g + f i s h - S U B - L O C u n l u c k y - E X C - R E M . P . N O N V I S

' A t t h e t i m e w h e n I f i s h e d I u s e d t o b e e x t r e m e l y u n l u c k y . '

In 2 2 . 6 5 , t h e first c l a u s e m a r k e d w i t h -ka-se is n o t topical, a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e is

t o p i c a l : t h e story, b y L e o n a r d o B r i t o , is a b o u t w h a t t h e life o f I n d i a n s w a s like b e f o r e

w h i t e p e o p l e a p p e a r e d . B o t h - k a - s e c l a u s e s f o l l o w t h e m a i n c l a u s e .

2 2 . 6 5 k a y n a - n i - p i d a n a n h a h i n i p u k u - p e n a - d e

t h u s 3 p l - d o - R E M . P . R E P t h e y g a r d e n - P L 3 p l - h a v e

n a - y a - n h i p e d a l e - p e - s e u p i t h a - s e - n u k u

3 p l - s t a y - A N T o l d - P L - L O C o l d + F R - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

[ e p i s i - p e s e d e - k a - s e ] [ y a l a n a

i r o n . a x e - P L N E G . E X - S U B - L O C ] w h i t e . m a n

s e d e - k a - s e - n a k u ]

N E G . E X - S U B - L O C - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h u s t h e y h a d their g a r d e n s , i n t h e o l d d a y s , a l o n g t i m e a g o , at t h e t i m e w h e n

t h e r e w e r e n o i r o n a x e s , w h e n t h e r e w e r e n o w h i t e p e o p l e . '

A - k a - s e c l a u s e c a n h a v e t h e m e a n i n g o f ' o r else, for fear of; t h e n it h a s to f o l l o w t h e

m a i n c l a u s e , a s in 2 2 . 6 6 . E x a m p l e s like this are characteristic o f traditional s p e a k e r s -

2 2 . 6 6 c o m e s f r o m a s t o r y t o l d b y C a n d i d o Brito.

2 2 . 6 6 d i - n a n a - k a p e t a - k a s u n a - m u s u - i - t a d i h a

3 s g n f - O B J 3 p l - b l e s s - I N T 3 p l - g o . o u t - C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 A R T

p i r i - n u k u n h e t a

Y u r u p a r y . f l u t e - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l + t a k e . o u t

n h e - s i n a hi i n a - n u k u

3 p l + e n t e r - R E M . P . I N F R D E M : A N I M w o m a n : P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

n a - p i t i - s i n a t h u y n a - m u s u - i - t a - n i k i

3 p l - d r i v e . a w a y - R E M . P . I N F R all 3 p l - g o . o u t - C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - C O M P L

i:na i h y a i n a d i h a - n a k u

w o m a n . P L y o u : P L w o m a n : P L i t - T O P . N O N . A / S

m a - k a - k a d e - m h a [ p a - y a m i - k a - s e ]

N E G - d i e - N E G - P R E S . N O N V I S I M P - d i e - S U B - L O C

' T o b l e s s h i m , t h e y m a k e h i m g o out, t h e y t a k e o u t t h e Y u r u p a r y flute a n d b r i n g it

in, t h e y d r i v e all t h e w o m e n a w a y , y o u w o m e n d o n o t s e e it ( t h e flute), o r else y o u

die.'

A - k a c l a u s e c a n h a v e its o w n t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification, a s in 2 2 . 6 7 .

2 2 . 6 7 [ w a - n i - k a - s e - m h a ] h a n i p a - m h a d e

l p l - d o - S U B - L O C - P R E S . N O N V I S b i g + C L . O P E N . S P A C E - F U T

h i k u - t a

a p p e a r - E M P H

'At t h e t i m e w e d o (the d i c t i o n a r y w o r k ) , really a lot ( o f n e w w o r d s ) will appear.'

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 5 3 2 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

T h e -ka c l a u s e s are w i d e l y u s e d in t h e p a r e n t h e t i c e x p r e s s i o n 'I a m saying' - cf.

2 2 . 6 2 . T h i s e x p r e s s i o n is n e v e r topical - s e e § 2 5 . 4 . 3 . A s n o t e d a b o v e , t h e s e q u e n t i a l -ka

c a n o c c u r in t h e s a m e d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e w i t h -kapua ' b e c a u s e : D S ' ( 2 2 . 3 3 ) , w h e r e it is

c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h o t h e r c l a u s e s c o n t a i n i n g -ka.

2 2 . 3 S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h a d p o s i t i o n s

S o m e a d p o s i t i o n s d i s c u s s e d in § 1 1 . 1 1 c a n t a k e sentential a r g u m e n t s . A l l d e r i v e d

p o s t p o s i t i o n s ( B to H u n d e r § 1 1 . 1 1 ) c a n t a k e a d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n a s their

a r g u m e n t - cf. 2 0 . 3 2 , w i t h a -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n as the a r g u m e n t o f t h e l o c a t i v e

p o s t p o s t i o n - k w a ' d o w n from'. T h e p o s t p o s i t i o n kayu 'like' is illustrated w i t h t h e p a s t

n o m i n a l i s a t i o n - m i in 2 2 . 6 8 a n d 2 0 . 1 8 , a n d w i t h a n o n - p a s t -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n in 2 0 . 3 1 .

T h e p o s t p o s i t i o n y a p h i n i 'instead of, for' o c c u r s o n l y w i t h the -ri n o m i n a l i s a t i o n , a s in

1 1 . 9 5 a n d 2 2 . 6 9 .

2 2 . 6 8 i [ n u - a - m i k a y u - n h i ] pi-ni

l s g - s a y - N O M l i k e - A N T 2 s g - d o
4
Y o u h a v e d o n e a s I t o l d y o u . '

2 2 . 6 9 p i - p a - t u p e [ p a - k w i s a - r i y a p h i n i ] n a : - m h a

2 s g - r o t - I M P V . D E T R I M P - s c o l d - N O M i n s t e a d 3 p l + s a y - P R E S . N O N V I S

T h e y s a y "let y o u rot (to y o u r d e t r i m e n t ) " i n s t e a d o f scolding.'

T w o a d p o s i t i o n s c a n t a k e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a s their a r g u m e n t s - m a h a 'amidst, in

t h e m i d d l e o f a n d te 'until'.

T h e p o s t p o s i t i o n mafia is u s e d w i t h N P a r g u m e n t s (see e x a m p l e s 1 1 . 9 7 - 8 ) w h e r e it

often o c c u r s w i t h o t h e r a d p o s i t i o n s . W i t h a clausal a r g u m e n t , mafia m e a n s 'at t h e s a m e

t i m e as'; 2 2 . 7 0 c o n t a i n s t w o o c c u r r e n c e s o f mafia: o n e w i t h a clausal a r g u m e n t a n d t h e

o t h e r o n e w i t h a n N P ' b e h i n d m e ' .

2 2 . 7 0 [hi k a y u n u - p i s a m a n a ] d i - n u d i - w h a

D E M : A N I M like l s g - c u t s a m e . t i m e 3 s g n f - c o m e 3sgnf-sit

d i - s w a - n i k i n u - s a m i - s e m a n a

3 s g n f - l i e - C O M P L 1s g - b a c k - L O C a m i d s t / s a m e . t i m e

'At t h e s a m e t i m e a s I w a s c u t t i n g ( r u b b e r ) like this, h e ( s n a k e ) c a m e a n d lay d o w n

right b e h i n d m e . '

If mafia t a k e s a c l a u s a l a r g u m e n t w h i c h c o n t a i n s a s u b o r d i n a t i n g enclitic -ka a s in

2 2 . 7 1 a n d 1 1 . 9 8 , mafia m e a n s 'in t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e i m m e d i a t e l y after':

2 2 . 7 1 [ w a - n u - k a m a n a ] n a k a - k a n h e t a

l s g - c o m e - S U B a m i d s t 3 p l + a r r i v e - R E C . P . V I S 3 p l + t a k e

' I m m e d i a t e l y after w e c a m e , t h e y b r o u g h t (the f o o d ) in.'

W i t h - n i s a w a ' w h i l e : D S ' , mafia m e a n s 'at t h e v e r y m o m e n t w h e n s o m e t h i n g w a s

h a p p e n i n g ' a s in 2 2 . 1 8 a n d 2 2 . 7 2 .

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 2 2 . 3 S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h a d p o s i t i o n s 5 3 3

2 2 . 7 2 d i h a - d a n e - m e h p a - k a d e - m h a n a

A R T - C L : R O U N D N E G - N E G + g r a b - N E G - R E M . P . N O N V I S

[ d i h a - n e d i - a p i - k u s u d i - n i - n i s a w a mafia]

h e - F O C . A / S 3 s g n f - p u l l - P U L L s g n f - d o - W H I L E : D S a m i d s t

k a r e i y a m a r a t a h k a w a - n a d i - n u - n a - p i t a

w i n d r a i n w a v e l p l - O B J 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . V I S - A G A I N

'It (the m o t o r ) d i d n o t start, a n d at t h e v e r y m o m e n t w h i l e h e w a s p u l l i n g (the

m o t o r ) , w i n d , rain, w a v e s c a m e o v e r u s again.'

I n y o u n g p e o p l e ' s s p e e c h mafia is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d w i t h -ri c o n v e r b s r a t h e r t h a n w i t h

t h e u n m a r k e d p r e d i c a t e (as in 2 2 . 6 9 ) . 2 2 . 7 3 is s u c h a n e x a m p l e f r o m a story told b y

J u v e n a l B r i t o , a v e r y i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r . T h e m a i n c l a u s e c o n t a i n s a m a n a c l a u s e

f o l l o w i n g t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka c l a u s e , a n d s u b s e q u e n t c l a u s e s c o n t a i n -ri c o n v e r b s w i t h

mafia in t h e s a m e m e a n i n g .

