CHAPTER V

PNEUMATICS
A. What is pneumatics?

Pneumatics (From Greek: πνεύμα) is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air.

Pneumatic systems used in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert
gases. A centrally located and electrically powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, and
other pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through manual or automatic solenoid
valves is selected when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, or safer alternative to electric motors
and actuators.

Pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas.

Pneumatics is the technology of compressed air, but in some circles, it is more fashionable to refer to
it as a type of automation control. Pressurized gas—generally air that may be either of the dry or
lubricated type—is used to actuate an end effector and do work. End effectors can range from the
common cylinder to more application-specific devices such as grippers or air springs. Vacuum systems,
also in the pneumatic realm, use vacuum generators and cups to handle delicate operations, such as
lifting and moving large sheets of glass or delicate objects such as eggs.

Engineers commonly use pneumatics in industries that

include medical, packaging, material handling,
entertainment and even robotics. And pneumatics can
be useful in very specific applications where hazards are
critical—for example, in a mine, where a stray spark
could mean disaster and lost lives.

By its nature, air is easily compressible, and so

pneumatic systems tend to absorb excessive shock, a
feature useful in some applications. Most pneumatic
systems operate at a pressure of about 100 psi, a small
fraction of the 3,000 to 5000 psi that some hydraulic
systems see. As such, pneumatics are generally used
when much smaller loads are involved.

A pneumatic system generally uses an air compressor to

reduce the volume of the air, thereby increasing the
pressure of the gas. The pressurized gas travels through
pneumatic hoses and is controlled by valves on the way
to the actuator. The air supply itself must be filtered and
monitored constantly in order to keep the system
operating efficiently and the various components
working properly. This also helps to ensure long system
life.
In recent years, the control available within pneumatic systems (thanks to advanced electronics and
componentry) has increased a great deal. Where once pneumatic systems could not compete with
many comparable electronic automation systems, the technology today is seeing a renaissance of
sorts.

More and more, pneumatics is being used in interesting ways that would have been unthinkable a
decade or two ago. Creative applications from robotics to pneumatic muscles are consistently making
the news, showing not only the creativity of the engineering community, but also the inherent
flexibility and adaptability of this important technology.

https://www.pneumatictips.com/what-is-pneumatics/

How do pneumatic machines work?

Pneumatic machines need five basic components to make, store, control, move, and use compressed
air:

1. A compressor—makes air.
2. A reservoir (or receiver)—stores air.
3. One or more valves—control air.
4. A circuit—moves air between the other components.
5. An actuator or motor—uses air to do something.

Pneumatic devices get all their power from the energy in the compressed air they use, so you can
probably see straight away that they need at least two key components: something to compress the
air (the compressor) and something that uses compressed air to lift, move, or hold an object (the
actuator). We also need a pipe or network of pipes (the circuit) to get air from the compressor to the
actuator. Something to switch the air on or off (a valve) and maybe reverse its direction would also
be handy (so we can make our machine lower things as well as lift them).

There's one more thing we need in a pneumatic system. Since air is a very compressible gas, a basic
system linking a compressor to an actuator through a circuit and a valve would work very slowly.
When you switched it on, it would take time for the compressor to push air through the circuit and
build up enough pressure to make the actuator move (just like it takes some time for a bicycle tire or
a balloon to really start inflating as you wait for the pressure to build). So a pneumatic machine also
has a reservoir (a balloon, in effect) where quite a bit of compressed air is stored under pressure,
ready to deliver near-instant force as soon as the operating valve is opened.

Animation: How pneumatics works (in theory). Here you can see the five key components of a
pneumatic machine: 1) Compressor (red); 2) Reservoir (blue); 3) Valve (orange); 4) Circuit of pipes
(gray); 5) Actuator (green). The yellow line shows the flow of compressed air. In this case, the actuator
is a simple pneumatic cylinder and a piston that goes up when the valve flips up, allowing air into the
bottom of the cylinder; it goes down when the valve flips down, so air flows into the top of the
cylinder. For the sake of simplicity, I've missed out some of the details, including the cylinder's exhaust
(outlet) valves and the engine that powers the compressor.
Photo: How pneumatics works (in practice). Here an airman is lifting an overturned helicopter with
the help of a giant pneumatic airbag (light gray). The setup here is much like it is in the animation,
though you can see only three of the key pneumatic components (the circuit of pipes, the valves
controlling them, and the actuator bag that lifts the helicopter); you can't see the compressor or
reservoir. Photo by Liliana Moreno courtesy of US Air Force.

