REVIEWER IN RESEARCH  Questionnaires can be standard based on common

research or they can be customized to meet the

(MIDTERM) specific data gathering need.

METHODS IN COLLECTING DATA Questionnaires; there are drawbacks;

3 Methods for Collecting Data  Responses are limited to the questions asked in
the instrument.
 Questionnaires  They provide little opportunity to probe for
 Interviews additional data or ask for points of clarification.
 Observation  They tend to be impersonal.
 Often elicit response biases – tend to answer in a
Using these data gathering methods
socially acceptable manner.
Each method has advantages and problems. No single
method can fully measure the variable important to OD
Sample Employee / Management Relationship Survey
Examples:
Team Goals and Objectives
 Questionnaires and surveys are open to self-report
Unclear; diverse; Clear; understood;
biases, such as respondents’ tendency to give socially 1 2 3 4 5
conflicting shared by all.
desirable answers rather than honest opinions.
Role Clarity
 Observations are susceptible to observer biases, such
Employees are Employees are
as seeing what one wants to see rather than what is
unclear about their clear about what is
actually there.
roles; expected of them;
1 2 3 4 5
Use more than one responsibilities and they know their
authority are responsibilities and
 Because of the biases inherent in any data-collection ambiguous. authority
method, it is best to use more than one method when Communications
collecting diagnostic data. Employees are
Employees are
 The data from the different methods can be open and authentic
guarded and
compared, and if consistent, it is likely the variables when
cautious when 1 2 3 4 5
are being validly measured. communicating
communicating
with management
with management
Demographics
Decision Making
Information about the people you are gathering data from
Decisions made
is important.
jointly through
Little opportunity
Collect the specific demographics necessary. Some group
for input;
examples participation;
uninvolved;
1 2 3 4 5 plenty of
decisions made
 Age opportunity for
autonomously.
 Gender input; persons
 Income level affected asked for
 Ethnic background their opinion.
 Status (student, teacher, visitor)
Interviews
Be careful not to collect demographics that are not specific
to your data collection purpose.  Interviews are probably the most widely used
technique for collecting data in OD.
Questionnaires:
 They permit the interviewer to ask the respondent
 Questionnaires are one of the most efficient ways to direct questions.
collect data.  Further probing and clarification is possible as the
interview proceeds.
 They contain fixed-response questions about various  This flexibility is invaluable for gaining private views
features of an organization. and feelings about the organization and exploring
new issues that emerge during the interview.
 These on-line or paper-and pencil measures can be  Interviews may be highly structured, resembling
administered to large numbers of people questionnaires, or highly unstructured, starting with
simultaneously. general questions that allow the respondent to lead
the way.
 They can be analyzed quickly.
 Interviews are usually conducted one-to-one but can
 They can be easily be fed back to employees. be carried out in a group.
 Group interviews save time and allow people to build
on other’s responses.
  Group interviews may, however, inhibit respondent’s  Failure to attend to these sampling issues can result in
answers if trust is an issue. a biased sample of data.

Interviews / Focus Groups Observation Protocol

 Another unstructured group meeting conducted by a  A decision needs to be made on what to observe.
manager or a consultant.  Example:
 A small group of 10-15 people is selected
representing a larger group of people Observe how managers and employees interact in the office.
 Group discussion is started by asking general
Observe who has lunch with whom. (Do managers and non-
questions and group members are encouraged to
managers eat together? Do executives have a private lunch
discuss their answers in some depth.
area?)
 The richness and validity of this information will
depend on the extent that trust exists.
DATA AND DATA COLLECTION
Drawback to interviews
Fundamentally--2 types of data
 They can consume a great deal of time if interviewers
Quantitative – Numbers, tests, counting, measuring
take full advantage of the opportunity to hear
respondents out and change their questions Qualitative – Words, images, observations, conversations,
accordingly. photographs
 Personal biases can also distort the data.
 The nature of the question and the interactions Data Collection Techniques 
between the interviewer and the respondent may
discourage or encourage certain kinds of responses. Observations,
 It take considerable skill to gather valid data. Tests,
Sample Interview Questions Surveys,
1. How do management and non-management Document analysis
employees interact in the office?
2. How do you know when you have done an excellent (the research literature) 
job?
3. How do non-management employees learn about Quantitative Methods 
organizational change?
4. If you could change one or two things about the way Experiment: Research situation with at least one independent
variable, which is manipulated by the researcher
management and non-management personnel
interact, what would you change?
Independent Variable: The variable in the study under
consideration. The cause for the outcome for the study.
Observations
Dependent Variable: The variable being affected by the
 Observing organizational behaviors in their
independent variable. The effect of the study
functional settings is one of the most direct ways to
collect data. y = f(x)
 Observation can range from complete participant
observation, where the OD practitioner becomes a Which is which here?
member of the group under study to a more detached
observation using a casually observing and noting Key Factors for High Quality Experimental Design
occurrences of specific kinds of behaviors.
Data should not be contaminated by poor measurement or
Advantages to Observation: errors in procedure.

 They are free of the biases inherent in the self-report Eliminate confounding variables from study or minimize
data. effects on variables.
 They put the practitioner directly in touch with the
Representativeness: Does your sample represent the
behaviors in question.
population you are studying? Must use random sample
 They involved real-time data, describing behavior techniques.
occurring in the present rather than the past.
 They are adapting in that they can be modified What Makes a Good Quantitative Research Design?
depending on what is being observed.
4 Key Elements
Problems with Observation
1. Freedom from Bias
 Difficulties interpreting the meaning underlying the
observations. 2. Freedom from Confounding
 Observers must decide which people to observe;
3. Control of Extraneous Variables
choose time periods, territory and events
 4. Statistical Precision to Test Hypothesis A histogram is the distribution of frequency of occurrence of a
certain variable within a specified range.
Bias: When observations favor some individuals in the
population over others.  NOT A BAR GRAPH WHICH LOOKS VERY SIMILAR

Confounding: When the effects of two or more variables

cannot be separated.

Extraneous Variables: Any variable that has an effect on the

dependent variable.

Need to identify and minimize these variables.

e.g., Erosion potential as a function of clay content. rainfall

intensity, vegetation & duration would be considered
extraneous variables.

Precision versus accuracy

"Precise" means sharply defined or measured.

"Accurate" means truthful or correct.

Both accurate and Accurate not

precise precise

Not accurate but Neither accurate

precise nor precise

Interpreting Results of Experiments  Interpreting quantitative findings 

Goal of research is to draw conclusions. What did the study
mean? Descriptive Statistics : Mean, median, mode, frequencies

What, if any, is the cause and effect of the outcome?   Error analyses

Introduction to Sampling Mean

Sampling is the problem of accurately acquiring the necessary In science the term mean is really the arithmetic mean
data in order to form a representative view of the problem.
Given by the equation
This is much more difficult to do than is generally realized.
X = 1/n  xi
Overall Methodology:
Or more simply put, the sum of values divided by the number
 State the objectives of the survey of values summed
 Define the target population
Median
 Define the data to be collected
 Define the variables to be determined Consider the set
 Define the required precision & accuracy
 Define the measurement `instrument' 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19
 Define the sample size & sampling method, then
In this case there are 13 values so the median is the middle
select the sample
value, or (n+1) / 2
Sampling
(13+1) /2 = 7
Distributions:
Consider the set
When you form a sample you often show it by a plotted
1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 11, 13, 14, 16
distribution known as a histogram .
In the second case, the mean of the two middle values is the
median or (n+1) /2
(12 + 1) / 2 = 6.5 ~ (6+7) / 2 = 6.5
Or more simply put the mid value separating all values in the
upper 1/2 of the values from those in the lower half of the
values
Mode
The most frequent value in a data set
• Consider the set
• One way is to follow three iterative steps
– Become familiar with the data through
• Reading
• Memoing
– Exam the data in depth to provide detailed
descriptions of the setting, participants, and
activities.
– Categorizing and coding pieces of data and
grouping them into themes.