2 2 . 7 3 [ n h a n h e m a - k a m a n a ] y e n u n i - s e d i - r a p a

t h e y 3 p l + h e a r - S U B a m i d s t h i g h . u p - L O C 3 s g n f - s i n g

d i - r u k u d i - n u - p i d a n a d i h a w a r u - t i k i

3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - c o m e - R E M . P . R E P A R T p a r r o t - D I M

[ n h a n a k a - r i mafia] d i - r u k u

t h e y 3 p l + a r r i v e - N O M a m i d s t 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n

d i - n u - e s t a - p i d a d i h a w a r u - t i k i te n a - d a l i p a

3 s g n f - c o m e - P E R F - R E P A R T p a r r o t - D I M until 3 p l - n e a r

[ d i h a d i - r u k u d i - s w a - r i mafia] n h a

h e 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - l i e - N O M a m i d s t t h e y

n a w i k i - n h e d i - n a n h e p a - p i d a n a - n i k i

p e o p l e - F O C . A / S 3 s g n f - O B J 3 p l + g r a b - R E M . P . R E P - C O M P L

' I m m e d i a t e l y after t h e y h e a r d ( h i m ) , t h e little p a r r o t s a n g a n d w e n t d o w n f r o m t h e

sky, w h i l e t h e y w e r e a r r i v i n g t h e little p a r r o t w e n t d o w n t o w a r d s t h e m , w h i l e h e

w a s g o i n g d o w n t h e p e o p l e g r a b b e d h i m . '

T h e p r e p o s i t i o n te m a r k s c l a u s e s m e a n i n g 'until, u p to' ( w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t i m e o r to

s p a c e ) , a s illustrated in 2 2 . 7 4 .

2 2 . 7 4 w a - m e y u t a w e n u w a : - n a

l p l - g o . t h r o u g h . j u n g l e l p l + g o . u p l p l + g o - R E M . P . V I S

[te k w a k a d i w i - p u a w i k a - s e

until w h a f s . n a m e 3 s g n f f f I o w e r - C L : R I V E R o n . t o p - L O C

w a - r u k u w a k a - n a ]

l p l - g o . d o w n l p l + a r r i v e - R E M . P . V I S

' W e k e p t g o i n g u p t h r o u g h t h e j u n g l e until w e a r r i v e d o n t o p of, w h a t ' s its n a m e ,

t h e F l o w e r River.'

Te c a n m a r k -ka c l a u s e s w h i c h c o n t a i n t h e locative -se if t h e y refer to t h e e x a c t

e n d p o i n t o f a n a c t i o n , a s in 2 2 . 7 5 .

2 2 . 7 5 d i - e k u - k a - p i d a n a [te h i n i p u

3 s g n f - r u n - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P until r o a d

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 5 3 4 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

p a m u n a d i - u k a - k a - s e ]

m i d d l e 3 s g n f - a r r i v e - S U B - L 0 C

' H e ( t h e d e e r ) ran, until t h e v e r y m o m e n t w h e n h e a r r i v e d in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e

road.'

If a c l a u s e gets m a r k e d w i t h te a n d mafia s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , its p r e d i c a t e h a s to b e

n o m i n a l i s e d , a s in 2 2 . 7 6 ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s a - m i n o m i n a l i s a t i o n ) .

2 2 . 7 6 [te [ h e m a d i m a - m i d i - s w a

until tapir 3 s g n f + s l e e p - N O M . P A S T 3sgnf-lie

m a f i a ] ] d i - n u d i - k e t a - p i d a n a

a m i d s t 3 s g n f - c o m e 3 s g n f - e n c o u n t e r - R E M . P. R E P

' H e m a n a g e d t o get u p to t h e v e r y p o i n t w h e r e t h e tapir h a d b e e n sleeping.'

S i m i l a r l y t o - k a c l a u s e s b u t u n l i k e t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s d i s c u s s e d in § 2 2 . 1 , c l a u s e s

m a r k e d w i t h t h e a d p o s i t i o n c a n n o t o c c u r o n their o w n . N e i t h e r c a n t h e y h a v e their o w n

t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y v a l u e o r b e c a s e - m a r k e d .

2 2 . 4 S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a n d c l a u s e l i n k i n g

P r o p e r t i e s o f s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s in T a r i a n a are s u m m a r i s e d in T a b l e 2 2 . 2 . T h e s e

p r o p e r t i e s i n c l u d e s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e m a r k i n g , p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e m a i n c l a u s e ,

p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r a r g u m e n t s o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e , c a s e - m a r k i n g a n d

i n d e p e n d e n t t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y . M o s t s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e t y p e s differ f r o m o t h e r t y p e s in

at least o n e o f t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s : for i n s t a n c e , t h e s a m e s u b j e c t enclitic 'while' c a n n o t t a k e

c a s e - m a r k i n g b u t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g different s u b j e c t enclitic can. E v e n if c l a u s e s

m a r k e d w i t h s u b o r d i n a t i n g enclitics c a n t a k e c a s e - m a r k i n g , t h e y differ a s to e x a c t l y

w h i c h c a s e - m a r k e r s t h e y o c c u r w i t h : m o s t d o o c c u r w i t h - n u k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' (as

a n y o t h e r o b l i q u e c o n s t i t u e n t c a n ) , e x c e p t for t h e c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h -hyume: t h e s e

t a k e o n l y t h e l o c a t i v e -se. T h e -ka c l a u s e s are t h e o n l y o n e s to t a k e t h e f o c u s s e d A / S

m a r k i n g ; a n d h a r d l y a n y c l a u s e t a k e s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l - c o m i t a t i v e . T h a t is, s o m e c l a u s e s

h a v e a n u m b e r o f n o m i n a l p r o p e r t i e s a n d b e h a v e m o r e like o t h e r o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t s , o r

a d j u n c t s , o f a c l a u s e , w h i l e o t h e r s are less n o m i n a l - l i k e . A t least o n e t y p e o f c l a u s e ,

m a r k e d w i t h - k a y a m i 'after:DS', c a n t a k e n o m i n a l m o r p h o l o g y (see 2 2 . 1 1 - 1 2 , a n d

d i s c u s s i o n there). H o w e v e r , n o m a t t e r h o w n o m i n a l - l i k e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s m a y a p p e a r

t o b e , t h e y a r e still different f r o m n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s - s e e § 2 0 . 2 . 5 .

T h i s d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s p r o b a b l y i n d i c a t e s their r e c e n t origin; t h e

e x i s t e n c e o f q u i t e a n u m b e r o f rarely o c c u r r i n g v a r i a n t s a n d rare f o r m s - s u c h as

- k a n a d a , - n i p u a , - n i k h e - c o u l d b e a c c o u n t e d for b y l a n g u a g e o b s o l e s c e n c e , o r dialect

m i x t u r e , o r b y b o t h . T h e r e c e n t o r i g i n o f s w i t c h r e f e r e n c e is c o r r o b o r a t e d b y v i o l a t i o n s

o f t h e different s u b j e c t p r i n c i p l e b y t h e o l d e s t s p e a k e r o f t h e l a n g u a g e - s e e 2 2 . 1 4 .

W e h a v e a l s o s e e n t h a t c l a u s e l i n k i n g is m o s t often a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h -ka s e q u e n t i a l

c l a u s e s . T y p i c a l s e q u e n c e s o f -ka c l a u s e s are 2 2 . 3 3 , a n d 2 2 . 7 7 - J o v i n o Brito's a t t e m p t

t o e x p l a i n w h a t a s h a m a n i c s o n g r e c o r d e d b y P a d r e A l c o n c i l i o B r u z z i w a s a b o u t .

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T A B L E 22.2 P R O P E R T I E S O F S U B O R D I N A T E C L A U S E S IN T A R I A N A

C A N O C C U R B E T W
S W I T C H R E F E R E N C E P O S I T I O N W I T H R E S P E C T T O
M A R K I N G M E A N I N G O T H E R A R G U M E N T
R E S T R I C T I O N S A P P L Y M A I N C L A U S E
T H E M A I N C L A U

-hyume after, b e c a u s e S S c a n p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w n o

-kayami after D S c a n p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w n o

-nikhe w h i l e S S c a n o n l y p r e c e d e ?

- n i s a w a w h i l e D S c a n p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w n o

-kanada w h i l e (archaic) D S ? ?

-nipua w h i l e D S ? ?

-kariku p r o l o n g e d p a s t a c t i o n D S c a n o n l y p r e c e d e n o

-kakari p r o l o n g e d p a s t a c t i o n S S c a n o n l y p r e c e d e n o

-kapua b e c a u s e D S c a n o n l y f o l l o w n o

o b l i q u e c a s e -se a s s o o n a s S S ? ?

o b l i q u e c a s e -ne b e c a u s e S S ? ?

-kaya w h i l e : a d v e r s a t i v e n o n e c a n o n l y p r e c e d e n o

-khe, -nikhe, -kheya i n s p i t e of, t h o u g h n o n e c a n p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w n o

-ka s e q u e n t i a l n o n e c a n p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w n o

mafia at t h e s a m e t i m e a s n o n e c a n p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w n o

te until n o n e c a n p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w n o

( T h e e n c l i t i c -piyana is n o t included, since it is f o u n d exclusively in t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect.)