Compressors

The compressor is the machine that turns ordinary air into compressed air, squeezing it to around 7–
10 times atmospheric pressure (in scientific units, 7–10 atmospheres, 700–1000 kPa, or 100–150 psi);
to give you a rough idea, that's about 25–30 percent more pressure than in a champagne bottle or 2–
3 times the pressure in a car tire. That's quite a bit of pressure but nothing too extraordinary, and it
tells us that we're going to need quite a lot of compressed air to do anything really useful.

The compressor is the starting point for any pneumatic circuit: it's the bit that puts energy into the
system by squeezing air into a much smaller space. Now it's important to note that air isn't like the
fuel you load into a gasoline engine: it doesn't contain much useful energy to begin with. Squeezing
energy into ordinary air is the job that the compressor does, although it doesn't actually "make" this
energy out of nothing. Typically, it's powered by a gasoline or diesel engine, so it's simply converting
energy from one form to another—burning gas or diesel from its tank, in an engine, and so converting
the energy stored in that fuel into energy stored in pressurized air. I have a separate article about
compressors and pumps and you can read more about them there.

Actuators and motors

"Actuator" is a bit of engineering jargon that just means "mover"; it's the business end of a pneumatic
tool; the bit that shifts about and does some useful job for us. It might be a pneumatic drill bit
thumped up and down by a piston, a factory ramp that lifts things and lowers them, a mechanical arm
that swings things around, or something like that. Actuators typically move back and forth in a straight
line (the technical word for that is reciprocate) and, as in the animation above, they're often powered
by pistons that slide back and forth in cylinders as compressed air flows in and out of them. They turn
the potential energy stored in compressed air back into kinetic energy and movement.

What if we want a tool that spins around (rotating) instead of just moving back and forth
(reciprocating)? Then we can use an air-powered motor, in which moving gas makes a shaft rotate. It
works in a similar way to a turbine, which is a machine powered by a kind of internal windmill. As gas
flows through an air motor, it pushes against vanes and makes an axle spin around, turning a drill bit
or something like that. Pneumatic tools like grinders, polishers, and dentist drills work this way.

Photo: Pneumatic machines like this grinder use

air motors to produce high-speed, powerful
rotary force. How do we know it's not electric?
The giveaway, as always, is the thick gray air hose
leading to the machine (bottom left). Photo by
Lawrence Davis courtesy of US Navy.

Circuits

Although some pneumatic machines might have a single compressor, actuator, valve, and reservoir,
most are more complex than this. There are many kinds of actuators and valves, and a factory might
have all kinds of machines driven from a complex circuit by a single, large compressor. You can make
complex electronic circuits from different arrangements of the same basic components, and you can
make complex pneumatic circuits in exactly the same way. There are dozens of little pneumatic
symbols to help you draw circuits out clearly on engineering plans, just as there are symbols for
electronic and hydraulic components.

Taking things a step further, it's possible to make very advanced logic circuits entirely from fluid-
powered components; an entire field of engineering called fluidics (fluid logic) is devoted to this. Just
as electronic components like resistors, capacitors, and transistors can control complex devices by
making electricity flow in different ways round circuits, so fluidic components can do equivalent things
by changing the flow of air around analogous components. There are fluid equivalents of AND/OR
logic gates, timer circuits, latching units, switches, and amplifiers, for example.

What can we use pneumatics for?

Put these basic components together in different ways and you can make many different machines to
do many different jobs. Things you might do with an electric motor or a hydraulic machine can be
done just as well (or better) with a pneumatic machine (we'll come to why you might use one of these
technologies rather than another in a moment).
Air-powered tools are probably the most familiar, everyday example of pneumatic technology
(whenever I hear the word "pneumatic," the next word that leaps into my head is invariably "drill.")
Using either a piston-cylinder actuator or an air-powered motor, virtually any kind of construction
tool can be powered by compressed air, from screwdrivers and hammers to wrenches, polishers, and
piledrivers.

In the world of industry, factory machines are a much more

widespread and perhaps interesting application of
pneumatics. When we think of robots, we usually think of
electronic circuits making arms move using things like
stepper motors (electric motors that turn through precise
amounts, one step at a time), but they're just as likely to use
hydraulics and pneumatics—as well, or instead. Computer-
controlled robots might be holding pneumatic paint-
sprayers, for example, or hydraulic cutting tools. Pneumatic
factory machines are widely used to pick up and place objects
using suction to hold things or squeeze them very gently,
then release them some time later. Robotic cow-milking
machines that automatically attach and release suction cups Photo: Pneumatic power
to an animal's udders are a clever variation on this pneumatic tools, like this sander, are
theme, and they illustrate an important advantage of lightweight and easy to use.
pneumatics: it can apply force very gently. Photo by Ryan D. McLearnon
courtesy of US Navy.
Pneumatic devices and machines are also widely used in transportation—and in quite a range of
different ways. Since the 19th century, pneumatic transport tube technology, has been widely used
by banks, hospitals, and even hamburger restaurants to move things swiftly and securely down
networks of air tubes from one part of a building to another. The 21st-century's answer to Thomas
Edison, electric car pioneer and prominent inventor Elon Musk, has garnered lots of publicity for an
idea he calls Hyperloop, a high-speed railroad running inside a giant, closed tube. Although it sounds
similar to an ordinary pneumatic tube system, it's radically different: the passenger cars zip through
the low-pressure tubes propelled by linear motors rather than compressed air.