• 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 6, 11, 11, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19 Data Analysis After Collection Summarizing

– In this case the mode is 1 because it is the
most common value
• There may be cases where there are more than one
mode as in this case
• “the first time you sit down with your data is the only
time you come to that particular set fresh”-
Kratowohl.
– Reading and memoing

– Consider the set • Read write memos about field

notes.
• 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 6, 11, 11, 11, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19
– Describing
– In this case there are two modes (bimodal) :
1 and 11 because both occur 4 times in the • Develop comprehensive
data set. descriptions of setting, participants,
etc.
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND
– Classifying
INTERPRETATION
• Breaking data into analytic units.
• Data analysis
• Categories
– An attempt by the researcher to summarize
collected data. • Themes

• Data Interpretation Data Analysis Strategies

– Attempt to find meaning • Identifying themes

• How do these differ by research tradition? – Begin with big picture and list “themes” that
emerge.
– Quantitative
• Events that keep repeating
– Qualitative themselves

Data Analysis During Collection • Coding qualitative data

• Analysis not left until the end – Reduce data to a manageable form

• To avoid collecting data that are not important the – Often done by writing notes on note cards
researcher must ask: and sorting into themes.

– How am I going to make sense of this data? • Predetermined categories vs.

emerging categories
• As they collect data the researcher must ask
How to make coding manageable
– Why do the participants act as they do?
• Make photocopies of original data
– What does this focus mean?
– Why?
– What else do I want to know?
• Read through all of the data.
– What new ideas have emerged?
– Attach working labels to blocks of text
– Is this new information?
• Cut and paste blocks of text onto index cards.
Data Analysis After Collection
• Group cards that have similar labels together • In what circumstances was an observation made or
reported?
• Revisit piles of cards to see if clusters still hold
together. • How reliable are those providing the data?

Other Strategies • What motivations might have influenced a

participant’s report?
• Concept Mapping
• What biases might have influenced how an
– Analyzing Antecedents and Consequences observation was made or reported?

– Displaying Findings Mixed Methods?

– Stating what’s missing • A combination of quantitative and qualitative

techniques.

– Under what circumstances might mixed

methods work?

– Under what circumstances might mixed

methods not work?

• Think epistemological perspectives.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Data Interpretation

• Answer these four questions

– What is important in the data?

– Why is it important?

– What can be learned from it?

– So what?

• Remember

– Interpretation depends on the perspective of

the researcher.

• Why?

Interpretation

• One technique for data interpretation (Wolcott) • Mixed methods research

Extend the analysis by raising questions Definition and – A style of research that uses procedures for
Purpose conducting research that are typically
applied in both quantitative and qualitative
– studies

– Connect findings to personal experiences – The purpose of these designs is to build

upon the synergy and strength that exists
– Seek the advice of “critical” friends. between quantitative and qualitative
methods in order to more fully understand a
– Contextualize findings in the research
given phenomenon than is possible using
• Converging evidence? either quantitative or qualitative methods
alone
– Turn to theory
– The research problem itself determines the
Ensuring Credibility choice of a design

• Are the data based on one’s own observation, or is it – Examples:

hearsay?

• Is there corroboration by other’s of the observation?