 5 3 6 22 Subordinate clauses and clause linking

2 2 . 7 7 [ n u h u a n u h m e t a - k a - n u k u ] h i k u - n h i

I 1s g + t h i n k - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S t h u s - A N T

d i - a - n h i [hi d i - r a p a - k a d i - k e n u w a ]

3 s g n f - s a y - A N T D E M : A N I M 3 s g n f - s i n g - S U B 3sgnf-start

[kuite y a w i w a r i - n u k u

I N T + N C L : A N I M Y a w i w a r i - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - m a p i s e t a - k a - n h i ] [ [ n h u a d i - n a

3 s g n f - h a v e . b a d . o m e n + C A U S - S U B - A N T I 3 s g n f - O B J

h i k a y u - d e n u - n i n h u a

D E M : A N I M + t h u s - F U T . C E R T 1s g - d o I

n u - n i n u - i n u - d e ] d i - n a d i - a - k a - n h i ]

1 s g - d o l s g - k i l l - F U T . C E R T 3 s g n f - O B J 3 s g n f - s a y - S U B - A N T

h T - n u k u d i - r a p a d i - k e n a - n h i

D E M : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s i n g 3 s g n f - s t a r t - A N T

'In m y o p i n i o n , this is w h a t h e (the s h a m a n ) said, h a v i n g started to sing, h a v i n g

b r o u g h t a b a d o m e n to Y a w i w a r i , h a v i n g said " T h i s is w h a t I will d o to y o u , " this

is w h a t h e started singing.'

A n a l t e r n a t i v e to -ka c l a u s e s is t h e u s e o f - / 7 c o n v e r b s d i s c u s s e d in § 2 0 . 2 . 3 , o r s i m p l e

j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f p r e d i c a t e s , a s in 2 2 . 7 8 . A p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e t w o p r e d i c a t e s i n d i c a t e s

t h a t this is j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f different p r e d i c a t e s rather t h a n a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n . ( A

s e g m e n t a l l y m a r k e d p a u s e c o u l d o c c u r after di-pe-ta in this s e n t e n c e . )

2 2 . 7 8 [di-pe-ta] [ P A U S E ] [ d h i t a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - t h r o w - C A U S [ P A U S E ] 3 s g n f + t a k e - R E M . P . R E P

d i - k e t a ] d i h a - p u k w i - n u k u

3 s g n f - e n c o u n t e r A R T - C L : R O U N D . H O L L O W - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H e t h r e w t h e r i n g ( a n d ) m a n a g e d to get (it).'

A d v e r b s w h i c h link s e n t e n c e s in d i s c o u r s e are d i s c u s s e d in § 2 5 . 4 . 2 .

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 2 3

Relative clauses

R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s a r e a s u b t y p e o f d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s . T h e y constitute a distinct c l a u s e

t y p e s i n c e t h e y differ in critical w a y s f r o m m a i n c l a u s e s a n d f r o m s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s o f

o t h e r t y p e s d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2 2 (e.g. t e m p o r a l , c o n d i t i o n a l etc.). T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s

a r e c o n t r a s t e d i n T a b l e 2 3 . 1 .

T A B L E 2 3 . 1 . C O M P A R I S O N O F M A I N , R E L A T I V E A N D S U B O R D I N A T E C L A U S E S

P R O P E R T I E S M A I N R E L A T I V E C L A U S E S S U B O R D I N A T E C L A U S E S

S E P A R A T E V A L U E F O R T E N S E n o ( e x c e p t for -lea,
y e s n o
A N D E V I D E N T I A L L Y -kapua a n d -khe c l a u s e s )

S W I T C H R E F E R E N C E n o n o y e s ( s o m e )

s i m u l t a n e o u s /
R E L A T I V E T E N S E n o s i m u l t a n e o u s / p r e c e d i n g
p r e c e d i n g / f o l l o w i n g

S P E C I A L F O R M O F y e s
n o n o
P R E D I C A T E (see T a b l e s 9.1 & 2 0 . 1 )

C L A S S I F I E R A G R E E M E N T
n o * y e s n o * *
W I T H T H E I N A N I M A T E S

C A S E - M A R K I N G O N p o s s i b l e
n o p o s s i b l e
P R E D I C A T E ( w i t h s o m e e x c e p t i o n s )

*except if the p r e d i c a t e is in t h e t o p i c - a d v a n c i n g voice - see §13.5.

**except for purposive clauses - see §16.7.

T h e p r e d i c a t e o f a relative c l a u s e in T a r i a n a is m a r k e d w i t h participles, o r relative

v e r b f o r m s d i s c u s s e d in § 2 0 . 1 . A s s h o w n in T a b l e 2 3 . 1 , t h r e e relative t e n s e d i s t i n c t i o n s

a r e m a d e : s i m u l t a n e o u s ( p r e s e n t participle), p r e c e d i n g (past participle w h i c h

d i s t i n g u i s h e s n u m b e r , a n d t w o g e n d e r s in singular), a n d f o l l o w i n g (future participle).

T h e g r a m m a t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e T a r i a n a relative c l a u s e s are d i s c u s s e d a n d

e x e m p l i f i e d in § 2 3 . 1 . R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s c a n c o n t a i n indefinite-interrogative p r o n o u n s as

s u b o r d i n a t o r s - this is d i s c u s s e d in § 2 3 . 2 .

2 3 . 1 G r a m m a t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s

R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s in T a r i a n a are m o s t l y restrictive. T h e m a i n c l a u s e a n d t h e relative

c l a u s e m u s t h a v e a n a r g u m e n t in c o m m o n . T h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t c a n b e stated in t h e

m a i n c l a u s e . A relative c l a u s e a p p e a r s in t h e p l a c e w h e r e the s h a r e d a r g u m e n t w o u l d b e

e x p e c t e d in t h e m a i n c l a u s e , o r after t h e c o m m o n a r g u m e n t if it is there. H e a d l e s s

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 5 3 8 23 Relative clauses

relative c l a u s e s a r e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e . T h e r e is, o p t i o n a l l y , a s h o r t p a u s e

after t h e relative c l a u s e .

A n y a r g u m e n t s , a p a r t f r o m p o s s e s s o r s a n d a r g u m e n t s o f a d p o s i t i o n s , c a n b e

relativised. T h e o n l y p o s s e s s o r s w h i c h c a n b e relativised are in t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e

s e c o n d o b j e c t ( s e e 2 3 . 1 0 , a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n in §7.5). T h e

relative f o r m o f t h e v e r b is u s e d o n l y if t h e c o m m o n a r g u m e n t is t h e A / S either o f t h e

m a i n , o r o f t h e relative c l a u s e , o r o f b o t h .

T h e c o m m o n a r g u m e n t c a n b e t h e A / S c o n s t i t u e n t o f b o t h t h e relative c l a u s e a n d t h e

m a i n c l a u s e , a s in 2 3 . 1 a n d 2 0 . 1 ( w h e r e t h e S o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e is coreferential w i t h t h e

A o f t h e relative c l a u s e ) , 2 3 . 2 ( w h e r e t h e A o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e is coreferential w i t h t h e S

o f t h e relative c l a u s e ) , 2 3 . 3 ( w h e r e t h e A o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e is coreferential w i t h t h e A

o f t h e relative c l a u s e ) a n d 2 3 . 4 ( w h e r e t h e S o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e is coreferential w i t h t h e

S o f t h e relative c l a u s e ) . In t h e s e a n d o t h e r e x a m p l e s t h e relative c l a u s e s are in s q u a r e

b r a c k e t s .

In 2 3 . 1 , t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y enclitic is r e p e a t e d o n t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e relative

c l a u s e ( s e e § 2 5 . 4 . 1 ) . T h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e relative c l a u s e is a participle - d i s c u s s e d in

§ 2 0 . 1 .

2 3 . 1 w y u m e - m a - s e m a t f a - m a - p i d a n a

l a s t - C L : F E M - C O N T R g o o d / p r o p e r - C L : F E M - R E M . P . R E P

[ d u - k a k a p u a k a - w i r y a - k a r u - p i d a n a ]

3 s g f - f a c e R E L - p a i n t - P A S T . R E L . F E M - R E M . P . R E P

T h e last o n e w a s beautiful, (the o n e ) w h o h a d p a i n t e d h e r face.'

2 3 . 2 [ w a - p h u m i - s e - s e k a - m i n a - k a n i ]

l p l - a f t e r - L O C - C O N T R A S T R E L - a p p e a r - P A S T . R E L . P L

k a y a w a - n a n u - e r i n a : - m h a

s o l p l - O B J l s g - y o u n g e r . b r o t h e r 3 p l + s a y - P R E S . N O N V I S

T h o s e w h o h a d a p p e a r e d after u s call u s y o u n g e r brothers.'

2 3 . 3 n i n h a - s i n a n a - w h e - r i - n i s e r i

3 s g n f + e a t - R E M . P . I N F R 3 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C - S I N G L

y e n e - s e r i - s i n i n a - w h e - r i [ n a - n a

I n e r r e - S I N G L - A S S . P L 3 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C 3 p l - O B J

k a - w h a w e - t a - p e n a ]

R E L - b r i n g . u p + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 - F U T . R E L

T h e i r ( T a r i a n a s ' ) g r a n d f a t h e r , Y n e r r e , their g r a n d f a t h e r , t h e o n e w h o w a s to b r i n g

t h e m u p ( T a r i a n a s ) , w a s e a t i n g w i t h t h e m ( e n e m i e s ) . '

2 3 . 4 w h a [ h a - d o i - w a - s e k a - n a - k a n i ]

w e p a r e n t - F E M I N D F - b e l l y - L O C R E L - l i v e - P A S T . R E L . P L

w a - m i n a w a - m u s u w a - n u - m h a

l p l - a p p e a r . f l o a t i n g l p l - g o . o u t l p l - c o m e - P R E S . N O N V I S

' W e w h o h a d l i v e d in t h e m o t h e r ' s belly c a m e o u t a n d a p p e a r e d , floating.'