In pneumatic tube transportation, compressed air makes things move, but in other systems, it can
also bring things rapidly to a halt: for example, it powers the air brakes in large vehicles such as trucks
and railroad engines and exploding automobile airbags (though they're not really pneumatic,
according to my strict definition).

Pneumatics might seem humdrum and dull, but it has entertaining applications too. How about player
pianos and pipe organs; exercise machines where the resistance comes from pneumatic pistons; and
even bouncy castles? Nothing dull about any of those things!

Pneumatics or hydraulics?

As we've already seen, pneumatics and hydraulics use fluids to move force and energy through simple
(and not so simple) machines. Both are well suited to making machines move back and forth
(reciprocal motion) and can operate at considerable distances from their compressor or pump without
any need for things like conveyor belts or gears. Both can achieve considerable power with relatively
lightweight machines (that's one reason why dentists sometimes use pneumatic tooth drills, which
are extremely powerful but very light).

If both types of fluid power do similar jobs, why would you use a pneumatic machine instead of a
hydraulic one, or use either of these in place of something electric? There are all sorts of different
considerations to weigh up.

Power

For medium-power, high-speed, applications

where accuracy isn't critical, and soft action or
cushioning (force absorbing) are important,
pneumatic systems are often preferred to
hydraulic ones. Hydraulics tends to win for high
power, high accuracy, high-force transmitting
applications, and any application where
variations in air temperature or pressure might
cause problems for a pneumatic system. But
hydraulic machines do tend to move sl

Accuracy

Pneumatic machines are generally (but not

always) less responsive and less accurate than
hydraulic ones, largely due to the compressibility
and relative unpredictability of air. They're less
efficient and more expensive to run, because it
takes a relatively large amount of electrical Photo: Light and maneuverable, this pneumatic
energy to run a compressor and store some of wedge catapult is perfect for launching drones
that energy in compressed air—and a fair bit of from onboard navy ships.
that energy is wasted when the spent gas is
released as exhaust.

Control

Electric motors are relatively heavy, spinning things, so they have a high moment of inertia—a kind of
flywheel effect—that makes them relatively slow to start and stop. That means they take time to
supply maximum force and time to stop or reverse. Fluid-controlled machines, on the other hand,
have relatively little momentum, so they can (generally) be started, stopped, and reversed more
quickly.

Convenience

Pneumatic tools use lower pressures and smaller forces, so they tend to be lighter and more compact,
which can be extremely important in the case of things like hand tools. Pneumatic tools might be
made of relatively light plastic, where hydraulic ones have to be made from metals to cope with higher
forces and pressures.
Safety

Unlike electric motors, pneumatic and hydraulic machines don't use any electricity at the point where
work is being done, so there's less risk of a spark or gas explosion (a very important consideration in
places like underground mines). Also, unlike electric motors, both are self-cooling (their fluids disperse
heat), and there is no chance of overheating or electrical burn out. Fluid leakage is a potential problem
in both hydraulic and pneumatic systems. While pneumatic tools and machines invariably exhaust
their working gas to the air once it's expanded and done its job, hydraulic ones are sealed units
designed to keep the same fluid recirculating. Since hydraulic fluid is flammable, pneumatic systems
are inherently much safer than hydraulic ones in dangerously explosive environments.

Practical operation

Since hydraulic machines use oil, they are self-lubricating and often much quieter than pneumatic
tools (which don't self lubricate). The compressors and exhausts of pneumatic tools can be especially
noisy, though silencers can be fitted.

https://www.explainthatstuff.com/pneumatics.html

Gases used in pneumatic systems

Pneumatic systems in fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air because a sustainable
supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air. The air usually has moisture removed, and a
small quantity of oil is added at the compressor to prevent corrosion and lubricate mechanical
components.

Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage, as the gas is
usually just air. Smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases that present an
asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen—often referred to as OFN (oxygen-free nitrogen) when
supplied in cylinders.

Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard—including nitrogen, which makes up
78% of air. Compressed oxygen (approx. 21% of air) would not asphyxiate, but is not used in
pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire hazard, more expensive, and offers no
performance advantage over air.