 • Using surveys to identify specific groups of
students and conducting focus groups with
them to understand their views
• A series of interviews are conducted to
ascertain the critical issues bothering
students, and a survey of the student body is
conducted using these issues as variables
Three Types of Designs
• Three characteristics that differentiate types of mixed
methods designs
– The priority given to either the quantitative
or qualitative data collection
– The sequence of collecting quantitative or
qualitative data
– The data analysis techniques used to either
combine the analysis of data or keep the two
types of data separate
Three common designs
– QUAL-Quan Model
• The exploratory mixed methods
design
• Qualitative data are collected first
and are more heavily weighted
– QUAN-Qual Model
• The explanatory mixed methods
design
• Quantitative data are collected first
and are more heavily weighted
– QUAN-QUAL Model
• Three common designs (continued)
• The triangulation mixed methods
design
• Quantitative and qualitative data
are collected concurrently and both
are weighted equally
• Notation
– Abbreviations QUAN and QUAL are
obvious
– Order and capitalization
• The first to be read or the
capitalized abbreviation is the
dominant perspective and is
weighted more heavily
• If both are capitalized, it means
both are weighted equally
Ten Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs
• The title of the research includes terms that suggest
more than one method is being used
– Mixed methods
– Integrated
– Triangular
– Quantitative – qualitative
• Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used in
the study
• The researcher describes the kinds of mixed methods
being used
• The data collection section indicates narrative,
numerical, or both types of data are being collected
• The purpose statement or the research questions
indicate the types of methods being used
• Questions are stated and described for both
quantitative and qualitative approaches
• The researcher indicates the sequencing of collecting
qualitative and/or quantitative data (i.e., QUAN-
Qual, QUAL-Quan, or QUAN-QUAL)
• The researcher describes both quantitative and
qualitative data analysis strategies
• The writing is balanced in terms of quantitative and
qualitative approaches
Evaluating a Mixed Methods Design
• Eight questions
– Does the study use at least one quantitative
and one qualitative research strategy?
– Does the study include a rationale for using
a mixed methods design?
– Does the study include a classification of the
type of mixed methods design?
– Does the study describe the priority given to
quantitative and qualitative data collection
and the sequence of their use?
• Eight questions (continued)
– Was the study feasible given the amount of
data to be collected and concomitant issues
of resources, time, and expertise?
– Does the study include both quantitative and
qualitative research questions?
– Does the study clearly identify qualitative
and quantitative data collection techniques?
– Does the study use appropriate data analysis
techniques for the type of mixed methods
design?
QUANTITATIVE DATA: DEFINITION,
TYPES, ANALYSIS AND EXAMPLES
Quantitative Data: Definition
Quantitative data is defined as the value of data in the form of
counts or numbers where each data-set has an unique
numerical value associated with it. This data is any
quantifiable information that can be used for mathematical
calculations and statistical analysis, such that real-life
decisions can be made based on these mathematical
derivations. Quantitative data is used to answer questions such
as “How many?”, “How often?”, “How much?”. This data can
be verified and can also be conveniently evaluated using
mathematical techniques.
For example, there are quantities corresponding to various
parameters, for instance, “How much did that laptop cost?” is
a question which will collect quantitative data. There are
values associated with most measuring parameters such as
pounds or kilograms for weight, dollars for cost etc.
Quantitative data makes measuring various parameters
controllable due to the ease of mathematical derivations they
come with. Quantitative data is usually collected for statistical
analysis using surveys, polls or questionnaires sent across to a
specific section of a population. The retrieved results can be
established across a population.
Types of Quantitative Data with Examples
The most common types of quantitative data are as below:
• Counter: Count equated with entities. For example,
the number of people who download a particular
application from the App Store.
• Measurement of physical objects: Calculating
measurement of any physical thing. For example, the
HR executive carefully measures the size of each
cubicle assigned to the newly joined employees.
• Sensory calculation: Mechanism to naturally “sense”
the measured parameters to create a constant source
of information. For example, a digital camera
converts electromagnetic information to a string of
numerical data.
• Projection of data: Future projection of data can be
done using algorithms and other mathematical
analysis tools. For example, a marketer will predict
an increase in the sales after launching a new product
with thorough analysis.
• Quantification of qualitative entities: Identify
numbers to qualitative information. For example,
asking respondents of an online survey to share the
likelihood of recommendation on a scale of 0-10.
Quantitative Data: Collection Methods
As quantitative data is in the form of numbers, mathematical
and statistical analysis of these numbers can lead to
establishing some conclusive results.
There are two main Quantitative Data Collection
Methods:
Surveys: Traditionally, surveys were conducted using paper-
based methods and have gradually evolved into online
mediums. Closed-ended questions form a major part of these
surveys as they are more effective in collecting quantitative
data. The survey makes include answer options which they
think are the most appropriate for a particular question.
Surveys are integral in collecting feedback from an audience
which is larger than the conventional size. A critical factor
about surveys is that the responses collected should be such
that they can be generalized to the entire population without
significant discrepancies. On the basis of the time involved in
completing surveys, they are classified into the following –
• Longitudinal Studies: A type of observational
research in which the market researcher conducts
surveys from a specific time period to another, i.e.,
over a considerable course of time, is called
longitudinal survey. This survey is often
implemented for trend analysis or studies where the
primary objective is to collect and analyze a pattern
in data.
• Cross-sectional Studies: A type of observational
research in which the market research conducts
surveys at a particular time period across the target
sample is known as cross-sectional survey. This
survey type implements a questionnaire to understand
a specific subject from the sample at a definite time
period.
To administer a survey to collect quantitative data, the
below principles are to be followed.
• Fundamental Levels of Measurement – Nominal,
Ordinal, Interval and Ratio Scales: There are four
measurement scales which are fundamental to
creating a multiple-choice question in a survey in
collecting quantitative data. They are, nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio measurement scales
without the fundamentals of which, no multiple
choice questions can be created.
• Use of Different Question Types: To collect
quantitative data, close-ended questions have to
be used in a survey. They can be a mix of
multiple question types including multiple-
choice questions like semantic differential scale
questions, rating scale questions etc. that can
help collect data that can be analyzed and made
sense of.
• Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection:
In the above, we have seen the process of
building a survey along with the survey design to
collect quantitative data. Survey distribution to
collect data is the other important aspect of the
survey process. There are different ways of
survey distribution. Some of the most commonly
used methods are:
– Email: Sending a survey via email is the most
commonly used and most effective methods of
survey distribution. You can use the QuestionPro
email management feature to send out and collect
survey responses.
– Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute
a survey and collect quantitative data is to use a
sample. Since the respondents are knowledgeable and
also are open to participating in research studies, the
responses are much higher.
 – Embed survey in a website: Embedding a survey in a
website increases a high number of responses as the
respondent is already in close proximity to the brand
when the survey pops up.
– Social distribution: Using social media to distribute
the survey aids in collecting higher number of
responses from the people that are aware of the
brand.
– QR code: QuestionPro QR codes store the URL for
the survey. You can print/publish this code in
magazines, on signs, business cards, or on just about
any object/medium.
– SMS survey: A quick and time effective way of
conducting a survey to collect a high number of
responses is the SMS survey.
– QuestionPro app: The QuestionPro App allows to
quickly circulate surveys and the responses can be
collected both online and offline.
– API integration: You can use the API integration of
the QuestionPro platform for potential respondents to
take your survey.
One-on-one Interviews: This quantitative data collection
method was also traditionally conducted face-to-face but has
shifted to telephonic and online platforms. Interviews offer a
marketer the opportunity to gather extensive data from the
participants. Quantitative interviews are immensely structured
and play a key role in collecting information. There are three
major sections of these online interviews:
– Face-to-Face Interviews: An interviewer can prepare
a list of important interview questions in addition to
the already asked survey questions. This way,
interviewees provide exhaustive details about the
topic under discussion. An interviewer can manage to
bond with the interviewee on a personal level which
will help him/her to collect more details about the
topic due to which the responses also improve.
Interviewers can also ask for an explanation from the
interviewees about unclear answers.
– Online/Telephonic Interviews: Telephone-based
interviews are no more a novelty but these
quantitative interviews have also moved to online
mediums such as Skype or Zoom. Irrespective of the
distance between the interviewer and the interviewee
and their corresponding time zones, communication
becomes one-click away with online interviews. In
case of telephone interviews, the interview is merely
a phone call away.
– Computer Assisted Personal Interview: This is a one-
on-one interview technique where the interviewer
enters all the collected data directly into a laptop or
any other similar device. The processing time is
reduced and also the interviewers don’t have to carry
physical questionnaires and merely enter the answers
in the laptop.
– All of the above quantitative data collection methods
can be achieved by using surveys, questionnaires and
polls.
Quantitative Data: Analysis Methods
Data collection forms a major part of the research
process. This data however has to be analyzed to make
sense of. There are multiple methods of analyzing
quantitative data collected in surveys. They are:
– Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is the most widely
used quantitative data analysis methods. It is a
preferred method since it uses a basic tabular form to
draw inferences between different data-sets in the
research study. It contains data that is mutually
exclusive or have some connection with each other.
– Trend analysis: Trend analysis is a statistical analysis
method that provides the ability to look at
quantitative data that has been collected over a long
period of time. This data analysis method helps
collect feedback about data changes over time and if
aims to understand the change in variables
considering one variable remains unchanged.
– MaxDiff analysis: The MaxDiff analysis is a
quantitative data analysis method that is used to
gauge customer preferences for a purchase and what
parameters rank higher than the others in this process.
In a simplistic form, this method is also called the
“best-worst” method. This method is very similar to
conjoint analysis but is much easier to implement and
can be interchangeably used.
– Conjoint analysis: Like in the above method, conjoint
analysis is a similar quantitative data analysis method
that analyzes parameters behind a purchasing
decision. This method possesses the ability to collect
and analyze advanced metrics which provide an in-
depth insight into purchasing decisions as well as the
parameters that rank the most important.
– TURF analysis: TURF analysis or Total
Unduplicated Reach and Frequency Analysis, is a
quantitative data analysis methodology that assesses
the total market reach of a product or service or a mix
of both. This method is used by organizations to
understand the frequency and the avenues at which
their messaging reaches customers and prospective
customers which helps them tweak their go-to-market
strategies.
– Gap analysis: Gap analysis uses a side-by-side matrix
to depict quantitative data that helps measure the
difference between expected performance and actual
performance. This data analysis helps measure gaps
in performance and the things that are required to be
done to bridge this gap.
– SWOT analysis: SWOT analysis, is a quantitative
data analysis methods that assigns numerical values
to indicate strength, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats of an organization or product or service which
in turn provides a holistic picture about competition.
This method helps to create effective business
strategies.
– Text analysis: Text analysis is an advanced statistical
method where intelligent tools make sense of and
quantify or fashion qualitative and open-ended data
into easily understandable data. This method is used
when the raw survey data is unstructured but has to
be brought into a structure that makes sense.
Steps to conduct Quantitative Data Analysis
For Quantitative Data, raw information has to presented in
meaningful manner using analysis methods. Quantitative data
should be analyzed in order to find evidential data that would
help in the research process.
– Relate measurement scales with variables: Associate
measurement scales such as Nominal, Ordinal,
 Interval and Ratio with the variables.This step is • Accurate results: As the results obtained are objective
important to arrange the data in proper order. Data in nature, they are extremely accurate.
can be entered into an excel sheet to organize it in a
specific format. Disadvantages of Quantitative Data
– Connect descriptive statistics with data: Link
Some of disadvantages of quantitative data, are:
descriptive statistics to encapsulate available data. It
can be difficult to establish a pattern in the raw data. • Restricted information: Because quantitative data is
Some widely used descriptive statistics are: not descriptive, it becomes difficult for researchers to
– Mean- An average of values for a specific variable make decisions based solely on the collected
– Median- A midpoint of the value scale for a variable information.
– Mode- For a variable, the most common value • Depends on question types: Bias in results is
– Frequency- Number of times a particular value is dependent on the question types included to collect
observed in the scale quantitative data. The researcher’s knowledge of
– Minimum and Maximum Values- Lowest and highest questions and the objective of research are
values for a scale exceedingly important while collecting quantitative
– Percentages- Format to express scores and set of data.
values for variables
• Decide a measurement scale: It is important to decide Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Data
the measurement scale to conclude a descriptive
statistics for the variable. For instance, a nominal Quantitative Data Qualitative Data
variable score will never have a mean or median and Associated with numbers Associated with details
so the descriptive statistics will correspondingly vary. Implemented when data is Implemented when data can
Descriptive statistics suffice in situations where the numerical be segregated into well-
results are not to be generalized to the population. defined groups
Collected data can be Collected data can just be
• Select appropriate tables to represent data and
statistically analyzed observed and not evaluated
analyze collected data: After deciding on a suitable
Examples: Height, Weight, Examples: Scents,
measurement scale, researchers can use a tabular
Time, Price, Temperature, Appearance, Beauty, Colors,
format to represent data. This data can be analyzed
etc. Flavors, etc.
using various techniques such as Cross-tabulation or
TURF.