T h e c o m m o n a r g u m e n t c a n b e in O f u n c t i o n in t h e m a i n c l a u s e a n d in S f u n c t i o n in

t h e relative c l a u s e , a s in 2 3 . 5 , 2 3 . 6 a n d 9.9. In 2 3 . 7 a n d 2 3 . 8 t h e c o m m o n a r g u m e n t is

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 23.1 Grammatical properties of relative clauses 5 3 9

t h e O o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e a n d t h e A o f t h e relative c l a u s e . T h e relative c l a u s e is m a r k e d

w i t h t h e - n u k u c a s e if topical.

2 3 . 5 n e - p i d a n a n a k a n a - p i s a

t h e n - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + a r r i v e 3 p l - c u t

[ k e m a k a - s w a - n u k u ]

R E L + s l e e p R E L - s t a y - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n t h e y c a m e a n d c u t (the s o r c e r e r ) w h o w a s asleep.'

2 3 . 6 [ p a t h i n a k a k a - k a r i - n u k u ] n a - i r a - k a s u

first.time R E L + a r r i v e - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 p l - d r i n k - I N T

' T h e y ( m o s q u i t o e s ) are g o i n g to bite t h e o n e w h o h a s a r r i v e d for t h e first time.'

2 3 . 7 [ k a - n i k a - y e k a - n u k u - m h a d e ] n u - p a n o a

R E L - d o R E L - k n o w - T O P . N O N . A / S - F U T . U N C E R T 1 s g - s e n d

'I w i l l s e n d (a p e r s o n ) w h o k n o w s h o w t o d o (it).'

T h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e relative c l a u s e i n 2 3 . 8 is a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n .

2 3 . 8 [ d u - n a k h e t a - k a r i k a - n u ]

3 s g f - O B J R E L + t a k e - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G R E L - c o m e

h i t a i - m u s u y - a

2 p l + g e t 2 p l - g o . o u t 2 p l - g o

' G e t t h e o n e w h o h a d b r o u g h t h e r o u t o f here.'

If t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a relative c l a u s e h a s a n o b j e c t o r a n o b l i q u e a r g u m e n t , this

a r g u m e n t is p r e p o s e d t o t h e v e r b , a s in 2 3 . 8 a n d 2 3 . 9 .

2 3 . 9 d i h a - p i d a n a [na:pi k a - n h a

h e - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l + w i t h R E L - e a t

k e m h a n i ] n e k a n a - k a - p i d a n a

R E L + w a l k 3 p l + c h i e f - D E C L - R E M . P . R E P

' H e w h o w a l k e d a r o u n d a n d ate ( p e o p l e ) w i t h t h e m w a s their c h i e f

I n 2 3 . 1 a n d 2 3 . 3 - 4 , t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t is stated in t h e m a i n c l a u s e . It c a n b e stated

o n l y in t h e relative c l a u s e if t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t h a s different f u n c t i o n s in t h e m a i n a n d

in t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e . I n 2 3 . 1 0 , it is 'he': t h e s e c o n d O o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e ( p o s s e s s o r o f

'clothing': s e e C h a p t e r 6 o n d o u b l e o b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) a n d t h e A o f t h e relative c l a u s e .

2 3 . 1 0 n e s e - p i d a d i h a y a r u - m a k a - s i - n u k u

t h e n - R E P A R T t h i n g - C L : C L O T H I N G - N P O S S - T O P . N O N . A / S

n a - p e - p i d a [ d i h a ma:tfi-peri

3 p l - t h r o w - R E P h e A b a d - C O L L

k a - y a - k a r i - m i k i - r i - n u k u ]

R E L - w e a r - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G - N O M . P A S T - M A S C - T O P . N O N . A / S

' T h e n t h e y t h r e w a w a y this c l o t h i n g ( o f t h e o n e ) w h o w a s w e a r i n g b a d (clothes).'

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 5 4 0 2 3 R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s

T h e c o m m o n a r g u m e n t c a n b e stated t w i c e - b o t h in t h e m a i n c l a u s e a n d in the

relative c l a u s e , a s in 2 3 . 1 1 . (It c a n n o t b e stated t w i c e i f it is i n t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n in b o t h

c l a u s e s . ) H e r e t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t , T , is in O f u n c t i o n in t h e m a i n c l a u s e a n d in S

f u n c t i o n in t h e relative c l a u s e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , it t a k e s t h e o b j e c t c a s e in t h e m a i n c l a u s e

(nu-na) a n d t h e s u b j e c t c a s e in t h e relative c l a u s e (nuha).

2 3 . 1 1 i h y a n u - n a m a t j a - p u - m h a i-ni

y o u l s g - O B J g o o d / p r o p e r - A U G - P R E S . V I S 2 p l - d o

i - w a k e - t a [ n h u a A a w a k a d a - s e

2 p l - j o i n + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 I j u n g l e - L O C

k a - n a l e - p e n a - n u k u ]

R E L - d i s a p p e a r - F U T . P A R T - T O P . N O N . A / S

' Y o u h e l p e d m e v e r y w e l l , m e , t h e o n e w h o w a s to d i s a p p e a r in t h e j u n g l e . '

T h e p r e d i c a t e o f a relative c l a u s e is u s u a l l y n e g a t e d w i t h t h e prefix m a - a n d t h e suffix

- k a d e , j u s t like a n y o t h e r v e r b a l f o r m (see § 2 0 . 1 ) . In t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect, it c a n also

b e n e g a t e d w i t h j u s t t h e suffix - k a d e , a s in 2 3 . 1 2 , f r o m a story told b y a y o u n g e r

s p e a k e r .

2 3 . 1 2 [ s a p a t o k a - n i k a - w a p a - k a d e - n a k a ] n h u a

s h o e R E L - d o R E L - w a i t - N E G - P R E S . V I S I

'I a m n o t a s h o e m a k e r (lit. I a m n o t t h e o n e w h o l o o k s after m a k i n g shoes).'

T h i s n e g a t i o n m a r k i n g a p p e a r s to b e d o m i n a n t in t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect - s e e 2 3 . 1 3 .

T h i s e x a m p l e a l s o s h o w s h o w a d e v e r b a l a d j e c t i v e m a - n a - k a d e - p e n i ( N E G - w a n t - N E G -

P L I A N I M ) d e r i v e d f r o m a n e g a t i v e v e r b w i t h t h e plural a n i m a t e m a r k e r (the plural o f

classifier -ite, w i t h a d e r i v a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n - s e e § 2 0 . 3 ) c a n f u n c t i o n o n p a r w i t h a

participle.

2 3 . 1 3 n a - d i a - k a h e - s e m a - n a - k a d e - p e n i

3 p l - s t a y - R E C . P . V I S t h e r e - L O C N E G - w a n t - N E G - P L : A N I M

[ k a - n u - d e - k a ] n h a - s e

R E L - c o m e - N E G - R E C . P . V I S t h e y - C O N T R

T h o s e w h o d i d n o t w a n t to ( c o m e ) (lit. t h e o n e s n o t w a n t i n g ) s t a y e d b a c k , t h e y are

t h e o n e s w h o d i d n o t c o m e . '

T h e r e a r e n o restrictions o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a n t e c e d e n t . A p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n c a n b e

t h e a n t e c e d e n t o f t h e relative c l a u s e , a s in 9.9, 2 3 . 4 a n d 2 3 . 1 1 - 1 4 . A n alternative

a n a l y s i s w o u l d b e to c o n s i d e r 2 3 . 1 2 - 1 4 as e q u a t i o n a l structures w i t h t h e p r o n o u n a s o n e

a r g u m e n t a n d a h e a d l e s s relative c l a u s e a s the o t h e r a r g u m e n t .

2 3 . 1 4 p h i a - n i h k a [ina k a m a - k a r i ]

y o u - P A S T . V I S . I N T E R w o m a m P L R E L + l o o k . f o r - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G

' A r e y o u t h e o n e w h o w a s l o o k i n g for w o m e n ? '

In 2 3 . 1 5 t h e a n t e c e d e n t is t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e , a n d in 2 3 . 1 6 it is a m o d i f i e r u s e d

w i t h o u t a h e a d . T h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t c a n b e stated a n y w h e r e in t h e m a i n c l a u s e ; a s

illustrated i n 2 3 . 1 5 a n d 2 3 . 1 6 , it d o e s n o t h a v e to b e c o n t i g u o u s w i t h the relative c l a u s e .

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 2 3 . 1 G r a m m a t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s 5 4 1

2 3 . 1 5 k w e - m h a p i - n a p h i a h a - m a - n u k u

w h a t - P R E S . N O N V I S 2 s g - w a n t y o u D E M : I N A N - F E M - T O P . N O N . A / S

p i - n a - k a [ k a - d u h y a - k a r u - n u k u ]

2 s g - w a n t - D E C L R E L - d i s l i k e - P A S T . R E L . F E M . S G - T O P . N O N . A / S

' W h a t d o y o u w a n t (to b e d o n e ) to t h e o n e w h o h a s d i s l i k e d y o u ? '

2 3 . 1 6 h a n u p e - t h a - p i d a n a d i - s u e - t a

m a n y - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s t a y + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2

[ s y a w a k h e p a - p e n a ]

fire R E L + t a k e - F U T . R E L

' H e ( t h e traditional G o d ) p u t (in v a i n ) m a n y (sticks) w h i c h w o u l d c a t c h fire.'