Portable pneumatic tools and small vehicles, such as Robot Wars machines and other hobbyist
applications are often powered by compressed carbon dioxide, because containers designed to hold
it such as soda stream canisters and fire extinguishers are readily available, and the phase change
between liquid and gas makes it possible to obtain a larger volume of compressed gas from a lighter
container than compressed air requires. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant and can be a freezing hazard
if vented improperly.

History

The origins of pneumatics can be traced back to the first century when ancient Greek mathematician
Hero of Alexandria wrote about his inventions powered by steam or the wind.
German physicist Otto von Guericke (1602 to 1686) went a little further. He invented the vacuum
pump, a device that can draw out air or gas from the attached vessel. He demonstrated the vacuum
pump to separate the pairs of copper hemispheres using air pressures. The field of pneumatics has
changed considerably over the years. It has moved from small handheld devices to large machines
with multiple parts that serve different functions.

Comparison to hydraulics

Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid power. Pneumatics uses an easily
compressible gas such as air or a suitable pure gas—while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible
liquid media such as oil. Most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures of about 80 to 100
pounds per square inch (550 to 690 kPa). Hydraulics applications commonly use from 1,000 to
5,000 psi (6.9 to 34.5 MPa), but specialized applications may exceed 10,000 psi (69 MPa).

Advantages of pneumatics

• Simplicity of design and control—Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders and other
components, and operate via simple on-off control.
• Reliability—Pneumatic systems generally have long operating lives and require little maintenance.
Because gas is compressible, equipment is less subject to shock damage. Gas absorbs excessive
force, whereas fluid in hydraulics directly transfers force. Compressed gas can be stored, so
machines still run for a while if electrical power is lost.
• Safety—There is a very low chance of fire compared to hydraulic oil. Newer machines are usually
overload safe.

Advantages of hydraulics

• Liquid does not absorb any of the supplied energy.

• Capable of moving much higher loads and providing much higher forces due to the
incompressibility.
• The hydraulic working fluid is basically incompressible, leading to a minimum of spring action.
When hydraulic fluid flow is stopped, the slightest motion of the load releases the pressure on
the load; there is no need to "bleed off" pressurized air to release the pressure on the load.
• Highly responsive compared to pneumatics.
• Supply more power than pneumatics.
• Can also do many purposes at one time: lubrication, cooling and power transmission.

Pneumatic logic

Further information: Pneumatic circuit

Pneumatic logic systems (sometimes called air logic control) are sometimes used for controlling
industrial processes, consisting of primary logic units like:

• And Units
• Or Units
• 'Relay or Booster' Units
 • Latching Units
• 'Timer' Units
• Sorteberg relay
• Fluidics amplifiers with no moving parts other than the air itself

Pneumatic logic is a reliable and functional control method for industrial processes. In recent years,
these systems have largely been replaced by electronic control systems in new installations because
of the smaller size, lower cost, greater precision, and more powerful features of digital controls.
Pneumatic devices are still used where upgrade cost, or safety factors dominate.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatics

B. Development of Compressed Air

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Compressed air is air kept under a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. Compressed
air is an important medium for transfer of energy in industrial processes. Compressed air is used for
power tools such as air hammers, drills, wrenches and others. Compressed air is used to atomize paint,
to operate air cylinders for automation, and can also be used to propel vehicles. Brakes applied by
compressed air made large railway trains safer and more efficient to operate. Compressed air brakes
are also found on large highway vehicles.

In Europe, 10 percent of all industrial electricity consumption is to produce compressed air—

amounting to 80 terawatt hours consumption per year.

History

Industrial use of piped compressed air for power transmission was developed in the mid 19th century;
unlike steam, compressed air could be piped for long distances without losing pressure due to
condensation. An early major application of compressed air was in the drilling of the Mont Cenis
Tunnel in Switzerland in 1861, where a 600 kPa (87 psi) compressed air plant provided power to
pneumatic drills, increasing productivity greatly over previous manual drilling methods. Compressed
air drills were applied at mines in the United States in the 1870s. George Westinghouse invented air
brakes for trains starting in 1869; these brakes considerably improved the safety of rail operations. In
the 19th century, Paris had a system of pipes installed for municipal distribution of compressed air to
power machines and to operate generators for lighting. Early air compressors were steam-driven, but
in certain locations a trompe could directly obtain compressed air from the force of falling water.

A trompe is a water-powered air compressor, commonly used before the advent of the electric-powered
compressor. A trompe is somewhat like an airlift pump working in reverse. Trompes were used to provide
compressed air for bloomery furnaces in Catalonia and the USA.
Uses of compressed air

Air compressor station in a power plant

In industry, compressed air is so widely used that it is often regarded as the fourth utility, after
electricity, natural gas and water. However, compressed air is more expensive than the other three
utilities when evaluated on a per unit energy delivered basis.