Quantitative Data Examples SAMPLING TECHNIQUES &

SAMPLES TYPES
Listed below are some examples of quantitative data that can
help understand exactly what this pertains: Sampling

• I updated my phone 6 times in a quarter. The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in
• My teenager grew by 3 inches last year. such a way that the individuals represent the larger group from
• 83 people downloaded the latest mobile application. which they were selected
• My aunt lost 18 pounds last year.
• 150 respondents were of the opinion that the new  A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative)
product feature will not be successful.
• There will be 30% increase in revenue with the
inclusion of a new product.
• 500 people attended the seminar.
• 54% people prefer shopping online instead of going
to the mall.
• She has 10 holidays in this year.
• Product X costs $1000.

As you can see in the above 10 examples, there is a numerical

value assigned to each parameter and this is known as,
quantitative data.

Advantages of Quantitative Data

Some of advantages of quantitative data, are:

• Conduct in-depth research: Since quantitative data
can be statistically analyzed, it is highly likely that
the research will be detailed.
• Minimum bias: There are instances in research,
where personal bias is involved which leads to
incorrect results. Due to the numerical nature of
quantitative data, the personal bias is reduced to a
great extent.
collection of units from a population used to determine truths
about that population” (Field, 2005)
 The sampling frame
A list of all elements or other units containing the elements in
a population.
Population- the larger group from which individuals are
selected to participate in a study
Target Population- A set of elements larger than or different Advantages
from the population sampled and to which the researcher
would like to generalize study findings. 1. Easy to conduct

The Purpose of Sampling 2. High probability of achieving a representative sample 3.

Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures
• To gather data about the population in order to make
an inference that can be generalized to the population Disadvantages

Stages in the Selection of a Sample 1. Identification of all members of the population can be
difficult
• Define the target population
• Select a sampling frame 2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
• Determine if a probability or nonprobability sampling
Random sampling (continued)
method will be chosen
• Plan procedure for selecting sampling units ◦ Selection process
• Determine sample size
• Select actual sampling units  Identify and define the population
• Conduct fieldwork
 Determine the desired sample size
Quantitative Sampling
 List all members of the population
• Purpose – to identify participants from whom to seek
some information  Assign all members on the list a consecutive number
• Issues
◦ Nature of the sample (random samples)  Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of random
◦ Size of the sample numbers and read the appropriate number of digits
◦ Method of selecting the sample
2. Stratified random sampling
Important issues ◦ The population is divided into two or more groups called
◦ Representation – the extent to which the sample is strata, according to some criterion, such as geographic
representative of the population location, grade level, age, or income, and subsamples are
◦ Generalization – the extent to which the results of the study randomly selected from each strata.
can be reasonably extended from the sample to the population
◦ Sampling error The chance occurrence that a randomly Stratified random sampling (continued)
selected sample is not representative of the population due to
errors inherent in the sampling technique ◦ Advantages

 More accurate sample

Important issues (continued)
◦ Sampling bias  Can be used for both proportional and nonproportional
 Some aspect of the researcher’s sampling design creates bias samples
in the data.
◦ Three fundamental steps  Representation of subgroups in the sample
 Identify a population
 Define the sample size ◦ Disadvantages
 Select the sample
 Identification of all members of the population can be
difficult
Types of Sampling in Quantitative Research:
Probability samples  Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult
Non - probability samples
Stratified random sampling (continued)
PROBABILITY SAMPLES
◦ Selection process
Selecting Random Samples
 Identify and define the population
 Known as probability sampling
 Best method to achieve a representative sample  Determine the desired sample size
 Four techniques
1. Random  Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for which
2. Stratified random you want to guarantee appropriate representation
3. Cluster
4. Systematic  Classify all members of the population as members of one
of the identified subgroups
1. Random sampling

Selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an

equal and independent chance of being selected
3. Cluster sampling ◦ Selecting every Kth subject from a list of the members of the
population
The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not
individuals, within the defined population sharing similar ◦ Advantage
characteristics
 Very easily done
Clusters are locations within which an intact group of
members of the population can be found ◦ Disadvantages

Examples  subgroups

 Neighborhoods  Some members of the population don’t have an equal

chance of being included
 School districts
Systematic sampling (continued)
 Schools
◦ Selection process
 Classrooms
 Identify and define the population
Cluster sampling (continued)
 Determine the desired sample size
◦ Advantages
 Obtain a list of the population
 Very useful when populations are large and spread over a
large geographic region  Determine what K is equal to by dividing the size of the
population by the desired sample size
 Convenient and expedient
 Start at some random place in the population list
 Do not need the names of everyone in the population
 Take every Kth individual on the list
◦ Disadvantages
Example, to select a sample of 25 dorm rooms in your college
 Representation is likely to become an issue dorm, makes a list of all the room numbers in the dorm. For
example there are 100 rooms, divide the total number of
Cluster sampling (continued) rooms (100) by the number of rooms you want in the sample
(25). The answer is 4. This means that you are going to select
◦ Selection process
every fourth dorm room from the list. First of all, we have to
 Identify and define the population determine the random starting point. This step can be done by
picking any point on the table of random numbers, and read
 Determine the desired sample size across or down until you come to a number between 1 and 4.
This is your random starting point. For instance, your random
 Identify and define a logical cluster starting point is "3". This means you select dorm room 3 as
your first room, and then every fourth room down the list (3,
 List all clusters that make up the population of clusters 7, 11, 15, 19, etc.) until you have 25 rooms selected.