A relative f o r m t a k e s classifiers t o a g r e e w i t h a c o m m o n a r g u m e n t w h i c h h a s a n

i n a n i m a t e referent, i f it is t h e O in t h e m a i n c l a u s e a n d t h e S o f t h e relative c l a u s e , as in

2 3 . 1 7 ; o r i f it is t h e S in b o t h , a s in 2 3 . 1 8 .

2 3 . 1 7 [ h e k u - n a - p e - t u p e k e m a - k a - n a - p e - n u k u ]

t r e e - C L : V E R T - P L - D I M . P L R E L + s t a n d - T H - C L : V E R T - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

d i - w h a - d u l i t h u y - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - b i t e - M A K E . B O W a l l - R E M P . R E P

' H e ( t h e evil spirit) w a s b i t i n g t h e little trees - w h i c h w e r e s t a n d i n g - m a k i n g t h e m

b o w . '

2 3 . 1 8 t e n e s e - n h i n a d i - r u k u d i - u k a

until t h e r e - A N T + R E M . P . V I S 3 s g n f - g o . d o w n 3 s g n f - a r r i v e

h i n i p u [ k w a k a - s e A y a c u c h o - s e k a - n u - k a - p u n a ]

r o a d w h e r e - L O C A y a c u c h o - L O C R E L - c o m e - T H - C L : R O A D

'Until t h a t p l a c e t h e r o a d w a s g o i n g d o w n , c o m i n g to, w h a t ' s its n a m e , A y a c u c h o . '

E x a m p l e s 2 3 . 1 7 a n d 2 3 . 1 9 also s h o w that, o n c e t h e relative f o r m s t a k e the classifier

a g r e e m e n t , t h e y a r e p l u r a l i s e d w i t h t h e -pe suffix, u s e d w i t h i n a n i m a t e n o u n s a n d w i t h

s o m e m o d i f i e r s w h i c h c o n t a i n a classifier ( s e e § 8 . 1 - 2 ) rather t h a n w i t h t h e - k a n i m a r k e r

( u s e d for p l u r a l i s i n g participles: s e e T a b l e 9.2). T h e a g r e e i n g f o r m s u s u a l l y t a k e t h e

t h e m a t i c - k a suffix; h o w e v e r , s o m e s p e a k e r s d o n o t u s e it, a s s h o w n in 2 3 . 1 9 . H e r e the

relative c l a u s e w i t h classifier a g r e e m e n t is in t h e p r e d i c a t e slot.

2 3 . 1 9 n e s e [ k a - w a k a - n u - p u a - p e - m h a ]

t h e n R E L - g o . i n R E L - c o m e - C L : R I V E R - P L - P R E S . N O N V I S

h a - p u a - p e fiapu-pe w a : - n a w h a m e t a

D E M : I N A N - C L : R I V E R - P L s t r e a m - P L l p l + s a y - R E M . P . V I S l s g + t h i n k

T h e n t h e s e s t r e a m s are t h e o n e s that g o i n s i d e t h e j u n g l e c o m i n g o u t t o w a r d s us,

w e t h o u g h t . '

T h e p l u r a l m a r k e r -pe c a n o c c a s i o n a l l y a p p e a r i n s t e a d o f -kani after t h e classifier

w i t h y o u n g e r a n d m o r e i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s .

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 5 4 2 2 3 R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s

2 3 . 2 0 n h a [ k a - n a m i - k a - p e ] n a - w h a - n i - p a - p e

t h e y R E L - d i e - T H - P L 3 p l - s i t - T O P . A D V - C L : O P E N . S P A C E - P L

s e d e - k a

N E G . E X - R E C . P . V I S

' T h o s e w h o d i e d , t h e y h a v e n o chairs.'

If t h e c o m m o n a r g u m e n t is O in b o t h m a i n a n d relative c l a u s e , the p r e d i c a t e o f the

relative c l a u s e is m a r k e d w i t h -nipe n o m i n a i i s a t i o n if t h e a c t i o n is o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n t h e

s a m e t i m e s p a n w i t h t h e m a i n p r e d i c a t i o n , a s in 2 3 . 2 1 , a n d w i t h a - m i n o m i n a i i s a t i o n , if

it p r e c e d e s it, a s in 2 3 . 2 2 ( s e e § 2 0 . 2 ) .

2 3 . 2 1 t u k i d i - a d i - k e t a - p i d a n a [ w a l i - p e r i

a.little 3 s g n f - g o 3 s g n f - m e e t - R E M . P . R E P n e w - C O L L

i h a - p i d a n a d i h a d e p i t a d i s u - n i p e - p i d a n a ]

f a e c e s - R E M . P . R E P A R T n i g h t + A D V 3 s g n f + e x c r e t e - N O M - R E M . P . R E P

' H e ( t h e tapir) w e n t o n a little, h e e n c o u n t e r e d n e w f a e c e s w h i c h w e r e e x c r e t e d ( b y

t h e turtle) t h e s a m e night.'

2 3 . 2 2 [ y a p i r i k u r i d i - n i - m i ] i-na n u - k a l i t e n u - k e f i a - d e

Y a p i r i k u r i 3 s g n f - d o - N O M . P A S T 2 p l - O B L lsg-tell l s g - s t a r t - F U T . C E R T

'I s h a l l start telling y o u a b o u t w h a t Y a p i r i k u r i (a T r a d i t i o n a l G o d ) h a d d o n e . '

If a l o c a t i v e a r g u m e n t in t h e relative c l a u s e is t h e c o m m o n a r g u m e n t , t h e -mi

n o m i n a i i s a t i o n is u s e d , a s in 2 3 . 2 3 a n d 2 3 . 2 4 .

2 3 . 2 3 w y a k a - s i k a n u - n u n h u a k a y u m a k a [ n h u a

f a r - R E C . P . I N F R l s g - c o m e I t h i s . i s . w h y I

h i n i p u n u - n u - m i ] m a - k e t a - d e - m a h k a

r o a d 1s g - c o m e - N O M . P A S T N E G - f i n d - N E G - R E C . P . N O N V I S

'I m u s t h a v e c o m e a l o n g w a y , this is w h y I h a v e n ' t f o u n d t h e r o a d f r o m w h i c h I

arrived.'

2 3 . 2 4 [ d i - u k a - m i d i - e m a - n u k u ]

3 s g n f - a r r i v e - N O M . P A S T 3 s g n f - s t a n d - T O P . N O N . A / S

y e n u - s e d i - k a - t h a - d a n a d i - u m a

u p - L O C 3 s g n f - s e e - F R - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - l o o k . f o r

' H e w a s l o o k i n g u p t r y i n g t o s e e (in v a i n ) t h e p l a c e w h e r e h e h a d arrived.'

R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s o f t e n f o l l o w t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t , as in 2 3 . 1 , 2 3 . 3 - 4 , 2 3 . 9 o r 2 3 . 2 3 .

T h e y m a y p r e c e d e t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t , a s in 2 3 . 1 3 a n d 2 3 . 1 9 , a n d 2 3 . 2 5 .

2 3 . 2 5 [ d i h a h i w a r u - p u k w i k a - d e ]

A R T g o l d - C L . H O L L O W R E L - h a v e

k u p h e - n u k u d i - k a d i - a n h i - p i d a n a

f i s h - T O P . N O N . A / S 3 s g n f - s e e 3 s g n f - k n o w - R E M . P . R E P

' ( T h e cat) r e c o g n i s e d t h e fish w h o h a d t h e g o l d e n ring.'

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 2 3 . 2 C o n t e n t q u e s t i o n w o r d s a s m a r k e r s of r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s 5 4 3

I n 2 3 . 2 6 , t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t ( S o f b o t h c l a u s e s ) f o l l o w s t h e relative c l a u s e ;

h o w e v e r , a p a u s e b e t w e e n t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e relative c l a u s e a n d t h e o v e r t l y stated S

a r g u m e n t i n d i c a t e s t h a t this a r g u m e n t is a n afterthought.

2 3 . 2 6 n a - t h a k a n a - n u - k a - n a [sipi-pe k a - d e ]

3 p l - c r o s s 3 p l - c o m e - D E C L - R E M . P . V I S g u n - P L R E L - h a v e

P A U S E d i h a k u i t e R a f a e l J u v e n a Feli

P A U S E h e I N T + N C L : A N I M R a f a e l J u v e n a Feli

m a d a l i p a n a - t h a k a n a : - n a na:

t h r e e + N U M . C L . H U M A N 3 p l - c r o s s 3 p l + g o - R E M . P . V I S 3 p l + g o

T h e o n e s w h o h a d g u n s w e r e c o m i n g a c r o s s , w h a t ' s his n a m e , R a f a e l , J u v e n a ,

Feli, t h e t h r e e w e r e g o i n g across.'

A r e l a t i v e c l a u s e d o e s n o t h a v e t o b e c o n t i g u o u s w i t h t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t it f o l l o w s

- this is s h o w n in 2 3 . 1 5 - 1 6 . In 2 3 . 2 7 t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t is t o p i c a l i s e d a n d fronted.