Compressed air is used for many purposes, including:

• Pneumatics, the use of pressurized gases to do work

o Pneumatic post, using capsules to move paper and small
goods through tubes.
o Air tools
o HVAC control systems
• Vehicle propulsion (see compressed air vehicle)
• Energy storage (see compressed air energy storage)
• Air brakes, including:
o railway braking systems
o road vehicle braking systems
• Underwater diving, for breathing and to inflate
buoyancy devices
• Refrigeration using a vortex tube
• Air-start systems in engines
• Ammunition propulsion in:
o Air guns
o Airsoft equipment
o Paintball equipment
• Cleaning dust and small debris in tiny spaces
• Sandblasting in machine shops Air compressor station in a power plant
• Injection molding
• Food and beverage capping and fermentation
• Compressed air from Lysefjorden/Preikestolen (Norway) is being sold in cans, mostly to China.

Design of systems

Compressor rooms must be designed with ventilation systems to remove waste heat produced by the
compressors.

When air at atmospheric pressure is compressed, it contains much more water vapor than the high-
pressure air can hold. Relative humidity is governed by the properties of water and is not affected by
air pressure. Management of the excessive moisture is a requirement of a compressed air distribution
system. System designers must ensure that piping maintains a slope, to prevent accumulation of
moisture in low parts of the piping system. Drain valves may be installed at multiple points of a large
system to allow trapped water to be blown out. Taps from piping headers may be arranged at the
tops of pipes, so that moisture is not carried over into piping branches feeding equipment. Piping sizes
 are selected to avoid excessive energy loss in the piping system due to excess velocity in straight pipes
at times of peak demand, or due to turbulence at pipe fittings.

C. Characteristics of Compressed Air

Pascal’s law states that the pressure of a gas or liquid exerts force equally in all directions against the walls
of its container. The force is measured in terms of force per unit area (pounds per square inch-psi). This
law is for liquids and gases at rest and neglects the weight of the gas or liquid. It should be noted that the
field of fluid power is divided into two parts, pneumatics and hydraulics. These two have many
characteristics in common. The difference is that hydraulic systems use liquids and pneumatic systems
use gases, usually air. Liquids are only slightly compressible and in hydraulic systems this property can
often be neglected. Gases, however, are very compressible.

Three properties of gases must be well understood in order to gain an understanding of pneumatic power
systems. These are its temperature, pressure, and volume. Com pressed air systems and compressors are
governed by a number of physical laws that define their efficiency and system dynamics.

* Compressed air is bearer of heat energy

* Compressed air can bridge certain distance
* Can be stored
* Flashed air delivers power
* Air delivers large volumes of water

Advantages of compressed air:

1. Air is available in unlimited quantities everywhere
2. Compressed air is easily conveyed in pipelines even over larger distances.
3. Compressed air can be stored
4. Compressed air need not be returned. It can be vented to atmosphere after it has performed
work.
5. Compressed air is insensitive to temperature fluctuations. This ensures reliable operation even
in extreme temperature conditions.
6. Compressed air is explosion-proof. Thus, no expensive protective equipment against explosion is
necessary.
 7. Compressed air is clean. This is especially important in the food, wood, textile and leather
industries.
8. Operating elements for compressed air operation are of simple and inexpensive construction.
9. Compressed air is fast. Thus, high operational speeds can be attained
10. Speeds and forces of the pneumatics elements can be infinitely adjusted.
11. Tools and operating elements are overload-proof.
12. Straight line movements can be produced directly.

Disadvantages of the compressed air:

In order to be able to define the limitations of the applications of pneumatics however, it is

necessary to mentioned not only the advantages but also the disadvantages of compressed air.
1. Compressed air is a relatively expensive means of conveying energy. The higher energy costs
are, however largely simpler, and more compact equipment.
2. Compressed air requires good conditioning. No dirt or moisture residues may be contained in it.
(Wear on tools and equipment).
3. It is not possible to achieve uniform and constant piston speeds. (Air is compressible).
4. Compressed air is economical only up to a certain force expenditure. Owing to the commonly
used working pressure of 700 kPa (7 bar/101.5 psi), the limit is at about 20,000 to 30,000
newton, depending on the travel and the speed. If the force which is required exceeds this level,
hydraulics is applied.
5. The exhaust is loud. As a result of the intensive development work on materials for silencing
purposes, this problem has however, now largely been solved.
6. The oil mist mixed with the air for lubricating the equipment escapes with the exhaust to
atmosphere.

Compressed air production

Compressed air as an industrial energy. Compressed air production and air treatment.

Industrial Energy

Compressed air as the second source of industrial energy after electricity, requires a close
understanding of the characteristics of compressed air to optimize its production and use.