 Estimate the average number of population members per SAMPLE SIZE

cluster
 According to Uma Sekaran in Research Method for
 Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the Business 4th Edition, Roscoe (1975) proposed the
sample size by the estimated size of a cluster rules of thumb for determining sample size where
sample size larger than 30 and less than 500 are
 Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters appropriate for most research, and the minimum size
of sample should be 30% of the population.
 Include in the study all individuals in each selected cluster
 The size of the sample depends on a number of
4. Systematic sampling factors and the researchers have to give the
statistically information before they can get an
answer. For example, these information like
(confidence level, standard deviation, margin of error
and population size) to determine the sample size.
-
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLES
(Random): allows a procedure governed by chance to select
the sample; controls for sampling bias.

Non-Random Sampling Methods:

1. Convenience Sampling
2. Purposive Sampling
3. Quota Sampling

1. Convenience sampling: the process of including whoever
happens to be available at the time called “accidental” or
“haphazard” sampling.
Disadvantages- difficulty in determining how much of the
effect (dependent variable) results from the cause
(independent variable)
2. Purposive sampling: the process whereby the researcher
selects a sample based on experience or knowledge of the
group to be sampled called “judgment” sampling.
Disadvantages- potential for inaccuracy in the researcher’s
criteria and resulting sample selections
3. Quota sampling: the process whereby a researcher gathers
data from individuals possessing identified characteristics and
quotas.
Disadvantages- people who are less accessible (more difficult
to contact, more reluctant to participate) are under-
represented.
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Researchers in qualitative research select their participants
according to their:
1) Characteristics
2) Knowledge
The purposeful sampling
It is when the researcher chooses persons or sites which
provide specific knowledge about the topic of the study.
Types of purposeful sampling:
1) Maximal Variation Sampling- It is when you select
individuals that differ on a certain characteristic. In this
strategy you should first identify the characteristic and then
find individuals or sites which display that characteristic.
2) Typical Sampling- It is when you study a person or a site
that is “typical” to those unfamiliar with the situation. You can
select a typical sample by collecting demographic data or
survey data about all cases.
3) Theory or Concept Sampling- It is when you select
individuals or sites because they can help you to generate a
theory or specific concepts within the theory. In this strategy
you need a full understanding of the concept or the theory
expected to discover during the study.
4) Homogeneous Sampling- It is when you select certain sites
or people because they possess similar characteristics. In this
strategy, you need to identify the characteristics and find
individuals or sites that possess it.
5) Critical Sampling- It is when you study an exceptional case
represents the central phenomenon in dramatic terms.
6) Opportunistic Sampling- It is used after data collection
begins, when you may find that you need to collect new
information to answer your research questions.
7) Snowball Sampling- It is when you don't know the best
people to study because of the unfamiliarity of the topic or the
complexity of events. So you ask participants during
interviews to suggest other individuals to be sampled.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DATA
COLLECTION
• It is the researcher’s ethical responsibility to
safeguard the story teller by maintaining the
understood purpose of the research.
• The relationship should be based on trust between the
researcher and participants.
• Inform participants of the purpose of the study.
• Being respectful of the research site, reciprocity,
using ethical interview practices, maintaining
privacy, and cooperating with participants.
• Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general ethical
issues to consider, such as:
– reciprocity
– assessment of risk  confidentiality,
– informed consent  and data access and ownership.
 Qualitative researchers must be aware of the potential
for their own emotional turmoil in processing this
information
 During the interview process, participants may
disclose sensitive and potentially distressing
information in the course of the interview.
FIVE PRINCIPLES FOR RESEARCH
ETHICS
1. Discuss intellectual property frankly
Academe's competitive "publish-or-perish" mindset can be a
recipe for trouble when it comes to who gets credit for
authorship. The best way to avoid disagreements about who
should get credit and in what order is to talk about these issues
at the beginning of a working relationship, even though many
people often feel uncomfortable about such topics.
"It's almost like talking about money," explains Tangney.
"People don't want to appear to be greedy or presumptuous."
APA's Ethics Code offers some guidance: It specifies that
"faculty advisors discuss publication credit with students as
early as feasible and throughout the research and publication
process as appropriate." When researchers and students put
such understandings in writing, they have a helpful tool to
continually discuss and evaluate contributions as the research
progresses.
However, even the best plans can result in disputes, which
often occur because people look at the same situation
differently. "While authorship should reflect the contribution,"
says APA Ethics Office Director Stephen Behnke, JD, PhD,
"we know from social science research that people often
overvalue their contributions to a project. We frequently see
that in authorship-type situations. In many instances, both
parties genuinely believe they're right." APA's Ethics Code
stipulates that psychologists take credit only for work they
have actually performed or to which they have substantially
contributed and that publication credit should accurately
reflect the relative contributions: "Mere possession of an
institutional position, such as department chair, does not
justify authorship credit," says the code. "Minor contributions
to the research or to the writing for publications are
acknowledged appropriately, such as in footnotes or in an
introductory statement."
The same rules apply to students. If they contribute
substantively to the conceptualization, design, execution,
analysis or interpretation of the research reported, they should
be listed as authors. Contributions that are primarily technical
don't warrant authorship. In the same vein, advisers should not
expect ex-officio authorship on their students' work.
Matthew McGue, PhD, of the University of Minnesota, says
his psychology department has instituted a procedure to avoid
murky authorship issues. "We actually have a formal process
here where students make proposals for anything they do on
the project," he explains. The process allows students and
faculty to more easily talk about research responsibility,
distribution and authorship.
Psychologists should also be cognizant of situations where
they have access to confidential ideas or research, such as
reviewing journal manuscripts or research grants, or hearing
new ideas during a presentation or informal conversation.
While it's unlikely reviewers can purge all of the information
in an interesting manuscript from their thinking, it's still
unethical to take those ideas without giving credit to the
originator.
"If you are a grant reviewer or a journal manuscript reviewer
[who] sees someone's research [that] hasn't been published yet,
you owe that person a duty of confidentiality and anonymity,"
says Gerald P. Koocher, PhD, editor of the journal Ethics and
Behavior and co-author of "Ethics in Psychology: Professional
Standards and Cases" (Oxford University Press, 1998).
Researchers also need to meet their ethical obligations once
their research is published: If authors learn of errors that
change the interpretation of research findings, they are
ethically obligated to promptly correct the errors in a
correction, retraction, erratum or by other means.
To be able to answer questions about study authenticity and
allow others to reanalyze the results, authors should archive
primary data and accompanying records for at least five years,
advises University of Minnesota psychologist and researcher
Matthew McGue, PhD. "Store all your data. Don't destroy it,"
he says. "Because if someone charges that you did something
wrong, you can go back."
"It seems simple, but this can be a tricky area," says Susan
Knapp, APA's deputy publisher. "The APA Publication
Manual Section 8.05 has some general advice on what to
retain and suggestions about things to consider in sharing
data."
The APA Ethics Code requires psychologists to release their
data to others who want to verify their conclusions, provided
