5920

5900

5880

Velocity [m/s]
5860

5840

5820

5800

5780
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Temperature [Celsius degrees]

Figure 2-12 Velocity variation of longitudinal waves in steel in relation to temperature.

3230

3220

3210
Velocity [m/s]

3200

3190

3180

3170

3160
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Temperature [Celsius degrees]

Figure 2-13 Velocity variation of shear waves in steel in relation to temperature.

38 Chapter 2
2.4 Example of Temperature Effects

As mentioned earlier, temperature can be an important factor in inspections if

the refracted angles are outside a reasonable range. The following example
shows how real refracted angles can be calculated.

Situation: An annular array probe is used in combination with a specially

designed mirror to inspect a small bore piping weld. The probe system is
immersed in water at 60°C. The sweep range was calibrated at 20°C. The
sweep range is from 30° to 60°. What is the actual sweep range at 60°C?

Answer: Input the correction for velocities for 60°C from Figure 2-11 (water)
and Figure 2-13 (T-waves—steel). The new velocity values will give you the
sweep range in steel at 60°C as lying between 28.4° to 54.4°.

2.5 Circular Transducers

The sound pressure produced by a circular transducer possesses variations

along the propagation axis (acoustic) and along the axis perpendicular to it.
The ratio between probe diameter D and wavelength λ provides an answer to
the location of maxima and minima, beam divergence, and beam diameter.
For a free-field propagation (same medium, no interaction with defects, no
reflection), the distance in front of the probe is divided into three regions (see
Figure 2-14).

These results are strictly applicable to one test medium only, and for normal
beam applications. In practice, conventional ultrasound produces a range of
angles due to beam divergence and wedge refraction effects. However, these
are small compared with phased array beam sweeping.

1. Near-field zone, for 0 ≤ z ≤ N 0

2. Transit-field zone, for N 0 ≤ z ≤ 3N 0

3. Far-field zone, for z > 3N 0

where:

( D probe
2 – λ2)
N 0 = ---------------------------------
( 4λ )

is the near-field length. Near-field length depends on probe frequency and

medium velocity. For probes with D probe ⁄ λ > 10 , the near-field length can be

Main Formulas and Ultrasonic Reference Data 39

 approximated by formula (2.11):

2
D probe f
N 0 = ------------------
- (2.11)
4v

Near field Transit field Far field

N0 3N0

Distance z

N 0/2 N0 2N 0 3N 0 4N 0 5N 0 6N 0

Figure 2-14 Sound region definition in xz plane for a circular probe (top) and the pressure
variation on the acoustic axis with distance (bottom) [disc-shaped transducer under continuous
and constant excitation]. Note that this figure is for a theoretical monofrequency crystal with a
sinusoidal pulse.

If the monofrequency crystal is excited by an electric signal with a different

duration, the sound pressure has a different shape3 (see Figure 2-15).

40 Chapter 2
 Excitation signal Sound pressure Amplitude shape

Constant
a oscillation at Fc

Low damp
b

Medium damp 1
c

d Medium damp 2

High damp
e

Time [μs] Normalized distance z/N0

Figure 2-15 Sound pressure dependence on pulse shape (duration) excitation for plane disc-
shaped crystal.3

The sound pressure on the z-axis is given by formula (2.12):

π D probe 2
 -------------- 
P ( z ) = P 0 2 sin  --- - + z 2 – z  (2.12)
 2 
λ 

where: P0 = the sound pressure on the probe surface (z = 0).

The sound pressure in the far field may be approximated by formula (2.13):

P 0 πD probe 2 P 0 S probe
P ( z ) ≈ -------------------------- = -------------------- (2.13)
4λz λz

where: Sprobe = probe surface area

Main Formulas and Ultrasonic Reference Data 41

 Equivalent near-field length in different materials is given by formula (2.14):

N 01 v 1
N 02 = --------------
- (2.14)
v2

Note: This is for contact mode with no coupling path length.

The effective near-field length (see Figure 2-16) is given by formula (2.15):

cos β 2
N eff = N 0  ------------ (2.15)
 cos α

D D

α
Deff
medium 1

Deff

Neff

β medium 2

Figure 2-16 Effective probe diameter and effective near-field length given by refraction law on
planar and curved surfaces.

Figure 2-16 shows the shortening of the near-far field transition under angled
transmission during immersion testing due to the narrowing effective
aperture.

For longitudinal waves, the effective near-field length follows the curve
shown in Figure 2-17.

42 Chapter 2