Optimizing productivity while reducing operating costs is the common goal shared by nearly every
manufacturing plant. Compressed air is considered the phantom utility, it cannot be bought, you must
produce it. The initial capital cost of a compressed air system is minor compared to the operational
cost. A Transair aluminum and stainless steel pipe system will significantly reduce your operational
cost! Transair can help make your goals of reduced electrical costs a reality.
The pie chart above illustrates the typical cost breakdown for an average compressed air system
(compressor, pipe system and operating costs) over a 10-year period.

Compressed air can be produced by two processes:

1. Dynamic compression (conversion of the air velocity into pressure): radial and axial compressors.
2. Displacement compression (reduction of the air volume): reciprocating compressors (piston type)
and rotary compressors (screw-, vane-, roots- or liquid ring compressors).

The compressed air production includes necessary elements of compressed air treatment.

The air receiver

The air receiver enables:

• storage of compressed air in order to meet heavy demands in excess of
the capacity of the compressor.
• balancing of pulsations from the compressor.
• cooling of the compressed air and collection of residual condensate.

The air dryer

The air dryer reduces the water vapor content of compressed air. Moisture can cause
equipment malfunction, product spoilage and corrosion.
Two methods are used: absorption and refrigeration.
 Filters 3

Filters restrict the passage of oil and water particles conveyed by compressed air
within the system.

Condensate drains

Drains eliminate condensate (condensate water mixed with other

impurities generated by compressed air and sources of pollution).

The separator

The separator receives condensate from the drains. It separates oil and water
avoiding any polluting discharge.

Pressure regulator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Oxygen and MAPP gas cylinders with two-stage pressure regulators

Schematic diagram of pressure reducing regulator (A) and back-

pressure regulator (B). The upper diagrams show the normal
state for the valves, which is normally open for pressure
reducers and normally closed for back-pressure valves.

• 1. Pressure setting screw

• 2. Spring
• 3. Actuator
• 4. Inlet port (high pressure)
• 5. Outlet port (low pressure)
• 6. Valve body
• 7. Valve crown and seat
Diagram symbols for pressure reduction and back
pressure regulators. The conceptual difference is
mainly in which side the feedback is taken from.

A pressure regulator is a valve that controls the pressure of a fluid or gas to a desired value.
Regulators are used for gases and liquids, and can be an integral device with a pressure setting, a
restrictor and a sensor all in the one body, or consist of a separate pressure sensor, controller and
flow valve.

Two types are found: The pressure reduction regulator and the back-pressure regulator.

• A pressure reducing regulator is a control valve that reduces the input pressure of a fluid or gases
to a desired value at its output. It is a normally-open valve and is installed upstream of pressure
sensitive equipment.
• A back-pressure regulator back-pressure valve, pressure sustaining valve or pressure sustaining
regulator is a control valve that maintains the set pressure at its inlet side by opening to allow
flow when the inlet pressure exceeds the set value. It differs from an over-pressure relief valve in
that the over-pressure valve is only intended to open when the contained pressure is excessive,
and it is not required to keep upstream pressure constant. They differ from pressure reducing
regulators in that the pressure reducing regulator controls downstream pressure and is insensitive
to upstream pressure. It is a normally-closed valve which may be installed in parallel with sensitive
equipment or after the sensitive equipment to provide an obstruction to flow and thereby
maintain upstream pressure.

Both types of regulator use feedback of the regulated pressure as input to the control
mechanism, and are commonly actuated by a spring loaded diaphragm or piston reacting to
changes in the feedback pressure to control the valve opening, and in both cases the valve should
be opened only enough to maintain the set regulated pressure. The actual mechanism may be
very similar in all respects except the placing of the feedback pressure tap.

Pressure reducing regulator

Operation

A pressure reducing regulator's primary function is to match the flow of gas through the regulator
to the demand for gas placed upon it, whilst maintaining a sufficiently constant output pressure.
If the load flow decreases, then the regulator flow must decrease as well. If the load flow
increases, then the regulator flow must increase in order to keep the controlled pressure from
decreasing due to a shortage of gas in the pressure system. It is desirable that the controlled
pressure does not vary greatly from the set point for a wide range of flow rates, but it also
desirable that flow through the regulator is stable and the regulated pressure is not subject to
excessive oscillation.

A pressure regulator includes a restricting element, a loading element, and a measuring element:

• The restricting element is a valve that can provide a variable restriction to the flow, such as a
globe valve, butterfly valve, poppet valve, etc.
• The loading element is a part that can apply the needed force to the restricting element. This
loading can be provided by a weight, a spring, a piston actuator, or the diaphragm actuator in
combination with a spring.
• The measuring element functions to determine when the inlet flow is equal to the outlet flow.
The diaphragm itself is often used as a measuring element; it can serve as a combined element.