that participants' confidentiality can be protected and as long
as legal rights concerning proprietary data don't preclude their
release. However, the code also notes that psychologists who
request data in these circumstances can only use the shared
data for reanalysis; for any other use, they must obtain a prior
written agreement.
2. Be conscious of multiple roles
APA's Ethics Code says psychologists should avoid
relationships that could reasonably impair their professional
performance or could exploit or harm others. But it also notes
that many kinds of multiple relationships aren't unethical--as
long as they're not reasonably expected to have adverse
effects.
That notwithstanding, psychologists should think carefully
before entering into multiple relationships with any person or
group, such as recruiting students or clients as participants in
research studies or investigating the effectiveness of a product
of a company whose stock they own.
For example, when recruiting students from your Psychology
101 course to participate in an experiment, be sure to make
clear that participation is voluntary. If participation is a course
requirement, be sure to note that in the class syllabus, and
ensure that participation has educative value by, for instance,
providing a thorough debriefing to enhance students'
understanding of the study. The 2002 Ethics Code also
mandates in Standard 8.04b that students be given equitable
alternatives to participating in research.
Perhaps one of the most common multiple roles for
researchers is being both a mentor and lab supervisor to
students they also teach in class. Psychologists need to be
especially cautious that they don't abuse the power differential
between themselves and students, say experts. They shouldn't,
for example, use their clout as professors to coerce students
into taking on additional research duties.
By outlining the nature and structure of the supervisory
relationship before supervision or mentoring begins, both
parties can avoid misunderstandings, says George Mason
University's Tangney. It's helpful to create a written agreement
that includes both parties' responsibilities as well as authorship
considerations, intensity of the supervision and other key
aspects of the job.
"While that's the ideal situation, in practice we do a lot less of
that than we ought to," she notes. "Part of it is not having
foresight up front of how a project or research study is going
to unfold."
That's why experts also recommend that supervisors set up
timely and specific methods to give students feedback and
keep a record of the supervision, including meeting times,
issues discussed and duties assigned.
If psychologists do find that they are in potentially harmful
multiple relationships, they are ethically mandated to take
steps to resolve them in the best interest of the person or group
while complying with the Ethics Code.
3. Follow informed-consent rules
When done properly, the consent process ensures that
individuals are voluntarily participating in the research with
full knowledge of relevant risks and benefits.
"The federal standard is that the person must have all of the
information that might reasonably influence their willingness
to participate in a form that they can understand and
comprehend," says Koocher, dean of Simmons College's
School for Health Studies.
APA's Ethics Code mandates that psychologists who conduct
research should inform participants about:
 The purpose of the research, expected duration and
procedures.
 Participants' rights to decline to participate and to
withdraw from the research once it has started, as
well as the anticipated consequences of doing so.
 Reasonably foreseeable factors that may influence
their willingness to participate, such as potential
risks, discomfort or adverse effects.
 Any prospective research benefits.
 Limits of confidentiality, such as data coding,
disposal, sharing and archiving, and when
confidentiality must be broken.
 Incentives for participation.
 Who participants can contact with questions.
Experts also suggest covering the likelihood, magnitude and
duration of harm or benefit of participation, emphasizing that
their involvement is voluntary and discussing treatment
alternatives, if relevant to the research.
Keep in mind that the Ethics Code includes specific mandates
for researchers who conduct experimental treatment research.
Specifically, they must inform individuals about the
experimental nature of the treatment, services that will or will
not be available to the control groups, how participants will be
assigned to treatments and control groups, available treatment
alternatives and compensation or monetary costs of
participation.
If research participants or clients are not competent to evaluate
the risks and benefits of participation themselves--for
example, minors or people with cognitive disabilities--then the
person who's giving permission must have access to that same
information, says Koocher.
Remember that a signed consent form doesn't mean the
informing process can be glossed over, say ethics experts. In
fact, the APA Ethics Code says psychologists can skip
informed consent in two instances only: When permitted by
law or federal or institutional regulations, or when the research
would not reasonably be expected to distress or harm
participants and involves one of the following:
 The study of normal educational practices, curricula
or classroom management methods conducted in
educational settings.
 Anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations
or archival research for which disclosure of responses
would not place participants at risk of criminal or
civil liability or damage their financial standing,
employability or reputation, and for which
confidentiality is protected.
 The study of factors related to job or organization
effectiveness conducted in organizational settings for
which there is no risk to participants' employability,
and confidentiality is protected
If psychologists are precluded from obtaining full consent at
the beginning--for example, if the protocol includes deception,
recording spontaneous behavior or the use of a confederate--
they should be sure to offer a full debriefing after data
collection and provide people with an opportunity to reiterate
their consent, advise experts.
The code also says psychologists should make reasonable
efforts to avoid offering "excessive or inappropriate financial
or other inducements for research participation when such
inducements are likely to coerce participation."
4. Respect confidentiality and privacy
Upholding individuals' rights to confidentiality and privacy is
a central tenet of every psychologist's work. However, many
privacy issues are idiosyncratic to the research population,
writes Susan Folkman, PhD, in "Ethics in Research with
Human Participants" (APA, 2000). For instance, researchers
need to devise ways to ask whether participants are willing to
talk about sensitive topics without putting them in awkward
situations, say experts. That could mean they provide a set of
increasingly detailed interview questions so that participants
can stop if they feel uncomfortable.
And because research participants have the freedom to choose
how much information about themselves they will reveal and
under what circumstances, psychologists should be careful
when recruiting participants for a study, says Sangeeta
Panicker, PhD, director of the APA Science Directorate's
Research Ethics Office. For example, it's inappropriate to
obtain contact information of members of a support group to
solicit their participation in research. However, you could give
your colleague who facilitates the group a letter to distribute
that explains your research study and provides a way for
individuals to contact you, if they're interested.
Other steps researchers should take include:
 Discuss the limits of confidentiality. Give
participants information about how their data will be
used, what will be done with case materials, photos
and audio and video recordings, and secure their
consent.Know federal and state law.
 Know the ins and outs of state and federal law that
might apply to your research. For instance, the Goals
2000: Education Act of 1994 prohibits asking
children about religion, sex or family life without
parental permission.
Another example is that, while most states only require
licensed psychologists to comply with mandatory reporting
laws, some laws also require researchers to report abuse and
neglect. That's why it's important for researchers to plan for
situations in which they may learn of such reportable offenses.
Generally, research psychologists can consult with a clinician
or their institution's legal department to decide the best course
of action.
 Take practical security measures. Be sure
confidential records are stored in a secure area with
limited access, and consider stripping them of
identifying information, if feasible. Also, be aware of
situations where confidentiality could inadvertently
be breached, such as having confidential
conversations in a room that's not soundproof or
putting participants' names on bills paid by
accounting departments.