2 3 . 2 7 [ w a r i p e r e i n k a - n h a - k a r i ]

W a l i p e r e s o n R E L - e a t - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G

i h y a - s e d i - n a i n u

y o u - C O N T R 3 s g n f - O B J 2 p l + k i l l

' H e w h o h a d e a t e n W a l i p e r e ' s s o n , y o u kill h i m . '

2 3 . 2 C o n t e n t q u e s t i o n w o r d s a s m a r k e r s o f r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s

C o n t e n t q u e s t i o n w o r d s c a n a p p e a r a s m a r k e r s o f relative c l a u s e s if t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t

is A / S o f t h e relative c l a u s e , a n d if t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t h a s t h e g e n e r i c - d i s t r i b u t i v e

m e a n i n g o f ' w h o e v e r , e v e r y o n e w h o ' . T h e p r o n o u n a l w a y s a p p e a r s in t h e clause-initial

p o s i t i o n , a n d it c a n n o t h a v e a n a n t e c e d e n t . T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n c o u l d b e a c a i q u e f r o m

P o r t u g u e s e , or, m o r e likely, f r o m T u c a n o . T h e u s e o f c o n t e n t q u e s t i o n w o r d s in this

f u n c t i o n is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f y o u n g e r a n d i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s ; it is h a r d l y e v e r f o u n d in

t h e s p e e c h o f m o r e traditional s p e a k e r s s u c h a s C a n d i d o o r L e o n a r d o Brito. 2 3 . 2 8 ( = 7 . 8 )

illustrates k w a n a ' w h o , w h o e v e r ' in t h e S f u n c t i o n in b o t h t h e relative a n d t h e m a i n

c l a u s e . T h e v e r b i n t h e m a i n c l a u s e t a k e s plural a g r e e m e n t w i t h kwana: s e e § 8 . 4 o n this

r e q u i r e m e n t ; h o w e v e r , t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e relative c l a u s e is in t h e singular, a n d n o t in

t h e p l u r a l f o r m . T h i s m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t k w a n a is t h e a r g u m e n t o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a s

w e l l a s o f t h e relative c l a u s e .

2 3 . 2 8 k w a n a [ p h i a - n e k a - k w a - k a r i ]

w h o e v e r y o u - I N S R E L - l i e . i n . h a m m o c k - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G

p e d a r i a - m a - p e - m i a - p i d a n a n a - d i a

o l d - C L : F E M - P L - O N L Y - R E M . P . R E P 3 p l - b e c o m e

' W h o e v e r lay in h a m m o c k w i t h y o u , b e c a m e old.'

R e l a t i v e f o r m s c a n a g r e e in n u m b e r w i t h k w a n a , a s in 2 3 . 2 9 .

2 3 . 2 9 [ k w a n a k a - y e k a - k a n i ] h i

w h o R E L - k n o w - P A S T . R E L . P L D E M r A N I M

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 5 4 4 2 3 R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s

k a y u - n a n a - s a p e

t h u s - R E M . P . V I S 3 p l - s p e a k

T h o s e w h o k n e w u s e d to talk like this.'

I n 2 3 . 3 0 - 1 , t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t is t h e A o f t h e relative c l a u s e a n d t h e S o f t h e m a i n

c l a u s e . T h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e relative c l a u s e in 2 3 . 3 0 is a serial v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n .

2 3 . 3 0 [ k w a n a h a - n a h y a p a - n a

w h o e v e r D E M : I N A N - C L : V E R T m o u n t a i n - C L : V E R T

h a n e - f i k u - m a - s e k h e t a k a - t h a k e

t h e r e - A F F . L O C - C L : S I D E - L O C R E L + b r i n g R E L - c r o s s + C A U S

k e : m e - t a ] n u - i t u - k a n a p e - n u k u

R E L + s t a n d + C A U S 1 - C A U S 2 1s g - d a u g h t e r - P L - T O P . N O N . A / S

k a - s a - d u a - m h a d e

R E L - s p o u s e - F E M - F U T

' W h o e v e r b r i n g s t h e m o u n t a i n a c r o s s f r o m t h e o t h e r side, will m a r r y m y daughter.'

2 3 . 3 1 k w a n a [ka-fiha] n a - y a r e - m h a d e - k h a n a i k a s u d e p i t a

w h o e v e r R E L - e a t 3 p l - d i s a p p e a r - F U T - A W A Y t o d a y n i g h t + A D V

' E v e r y o n e w h o eats (this fish) will d i s a p p e a r tonight.'

In 2 3 . 3 2 t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t is A / S o f t h e relative c l a u s e ( w h i c h c o n t a i n s t w o

p r e d i c a t e s ) , a n d O o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e . T h e relative c l a u s e is topical, a n d is m a r k e d w i t h

- n u k u 'topical n o n - s u b j e c t ' ; h o w e v e r , this m a r k i n g n e v e r g o e s o n t o k w a n a .

2 3 . 3 2 [ k w a n a n h a n a - r a p a - r i - n u k u

w h o e v e r t h e y 3 p l - d a n c e - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

k a : - k a r i n u - n a k a - k a l i t e - n u k u ]

R E L + g o - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G 1s g - O B J R E L - t e l l - T O P . N O N . A / S

p a : - m a - d e n u - a

o n e - C L : F E M - F U T . C E R T 1 s g - g i v e

' W h o e v e r g o e s to t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e y d a n c e ( a n d ) tells m e , I will g i v e ( h i m ) one.'

I n 2 3 . 3 3 t h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t is t h e S o f t h e relative c l a u s e , a n d t h e O o f t h e m a i n

c l a u s e . T h e s h a r e d a r g u m e n t n a - n a 'them' is stated in the m a i n c l a u s e , a g r e e i n g in

n u m b e r w i t h k w a n a .

2 3 . 3 3 [ k w a n a d i h a y a p h i n i m a - i r a - k a d i t e - n a k u ]

w h o A R T t h i n g N E G - d r i n k - N E G + N C L : A N I M - T O P . N O N . A / S

n a - n a n a - i n u n a - p e - p i d a n a - n i k i

3 p l - O B J 3pl-kill 3 p l - t h r o w - R E M . P . R E P - C O M P L

' T h e y killed o f f w h o e v e r d i d n o t d r i n k this thing.'

In 2 3 . 3 4 , k w a n a m e a n s 'the o n e w h o ' a n d d o e s n o t h a v e t h e g e n e r i c - d i s t r i b u t i v e

m e a n i n g . T h i s is a n e x a m p l e typical o f y o u n g e r s p e a k e r s ; a m o r e traditional s p e a k e r

w o u l d n o t h a v e u s e d k w a n a - cf. e x a m p l e 2 3 . 5 a b o v e . ( 2 3 . 3 4 also c o n t a i n s a n

i n t e r r o g a t i v e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e - see §24.4.)

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 2 3 . 2 C o n t e n t q u e s t i o n w o r d s a s m a r k e r s of r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s 5 4 5

2 3 . 3 4 [ k w a n a k a - y e k a - n u k u ] pi-sata p h i m a

w h o R E L - k n o w - T O P . N O N . A / S 2 s g - g r e e t 2 s g + h e a r

k a n i - m h a d i h a - y a k a l e

w h e r e - I N T E R . N O N V I S A R T - C L : V I L L A G E

' A s k t h e o n e w h o k n o w s w h e r e this village is.'

T h e u s e o f k w a n a a s a relative p r o n o u n is e x t r e m e l y w i d e s p r e a d in t r a n s l a t i o n s f r o m

P o r t u g u e s e , e.g. 2 3 . 3 5 , f r o m a r e l i g i o u s text.

2 3 . 3 5 [ k w a n a M a r i a - n u k u k a - m e s a ] p u w h i n a - w a - m h a d e

w h o M a r i a - T O P . N O N . A / S R E L - l o v e g l a d 3 p l - b e c o m e - F U T

' W h o l o v e s M a r y will b e c o m e h a p p y . '

A s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , k w a n a d o e s n o t t a k e t h e topical n o n - s u b j e c t - n u k u c a s e ;

h o w e v e r , it c a n t a k e t h e a g e n t i v e c a s e , a s in 2 3 . 3 6 .

2 3 . 3 6 [ k w a n a - n e - m h a d e n u - r e t a - n i p e - n u k u

w h o - F O C . A / S - F U T 1s g - o r d e r + C A U S - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

k a - n i - k a r i t h u y ] n u - i t u - n a k u

R E L - d o - P A S T . R E L . M A S C . S G all l s g - d a u g h t e r - T O P . N O N . A / S

k a - s a - d o - m h a d e

R E L - s p o u s e - F E M - F U T

' W h o h a s d o n e all I o r d e r e d will m a r r y m y daughter.'

O t h e r i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s o c c u r in relative c l a u s e s less f r e q u e n t l y t h a n k w a n a .

T h e p r o n o u n k w a k a 'what' is u s e d in 2 3 . 3 7 in t h e m e a n i n g o f ' w h a t e v e r ' ; s i n c e t h e s h a r e d

a r g u m e n t is in t h e O f u n c t i o n i n b o t h t h e relative c l a u s e a n d t h e m a i n c l a u s e , its

p r e d i c a t e is m a r k e d w i t h -nipe (cf. e x a m p l e 2 3 . 2 1 ) . U n l i k e k w a n a kwaka is n o t in the

clause-initial p o s i t i o n . T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e kwe 'what, h o w ' is n o t u s e d this w a y .