In the pictured single-stage regulator, a force balance is used on the diaphragm to control a
poppet valve in order to regulate pressure. With no inlet pressure, the spring above the
diaphragm pushes it down on the poppet valve, holding it open. Once inlet pressure is
introduced, the open poppet allows flow to the diaphragm and pressure in the upper chamber
increases, until the diaphragm is pushed upward against the spring, causing the poppet to reduce
flow, finally stopping further increase of pressure. By adjusting the top screw, the downward
pressure on the diaphragm can be increased, requiring more pressure in the upper chamber to
maintain equilibrium. In this way, the outlet pressure of the regulator is controlled.

Single-stage pressure regulator

High pressure gas from the supply enters the

regulator through the inlet port. The inlet pressure
gauge will indicate this pressure. The gas then passes
through the normally open pressure control valve
orifice and the downstream pressure rises until the
valve actuating diaphragm is deflected sufficiently to
close the valve, preventing any more gas from
entering the low pressure side until the pressure
drops again. The outlet pressure gauge will indicate
this pressure. Single stage regulator

The outlet pressure on the diaphragm and the inlet pressure and poppet spring force on the upstream
part of the valve hold the diaphragm/poppet assembly in the closed position against the force of the
diaphragm loading spring. If the supply pressure falls, the closing force due to supply pressure is reduced,
and downstream pressure will rise slightly to compensate. Thus, if the supply pressure falls, the outlet
pressure will increase, provided the outlet pressure remains below the falling supply pressure. This is the
cause of end-of-tank dump where the supply is provided by a pressurized gas tank. The operator can
compensate for this effect by adjusting the spring load by turning the knob to restore outlet pressure to
the desired level. With a single stage regulator, when the supply pressure gets low, the lower inlet
pressure causes the outlet pressure to climb. If the diaphragm loading spring compression is not adjusted
to compensate, the poppet can remain open and allow the tank to rapidly dump its remaining contents.
Double stage regulator

Two stage regulators are two regulators in series in the

same housing that operate to reduce the pressure
progressively in two steps instead of one. The first stage,
which is preset, reduces the pressure of the supply gas to an
intermediate stage; gas at that pressure passes into the
second stage. The gas emerges from the second stage at a
pressure (working pressure) set by user by adjusting the
pressure control knob at the diaphragm loading spring. Two
stage regulators may have two safety valves, so that if there
is any excess pressure between stages due to a leak at the
first stage valve seat the rising pressure will not overload the
structure and cause an explosion.

An unbalanced single stage regulator may need frequent

adjustment. As the supply pressure falls, the outlet pressure
may change, necessitating adjustment. In the two stage
regulator, there is improved compensation for any drop in Two-stage pressure regulator
the supply pressure.

Applications
Pressure reducing regulators
Air compressors

Air compressors are used in industrial, commercial, and home workshop environments to perform an
assortment of jobs including blowing things clean; running air powered tools; and inflating things like tires,
balls, etc. Regulators are often used to adjust the pressure coming out of an air receiver (tank) to match
what is needed for the task. Often, when one large compressor is used to supply compressed air for
multiple uses (often referred to as "shop air" if built as a permanent installation of pipes throughout a
building), additional regulators will be used to ensure that each separate tool or function receives the
pressure it needs. This is important because some air tools, or uses for compressed air, require pressures
that may cause damage to other tools or materials.

Aircraft

Pressure regulators are found in aircraft cabin pressurization, canopy seal pressure control, potable water
systems, and waveguide pressurization.

Aerospace

Aerospace pressure regulators have applications in propulsion pressuring control for reaction control
systems (RCS) and Attitude Control Systems (ACS), where high vibration, large temperature extremes and
corrosive fluids are present.
Cooking

Pressurized vessels can be used to cook food much more rapidly than at atmospheric pressure, as the
higher pressure raises the boiling point of the contents. All modern pressure cookers will have a pressure
regulator valve and a pressure relief valve as a safety mechanism to prevent explosion in the event that
the pressure regulator valve fails to adequately release pressure. Some older models lack a safety release
valve. Most home cooking models are built to maintain a low and high pressure setting. These settings
are usually 7 to 15 pounds per square inch (0.48 to 1.03 bar). Almost all home cooking units will employ a
very simple single-stage pressure regulator. Older models will simply use a small weight on top of an
opening that will be lifted by excessive pressure to allow excess steam to escape. Newer models usually
incorporate a spring-loaded valve that lifts and allows pressure to escape as pressure in the vessel rises.
Some pressure cookers will have a quick release setting on the pressure regulator valve that will,
essentially, lower the spring tension to allow the pressure to escape at a quick, but still safe rate.
Commercial kitchens also use pressure cookers, in some cases using oil based pressure cookers to quickly
deep fry fast food. Pressure vessels of this sort can also be used as autoclaves to sterilize small batches of
equipment and in home canning operations.