 Think about data sharing before research begins. If
researchers plan to share their data with others, they
should note that in the consent process, specifying
how they will be shared and whether data will be
 anonymous. For example, researchers could have
difficulty sharing sensitive data they've collected in a
study of adults with serious mental illnesses because
they failed to ask participants for permission to share
the data. Or developmental data collected on
videotape may be a valuable resource for sharing, but
unless a researcher asked permission back then to
share videotapes; it would be unethical to do so.
When sharing, psychologists should use established
techniques when possible to protect confidentiality,
such as coding data to hide identities. "But be aware
that it may be almost impossible to entirely cloak
identity, especially if your data include video or
audio recordings or can be linked to larger
databases," says Merry Bullock, PhD, associate
executive director in APA's Science Directorate.
 Understand the limits of the Internet. Since Web
technology is constantly evolving, psychologists need
to be technologically savvy to conduct research
online and cautious when exchanging confidential
information electronically. If you're not a Internet
whiz, get the help of someone who is. Otherwise, it
may be possible for others to tap into data that you
thought was properly protected.
5. Tap into ethics resources
One of the best ways researchers can avoid and resolve ethical
dilemmas is to know both what their ethical obligations are
and what resources are available to them.
"Researchers can help themselves make ethical issues salient
by reminding themselves of the basic underpinnings of
research and professional ethics," says Bullock. Those basics
include:
 The Belmont Report. Released by the National
Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of
Biomedical and Behavioral Research in 1979, the
report provided the ethical framework for ensuing
human participant research regulations and still
serves as the basis for human participant protection
legislation (see Further Reading).
 APA's Ethics Code, which offers general principles
and specific guidance for research activities.
Moreover, despite the sometimes tense relationship
researchers can have with their institutional review boards
(IRBs), these groups can often help researchers think about
how to address potential dilemmas before projects begin, says
Panicker. But psychologists must first give their IRBs the
information they need to properly understand a research
proposal.
"Be sure to provide the IRB with detailed and comprehensive
information about the study, such as the consent process, how
participants will be recruited and how confidential information
will be protected," says Bullock. "The more information you
give your IRB, the better educated its members will become
about behavioral research, and the easier it will be for them to
facilitate your research."
As cliché as it may be, says Panicker, thinking positively
about your interactions with an IRB can help smooth the
process for both researchers and the IRBs reviewing their
work.
RESEARCH ETHICS
 Involves the application of fundamental ethical
principles to planning, conducting & publishing of
research
Guiding principles
 Autonomy and respect
 Beneficence
 Non-maleficence
 Justice ( free from exploitation)
 Scientific validity
 Honesty
Student activity
 Identify ethical issues in the following scenarios
Group 1
 Two graduate students have made some
measurements on a new material. The data points are
as shown. To prove their hypothesis the results
should lie on the curve shown. The two students
considered omitting the two data points which were
off the theoretical curve.
 Unethical as it would amount to falsification of data
 Should include outliers and give probable reasons or
find out statistically acceptable ways of trimming
outliers
Group 2
 A group of medical students conducted a research on
the awareness of diabetic diet in medical clinic
participants. Their research was recognized as the
best undergraduate research and later they submitted
the same research paper to two different journals to
see which journal publishes it first.
 Unethical as it would result in "inadvertent double-
counting or inappropriate weighting of the results of a
single study, which distorts the available evidence
-it would give a false idea of the number
of publications in a given area
-wasting of resources on the review and
publication process
 Should submit to one journal and wait for response
prior to submitting to another
Group 3
 Students are required to prepare a research proposal
during their undergraduate program. Nimal
 developed the idea for his project and discussed with
a friend. Several months later, he found that his idea
had been submitted as a research proposal by his
friend without his knowledge.
 Unethical as failure to give credit to the person whose
idea it is (intellectual property) amounts to plagiarism
 Should discuss and include as co-author
Group 4
 Four friends decide to work together on a research
project during the vacation. One of them went abroad
during the vacation and did not contribute to the
research. The friends include all 4 names in a
presentation made at a scientific congress.
 Unethical as only those who contributed intellectually
should be cited as authors
 Those who contribute in other ways may be
acknowledged
Group 5
 A group of undergraduate students planned a research
project on the detection of fetal abnormalities in the
second trimester, by ultrasound scanning. They
collected data from the scan room without informing
the mothers
 Unethical as informed consent was not taken
 Should have informed mothers of their intent even
though there is no particular advantage/disadvantage
to the mother in doing so
Group 6
 A group of undergraduate students collected data
from a group of bank officers, with their consent,
regarding their working hours and salary with regards
to the prevalence of high blood pressure.
Subsequently the researchers gave the same data to
another group who were in need of same data
variables
 Unethical as violating principles of consent and
confidentiality
 Data can be used for a secondary purpose which was
not first considered as long as
-informed consent for sharing has
been given
-identities anonymised
-due consideration to access
restrictions
 Develop ethical guidelines for data sharing?
Why should there be research ethics?
To protect participants /patients /society /resources
/researcher?
 To ensure accuracy of scientific knowledge
 To protect intellectual and property rights
 Protect from harm
 Show respect -privacy /confidentiality
-Informed consent
 Refrain from Coercion and undue inducement When
do incentives amount to coercion/undue inducement?
 Refrain from exploitation of vulnerable participants
Who are the vulnerable groups?
 Refrain from indiscriminate use of resources
 Ensure Favorable Risk-Benefit Ratio: risk should be
minimized & potential benefit to society must
outweigh risks
 Must be of social value: improvement of
health/knowledge for the benefit of society/science
high social value: use of stem cells to improve quality of life
for Huntington's disease patients
less social value: drug studies conducted to obtain data
that allows a new drug to compete in the healthcare
marketplace even though existing effective and often cheaper
therapeutics are already available
To ensure accuracy of scientific knowledge
 Should be methodically rigorous - Scientific validity
 Fair subject selection: with inclusion / exclusion
criteria & a valid number of subjects in order to
project results to the population
 State research method clearly so that another person
can conduct advanced study in future by using
publication
Is it ethical to copy the methodology from a published paper?
 Do not gloss research method
 Should not falsify/modify/omit data
 Use actual data for analysis/cannot include someone
else's data
 Report errors
 Be aware of conflict of interest
 Should not withhold and/or ‘vaguing up’ information
 Keep data and material for 5 years
 Data and material should be available to others
 Do not present/publish paper from incomplete
research or from anticipated outcomes
 Should not duplicate publications and submissions
 Avoid piecemeal publication
 Should be reviewed Independently by unaffiliated
individuals
To protect intellectual and property rights
 Citation and authorship
inclusion-Writing and significant
scientific contribution
order- order of contribution
-actual researchers
-approval must be sought to
include a name
 Whenever somebody else’s work is quoted reference
should be made to the original author (Piracy vs
plagiarism)
 Acknowledgement should include the names of
person who helped
Breach of ethics in research would amount to scientific
misconduct
Scientific misconduct
 Fraud : invention/fabrication of data
 Plagiarism : copying data, ideas, text without
acknowledgement of source
 Piracy : infringement of a copyright
 Submitting/Publishing the same paper to different
journals
 Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a