2 3 . 3 7 [ n u - n a k w a k a p h i a p i - r e t a - n i p e - n u k u ]

1 s g - O B J w h a t y o u 2 s g - o r d e r + C A U S - N O M - T O P . N O N . A / S

n u - n i - d e

l s g - d o - F U T . C E R T

'I w i l l d o w h a t e v e r y o u o r d e r m e . '

T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e k a n i ' w h e r e , w h e r e v e r ' c a n b e u s e d in relative c l a u s e s , if t h e

c o m m o n a r g u m e n t is a l o c a t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t ; t h e p r e d i c a t e is either u n m a r k e d , as in

2 3 . 3 8 , o r m a r k e d w i t h s e q u e n t i a l -ka, as in 2 3 . 3 9 , o r s h o w n b y a c o n v e r b , a s in 2 3 . 4 0 .

.38 [ k a n i w a : w a - r u k u ] p a : p e w a - n i - k a

w h e r e v e r l p l + g o l s g - g o . d o w n m a y b e l p l - d o - S U B

w a - p i p i n a - b o t h a w a :

l p l - g e t . l o s t - P O T l p l + g o

' W h e r e v e r w e g o d o w n , w e m a y p r o b a b l y get lost.'

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 5 4 6 2 3 R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s

2 3 . 3 9 [ k a n i n u - k e t a - k a ] n u - i n u nu-fiha-de

w h e r e l s g - m e e t - S U B lsg-kill l s g - e a t - F U T . C E R T

' W h e r e ( e v e r ) I find ( g a m e ) , I will kill (it) a n d eat.1

2 3 . 4 0 [ n e k a n i d i h a d i - a - r i - n u k u ] n e

t h e n w h e r e v e r h e 3 s g n f - g o - C O N V - T O P . N O N . A / S N E G

k a r u - k a d e - p i d a n a d i - y a - n h i

b e . a f r a i d - N E G - R E M . P . R E P 3 s g n f - s t a y - A N T

' W h e r e v e r h e w e n t , h e w a s n o t scared.'

I n t h e P e r i q u i t o s dialect, ' w h o e v e r ' relative c l a u s e s c a n t a k e i n t e r r o g a t i v e t e n s e -

e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification, a s in 2 3 . 4 1 .

2 3 . 4 1 k w a n a - n h a k i a k u k i a k u - m h a d e

w h o e v e r - I N T E R . P R E S . V I S s t r o n g s t r o n g - F U T

' W h o e v e r is s t r o n g w i l l b e s t r o n g (i.e. t h e y will w i n the contest).'

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a relative c l a u s e w i t h k w a n a m a y b e m a r k e d w i t h t h e s e q u e n t i a l

s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka i n s t e a d o f t h e relative v e r b f o r m , a s in 2 3 . 4 2 . T h i s u s a g e is n o t f o u n d in

t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect. T h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e relative w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e s u b j e c t k w a n a

t a k e s t h e i n d e f i n i t e p r e f i x (see § 6 . 1 . 2 ) - this is a n e x t r e m e l y a r c h a i c feature, a b s e n t f r o m

t h e S a n t a R o s a dialect.

2 3 . 4 2 m a - t h a r a , k w a n a - n h e i - e k u - k a

l e t ' s . g o - P R E C , w h o e v e r - F O C . A / S I N D F - r u n - S U B

i - e k u k i a k u - m h a d e

I N D F - r u n s t r o n g - F U T

'Let's g o , w h o e v e r m i g h t r u n will b e t h e strongest.'

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 2 4

C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s

A c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e is a c l a u s e t h a t c a n fill a c o r e a r g u m e n t slot in p l a c e o f a n N P ( s e e

D i x o n 1 9 9 5 a n d N o o n a n 1 9 8 5 , for a t y p o l o g i c a l o v e r v i e w ) . In T a r i a n a , t h e c h o i c e o f a

c l a u s e t y p e a n d o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s - t e r m e d c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategies - for m a r k i n g a

c l a u s a l a r g u m e n t d e p e n d o n t h e v e r b class. S o m e o f t h e s e i s s u e s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d in

C h a p t e r 12. I n § 2 0 . 2 w e s a w that d e v e r b a l n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n a l s o b e e m p l o y e d a s

c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategies. N o m i n a l i s a t i o n s c a n a p p e a r in S o r O function, w h i l e

c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s o n l y a p p e a r in O function. B o t h n o m i n a l i s a t i o n s a n d c o m p l e m e n t

c l a u s e s differ f r o m o t h e r O s in that t h e y c a n n o t b e targets o f p a s s i v e s .

C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka are d i s c u s s e d in § 2 4 . 1 . T h e r e

w e a l s o s h o w h o w this t y p e o f c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e is different f r o m o t h e r c l a u s e t y p e s .

T h e n , i n § 2 4 . 2 w e c o n s i d e r c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h p u r p o s i v e . I n § 2 4 . 3 w e

l o o k at different c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n strategies u s e d w i t h v a r i o u s s e m a n t i c g r o u p s o f v e r b s .

C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s c o n t a i n i n g i n t e r r o g a t i v e s are a n a l y s e d in § 2 4 . 4 .

1
2 4 . 1 C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h - k a ' s u b o r d i n a t o r

C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h t h e s u b o r d i n a t o r -ka are u s e d to fill in t h e O slot for

v e r b s o f p e r c e p t i o n a n d for t h e s e c o n d a r y v e r b wade 'be p r o b a b l e , capable'. L i k e all n o n -

m a i n c l a u s e s t h e y c a n t a k e t h e c a s e - m a r k e r - n u k u if topical; t h e y c a n n o t t a k e o t h e r c a s e s

( u n l i k e t h e -ka s e q u e n t i a l c l a u s e s d i s c u s s e d i n § 2 2 . 2 ) . T h e s e c l a u s e s s h o w t h e f o l l o w i n g

p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h m a k e t h e m a c l a u s e t y p e distinct f r o m o t h e r n o n - m a i n c l a u s e s :

1. U n l i k e s e q u e n t i a l c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h -ka (see § 2 2 . 2 ) , c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s

m a r k e d w i t h - k a c a n n o t h a v e a n i n d e p e n d e n t t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y specification.

T h i s is a p r o p e r t y t h e y s h a r e w i t h o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r

2 2 .

2. U n l i k e o t h e r s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h -ka h a v e a

f i x e d p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e : t h e y are

a l w a y s p r e p o s e d to t h e m a i n c l a u s e .

3. U n l i k e o t h e r n o n - m a i n c l a u s e s , c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h -ka are

u n s p e c i f i e d for relative t e n s e : that is, t h e a c t i o n o r state o f t h e -ka c o m p l e m e n t

c l a u s e c a n p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w t h a t o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e o r b e s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h it;

this c a n o n l y b e d e t e r m i n e d b y c o n t e x t .

S i m i l a r l y t o o t h e r n o n - m a i n c l a u s e s , a n d u n l i k e m a i n c l a u s e s , c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s

a r e v e r b final, w i t h relatively fixed c o n s t i t u e n t order.

T h e m a r k e r - k a is a n enclitic b e c a u s e it a c q u i r e s a s e c o n d a r y stress. It a l w a y s g o e s

o n t o t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e .

W h e n t h e c l a u s a l a r g u m e n t o f a v e r b o f p e r c e p t i o n is e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h a -ka

c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e , it o b l i g a t o r i l y p r e c e d e s t h e m a i n c l a u s e . T h i s is n o t t h e c a s e w i t h

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 5 4 8 2 4 C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s

-ka s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s . 2 4 . 1 illustrates a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e w i t h t h e v e r b 'see', a n d

2 4 . 2 illustrates o n e w i t h t h e v e r b 'hear'.

2 4 . 1 [ d i h a h a n i p a d i r a - k a ] d i - k a

h e b i g + C L : O P E N . S P A C E 3 s g n f + d r i n k - S U B 3 s g n f - s e e

' H e ( t h e f o x ) s a w that h e (the j a g u a r ) h a d d r u n k a lot.'

2 4 . 2 [ k a y d i - a - k a ] d h i m a

t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - S U B 3 s g n f + h e a r

d i - d i a d i - a - p i d a n a - t a

3 s g n f - r e t u r n 3 s g n f - g o - R E M . P . R E P - A G A I N

' H e h e a r d h i m s p e a k t h u s a n d w e n t back.'

A - k a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e c a n c o n t a i n t w o full N P s , e.g. a n A a n d a n O , a s in 2 4 . 3 ;

t h e n t h e A is p o s i t i o n e d c l o s e r to t h e p r e d i c a t e t h a n o t h e r constituents.

2 4 . 3 k a y k a y a [ w a - k e t f i a - p e d a l i p a k w a k a

a n y h o w l p l - b l o o d . r e l a t i v e - P L n e a r w h a t

pa:tfi y a p h i n i - t u p e n h a na-ki:te-ka] w h e m a

o t h e r . o f . d i f f e r e n t . k i n d t h i n g - D I M : P L t h e y 3 p l - t e l l - S U B l p l + h e a r

' A n y h o w , let's h e a r t h e little t h i n g s t h e y tell at o u r relatives' place.'

A - k a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e m a y also b e u s e d w i t h o t h e r p e r c e p t i o n v e r b s , e.g. a serial

v e r b ' r e c o g n i s e b y h e a r i n g ' in 2 4 . 4 .

2 4 . 4 [paita y a p h i n i d i - n u - k a d i - w h a

o n e + N U M . C L : A N I M t h i n g 3 s g n f - c o m e - S U B 3sgnf-sit

d e r u ] n h u m a - m h a d e n u - a n h i - s i t a

3 s g n f + b e . s t u c k 1s g + h e a r - F U T . U N C E R T 1 s g - k n o w - P E R F

'I w i l l h a v e r e c o g n i s e d s o m e t h i n g c o m i n g a n d g e t t i n g s t u c k (in t h e m u d ) . '

If t h e a c t i o n o f a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e is g o i n g to b e t h e t o p i c o f t h e f o r t h c o m i n g

d i s c o u r s e , t h e c l a u s e c a n a c q u i r e t h e - n u k u m a r k i n g , as in 2 4 . 5 .