Water pressure reductio

Often, water enters water-using appliances at fluctuating

pressures, especially in remote locations, and industrial settings.
This pressure often needs to be kept within a range to avoid
damage to appliances, or accidents involving burst
pipes/conduits. A single-stage regulator is sufficient in accuracy
due to the high error tolerance of most such appliances. Also used
in applications where the water supply reservoir is significantly
higher in elevation to the end of the line. e.g. underground mine
water supply.
Pressure regulator for domestic
water supply. Outlet pressure is
Welding and cutting set with the blue handwheel and
shown on the vertical scale.
Oxy-fuel welding and cutting processes require gases at specific pressures, and regulators will generally
be used to reduce the high pressures of storage cylinders to those usable for cutting and welding. Oxygen
and fuel gas regulators usually have two stages: The first stage of the regulator releases the gas at a
constant pressure from the cylinder despite the pressure in the cylinder becoming less as the gas is
released. The second stage of the regulator controls the pressure reduction from the intermediate
pressure to low pressure. The final flow rate may be adjusted at the torch. The regulator assembly usually
has two pressure gauges, one indicating cylinder pressure, the other indicating delivery pressure. Inert
gas shielded arc welding also uses gas stored at high pressure provided through a regulator. There may
be a flow gauge calibrated to the specific gas.

Propane/LP Gas

All propane and LP Gas applications require the use of a regulator. Because pressures in propane tanks
can fluctuate significantly with temperature, regulators must be present to deliver a steady pressure to
downstream appliances. These regulators normally compensate for tank pressures between 30–200
pounds per square inch (2.1–13.8 bar) and commonly deliver 11 inches water column 0.4 pounds per
square inch (28 mbar) for residential applications and 35 inches of water column 1.3 pounds per square
inch (90 mbar) for industrial applications. Propane regulators differ in size and shape, delivery pressure
and adjustability, but are uniform in their purpose to deliver a constant outlet pressure for downstream
requirements. Common international settings for domestic LP Gas regulators are 28 mbar for butane and
37 mbar for propane.

Gas powered vehicles

All vehicular motors that run on compressed gas as a fuel (internal combustion engine or fuel cell electric
power train) require a pressure regulator to reduce the stored gas (CNG or Hydrogen} pressure from 700,
500, 350 or 200 bar (or 70, 50, 35 and 20 MPa) to operating pressure.

Recreational vehicles

For recreational vehicles with plumbing, a pressure regulator is required to reduce the pressure of an
external water supply connected to the vehicle plumbing, as the supply may be a much higher elevation
than the campground, and water pressure depends on the height of the water column. Without a pressure
regulator, the intense pressure encountered at some campgrounds in mountainous areas may be enough
to burst the camper's water pipes or unseat the plumbing joints, causing flooding. Pressure regulators for
this purpose are typically sold as small screw-on accessories that fit inline with the hoses used to connect
an RV to the water supply, which are almost always screw-thread-compatible with the common garden
hose.

Breathing gas supply

Main articles: Diving regulator and Self-contained breathing apparatus

Pressure regulators are used with Diving cylinders for Scuba diving. The tank may contain pressures in
excess of 3,000 pounds per square inch (210 bar), which could cause a fatal barotrauma injury to a person
breathing it directly. A demand controlled regulator provides a flow of breathing gas at the ambient
pressure (which varies by depth in the water). Pressure reducing regulators are also use to supply
breathing gas to surface-supplied divers, and people who use self-contained breathing apparatus for
rescue and hazmat work on land. Supplementary oxygen for high altitude flight in unpressurised aircraft
and medical gases are also dispensed through pressure reducing regulators from high-pressure storage.

Mining Industry

As the pressure builds rapidly in relation to depth, underground mining operations require a fairly complex
water system with pressure reducing valves. These devices must be installed at a certain distance interval,
usually 600 feet (180 m). Without such valves, pipes would easily burst and pressure would be too great
for equipment operation.

Natural Gas Industry

Pressure regulators are used extensively within the natural gas industry. Natural gas is compressed to high
pressures in order to be distributed throughout the country through large transmission pipelines. The
transmission pressure can be over 1,000 pounds per square inch (69 bar) and must be reduced through
various stages to a usable pressure for industrial, commercial, and residential applications. There are three
main pressure reduction locations in this distribution system. The first reduction is located at the city gate,
whereas the transmission pressure is dropped to a distribution pressure to feed throughout the city. This
is also the location where the odorless natural gas is odorized with mercaptan. The distribution pressure
is further reduced at a district regulator station, located at various points in the city, to below 60 psig. The
final cut would occur at the end users location. Generally, the end user reduction is taken to low pressures
ranging from 0.25 psig to 5 psig. Some industrial applications can require a higher pressure.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_regulator