patent in order to make sure that you are the sole
inventor
 Including a colleague as an author on a paper in
return for a favor even though the colleague did not
make a serious contribution to the paper
 Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing
your reasons in paper
 Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order
to enhance the significance of your research
 Bypassing the peer review process and announcing
your results through a press conference without
giving peers adequate information to review your
work
 Conducting a review of the literature that fails to
acknowledge contributions of others
 Stretching the truth on a grant application in order to
convince reviewers that your project will make a
significant contribution to the field
 Giving the same research project to two graduate
students in order to see who can do it the fastest
 Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting research
students
 Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in
your review of author's submission
 Making significant deviations from the research
protocol approved by the Review Board without
informing the committee
 Not reporting an adverse event in a human research
experiment
 Wasting animals in research
 Exposing students and staff to biological risks
 Rejecting a manuscript for publication without even
reading it
 Sabotaging someone's work
 Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn
out
 Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance
of a new drug in order to obtain economic benefits
Ethical review committee
(Institutional Review Boards)
Convened to
 maintain ethical standards of practice in
research
 ensure protection of subjects/research
workers from harm or exploitation
 to provide reassurance to the public
 protect researchers from unjustified criticism
Procedure for ethical clearance
 Fill ethical clearance form and attach proposal,
questionnaires, informed consent forms, information
leaflets etc., and submit
 When ethical clearance is granted, data collection can
commence according to the approved methodology
 A group of undergraduate students planned a research
on family planning practices of Sri Lankan females.
As they were close to the deadline for presenting
their results, they started collecting information form
participants before formal approval by the ethics
review committee
ETHICS AND RESEARCH
“Ethics is the disciplined study or morality….and morality
asks the question…what should one’s behavior be”.
“Greek ethos ‘character’ is the systematic study of value
concepts—good, bad, right, wrong and the general principles
that justify applying these concepts”.
Basically, there are two types of ethics:
Descriptive Ethics which asks what does the culture or
society believe is morally correct?
The other type or Prescriptive Ethics asks:
  How should I behave as a researcher?
 What character traits should I cultivate?
Why is this so important?
 You will have many questions to answer and you will
need a framework from which to answer those
questions.
Two types of ethical decision-making
 Deductive or principle based reasoning
 Inductive or case based reasoning
 Deductive or principle based reasoning
– Start with an ethical theory—
– Continue with a specific principle
– Develop rules
– Make judgments
Deductive Reasoning
Ethical--Theory—Principle—Rules—Judgment
Deductive Reasoning
Ethical--Theory—Principle—Rules—Judgment—Peace--
Violence—War
Case Based Reasoning
• Decisions we have made – precedent
• Look back at those decisions and combine
them in order to make a judgment
• Judgments reflect back on rules
• Rules reflect on our principles
• Principles reflect back to the ethical theory
• Decisions we have made – avoid war and
move to Canada (U.S. declares war on
Canada)
• Judgment – defend yourself
• Rule – join Army (protect children
• Principles – family important
• Ethical theory
Deductive reasoning Case Based Reasoning
No WAR! Fight War
CONFLICT
Conflict Between Decisions
• When there is an argument
• Go back to the original principles – ask
yourself “What were my original
principles?”
• Original principles are in conflict or
“incoherent”
• There will be conflict
• You will use both types of ethical decision-
making to make decisions
• When conflict arises…go back to the
original principles and try to create
coherence by dealing with the specific
principles
What does this have to do with research?
Ethics is about creating a mutually respectful relationship
with the research population
• Subjects are pleased to participate
• Community regards the conclusions as
constructive
An ethically insensitive researcher can leave the research
setting in pandemonium
• the researcher
• the institution
• the cause that he/she seeks to promote
Failure to treat subjects with respect can result in data
that is:
• Misleading
• Inconclusive
• Biased
Scientists involved in the intense and demanding enterprise of
research often overlook the interests and perspectives of the
research subject. Subjects may respond with lies and
subterfuge.
The problems encountered in behavioral research by the
National Commission included:
• Lack of informed consent
• No debriefing (restoration to an emotional state equal
to what was experienced before the experiment)
• Deception was a standard tool
• Invasion of privacy
The problems encountered in biomedical research by the
National Commission included:
• Lack of informed consent
• Disregard for risks encountered by the patient
• Deception
• Beecher - 1966 article was published in New England
Journal of Medicine
• Tuskegee – untreated syphilis in black males
 • Penicillin and rheumatic fever implement policies regulation of drugs,
and regulations that biologics, devices,
• Effect of high levels of blood CO2 involve humans foods and veterinary
(Before 2000 the medicines
• Metastatic melanoma
office was OPRR) • Uses a system of
Scientists attempted to critically examine questionable • Relies on an inspections and
research practices and to recommend changes, but could assurance of audits (Inspects the
not. compliance that is IRB on a routine
negotiated with the basis)
The role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) is to institution (the • FDA regulations
determine whether the rights and welfare of the subjects are Assurance document related to IRB
adequately protected and whether the study adheres to sound sets forth the means responsibilities are
ethical and scientific principles by which the codified at 21 CFR
institution will 50, 56 and are
Federal regulations have been established in order to provide comply with similar but not
the standards for monitoring all research activity related to regulations) identical to HHS
people who volunteer as subjects for research. Abiding by • HHS regulations (audits occur
these standards ensures the ethical conduct of research. related to IRB approximately every
responsibilities are 4 years)
The Act also created the National Commission for the
codified at 45 CFR
Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral
46
Research (wrote the Belmont Report in 1979)
•
The National Commission for the Protection of Human
Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research was
Six Norms of Scientific Research
commissioned to develop guidelines to assure that human
research was conducted ethically. • Valid research design – takes into account relevant
theory, methods, and prior findings
They were told to look at literature, look at arguments people
made, review what ethicists were saying about research and • Competence of researcher – capable to carry out the
ask…what are the fundamental principles behind the decisions procedures
people make or should make about research
• Identification of consequences – assessment of risks
Belmont Report – 1979 and benefits (maximizing benefit and minimizing
risk)
• Respect – treat others as autonomous agents, allow
people choice • Selection of subjects – appropriate to the purposes of
the study, representative of the population that will
• Beneficence – acts of kindness that go beyond charity
benefit from the research and appropriate in number
and duty…various obligations (i.e., do no harm,
promote good) • Voluntary informed consent – obtained before study
begins, without undue threat or inducement, with
• Justice – treat people fairly
enough information, and agreement to participate
Applying the Principles of the Belmont Report
• Compensation for injury – responsibility for what
Principle Meaning Practice happens to the subject (federal law requires that
Respect for Each person Obtain informed subjects be informed about compensation, but does
Persons has individual consent, protect not require compensation)
rights privacy, maintain
confidentiality
Beneficence Provide benefit, Risk-benefit
protect from assessment made
harm, limit risk Standard
procedures used
Justice Equitable Includes all groups
selection of that may benefit
subjects but does not single
out one group

Practice of the IRB

Two entities within DHHS have authority to oversee the

conduct of clinical trials and IRBs

OHRP FDA
• Primary duty is to • Oversees the