L-L-T T-T-L

L-T-L T-L-T

CE-1

30-70-70

L-L-T T-L-L

Figure 2-52 Detection of embedded linear defects using MC techniques.

The creeping-wave technique1-4 is the most common MC application for

detection and confirmation of ID surface-breaking defects. The technique
may be used to detect and size linear defects from OD to ID regions. This
capability is based on the characteristics of the “creeper” probe, which
generates the following types of waves (see Figure 2-53):

• Direct creeping waves (OD surface)

• Direct SW of 34°
• Direct LW of 70°
• Indirect MC SW of 31°
• Indirect MC creeping waves (ID surface)

Main Formulas and Ultrasonic Reference Data 83

 Creeping L-OD

70º L

Indirect 31º T
Direct 34º T
Creeping L-ID

Figure 2-53 Type of waves generated by “creeper” probe.

The creeping waves have a short surface propagation (2 mm to 13 mm). The

propagation occurs within 2 to 3 wavelength thicknesses and depends on
plate/pipe parallelism (±5°). The shear wave may mode-convert at the back
surface to a longitudinal wave at 70°, and be reflected by a vertical defect as a
70° longitudinal wave. This MC detection is called “collateral echo no. 1”
(CE 1). Creeping wave detection/confirmation echo is called “collateral echo
no. 2” (CE 2). Their ultrasonic path in LW calibration depends on thickness
(see Figure 2-54).

120

110

100
CE 2
90
Ultrasonic path [mm]

80

70

60

50

40

30
CE 1

10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Thickness [mm]

Figure 2-54 Ultrasound path dependence on thickness for CE 1 (30°-70°-70°) and for CE 2
(creeping waves).

A combination of longitudinal wave detection and MC confirmation is

obtained for angles between 55° and 62° (see Figure 2-55). Sizing is based on

84 Chapter 2
the LL doublet, and the ligament is evaluated by CE 1 and CE 2 amplitudes. A
vertical defect with a ligament greater than 4 mm will reflect only the
doublets and CE 1. The signal amplitude of CE 1 varies linearly with crack
height. However, if the defect is inclined, CE 1 amplitude is no longer linear.

60˚ LW 60˚ LW
doublet doublet

CE 1 (30-70-70) CE 1 (30-70-70)

CE 1 L L CE 1

L L

Figure 2-55 Detection, confirmation, and sizing of a fatigue crack by LL doublet and CE 1
(30°-70°-70°) for a 60° LW probe; left = crack signals; right = EDM notch signals; ligament =
5 mm; height = 11 mm.

Another MC sizing method is the delta technique (see Figure 2-56). The delta
technique consists of a combination of a 60° shear wave and a 0° longitudinal
wave. The height measurement can be calculated from formula (2.46):

( t – h crack )
TOF Δ60 = -------------------------------------------------------------
- (2.46)
v T [ ( 1 ⁄ cos β ) + ( v T ⁄ v L ) ]

Due to the beam spread, the 60° shear wave detects the crack tip because of a
direct hit and of a reflection at the backwall. For steel, the crack height is
given by formula (2.47):

h Δ60T = t – 0.8 CRT TW (2.47)

where CRTTW is the shear wave time of arrival from the screen.

Main Formulas and Ultrasonic Reference Data 85

 Crack tip Crack leg Crack tip
(skip)

LW TW

Figure 2-56 Principle of Δ60° technique and an example of ID-connected crack sizing; note
the crack tip detection by skip.

2.13.5 Pitch-and-Catch and Tandem Techniques

Detection and sizing of vertical defects by MC techniques may be possible
using the pitch-and-catch method with multiple depth zones. Phased arrays
are an ideal tool for detection and sizing, because they generate a range of
shear-wave and longitudinal-wave angles, which may mode-convert on
vertical defects (see Figure 2-57).

Figure 2-57 Detection of four vertical FBH with a phased array pitch-and-catch mode-
converted setup in a 100-mm test piece. Blue lines show shear waves, and red lines show
longitudinal waves.

86 Chapter 2
 Mode-converted techniques are very useful for narrow gap welds on thick
plates. The most common defect is the sidewall lack of fusion (see Figure
2-58).

A more traditional approach is the “tandem” technique using 45° shear waves
(Figure 2-58, right). Tandem techniques work well with phased arrays.

Figure 2-58 Detection of side lack of fusion in a narrow gap weld by MC techniques with a
single (left) and double (pitch-and-catch) probe (right).

2.13.6 Satellite Pulse-Echo Technique

Another mode-converted technique consists of sizing the volumetric rounded
inclusions (cylindrical voids) with T-T/T-S-T satellite pulses14, 17 (see Figure
2-59).

Δt void =  π --------- +  ---- D void

1 1
(2.48)
 2v T  v s

where:

Δtvoid = time-of-flight difference between T-T and T-S-T signals (see

Figure 2-59)

Dvoid = void diameter

vT = shear-wave velocity

vs = surface-wave velocity (Rayleigh’s)

For steel, a simplified formula is: D void = 0.7ΔUT path , with the ultrasonic
path calibrated in shear wave half distance.

Main Formulas and Ultrasonic Reference Data 87