2 4 . 5 [ k a y u d i - a - k a - n u k u ] d i h a d h i m a

t h u s 3 s g n f - s a y - S U B - T O P . N O N . A / S h e 3 s g n f + h e a r

h a r a m e - p i d a n a d i h a n a w i k i

b e . s c a r e d - R E M . P . R E P A R T m a n

T h e m a n h e a r d h i m talk t h u s a n d g o t scared.'

A -ka c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e c a n b e p l a c e d after t h e m a i n c l a u s e o n l y as a n a f t e r t h o u g h t ,

a s in 2 4 . 6 . T h a t it is a n a f t e r t h o u g h t is i n d i c a t e d b y a short p a u s e after t h e m a i n c l a u s e .

2 4 . 6 d i h a d h i m a - p i d a n a t h u y - n i k i [ P A U S E ]

h e 3 s g n f + h e a r - R E M . P . R E P a l l - C O M P L [ P A U S E ]

[ n h a n a - s a p e - k a ]

t h e y 3 p l - s p e a k - S U B

' H e h e a r d e v e r y t h i n g , [PAUSE] (that is) w h a t t h e y w e r e saying.'

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 2 4 . 1 C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h - k a ' s u b o r d i n a t o r ' 5 4 9

A c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e c a n n o t b e c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h a n O e x p r e s s e d w i t h a n N P ; i n s t e a d

t w o s e p a r a t e c l a u s e s h a v e t o b e u s e d , a s in 2 4 . 7 .

2 4 . 7 a d i - h a - d o d u - k a - p i d a n a

3 s g n f - p a r e n t - F E M 3 s g f - s e e - R E M . P . R E P

d u - y a - n h i d u - r i - n u k u

3 s g f - s t a y - A N T 3 s g f - s o n - T O P . N O N . A / S

' H i s m o t h e r s a w h e r son.'

2 4 . 7 b [ d i h a itfiri-ne d i - s a p e - k a ]

h e a n i m a l - I N S 3 s g n f - s p e a k - S U B

d u - k a d u - y a - n h i - p i d a n a

3 s g f - s e e 3 s g f - s t a y - A N T - R E M . P . R E P

' ( A n d ) s h e s a w h i m talk w i t h a n i m a l s . '

If t h e s u b j e c t o f a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e is coreferential w i t h t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e m a i n

c l a u s e , o n e o f t h e m c a n b e o m i t t e d . I n 2 4 . 8 , t h e o m i t t e d c o n s t i t u e n t is t h e p e r s o n a l

p r o n o u n n u h a .

2 4 . 8 [ p a : - y a k a l e - s e n u k a - k a ] n u - k a - n a

o n e - C L : V I L L A G E - L O C 1s g + a r r i v e - S U B 1s g - s e e - R E M . P . V I S

'I s a w that I a r r i v e d in a n o t h e r village.'

T h e a c t i o n o f a - k a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e c a n p r e c e d e o r b e s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h that o f

t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a s in 2 4 . 1 - 2 ; in 2 4 . 9 it f o l l o w s that o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e . T h i s c a n o n l y b e

u n d e r s t o o d f r o m t h e c o n t e x t . In this, -ka c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s differ f r o m s e q u e n t i a l

c l a u s e s w i t h -ka (see § 2 2 . 2 ) w h e r e t h e a c t i o n o f t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e c a n b e

s i m u l t a n e o u s o r p r e c e d i n g b u t n o t s u b s e q u e n t to t h e a c t i o n in t h e m a i n c l a u s e - see

2 4 . 1 0 .

2 4 . 9 [ R a i m u n d o d i - a - k a ] w a s a w a - k a

R a i m u n d o 3 s g n f - g o - S U B let's.go l p l - s e e

'Let's g o a n d s e e h o w R a i m u n d o will b e g o i n g a w a y . '

U n l i k e - k a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s , -ka s e q u e n t i a l c l a u s e s (see § 2 2 . 2 ) c a n f o l l o w t h e

m a i n c l a u s e , a s in 2 4 . 1 0 . In a d d i t i o n , -ka s e q u e n t i a l c l a u s e s c a n h a v e their o w n t e n s e -

e v i d e n t i a l i t y v a l u e a n d m a r k i n g , a s in 2 4 . 1 1 w h e r e t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e s e q u e n t i a l c l a u s e

m a r k e d w i t h -ka t a k e s t h e t e n s e - e v i d e n t i a l i t y enclitic.

2 4 . 1 0 h a w n u - k a - n a [ p a i k a k a y u di-ni-ka]

y e s 1s g - s e e - R E M . P . V I S D a d t h u s 3 s g n f - d o - S U B

' Y e s , I w a s w a t c h i n g ( h i m ) , w h i l e D a d d i d this.'

2 4 . 1 1 [ d e k i n a d i - a - k a - p i d a n a - n h a ]

a f t e r n o o n 3 s g n f - g o - S U B - R E M . P . R E P - P A U S

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 5 5 0 2 4 C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s

n a - w a p a - t h a - p i d a n a h y u k a d e - p i d a n a

3 p l - w a i t - F R - R E M . P . R E P n o t . a p p e a r - R E M . P . R E P
1
' W h e n a f t e r n o o n c a m e , t h e y w a i t e d (for h i m to c o m e ) , h e d i d n o t appear.

Y o u n g e r a n d m o r e i n n o v a t i v e s p e a k e r s e m p l o y -ka c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s w i t h t h e

i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n kwe 'what, h o w ' , a s in 2 4 . 1 2 . U n l i k e o t h e r c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s

w h i c h c o n t a i n i n t e r r o g a t i v e s - s e e § 2 4 . 4 - -ka c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s w i t h i n t e r r o g a t i v e s

d o n o t t a k e i n t e r r o g a t i v e tense-evidentiality.

2 4 . 1 2 [ k w e d i - a - k a ] w a - k a w h a

w h a t 3 s g n f - g o - S U B l p l - s e e w e

'We'll s e e w h a t h a p p e n s ' o r 'We'll s e e w h a t is g o i n g to h a p p e n ' .

T h e - k a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e c a n b e u s e d w i t h a v e r b o f liking, a s in 2 4 . 1 3 . T h i s

e x a m p l e , h o w e v e r , c o u l d b e interpreted a s c o n t a i n i n g either a -ka c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e o r

a - k a s e q u e n t i a l c l a u s e .

2 4 . 1 3 [ n a h a k a y - n a - n i - k a ] d i h a

t h e y s o - 3 p l - d o - S U B A R T

n a - w h e - r i n h e s i r i - k a d e - p i d a n a

3 p l - g r a n d p a r e n t - M A S C l i k e - N E G - R E M . P . R E P

T h e i r g r a n d f a t h e r d i d n o t like w h a t t h e y d i d this w a y ' o r ' W h e n t h e y d i d t h u s , their

g r a n d f a t h e r d i d n o t like (it)'.

T h e s e c o n d a r y v e r b w a d e 'be p r o b a b l e , c a p a b l e ' ( s e e C u n d e r § 1 2 . 1 . 4 ) r e q u i r e s a -ka

c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e . U n l i k e -ka c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s o f v e r b s o f p e r c e p t i o n , this c l a u s e

f o l l o w s t h e v e r b , a s in 2 4 . 1 4 . T h e c r o s s - r e f e r e n c i n g o n t h e p r e d i c a t e o f t h e c o m p l e m e n t

c l a u s e i n d i c a t e s t h e p e r s o n o f t h e A / S if t h e o v e r t N P is o m i t t e d .

2 4 . 1 4 n u - d i a - k a n u - a n u h u a w a d e [ m a w a r i n a - n h a - k a ]

l s g - r e t u r n - S U B l s g - g o I p r o b a b l e s n a k e 3 s g n f - e a t - S U B

' W h e n I a m c o m i n g b a c k , t h e s n a k e s are likely to bite ( m e ) . '

T h e s u b j e c t o f t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e c a n b e stated o u t s i d e t h e c l a u s e , a s in 2 4 . 1 5 .

2 4 . 1 5 p e d a l i e k a r u n i t e - p u

o l d . m a n d a n g e r o u s + N C L : A N I M - A U G

w a d e - k a [ d i - w h y a - k a ]

p r o b a b l e - R E C . P . V I S 3 s g n f - b r e a t h e - S U B

T h e o l d m a n is d a n g e r o u s , h e is c a p a b l e o f c a s t i n g evil breath.'

U n l i k e in t h e c a s e o f t h e -ka c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s e m p l o y e d w i t h v e r b s o f p e r c e p t i o n ,

t h e A o r S o f t h e - k a c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e h a s to b e coreferential w i t h t h e A o r S o f w a d e .

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 24.2 Complement clauses marked with purposive 5 51

2 4 . 2 C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s m a r k e d w i t h p u r p o s i v e

C o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s c o n t a i n i n g a p u r p o s i v e m a r k e r (see § 1 6 . 7 ) fall into t h r e e g r o u p s . In

t h e first g r o u p , t h e p u r p o s i v e m a r k e r a p p e a r s in t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e w h i c h f u n c t i o n s

a s a n o n - c a n o n i c a l a r g u m e n t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c o n d a r y p r e d i c a t e s : m a h y u n a a n